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Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Kiser Barnes, Human Rights and Multiculturalism, Hong Kong: Juxta Publishing Co., 2001, bahai-library.com.
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BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
BY KISER BARNES
It is a special privilege to discuss human rights and multiculturalism at the
first international conference on human rights in Brazil, at a time when the
wide variety of considerations about principles that shape the law, morality
and politics of human rights are being explored. As a member of the Bahá’í
Faith, a worldwide multicultural community which believes that the direction
of human rights must also be enriched by spiritual principles, my enthusiasm is
heightened on this occasion. For I share your confidence that a global human
rights culture is evolving, where, as suggested by Bahá’u’lláh, the Founder of
the Faith, “an equal standard of human rights must be recognized and adopted.”1
The theme of “multiculturalism” includes the question whether international
human rights,for example those contained in the Universal Declaration of Hu-
man Rights and the International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights,are applicable to all societies; or can those rights be differently inter-
preted and applied by States on the grounds of political, economical, cultural,
or other differences. Notwithstanding that the recognition of human rights rep-
resents an attempt to legitimise a set of worldwide, overarching values, the
universal characteristics of human rights is a large part of the difficulties of
justifying them in a multicultural world. Although many right measures have
become a part of international customary law and national positive law, human
rights claims in general appeal to moral principles. Thus, the concept of human
rights remains close to the idea of justice.
The issue has created a great deal of tension between the basic moral force
of human rights, their increasingly legal nature, and the fundamental principles
of justice which human rights imply. The discussions have led to a good deal of
agreement that human rights rest on universal principles of morality, or justice,
which are open to a process of change. Fortunately, the debate has, as well,
This paper first presented at the “First International Conference On Human Rights,”
14-17 September 1997, Brazilia, Brazil, sponsored by the Brazilian Bar Association
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
further entrenched the doctrine of human rights as a prime philosophical source
of political and social reform. Moreover, the difficulty has highlighted the rich
diversity of the human family, which is both its glory and its strength and con-
clusive evidence of the success with which man has adapted to the diverse
conditions of his planet.
Such observations suggest that in a first conference called to discover prac-
tical measures for strengthening the human rights movement, in the face of the
monstrosity of “ethnic cleansing”; the horrors of racism; the perverted passions
of religious animosity; the extermination and marginalization of indigenous
peoples; the victimization of women; and other symptoms of the disease of
disunity afflicting mankind, a consideration of guiding principles, found in law,
and other fields, including religion, that could broaden insight about some ba-
sic values accepted by a great many cultures and promote the universality of
human rights principles, would be appropriate.
Here we approach the heart of the matter. Are there directive principles, in
addition to those already established in the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, other rights instruments, and elsewhere—such as the “dignity of the
human person,” which might influence perceptions and attitudes about the con-
ceptual framework and scope of human rights? It appears that reference to the
principles of the oneness of mankind and unity in diversity—fundamental prin-
ciples of the Faith—could invigorate the process.
Thus, an essential reference for my remarks on the challenges connected
with human rights in a multicultural world, is that:
The bedrock of a strategy that can engage the world’s population in assuming responsibility
for its collective destiny must be the consciousness of the oneness of humankind. The
human species is an organic whole, the leading edge of the evolutionary process …What
the peoples of the world are experiencing, Bahá’u’lláh, the Founder of the Bahá’í Faith, said
is their collective coming of age, and it is through this emerging maturity of the race that the
principle of unity in diversity will find full expression.2
In this discussion, some issues involved in the challenge of promoting the
universality of international human rights are addressed. A review of some
basic values in international instruments which are accepted in a broad sense
by all peoples is presented, along with a tentative exploration of the relation
of the Bahá’í principle of the oneness of mankind to human rights. Some practi-
cal implications connected with the learning principles in relation to the rights
of indigenous peoples and minority groups are outlined. Comments on the
merits of an multi-disciplinary approach for fostering human rights, including
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
the role of religion and the importance of human rights education, are also
presented.
The Challenge of Universality
In 1945, the United Nations took a revolutionary step by including human
rights in Article l of its Charter as one of its basic aims. For the first time human
rights were elevated to a position of global concern, described by Winston
Churchill as “the enthronement of human rights.”3 The concept of human rights,
traditionally known as natural rights or the rights of man, that had been purport-
edly internationalised, was that a person had human rights simply because he or
she is a human being. The view of cultural relativism, under the doctrine of
“multiculturalism,” was inserted into the human rights discourse in 1948, when
the American Anthropological Association rejected the applicability of any Dec-
laration of Human Rights to mankind as a whole. Its statement explicitly stressed
that “the rights of Man … cannot be circumscribed by the standards of any single
culture, or be dictated by the aspirations of any single people.”4
From the perspective of relativism, cross-cultural judgments are opposed
on the grounds that there are no overarching, universal moral truths, or prin-
ciples, or universal cultural ideals. It has been argued that many human rights
norms possess a distinctively Western or Judeo-Christian bias, reflecting as-
sumptions that the values of other cultures, peoples and races are inferior.
Hence, it is asserted they are ethnocentric. For instance, the notion of universal
human rights has been opposed in Asia and Africa on the grounds that Western
notions of human rights are founded on the idea of the personal autonomy of
individuals, which those cultures do not hold as a fundamental virtue, in contrast
to communitarian values. Relativists further contend that other cultures have
virtues of their own, to which their members are held accountable.
Another argument in favour of cross-cultural relativism, is the view that
developing states cannot be expected to implement political and civil rights
fully,as long as they have not reached a level of economic development; these
states must give priority to economic development, in order to facilitate the
realization of civil and political rights. The international instruments them-
selves attach equal weight to both sets of rights. Furthermore, the United Na-
tions General Assembly and the United Nations Commission on Human Rights
have confirmed that human rights are indivisible, interdependent, and deserve
the same amount of attention.
The theory that human rights are relative has gradually lost ground. Cultural
relativists have found it increasingly difficult to sustain their position. 5 Some
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
have conceded that there are some global values to which all peoples and
cultures may be held accountable. For example, no culture tolerates indiscrimi-
nate lying, stealing or violence within the group. The universality of incest
taboo. A limitation on the number of deaths that might be inflicted in legitimate
acts of revenge. The universal acceptance of the Golden Rule, a universal prin-
ciple for human relations, as a fundamental ethical truth.
Under what has been termed a “Minimal Globalism,” it is thought that the
concept of human rights is universal but that rights vary among different societ-
ies.6 The acceptance of particular moral principles and legal entitlements often
evolve to stages of acceptance and implementation over time. Historical de-
velopments certainly support the view. For example, religious, racial, sexual
and ethnic discrimination have been widely practiced but are indefensible
today. It is generally agreed that “core rights,” such as the right to life, security
of person, prohibition of discrimination, and freedom of thought, conscience
and religion are not subject to cultural definitions and applications.
The view remains compelling that since 1946 when the signatories of the
United Nations Charter affirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, basi-
cally on the principle of the dignity and worth of the human person, no state can
claim that the denial of such rights to its own citizens is solely its own business.
To this end, in 1993, at the World Congress on Human Rights, the representa-
tives adopted by concensus the Vienna Declaration, which states of “all human
rights and fundamental freedoms for all” articulated in the Universal Declara-
tion of Human Rights and elsewhere: “The universal nature of these rights and
freedoms is beyond question… Human rights and fundamental freedoms are
the birthright of all human beings; their protection and promotion is the first
responsibility of Government.”
Obviously the guiding principle of the universality of human rights has been
subject to the exigencies of special political interests; for the human rights
movement is not inseparable from the political process. Yet, it is plain that a
broader acceptance of the universality of rights, limiting what a state may do to
its citizens, seems to be precisely what the political problems of our age ur-
gently require. The world has undoubtedly gained a great deal from the fact
that since the acceptance of the Universal Declaration efforts for the imple-
mentation of basic human rights have become increasingly a feature of interna-
tional relations, conventions and diplomacy. The massive violations prove,
however, a cynical disregard of its principles on the part of some governments.
There are still innumerable persons oppressed who have not yet felt the ben-
efits of the principle of universality.
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Human Rights and Multiculturalism
For my part, I am delighted to say that as early as 1947, the Bahá’í Faith, in a
written presentation to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, of-
fered its support for an international system of human rights.7 The perspective
of the Faith regarding the principles of the oneness of humankind and unity in
diversity was presented. Subsequently, the Bahá’í International Community has
consistently shared the merits of this fundamental ideal. The following is a
representative statement:
The goal of the international community is to build a world family of nations, whose
members have equal rights, privileges, duties and responsibilities, and share a dedication
to peace and to the upholding of a common set of human values; to create a global society
which protects the human rights of every member, respect his dignity and individuality,
and provides for the full development of his potential, so that he may be of service to his
fellow human beings and make his contribution toward the building of an ever-advancing
civilization.8
More recently, the Statement of the Bahá’í International Community, Turning
Point For All Nations, presented on the Occasion of the Fiftieth Anniversary of
the United Nations, offers new ways of thinking about human rights, within the
broad context of the evolution of an integrated global society. “The way has
been cleared for new definitions of human rights and affirmation of personal
dignity,” it states, and that “ new levels of consciousness have been reached on
global programs to promote… human rights…” 9
Accordingly, it is highly encouraging, that from the universality relativity
discussions powerful insight has emerged about our rich diversity of cultures,
and some specific features of African, Asian, and indigenous cultures, to men-
tion only a few. A deeper appreciation has thus been established for the global
moral imperatives in the holy scriptures of the world religions, which are the
root-genesis of the spiritual values found in human rights instruments. A broader
awareness has developed, given the evolutionary nature of human rights, that
different cultural traditions may contribute positively by raising new areas of
concern, adding more rights, and generally informing the movement with addi-
tional values.
The Oneness of Mankind as a Normative Concept
I turn now to a consideration of the possible advantages the principles of
the oneness of mankind may hold for the ideal of human rights. The legal in-
struments and the literature on human rights demonstrate the critical role that
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
principles have played, and are playing, in the search for a world view that
would support a viable foundation for human rights. References to such moral
principles, or basic values, as human dignity and non-discrimination are in a
great number of legal instruments. The description of the moral values are
expressed variously as human rights “principles,” “universal principles,” “ide-
als,” “values,” “concepts,””goals,” “fundamentals,””norms,” “axioms,” “standards,”and
“utilities.” Of course, the merit of these normative concepts is that they do not
offer a detailed statement of vision,or scope, or practical measures for imple-
mentation. They provide a dynamic, a perspective,and a will for achieving the
undertaking. They influence perceptions and attitudes, which invigorates the
process of the evolution and implementation of human rights.
Suffice it to recall, as well, that many international human rights instruments
declare that their contents are based on “ the principles proclaimed in the
Charter of the United Nations.”10 Many affirm, “the principles of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights”11, which was put forward principally as a state-
ment of ideals, elaborating “classical principles.” Other Covenants are based
on “respect for the principle of equal rights… universal respect for, and obser-
vance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as
to race, sex, language or religion” 12; “the principle of the dignity and equality
of all human beings”13; “the principle of non-discrimination” 14; “the principle of
equal remuneration for men and women workers for work of equal value”15;
the “Declaration of Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary”16;
and the “Declaration on Social and Legal Principles relating to the Protection
and Welfare of Children…”17
The universal principle of the “dignity of the human person” occupies a
prominent position. It appears in the Preamble of the United Nations Charter
as an ideal that “we the peoples of the United Nations” are “determined” to
achieve. It is included in the first Article of the Universal Declaration of Hu-
man Rights, as well as, in the other documents constituting the International Bill
of Human Rights, in various resolutions and declarations of international bod-
ies, and in national constitutions. It has acquired such approbation that it is in-
voked widely as a legal and moral ground for championing human rights. Indeed,
it has been described as the “supreme ethical principle,” the “emancipatory
principle underlying human rights.”
All I have expressed, thus far, demonstrates that principles have far-reach-
ing implications. Before proceeding further in this direction, however, I am
sensible that lawyers often prefer discussions that give specificity to the con-
cept of legal rights and duties, and the implementation and realization of rec-
ognized rights. More often than not, the discussions are technical rather than
ethical in character. The view is still heard that positive law, in contrast to
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
moral values or moral law, is the only law which it is worth thinking about.
However, it is thought that lawyers and legal postivism might serve to make the
public more conscious of what morality is. In this regard, I remind you that Law
Faculties around the world were the first to study the doctrine of human rights
in an objective manner.
Inquiries concerning principles of human rights are intimately connected
with the jurisprudential search for the ultimate values of legal ordering. It is
generally accepted that the source of justice is in the law, and that one cannot
talk for long about law without entering into the realm of value. It is intimately
linked with justice, and in its entirety is seen as a system of justice. The human
rights field, in particular, offers golden opportunities for connecting the rise
of a value-oriented jurisprudence, not only on the premise of a revival of
natural law philosophy, if you wish, but by reference to certain spiritual and
evolutionary forces which are pushing law forward towards a field, which might
be termed, “Law and the Oneness of Humankind.” It is in this direction that law
and lawyers, as servants of justice, would develop more capacity to serve a
unified world.
I am also aware that the term ‘principle’ in the Declarations and Conven-
tions, and elsewhere, seems to have lost much of its sense of an ontological
source for practical, effective programs of action. In many instances the call for
a radical approach based on principle, or a decision, or a course of action based
on principle, is taken to suggest the notion of a static proposition or the pursuit
of expediencies of national, ethnic, or local interests. Moreover, following the
recent unleashing of deep-seated hatred, which has given way to the recur-
rence of that monstrous spirit of “ethnic cleansing” in the former Yugoslavia and
Rwanda, it might be thought that a return to what may seem so slight a thing as
principles to animate the human rights movement misconceives the depth of
the suspicions and fears and cynicalism , neopragmatism, and disunity afflicting
mankind. However, the place and role of principles is undoubtedly part of the
process of the evolving consciousness for new ways of thinking and express-
ing committment that must be had in the human rights movement.
Thus, it is extremely heartening that in the face of chronic disillusionment
over religious extremism, racism, poverty, hunger, and violent atrocities, Mary
Robinson, President of Ireland, who will soon take up the appointment as the
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, in the position of Gen-
eral Reporter at the Council of Europe’s Preparatory Meeting for the 1993
World Conference on Human Rights, raised an urgent call for a return to prin-
ciples in this striking manner: “…I share with you a firm and tested belief in
the power of ideas…”19 In the same manner, Ervin Laszlo, one of the foremost
exponents of systems philosophy, a member of the prestigious Club of Rome
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
and Rector of the Vienna Academy for the Study of the Future, declared: “We
have all forgotten the importance and power of postive ideas and images of the
future. We look upon the few remaining visionaries of a better world as naive
optimists or harmless fools. Our societies suffer from an overdose of pragma-
tism combined with generalized but vague pessimism.”20
Approaches based on principles are in sharp contrast to the views heard in
influential quarters that belief in the power of ideas, or principles, or a re-
statement of human values in relation to human rights, is utopian and a danger-
ous impediment to effective political action for human rights formulation and
implementation. 21 And how far has the human rights movement advanced from
those dark days when Jeremy Bentham objected to any declarations of the rights
of man as empty “rhetorical utterances”22 and Edmund Burke asserted that the
sponsors of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man had done great social
harm by proclaiming, what he called, the “monstrous fiction” of human equal-
ity.23 The great international jurist, Judge Lauterpacht, once wrote of human rights:
“Inasmuch as… they are an expression of moral claims, they are a powerful
lever of legal reform. The moral claims of today are often the legal rights of
tomorrow.”24 And if the position of Justice Chukwudifu Oputa is true that men
of action are mobilized to action by the power of principles,25 then thinking
about the nexus of universal standards to human rights is a serious undertaking.
Particularly, when it is generally agreed that the inherent dignity of the human
person is a primary normative standard of human rights. Although what is meant
by “inherent worth,” or “inherent dignity” or “sacred nature” of the human per-
son has not been universally agreed upon.
I am not suggesting here that the noble value—the inherent dignity of the
human person—requires a universally agreed upon definition in general terms.
However, analysis and detailed clarifications about its meaning might reduce
specious use of the concept and broaden the impressive number of specific
implications for relevant conduct that could be drawn from the principle. I
agree with Alan Cranston that:
There is a connection between human rights being universal and their formulation being
generalised and wide. The basic general principle of morality are minimal precisely be-
cause they are universal. Human rights rests on universal principles, but the precise moral
rights of men in some communities differ from the precise moral rights of men in other
communities, and this is one reason why the formulation of human rights cannot be at the
same time closely detailed and of universal application.26
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
A considerable number of the features, implications, and practical require-
ments associated with the principles concerning the unification of mankind are
outlined in the Bahá’í Writings. In support of the view that the principle of
unity in diversity would complement those notable principles which have thus
far animated the human rights movement, I would point out that in the scriptures
of the Bahá’í Faith, the dignity of the human person has also been extolled:
Man,[is] the noblest and most perfect of all created things,”27 ; “Lofty is the station of
man!… His is the loftiest station, and his influence educateth the world of being.” 28;”Regard
man as a mine rich in gems of inestimable value.” 29 “It ill beseemeth the station of man to
commit tyranny; rather it behoveth him to observe equity and be attired with the raiment
of justice under all conditions.” 30 “Were man to appreciate the greatness of his station and
the loftiness of his destiny he would manifest naught save goodly character, pure deeds
and a seemly and praiseworthy conduct.” 31
As you know, the term ‘principle’ is derived from the Latin word ‘principium’.
It is compounded of the words primus, meaning first or chief, and cipium, mean-
ing ‘to take’. Thus, a ‘principle’ is that controlling factor in human undertakings
which must be considered first. It is first or chief among other factors, the
primary source, or underlying faculty of an endeavour, upon which practical
decisions and actions may follow. One of the functions is that principles indi-
cate new approaches which ought to be taken.
Consistently, then, with a belief in the power of directive principles, the
Bahá’í Faith, since its birth in 1844, has called upon the peoples of the world to
explore the principle of the oneness of mankind. In a major statement on the
function of principles in facilitating major world undertakings, the Universal
House of Justice, the highest International Administrative Body of the Bahá’í
Faith at Haifa, Israel, wrote:
There are spiritual principles, or what some call human values, by which solutions can be
found for every social problem. Any well-intentioned group can in a general sense devise
practical solutions to its problems, but good intentions and practical knowledge are usually
not enough. The essential merit of spiritual principle is that it not only presents a perspec-
tive which harmonizes with that which is immanent in human nature, it also induces an
attitude, a dynamic, a will, an aspiration, which facilitate the discovery and implementa-
tion of practical measures. Leaders of governments and all in authority would be well
served in their efforts to solve problems if they would first seek to identify the principles
involved and then be guided by them.32
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Human Rights and Multiculturalism
Here, then is an empowering principle—the oneness of mankind—repre-
senting, from the perspective of the Bahá’í Faith “the consummation of human
evolution,” which, may be promoted in concert with the basic value, the inher-
ent dignity of the human person, and other noble principles, that have quick-
ened the human rights movement. As a further step in this direction, I shall next
suggest some practical implications of the principle that are not only compat-
ible with the ideas of the inherent dignity and worth of human persons, but
would serve to enrich these concepts, and others, which are basically linked
with the idea of justice and equity, which the human rights movement implies.
The following, most of which has been compiled from the Bahá’í Scriptures or
statements presented by the United Nations Office of the Bahá’í International
Community, also includes a few specific practical points concerning indigenous
people, minorities and human rights education.
- First of all, the Bahá’í Writings emphasise that this noble principle is “
no… mere outburst of… emotionalism or an expression of vague and
pious hope… [nor] to be merely identified with a reawakening of the
spirit of brotherhood and good-will among men… It implies an organic
change in the structure of present-day society… It constitutes a challenge,
at once bold and universal, to outworm shibboleths of national creeds…
It calls for no less than the reconstruction… of the civilized world—a
world organically unified in all the essential aspects of its life, its po-
litical machinery, its spiritual aspiration, its trade and finance, its script
and language, and yet infinite in the diversity of the national characteris-
tics of its federated units.”33
- The conception is “primarily directed against all forms of provincialism,
all insularities and prejudices… social assumptions and religious for-
mulae [that] have ceased to promote the welfare of the generality of
mankind… [and] no longer minister to the needs of a continually evolv-
ing humanity.”34
- “…recognition of the oneness of humanity, appreciation of unity in di-
versity, and a sense of citizenship in a world community will be the best
guarantee of improved human rights in the years to come…”35
- “…responsibility for ensuring equal rights for minorities falls on both
majorities and minorities. Majorities have a special responsibility, for
the sake of justice, to bring about the social and political adjustments
which will enable minorities to exercise… their common and funda-
mental rights… Both must view minority issues in the context of an in-
creasingly interdependent world… Attitudes must change. There must
be a shift in the view of majorities towards oppressed minorities, and
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
minorities must be freed from the sense of helplessness induced by
prolonged discrimination… The challenge of changing attitudes… is not
entirely within the ability of government to meet, as it calls for the influ-
ence of spiritual and moral principle… the principle which must govern
any consideration of minority rights is the oneness of humanity… the
diversity of the human family must be recognized as a source of enrich-
ment rather than as a threat.”36
- “Unity in diversity is at once a vision for the future and a principle to
guide the world community. Not only must this principle come to ani-
mate relations among the nations… but it must also be applied within
both local and national communities, if they are to prosper and endure.
The unifying, salutary effects of applying this principle… would be in-
calculable.”37
- “…education is indispensable to the realization of human rights. Educa-
tion which instills in hearts and minds an awareness of and sensitivity to
human rights of all persons constitutes… an essential tool for the promo-
tion and implementation of international human rights standards… [It]
should constitute a comprehensive life-long process by which people at
all levels of development and in all strata of society learn respect for
the dignity of others and the means and methods of ensuring that respect
in all societies… Human rights eduation, if it is to succeed, must seek to
transform individual attitudes and behavior and thereby establish… a
new “culture” of respect for human rights. Only such a change in the fun-
damental social outlook of every individual… can bring about the uni-
versal observance of human rights principles… Accordingly, it is essential
to touch the heart… Such education, moreover, must help to instill in
every individual a keen, emotionally grounded awareness of the funda-
mental unity of humankind. As people begin to see each other as mem-
bers of one human family, they will become willing to discard negative
learned stereotypes and begin to see people of other ethnic groups,
nationalities, classes and religious beliefs as potential friends rather
than as threats or enemies… Bahá’í communities… are already both pro-
moting and providing education, based on the the principle of the one-
ness of humanity, which seeks to cultivate respect for the rights of others,
a sense of responsibility for the well-being of the human family, and the
moral attributes that contribute to a just, harmonious and peaceful world
civilization.”38
- “Moral qualities, sometimes referred to as spiritual qualities or human
values, are the building blocks of human personality… The full power
of these fundamental qualities can be released… only when they are
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Human Rights and Multiculturalism
acquired in the context of an understanding of the oneness of humanity
and with attention to their application in action for the betterment of
society as a whole. Indeed, unless applied universally and in action, these
qualities can easily become little more than slogans, at times degenerat-
ing even to become excuses for prejudice and injustice… Moral educa-
tion centered on an understanding of the essential oneness of humankind
and applied on a universal basis constitutes an indispensable foundation
for the universal respect for human rights.”39
- The gradual recognition of indigenous peoples and minority groups is a
pronounced example of how the dynamic concept of the principle of
human rights is moving with the forces of history and oneness. Efforts for
recognizing and protecting indigenous rights must be seen in a global
context. No people should be set apart from the whole of mankind. The
theme of oneness of mankind certainly includes the growing sense of
the moral responsibility of humanity as a whole for indigenous peoples.
The perpetuation of the cultural characteristics of peoples should be
viewed as an expression of unity in diversity, which enriches the tapes-
try of human life. Often difficulties arise not because groups do not de-
sire the development of their members and their natural resources, but
because they are not consulted and do not reap the benefits of develop-
ment projects. Human rights programs,and other programs,should instill
in all people a sense of their worth as actual and potential co-builders of
a world civilization, as channelled through cultural perspectives, which
could enrich the entire fabric of civilized society.
- If affirmative action programs are advisable, the concept would give a
larger vision of unity and oneness and that the initiative involves more
than remedying past injustice. It would assist in approaching the more
important question of how social unity among diverse groups can be best
advanced. Such programs might assist in establishing a perspective, as
practiced in the Bahá’í Faith, if there is any discrimination it should be in
favor of the minority.
It may be seen in these statements that the principles of the oneness of
mankind and unity in diversity could foster the adherence to values, such as
unity, justice and consciousness of world citizenship. They would provide a
framework upon which a new vision, new commitment and a new pardigm of
unity can be constructed.
Of course, from the declaration of principles to their implementation, there
is certainly a long and difficult road. Yet,the formal international recognition of
global human rights has not only strengthened the struggle for international
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Human Rights and Multiculturalism
justice, but increased awareness that change is a gradual process, requiring posi-
tive interactions of consultations and a broadening of vision. Still, it is readily
acknowledged that the principles in international and regional human rights
documents have influenced the content and practice of governments. The world
has learned that the adoption of general standards formulated in terms of le-
gally and morally binding treaties do not automatically transform into state prac-
tice. The era of universally accepted human rights points the way forward for
concensus on binding values and irrevocable standards. The advantages of the
principle of the oneness of mankind and unity in diversity might be explored,
not as a detailed declaration of action, but as a help and support for those look-
ing for direction, orientation and meaning of the larger purpose of human rights.
Finally, the universality of human rights needs to be viewed in context of an
emergent unity paradigm, supported by the complementarity of religious, le-
gal and other social perspectives. From a human rights perspective, conscious
unification on a planetary scale is the process appropriate to humanity’s matu-
rity and growing capacity. And from this perspective, it is also clear that the
international code of human rights has a clear bias in favour of the kind of
society that displays a specific coherent set of spiritual values; tolerance of
diversity; plurality of belief, ideas and cultures, reasonableness and rational-
ity; the peaceful resolution of conflict under the rule of law; and, above all,
respect for the dignity and integrity of every single one of its individual mem-
bers.
Directly related to the topic of universality of rights is the emotional and
difficult concern that support for the human rights for all, within a rigid “us” and
“them” dichotomy, would compromise or destroy that loyalty all of us cherish
for family, peoples and nation. In support of a radical new and far more dy-
namic approach to culture in the area of human rights, the Bahá’í Writings state:
Far from aiming at the subversion of the existing foundations of society, it [the oneness of
mankind] seeks to broaden its basis, to remould its institutions in a manner consonant with
the needs of an ever-changing world. It can conflict with no legitimate allegiances, nor can
it undermine essential loyalties… It does not ignore, nor does it attempt to suppress, the
diversity of ethnical origins, of climate, of history, of language and tradition, of thought and
habit, that differentiate the peoples and nations of the world. It calls for a wider loyalty, for
larger aspiration than any that has animated the human race. It insists upon the subordina-
tion of national impulse and interests to the imperative claims of a unified world… Its
watchword is unity in diversity.40
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Human Rights and Multiculturalism
A Multi-disciplinary Approach
The broad and inherent multi-disciplinary nature of human rights concerns
and the requirement for the interaction of numerous programs of action are
sometimes difficult for lawyers and legislators to accept. The language which
human rights are formulated is primarily the language of law, but the combined
forces of political, legal, religious and moral influences must be employed.
Laws are insufficient alone to create a just global society. Promotion of a multi-
disciplinary approach would greatly assist in raising the discussions to the level
of principles.
It is becoming clearer that the root source of the problems of abuses of
power, prejudices, and disunity have their origin in the malfunctioning of the
human spirit. Thus, the legal rationality of human rights, though essential, is not
a sufficient basis for the resolution of deep-seated prejudices and disunity.
The challenge of changing attitudes is not entirely within the ability of the legal
system and governments to meet. This does not suggest that the law has no
deterrent or educative effects. It is only to suggest that changing the bad laws or
introducing laws prohibiting certain activities is only a partial solution of the
problem.
This may involve ensuring that a greater number from minority groups be-
come members of the legal profession. It may also involve increasing under-
standing that governments have a peculiar interest in ensuring that human rights
measures are enforced. The use of public agencies to promote and enforce
human rights legislation should be encouraged. Victims of discrimination usu-
ally do not seek legal redress individually, either because they are not aware
of the steps to take, or because such redress is disproportionately
expensive.Thus, reliance on law enforcement by public agencies and private
organisations is therefore likely to be very great. The operation of public
human rights agencies should be seen as the enforcement of constitutional or
particular provisions in the public interest on behalf of the community as a
whole.
It is now well understood that a considerable amount of bias is either so
covert, entrenched, institutionalised and systemic that the anti-cultural, or rac-
ist, or sexist practices, policies or rules appear neutral on their face, i.e., non-
discriminatory and reasonable. In such circumstances experience and expertise
are essential to detect the discriminatory operation, impact and effect of the
prejudice and ferret it out. Well-trained human rights workers with a public
agency can accumulate sufficient experience to uncover the discriminatory prac-
tice. The staff soon acquires the necessary expertise to recognize the subtle
and insidious forms that discrimination and disunity take and the agency itself
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
becomes a clearing house for authoritative information on the problems of
protected groups. The enforcement of the law by a state agency also educates
the community both as to the law itself and on the importance accorded the state
to the elimination of prejudice.
Conclusion
It is to the credit of the organizers of this conferences that the participation
from religious organizations has been so prominent. It is undoubtedly a major
part of a multi-disciplinary approach that human rights promotion must be a
meeting point for different religions. Historically, the religions of the world
have been a fertile source of moral and ethical principles and practices. It
appears that more and more critical thinkers are realizing that the contents and
direction of human rights,in a contracting world community,must be enriched
by spiritual principles and priorities.
The Scriptures of the Bahá’í Faith not only envisage a society in which the
basic human rights and needs of each of its members can be met, but affirm that
religion is the chief instrument, “for the establishment of order in the world
and of the tranquility amongst all its people.” The holy scriptures have offered
a progressive vision of a fundamental global transformation that embodies a
new set of principles for understanding and guiding humanity’s relationships.
Accordingly, there can be no question of the importance of religion as a source
of moral values and principles and perspectives for the universalization of
human rights values.
I have focussed on human rights principles because it seems important in a
first conference on human rights to illustrate that principles are the means by
which the law lives, grows, and demonstrates that it is not a mere collection of
rules. Through the medium of principles, law, and in particular human rights
concerns, we can draw nourishment from religion and from other fields. As I
indicated earlier, only after World War II, a brief span of time in mankind’s
evolution, has there been a sustained effort to formulate the substance of what
is now called human rights into principles of a global scope. Thus, given the
dynamic and evolutionary nature of human rights, this subject lends itself di-
rectly to the view that the human rights movement needs to be viewed from a
perspective that conscious unification on a planetary scale is the process appro-
priate to humanity’s maturity and growing capacity for integration.
As a fundamental tenet of their religion, Bahá’ís are committed to the eradi-
cation of all forms of prejudice, including those based on race, ethnic origin,
religion, sex or nationality. Believers are striving to build in Brazil, and com-
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
munities around the globe, those new conditions of unity conducive to the uni-
versal enjoyment of rights and responsibilities, which the golden future of
human rights in a multicultural world holds.
Footnotes
1 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (1982). The Promulgation of Universal Peace . Wilmette, IL: Bahá’í Publishing Trust.
p. 182.
2 Bahá’í International Community (1997). The Bahá’í World 1995-96. Haifa, Israel: World Centre
Publications. pp. 289, 290; From a statement presented by the Bahá’í International Community,
at the 47th Session of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of
Minorities, Geneva, 31 July to 25 August 1995.
3 Cranston, Maurice (1973). What are Human Rights. New York: Taplinger Publishing Co. Inc. p. 3.
4 Ann-Belinda S. Preis (1996). Human Rights as Cultural Practice: An Anthropological Critique.
Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 18. p. 287.
5 Etzioni, Amitai (1997). The End of Cross-Cultural Relativism. Alternatives, vol. 22. p. 177.
6 ibid. p.180.
7 Entitled, “A Bahá’í Declaration of Human Obligations and Rights.”
8 From a statement presented by the Bahá’í International Community submitted to the Workgroup
on Social and Cultural Dimensions of Development at the 33rd Session of the Sub-Commission
on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, Geneva, 26 August 1980.
9 Bahá’í International Community (1995). Turning Point For All Nations. New York: Bahá’í Interna-
tional Community United Nations Office. pp. 1, 3. A significant portion of the document deals
with the subject. See the sections: Protecting Fundamental Human Rights, p. 16; Strengthening the
Machinery of the UN for Monitoring, Implementation and Follow-Up, p. 17; Encouraging Universal
Ratification of International Conventions On Human Rights, p. 17; Assuring Respect for the Monitoring
Organs Of The UN Involved In Human Rights, p. 18; Advancing the Status of Women, p. 18.
10 See for instance, Preamble, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
11 The Proclamation of Teheran, proclaimed by the International Conference on Human Rights at
Teheran on 13 May 1968.
12 Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, General
Assembly resolution 1514 (XV) of 14 December 1960.
13 Preamble, Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination.
14 Preamble, Convention against Discrimination in Education.
15 Preamble, Equal Remuneration Convention.
16 Adopted in 1985 and endorsed by General Assembly resolution 40/32, December 1985.
17 Declaration on Social and Legal Principles relating to the Protection and Welfare of Children,
with Special Reference to Foster Placement and Adoption Nationally and Internationally, adopted
by General Assembly resolution 41/85, 3 December 1986.
18 Bielefeldt, Heiner (Spring 1994). Human Rights in a Multicultural World. Paper delivered to the
Law Faculty, University of Toronto.
19 Robinson, Mary (1993). Human Rights as the Dawn of the 21st Century. 15 Human Rights Quarterly
629. p. 630.
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
20 Laszlo, Ervin (1989). The Inner Limits of Mankind. London: One World Publications Ltd. p. 59.
21 Donelly, John (1989). Universal Human Rights in Theory & Practice . Ithica, NY: Cornell Univer-
sity Press. p. 6.
22 Cranston, p. 14.
23 ibid. p. 15.
24 ibid. p. 82.
25 Oputa, Chukwudifu Akunne (1989). Human Rights in the Political and Legal Culture of Nigeria.
Lagos, Nigeria: Nigerian Law Publications Ltd. p. 38.
26 Cranston, op. cit. p. 81.
27 Bahá’u’lláh (1976). Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh. Wilmette, IL: Bahá’í Publishing
Trust. p. 179.
28 Bahá’u’lláh (1979). Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh. Haifa, Israel: Bahá’í World Centre. p. 220.
29 Bahá’u’lláh. Gleanings. p. 260.
30 Bahá’u’lláh. Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh. p. 170.
31 ibid. p. 172.
32 Universal House of Justice (1985). The Promise of World Peace . Haifa, Israel: World Centre
Publications. p. 13.
33 Shoghi Effendi (1980). World Order of Bahá’u’lláh. Wilmette, IL: Bahá’í Publishing Trust. p. 43.
34 ibid. 42.
35 Bahá’í International Community (March 1997). Statement to the 53rd Session of the UN Commission
on Human Rights, Geneva, Switzerland. p. 3.
36 Bahá’í International Community (August 1994). Statement to the United Nations Sub-Commission on
Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, Geneva, Switzerland.
37 Bahá’í International Community. Sustainable Communities in an Integrating World. p. 3. Based on
a concept paper shared at the Second United Nations Conference on Human Settlements
(Habitat II), Istanbul, Turkey, 3-4 June 1996.
38 Bahá’í International Community (March 1996). Statement on the United Nations Decade for Human
Rights Education, submitted to the UN Commission on Human Rights, Geneva, Switzerland.
39 (23 April 1996). Joint Non-Governmental Organization Statement to the 52nd Session of the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights, offered by the Bahá’í International Community, on behalf
of thirty-four non-governmental organizations, Geneva, Switzerland. p. 4.
40 Shoghi Effendi, p. 41 .
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Human Rights and Multiculturalism
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
BY KISER BARNES
It is a special privilege to discuss human rights and multiculturalism at the
first international conference on human rights in Brazil, at a time when the
wide variety of considerations about principles that shape the law, morality
and politics of human rights are being explored. As a member of the Bahá’í
Faith, a worldwide multicultural community which believes that the direction
of human rights must also be enriched by spiritual principles, my enthusiasm is
heightened on this occasion. For I share your confidence that a global human
rights culture is evolving, where, as suggested by Bahá’u’lláh, the Founder of
the Faith, “an equal standard of human rights must be recognized and adopted.”1
The theme of “multiculturalism” includes the question whether international
human rights,for example those contained in the Universal Declaration of Hu-
man Rights and the International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights,are applicable to all societies; or can those rights be differently inter-
preted and applied by States on the grounds of political, economical, cultural,
or other differences. Notwithstanding that the recognition of human rights rep-
resents an attempt to legitimise a set of worldwide, overarching values, the
universal characteristics of human rights is a large part of the difficulties of
justifying them in a multicultural world. Although many right measures have
become a part of international customary law and national positive law, human
rights claims in general appeal to moral principles. Thus, the concept of human
rights remains close to the idea of justice.
The issue has created a great deal of tension between the basic moral force
of human rights, their increasingly legal nature, and the fundamental principles
of justice which human rights imply. The discussions have led to a good deal of
agreement that human rights rest on universal principles of morality, or justice,
which are open to a process of change. Fortunately, the debate has, as well,
This paper first presented at the “First International Conference On Human Rights,”
14-17 September 1997, Brazilia, Brazil, sponsored by the Brazilian Bar Association
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
further entrenched the doctrine of human rights as a prime philosophical source
of political and social reform. Moreover, the difficulty has highlighted the rich
diversity of the human family, which is both its glory and its strength and con-
clusive evidence of the success with which man has adapted to the diverse
conditions of his planet.
Such observations suggest that in a first conference called to discover prac-
tical measures for strengthening the human rights movement, in the face of the
monstrosity of “ethnic cleansing”; the horrors of racism; the perverted passions
of religious animosity; the extermination and marginalization of indigenous
peoples; the victimization of women; and other symptoms of the disease of
disunity afflicting mankind, a consideration of guiding principles, found in law,
and other fields, including religion, that could broaden insight about some ba-
sic values accepted by a great many cultures and promote the universality of
human rights principles, would be appropriate.
Here we approach the heart of the matter. Are there directive principles, in
addition to those already established in the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, other rights instruments, and elsewhere—such as the “dignity of the
human person,” which might influence perceptions and attitudes about the con-
ceptual framework and scope of human rights? It appears that reference to the
principles of the oneness of mankind and unity in diversity—fundamental prin-
ciples of the Faith—could invigorate the process.
Thus, an essential reference for my remarks on the challenges connected
with human rights in a multicultural world, is that:
The bedrock of a strategy that can engage the world’s population in assuming responsibility
for its collective destiny must be the consciousness of the oneness of humankind. The
human species is an organic whole, the leading edge of the evolutionary process …What
the peoples of the world are experiencing, Bahá’u’lláh, the Founder of the Bahá’í Faith, said
is their collective coming of age, and it is through this emerging maturity of the race that the
principle of unity in diversity will find full expression.2
In this discussion, some issues involved in the challenge of promoting the
universality of international human rights are addressed. A review of some
basic values in international instruments which are accepted in a broad sense
by all peoples is presented, along with a tentative exploration of the relation
of the Bahá’í principle of the oneness of mankind to human rights. Some practi-
cal implications connected with the learning principles in relation to the rights
of indigenous peoples and minority groups are outlined. Comments on the
merits of an multi-disciplinary approach for fostering human rights, including
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
the role of religion and the importance of human rights education, are also
presented.
The Challenge of Universality
In 1945, the United Nations took a revolutionary step by including human
rights in Article l of its Charter as one of its basic aims. For the first time human
rights were elevated to a position of global concern, described by Winston
Churchill as “the enthronement of human rights.”3 The concept of human rights,
traditionally known as natural rights or the rights of man, that had been purport-
edly internationalised, was that a person had human rights simply because he or
she is a human being. The view of cultural relativism, under the doctrine of
“multiculturalism,” was inserted into the human rights discourse in 1948, when
the American Anthropological Association rejected the applicability of any Dec-
laration of Human Rights to mankind as a whole. Its statement explicitly stressed
that “the rights of Man … cannot be circumscribed by the standards of any single
culture, or be dictated by the aspirations of any single people.”4
From the perspective of relativism, cross-cultural judgments are opposed
on the grounds that there are no overarching, universal moral truths, or prin-
ciples, or universal cultural ideals. It has been argued that many human rights
norms possess a distinctively Western or Judeo-Christian bias, reflecting as-
sumptions that the values of other cultures, peoples and races are inferior.
Hence, it is asserted they are ethnocentric. For instance, the notion of universal
human rights has been opposed in Asia and Africa on the grounds that Western
notions of human rights are founded on the idea of the personal autonomy of
individuals, which those cultures do not hold as a fundamental virtue, in contrast
to communitarian values. Relativists further contend that other cultures have
virtues of their own, to which their members are held accountable.
Another argument in favour of cross-cultural relativism, is the view that
developing states cannot be expected to implement political and civil rights
fully,as long as they have not reached a level of economic development; these
states must give priority to economic development, in order to facilitate the
realization of civil and political rights. The international instruments them-
selves attach equal weight to both sets of rights. Furthermore, the United Na-
tions General Assembly and the United Nations Commission on Human Rights
have confirmed that human rights are indivisible, interdependent, and deserve
the same amount of attention.
The theory that human rights are relative has gradually lost ground. Cultural
relativists have found it increasingly difficult to sustain their position. 5 Some
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Human Rights and Multiculturalism
have conceded that there are some global values to which all peoples and
cultures may be held accountable. For example, no culture tolerates indiscrimi-
nate lying, stealing or violence within the group. The universality of incest
taboo. A limitation on the number of deaths that might be inflicted in legitimate
acts of revenge. The universal acceptance of the Golden Rule, a universal prin-
ciple for human relations, as a fundamental ethical truth.
Under what has been termed a “Minimal Globalism,” it is thought that the
concept of human rights is universal but that rights vary among different societ-
ies.6 The acceptance of particular moral principles and legal entitlements often
evolve to stages of acceptance and implementation over time. Historical de-
velopments certainly support the view. For example, religious, racial, sexual
and ethnic discrimination have been widely practiced but are indefensible
today. It is generally agreed that “core rights,” such as the right to life, security
of person, prohibition of discrimination, and freedom of thought, conscience
and religion are not subject to cultural definitions and applications.
The view remains compelling that since 1946 when the signatories of the
United Nations Charter affirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, basi-
cally on the principle of the dignity and worth of the human person, no state can
claim that the denial of such rights to its own citizens is solely its own business.
To this end, in 1993, at the World Congress on Human Rights, the representa-
tives adopted by concensus the Vienna Declaration, which states of “all human
rights and fundamental freedoms for all” articulated in the Universal Declara-
tion of Human Rights and elsewhere: “The universal nature of these rights and
freedoms is beyond question… Human rights and fundamental freedoms are
the birthright of all human beings; their protection and promotion is the first
responsibility of Government.”
Obviously the guiding principle of the universality of human rights has been
subject to the exigencies of special political interests; for the human rights
movement is not inseparable from the political process. Yet, it is plain that a
broader acceptance of the universality of rights, limiting what a state may do to
its citizens, seems to be precisely what the political problems of our age ur-
gently require. The world has undoubtedly gained a great deal from the fact
that since the acceptance of the Universal Declaration efforts for the imple-
mentation of basic human rights have become increasingly a feature of interna-
tional relations, conventions and diplomacy. The massive violations prove,
however, a cynical disregard of its principles on the part of some governments.
There are still innumerable persons oppressed who have not yet felt the ben-
efits of the principle of universality.
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Human Rights and Multiculturalism
For my part, I am delighted to say that as early as 1947, the Bahá’í Faith, in a
written presentation to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, of-
fered its support for an international system of human rights.7 The perspective
of the Faith regarding the principles of the oneness of humankind and unity in
diversity was presented. Subsequently, the Bahá’í International Community has
consistently shared the merits of this fundamental ideal. The following is a
representative statement:
The goal of the international community is to build a world family of nations, whose
members have equal rights, privileges, duties and responsibilities, and share a dedication
to peace and to the upholding of a common set of human values; to create a global society
which protects the human rights of every member, respect his dignity and individuality,
and provides for the full development of his potential, so that he may be of service to his
fellow human beings and make his contribution toward the building of an ever-advancing
civilization.8
More recently, the Statement of the Bahá’í International Community, Turning
Point For All Nations, presented on the Occasion of the Fiftieth Anniversary of
the United Nations, offers new ways of thinking about human rights, within the
broad context of the evolution of an integrated global society. “The way has
been cleared for new definitions of human rights and affirmation of personal
dignity,” it states, and that “ new levels of consciousness have been reached on
global programs to promote… human rights…” 9
Accordingly, it is highly encouraging, that from the universality relativity
discussions powerful insight has emerged about our rich diversity of cultures,
and some specific features of African, Asian, and indigenous cultures, to men-
tion only a few. A deeper appreciation has thus been established for the global
moral imperatives in the holy scriptures of the world religions, which are the
root-genesis of the spiritual values found in human rights instruments. A broader
awareness has developed, given the evolutionary nature of human rights, that
different cultural traditions may contribute positively by raising new areas of
concern, adding more rights, and generally informing the movement with addi-
tional values.
The Oneness of Mankind as a Normative Concept
I turn now to a consideration of the possible advantages the principles of
the oneness of mankind may hold for the ideal of human rights. The legal in-
struments and the literature on human rights demonstrate the critical role that
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Human Rights and Multiculturalism
principles have played, and are playing, in the search for a world view that
would support a viable foundation for human rights. References to such moral
principles, or basic values, as human dignity and non-discrimination are in a
great number of legal instruments. The description of the moral values are
expressed variously as human rights “principles,” “universal principles,” “ide-
als,” “values,” “concepts,””goals,” “fundamentals,””norms,” “axioms,” “standards,”and
“utilities.” Of course, the merit of these normative concepts is that they do not
offer a detailed statement of vision,or scope, or practical measures for imple-
mentation. They provide a dynamic, a perspective,and a will for achieving the
undertaking. They influence perceptions and attitudes, which invigorates the
process of the evolution and implementation of human rights.
Suffice it to recall, as well, that many international human rights instruments
declare that their contents are based on “ the principles proclaimed in the
Charter of the United Nations.”10 Many affirm, “the principles of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights”11, which was put forward principally as a state-
ment of ideals, elaborating “classical principles.” Other Covenants are based
on “respect for the principle of equal rights… universal respect for, and obser-
vance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as
to race, sex, language or religion” 12; “the principle of the dignity and equality
of all human beings”13; “the principle of non-discrimination” 14; “the principle of
equal remuneration for men and women workers for work of equal value”15;
the “Declaration of Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary”16;
and the “Declaration on Social and Legal Principles relating to the Protection
and Welfare of Children…”17
The universal principle of the “dignity of the human person” occupies a
prominent position. It appears in the Preamble of the United Nations Charter
as an ideal that “we the peoples of the United Nations” are “determined” to
achieve. It is included in the first Article of the Universal Declaration of Hu-
man Rights, as well as, in the other documents constituting the International Bill
of Human Rights, in various resolutions and declarations of international bod-
ies, and in national constitutions. It has acquired such approbation that it is in-
voked widely as a legal and moral ground for championing human rights. Indeed,
it has been described as the “supreme ethical principle,” the “emancipatory
principle underlying human rights.”
All I have expressed, thus far, demonstrates that principles have far-reach-
ing implications. Before proceeding further in this direction, however, I am
sensible that lawyers often prefer discussions that give specificity to the con-
cept of legal rights and duties, and the implementation and realization of rec-
ognized rights. More often than not, the discussions are technical rather than
ethical in character. The view is still heard that positive law, in contrast to
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Human Rights and Multiculturalism
moral values or moral law, is the only law which it is worth thinking about.
However, it is thought that lawyers and legal postivism might serve to make the
public more conscious of what morality is. In this regard, I remind you that Law
Faculties around the world were the first to study the doctrine of human rights
in an objective manner.
Inquiries concerning principles of human rights are intimately connected
with the jurisprudential search for the ultimate values of legal ordering. It is
generally accepted that the source of justice is in the law, and that one cannot
talk for long about law without entering into the realm of value. It is intimately
linked with justice, and in its entirety is seen as a system of justice. The human
rights field, in particular, offers golden opportunities for connecting the rise
of a value-oriented jurisprudence, not only on the premise of a revival of
natural law philosophy, if you wish, but by reference to certain spiritual and
evolutionary forces which are pushing law forward towards a field, which might
be termed, “Law and the Oneness of Humankind.” It is in this direction that law
and lawyers, as servants of justice, would develop more capacity to serve a
unified world.
I am also aware that the term ‘principle’ in the Declarations and Conven-
tions, and elsewhere, seems to have lost much of its sense of an ontological
source for practical, effective programs of action. In many instances the call for
a radical approach based on principle, or a decision, or a course of action based
on principle, is taken to suggest the notion of a static proposition or the pursuit
of expediencies of national, ethnic, or local interests. Moreover, following the
recent unleashing of deep-seated hatred, which has given way to the recur-
rence of that monstrous spirit of “ethnic cleansing” in the former Yugoslavia and
Rwanda, it might be thought that a return to what may seem so slight a thing as
principles to animate the human rights movement misconceives the depth of
the suspicions and fears and cynicalism , neopragmatism, and disunity afflicting
mankind. However, the place and role of principles is undoubtedly part of the
process of the evolving consciousness for new ways of thinking and express-
ing committment that must be had in the human rights movement.
Thus, it is extremely heartening that in the face of chronic disillusionment
over religious extremism, racism, poverty, hunger, and violent atrocities, Mary
Robinson, President of Ireland, who will soon take up the appointment as the
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, in the position of Gen-
eral Reporter at the Council of Europe’s Preparatory Meeting for the 1993
World Conference on Human Rights, raised an urgent call for a return to prin-
ciples in this striking manner: “…I share with you a firm and tested belief in
the power of ideas…”19 In the same manner, Ervin Laszlo, one of the foremost
exponents of systems philosophy, a member of the prestigious Club of Rome
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Human Rights and Multiculturalism
and Rector of the Vienna Academy for the Study of the Future, declared: “We
have all forgotten the importance and power of postive ideas and images of the
future. We look upon the few remaining visionaries of a better world as naive
optimists or harmless fools. Our societies suffer from an overdose of pragma-
tism combined with generalized but vague pessimism.”20
Approaches based on principles are in sharp contrast to the views heard in
influential quarters that belief in the power of ideas, or principles, or a re-
statement of human values in relation to human rights, is utopian and a danger-
ous impediment to effective political action for human rights formulation and
implementation. 21 And how far has the human rights movement advanced from
those dark days when Jeremy Bentham objected to any declarations of the rights
of man as empty “rhetorical utterances”22 and Edmund Burke asserted that the
sponsors of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man had done great social
harm by proclaiming, what he called, the “monstrous fiction” of human equal-
ity.23 The great international jurist, Judge Lauterpacht, once wrote of human rights:
“Inasmuch as… they are an expression of moral claims, they are a powerful
lever of legal reform. The moral claims of today are often the legal rights of
tomorrow.”24 And if the position of Justice Chukwudifu Oputa is true that men
of action are mobilized to action by the power of principles,25 then thinking
about the nexus of universal standards to human rights is a serious undertaking.
Particularly, when it is generally agreed that the inherent dignity of the human
person is a primary normative standard of human rights. Although what is meant
by “inherent worth,” or “inherent dignity” or “sacred nature” of the human per-
son has not been universally agreed upon.
I am not suggesting here that the noble value—the inherent dignity of the
human person—requires a universally agreed upon definition in general terms.
However, analysis and detailed clarifications about its meaning might reduce
specious use of the concept and broaden the impressive number of specific
implications for relevant conduct that could be drawn from the principle. I
agree with Alan Cranston that:
There is a connection between human rights being universal and their formulation being
generalised and wide. The basic general principle of morality are minimal precisely be-
cause they are universal. Human rights rests on universal principles, but the precise moral
rights of men in some communities differ from the precise moral rights of men in other
communities, and this is one reason why the formulation of human rights cannot be at the
same time closely detailed and of universal application.26
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Human Rights and Multiculturalism
A considerable number of the features, implications, and practical require-
ments associated with the principles concerning the unification of mankind are
outlined in the Bahá’í Writings. In support of the view that the principle of
unity in diversity would complement those notable principles which have thus
far animated the human rights movement, I would point out that in the scriptures
of the Bahá’í Faith, the dignity of the human person has also been extolled:
Man,[is] the noblest and most perfect of all created things,”27 ; “Lofty is the station of
man!… His is the loftiest station, and his influence educateth the world of being.” 28;”Regard
man as a mine rich in gems of inestimable value.” 29 “It ill beseemeth the station of man to
commit tyranny; rather it behoveth him to observe equity and be attired with the raiment
of justice under all conditions.” 30 “Were man to appreciate the greatness of his station and
the loftiness of his destiny he would manifest naught save goodly character, pure deeds
and a seemly and praiseworthy conduct.” 31
As you know, the term ‘principle’ is derived from the Latin word ‘principium’.
It is compounded of the words primus, meaning first or chief, and cipium, mean-
ing ‘to take’. Thus, a ‘principle’ is that controlling factor in human undertakings
which must be considered first. It is first or chief among other factors, the
primary source, or underlying faculty of an endeavour, upon which practical
decisions and actions may follow. One of the functions is that principles indi-
cate new approaches which ought to be taken.
Consistently, then, with a belief in the power of directive principles, the
Bahá’í Faith, since its birth in 1844, has called upon the peoples of the world to
explore the principle of the oneness of mankind. In a major statement on the
function of principles in facilitating major world undertakings, the Universal
House of Justice, the highest International Administrative Body of the Bahá’í
Faith at Haifa, Israel, wrote:
There are spiritual principles, or what some call human values, by which solutions can be
found for every social problem. Any well-intentioned group can in a general sense devise
practical solutions to its problems, but good intentions and practical knowledge are usually
not enough. The essential merit of spiritual principle is that it not only presents a perspec-
tive which harmonizes with that which is immanent in human nature, it also induces an
attitude, a dynamic, a will, an aspiration, which facilitate the discovery and implementa-
tion of practical measures. Leaders of governments and all in authority would be well
served in their efforts to solve problems if they would first seek to identify the principles
involved and then be guided by them.32
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Human Rights and Multiculturalism
Here, then is an empowering principle—the oneness of mankind—repre-
senting, from the perspective of the Bahá’í Faith “the consummation of human
evolution,” which, may be promoted in concert with the basic value, the inher-
ent dignity of the human person, and other noble principles, that have quick-
ened the human rights movement. As a further step in this direction, I shall next
suggest some practical implications of the principle that are not only compat-
ible with the ideas of the inherent dignity and worth of human persons, but
would serve to enrich these concepts, and others, which are basically linked
with the idea of justice and equity, which the human rights movement implies.
The following, most of which has been compiled from the Bahá’í Scriptures or
statements presented by the United Nations Office of the Bahá’í International
Community, also includes a few specific practical points concerning indigenous
people, minorities and human rights education.
- First of all, the Bahá’í Writings emphasise that this noble principle is “
no… mere outburst of… emotionalism or an expression of vague and
pious hope… [nor] to be merely identified with a reawakening of the
spirit of brotherhood and good-will among men… It implies an organic
change in the structure of present-day society… It constitutes a challenge,
at once bold and universal, to outworm shibboleths of national creeds…
It calls for no less than the reconstruction… of the civilized world—a
world organically unified in all the essential aspects of its life, its po-
litical machinery, its spiritual aspiration, its trade and finance, its script
and language, and yet infinite in the diversity of the national characteris-
tics of its federated units.”33
- The conception is “primarily directed against all forms of provincialism,
all insularities and prejudices… social assumptions and religious for-
mulae [that] have ceased to promote the welfare of the generality of
mankind… [and] no longer minister to the needs of a continually evolv-
ing humanity.”34
- “…recognition of the oneness of humanity, appreciation of unity in di-
versity, and a sense of citizenship in a world community will be the best
guarantee of improved human rights in the years to come…”35
- “…responsibility for ensuring equal rights for minorities falls on both
majorities and minorities. Majorities have a special responsibility, for
the sake of justice, to bring about the social and political adjustments
which will enable minorities to exercise… their common and funda-
mental rights… Both must view minority issues in the context of an in-
creasingly interdependent world… Attitudes must change. There must
be a shift in the view of majorities towards oppressed minorities, and
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
minorities must be freed from the sense of helplessness induced by
prolonged discrimination… The challenge of changing attitudes… is not
entirely within the ability of government to meet, as it calls for the influ-
ence of spiritual and moral principle… the principle which must govern
any consideration of minority rights is the oneness of humanity… the
diversity of the human family must be recognized as a source of enrich-
ment rather than as a threat.”36
- “Unity in diversity is at once a vision for the future and a principle to
guide the world community. Not only must this principle come to ani-
mate relations among the nations… but it must also be applied within
both local and national communities, if they are to prosper and endure.
The unifying, salutary effects of applying this principle… would be in-
calculable.”37
- “…education is indispensable to the realization of human rights. Educa-
tion which instills in hearts and minds an awareness of and sensitivity to
human rights of all persons constitutes… an essential tool for the promo-
tion and implementation of international human rights standards… [It]
should constitute a comprehensive life-long process by which people at
all levels of development and in all strata of society learn respect for
the dignity of others and the means and methods of ensuring that respect
in all societies… Human rights eduation, if it is to succeed, must seek to
transform individual attitudes and behavior and thereby establish… a
new “culture” of respect for human rights. Only such a change in the fun-
damental social outlook of every individual… can bring about the uni-
versal observance of human rights principles… Accordingly, it is essential
to touch the heart… Such education, moreover, must help to instill in
every individual a keen, emotionally grounded awareness of the funda-
mental unity of humankind. As people begin to see each other as mem-
bers of one human family, they will become willing to discard negative
learned stereotypes and begin to see people of other ethnic groups,
nationalities, classes and religious beliefs as potential friends rather
than as threats or enemies… Bahá’í communities… are already both pro-
moting and providing education, based on the the principle of the one-
ness of humanity, which seeks to cultivate respect for the rights of others,
a sense of responsibility for the well-being of the human family, and the
moral attributes that contribute to a just, harmonious and peaceful world
civilization.”38
- “Moral qualities, sometimes referred to as spiritual qualities or human
values, are the building blocks of human personality… The full power
of these fundamental qualities can be released… only when they are
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
acquired in the context of an understanding of the oneness of humanity
and with attention to their application in action for the betterment of
society as a whole. Indeed, unless applied universally and in action, these
qualities can easily become little more than slogans, at times degenerat-
ing even to become excuses for prejudice and injustice… Moral educa-
tion centered on an understanding of the essential oneness of humankind
and applied on a universal basis constitutes an indispensable foundation
for the universal respect for human rights.”39
- The gradual recognition of indigenous peoples and minority groups is a
pronounced example of how the dynamic concept of the principle of
human rights is moving with the forces of history and oneness. Efforts for
recognizing and protecting indigenous rights must be seen in a global
context. No people should be set apart from the whole of mankind. The
theme of oneness of mankind certainly includes the growing sense of
the moral responsibility of humanity as a whole for indigenous peoples.
The perpetuation of the cultural characteristics of peoples should be
viewed as an expression of unity in diversity, which enriches the tapes-
try of human life. Often difficulties arise not because groups do not de-
sire the development of their members and their natural resources, but
because they are not consulted and do not reap the benefits of develop-
ment projects. Human rights programs,and other programs,should instill
in all people a sense of their worth as actual and potential co-builders of
a world civilization, as channelled through cultural perspectives, which
could enrich the entire fabric of civilized society.
- If affirmative action programs are advisable, the concept would give a
larger vision of unity and oneness and that the initiative involves more
than remedying past injustice. It would assist in approaching the more
important question of how social unity among diverse groups can be best
advanced. Such programs might assist in establishing a perspective, as
practiced in the Bahá’í Faith, if there is any discrimination it should be in
favor of the minority.
It may be seen in these statements that the principles of the oneness of
mankind and unity in diversity could foster the adherence to values, such as
unity, justice and consciousness of world citizenship. They would provide a
framework upon which a new vision, new commitment and a new pardigm of
unity can be constructed.
Of course, from the declaration of principles to their implementation, there
is certainly a long and difficult road. Yet,the formal international recognition of
global human rights has not only strengthened the struggle for international
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
justice, but increased awareness that change is a gradual process, requiring posi-
tive interactions of consultations and a broadening of vision. Still, it is readily
acknowledged that the principles in international and regional human rights
documents have influenced the content and practice of governments. The world
has learned that the adoption of general standards formulated in terms of le-
gally and morally binding treaties do not automatically transform into state prac-
tice. The era of universally accepted human rights points the way forward for
concensus on binding values and irrevocable standards. The advantages of the
principle of the oneness of mankind and unity in diversity might be explored,
not as a detailed declaration of action, but as a help and support for those look-
ing for direction, orientation and meaning of the larger purpose of human rights.
Finally, the universality of human rights needs to be viewed in context of an
emergent unity paradigm, supported by the complementarity of religious, le-
gal and other social perspectives. From a human rights perspective, conscious
unification on a planetary scale is the process appropriate to humanity’s matu-
rity and growing capacity. And from this perspective, it is also clear that the
international code of human rights has a clear bias in favour of the kind of
society that displays a specific coherent set of spiritual values; tolerance of
diversity; plurality of belief, ideas and cultures, reasonableness and rational-
ity; the peaceful resolution of conflict under the rule of law; and, above all,
respect for the dignity and integrity of every single one of its individual mem-
bers.
Directly related to the topic of universality of rights is the emotional and
difficult concern that support for the human rights for all, within a rigid “us” and
“them” dichotomy, would compromise or destroy that loyalty all of us cherish
for family, peoples and nation. In support of a radical new and far more dy-
namic approach to culture in the area of human rights, the Bahá’í Writings state:
Far from aiming at the subversion of the existing foundations of society, it [the oneness of
mankind] seeks to broaden its basis, to remould its institutions in a manner consonant with
the needs of an ever-changing world. It can conflict with no legitimate allegiances, nor can
it undermine essential loyalties… It does not ignore, nor does it attempt to suppress, the
diversity of ethnical origins, of climate, of history, of language and tradition, of thought and
habit, that differentiate the peoples and nations of the world. It calls for a wider loyalty, for
larger aspiration than any that has animated the human race. It insists upon the subordina-
tion of national impulse and interests to the imperative claims of a unified world… Its
watchword is unity in diversity.40
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
A Multi-disciplinary Approach
The broad and inherent multi-disciplinary nature of human rights concerns
and the requirement for the interaction of numerous programs of action are
sometimes difficult for lawyers and legislators to accept. The language which
human rights are formulated is primarily the language of law, but the combined
forces of political, legal, religious and moral influences must be employed.
Laws are insufficient alone to create a just global society. Promotion of a multi-
disciplinary approach would greatly assist in raising the discussions to the level
of principles.
It is becoming clearer that the root source of the problems of abuses of
power, prejudices, and disunity have their origin in the malfunctioning of the
human spirit. Thus, the legal rationality of human rights, though essential, is not
a sufficient basis for the resolution of deep-seated prejudices and disunity.
The challenge of changing attitudes is not entirely within the ability of the legal
system and governments to meet. This does not suggest that the law has no
deterrent or educative effects. It is only to suggest that changing the bad laws or
introducing laws prohibiting certain activities is only a partial solution of the
problem.
This may involve ensuring that a greater number from minority groups be-
come members of the legal profession. It may also involve increasing under-
standing that governments have a peculiar interest in ensuring that human rights
measures are enforced. The use of public agencies to promote and enforce
human rights legislation should be encouraged. Victims of discrimination usu-
ally do not seek legal redress individually, either because they are not aware
of the steps to take, or because such redress is disproportionately
expensive.Thus, reliance on law enforcement by public agencies and private
organisations is therefore likely to be very great. The operation of public
human rights agencies should be seen as the enforcement of constitutional or
particular provisions in the public interest on behalf of the community as a
whole.
It is now well understood that a considerable amount of bias is either so
covert, entrenched, institutionalised and systemic that the anti-cultural, or rac-
ist, or sexist practices, policies or rules appear neutral on their face, i.e., non-
discriminatory and reasonable. In such circumstances experience and expertise
are essential to detect the discriminatory operation, impact and effect of the
prejudice and ferret it out. Well-trained human rights workers with a public
agency can accumulate sufficient experience to uncover the discriminatory prac-
tice. The staff soon acquires the necessary expertise to recognize the subtle
and insidious forms that discrimination and disunity take and the agency itself
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
becomes a clearing house for authoritative information on the problems of
protected groups. The enforcement of the law by a state agency also educates
the community both as to the law itself and on the importance accorded the state
to the elimination of prejudice.
Conclusion
It is to the credit of the organizers of this conferences that the participation
from religious organizations has been so prominent. It is undoubtedly a major
part of a multi-disciplinary approach that human rights promotion must be a
meeting point for different religions. Historically, the religions of the world
have been a fertile source of moral and ethical principles and practices. It
appears that more and more critical thinkers are realizing that the contents and
direction of human rights,in a contracting world community,must be enriched
by spiritual principles and priorities.
The Scriptures of the Bahá’í Faith not only envisage a society in which the
basic human rights and needs of each of its members can be met, but affirm that
religion is the chief instrument, “for the establishment of order in the world
and of the tranquility amongst all its people.” The holy scriptures have offered
a progressive vision of a fundamental global transformation that embodies a
new set of principles for understanding and guiding humanity’s relationships.
Accordingly, there can be no question of the importance of religion as a source
of moral values and principles and perspectives for the universalization of
human rights values.
I have focussed on human rights principles because it seems important in a
first conference on human rights to illustrate that principles are the means by
which the law lives, grows, and demonstrates that it is not a mere collection of
rules. Through the medium of principles, law, and in particular human rights
concerns, we can draw nourishment from religion and from other fields. As I
indicated earlier, only after World War II, a brief span of time in mankind’s
evolution, has there been a sustained effort to formulate the substance of what
is now called human rights into principles of a global scope. Thus, given the
dynamic and evolutionary nature of human rights, this subject lends itself di-
rectly to the view that the human rights movement needs to be viewed from a
perspective that conscious unification on a planetary scale is the process appro-
priate to humanity’s maturity and growing capacity for integration.
As a fundamental tenet of their religion, Bahá’ís are committed to the eradi-
cation of all forms of prejudice, including those based on race, ethnic origin,
religion, sex or nationality. Believers are striving to build in Brazil, and com-
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
munities around the globe, those new conditions of unity conducive to the uni-
versal enjoyment of rights and responsibilities, which the golden future of
human rights in a multicultural world holds.
Footnotes
1 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (1982). The Promulgation of Universal Peace . Wilmette, IL: Bahá’í Publishing Trust.
p. 182.
2 Bahá’í International Community (1997). The Bahá’í World 1995-96. Haifa, Israel: World Centre
Publications. pp. 289, 290; From a statement presented by the Bahá’í International Community,
at the 47th Session of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of
Minorities, Geneva, 31 July to 25 August 1995.
3 Cranston, Maurice (1973). What are Human Rights. New York: Taplinger Publishing Co. Inc. p. 3.
4 Ann-Belinda S. Preis (1996). Human Rights as Cultural Practice: An Anthropological Critique.
Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 18. p. 287.
5 Etzioni, Amitai (1997). The End of Cross-Cultural Relativism. Alternatives, vol. 22. p. 177.
6 ibid. p.180.
7 Entitled, “A Bahá’í Declaration of Human Obligations and Rights.”
8 From a statement presented by the Bahá’í International Community submitted to the Workgroup
on Social and Cultural Dimensions of Development at the 33rd Session of the Sub-Commission
on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, Geneva, 26 August 1980.
9 Bahá’í International Community (1995). Turning Point For All Nations. New York: Bahá’í Interna-
tional Community United Nations Office. pp. 1, 3. A significant portion of the document deals
with the subject. See the sections: Protecting Fundamental Human Rights, p. 16; Strengthening the
Machinery of the UN for Monitoring, Implementation and Follow-Up, p. 17; Encouraging Universal
Ratification of International Conventions On Human Rights, p. 17; Assuring Respect for the Monitoring
Organs Of The UN Involved In Human Rights, p. 18; Advancing the Status of Women, p. 18.
10 See for instance, Preamble, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
11 The Proclamation of Teheran, proclaimed by the International Conference on Human Rights at
Teheran on 13 May 1968.
12 Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, General
Assembly resolution 1514 (XV) of 14 December 1960.
13 Preamble, Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination.
14 Preamble, Convention against Discrimination in Education.
15 Preamble, Equal Remuneration Convention.
16 Adopted in 1985 and endorsed by General Assembly resolution 40/32, December 1985.
17 Declaration on Social and Legal Principles relating to the Protection and Welfare of Children,
with Special Reference to Foster Placement and Adoption Nationally and Internationally, adopted
by General Assembly resolution 41/85, 3 December 1986.
18 Bielefeldt, Heiner (Spring 1994). Human Rights in a Multicultural World. Paper delivered to the
Law Faculty, University of Toronto.
19 Robinson, Mary (1993). Human Rights as the Dawn of the 21st Century. 15 Human Rights Quarterly
629. p. 630.
BAHÁ’Í-INSPIRED PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights and Multiculturalism
20 Laszlo, Ervin (1989). The Inner Limits of Mankind. London: One World Publications Ltd. p. 59.
21 Donelly, John (1989). Universal Human Rights in Theory & Practice . Ithica, NY: Cornell Univer-
sity Press. p. 6.
22 Cranston, p. 14.
23 ibid. p. 15.
24 ibid. p. 82.
25 Oputa, Chukwudifu Akunne (1989). Human Rights in the Political and Legal Culture of Nigeria.
Lagos, Nigeria: Nigerian Law Publications Ltd. p. 38.
26 Cranston, op. cit. p. 81.
27 Bahá’u’lláh (1976). Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh. Wilmette, IL: Bahá’í Publishing
Trust. p. 179.
28 Bahá’u’lláh (1979). Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh. Haifa, Israel: Bahá’í World Centre. p. 220.
29 Bahá’u’lláh. Gleanings. p. 260.
30 Bahá’u’lláh. Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh. p. 170.
31 ibid. p. 172.
32 Universal House of Justice (1985). The Promise of World Peace . Haifa, Israel: World Centre
Publications. p. 13.
33 Shoghi Effendi (1980). World Order of Bahá’u’lláh. Wilmette, IL: Bahá’í Publishing Trust. p. 43.
34 ibid. 42.
35 Bahá’í International Community (March 1997). Statement to the 53rd Session of the UN Commission
on Human Rights, Geneva, Switzerland. p. 3.
36 Bahá’í International Community (August 1994). Statement to the United Nations Sub-Commission on
Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, Geneva, Switzerland.
37 Bahá’í International Community. Sustainable Communities in an Integrating World. p. 3. Based on
a concept paper shared at the Second United Nations Conference on Human Settlements
(Habitat II), Istanbul, Turkey, 3-4 June 1996.
38 Bahá’í International Community (March 1996). Statement on the United Nations Decade for Human
Rights Education, submitted to the UN Commission on Human Rights, Geneva, Switzerland.
39 (23 April 1996). Joint Non-Governmental Organization Statement to the 52nd Session of the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights, offered by the Bahá’í International Community, on behalf
of thirty-four non-governmental organizations, Geneva, Switzerland. p. 4.
40 Shoghi Effendi, p. 41 .
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