Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Kuek Yi Hsing, The Human Spirit in Moral Education, bahai-library.com.
──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

The Human Spirit in Moral Education
Kuek Yi Hsing

Abstract

As belief in traditional authorities in Europe has declined, morality and
ethics have been constantly undermined. With the rise of modern
science, there has been a progressive fragmentation in spiritual values.
Moral education has been caught in between. In schools run by religious
institutions, it is still a part of religious education, whereas in secular
schools, it has become a distinct subject on character and behaviour, duty
and obligation, devoid of any religious affinity. In search of what to
teach in moral education, a mixture of ethics, religious festivities and
cultural traditions, nation-building concepts, and other trivialities such as
social etiquette, personal grooming and self-esteem have been included
in the curriculum.

There is no lack of criticism in the US and Europe on the weakness of
the secular models of moral education and there have been calls for
"going back to basics" by the fundamentalists. From the Baha'i point of
view morality has assumed a new meaning and a new direction. It is no
longer sufficient to be virtuous; one has to be conscious of the fact that
the world has become one single state. To be moral implies going
beyond being patriotic to one's country, race, culture and religion. One's
allegiance must be to the whole of humankind.

The article examines briefly the historical perspective that has lead to the
immanence of secular models of moral education in Europe and the US,
how moral education has been taught in Singapore, some secular models
from the US and their inadequacies, and what the Baha'i Writings have
to offer.
56 THE SINGAPORE BAHAT STUDIES REVIEW

The Division: Religious and Secular Moral Education

The great progress of science and technology over the past few hundred
years seems to have brought with it an equally momentous crisis of
values. Ever since the 18th century European Enlightenment, the great
rise of faith in science and reason has been shadowed by an equally
sharp decline in the respect for moral authority. This process of
secularization has been gathering pace in recent years. The Catholic
theologian, Hans Kung, notes that:

"Ever since the youth and student revolts of the late 1960s, there are no
longer any institutions or guardians of values which are not in crisis or
have not been radically challenged. Where today is there any undisputed
authority? We used to be told: the pope, the bishop, the church says; or
the prime minister, the government, the party says; or the teacher, the
professor, 'your father' says. Where nowadays could we even settle a
discussion - let alone pacify a demonstration - with an appeal to such
authorities? No; the state, church, courts, army, school, family - all seem
to be insecure. They are no longer accepted without question - least of
all by young people - as guardians of values."1

The crisis of values seems to be inseparable from the crisis of traditional
religion. With the rise of Reason as an alternative to Faith, clearly
articulated during the European Enlightenment period, many sought to
found moral values on rational or empirical principles. This trend is
clearly evident in the philosophy of Hobbes, Hume and the Utilitarians.
The writer Udo Shaefer, summarizes the impact of these philosophies on
European moral values over the last two hundred years in the following
way:

"The crisis of Christianity and, in its wake, the crisis of morals has been
on the way for a long time, at least since the European Enlightenment,
the Copernican revolution of thought, which began in the 17th century
and molded the West. This new attitude was based on a belief in the
power of reason, on the conviction of the absolute certainty of rational
knowledge. Faith in the old presuppositions and authorities, for so long
considered valid beyond question, gave way to a spirit of criticism.

Hans Kung. Why I am still a Christian. T and T Clark Ltd., Edinburgh, 1987, p3.
The Human Spirit in Moral Education 57

Reason claimed to be autonomous and set itself up as the unique court of
appeal. The spirit of modernism, which made a method of doubt, has
profoundly changed the world. It was the ideal for man in his newly
attained independence and maturity to be liberated from prejudice and
preconceived ideas and at the same time to hold a commitment to
methodological discipline and absolute objectivity. This new way of
thought has laid the foundation of our scientific-technical civilization...
However, the spirit of modernism is also responsible for the deep crisis
of faith and, in its wake, the crisis of morals.'

Moral Philosophy in the 1900's

The moral confusion of our times, the undermining of spiritual values,
and particularly the decline in respect for moral authorities, has had a
profound effect on the moral training of children. The distinct
development of moral education in America since the 1960's has been
towards a more open process of reasoning and reflecting, away from the
authoritative "bag-of-virtues" approach. One of the models that was in
use in the 60's in America is called "values clarification" developed by
Carl Rogers(1965), Simon, Howe and Kirschenbaum (1972). Rogers
had, in the 50's, developed techniques in counseling that were non-
directive, non-judgmental, and client-centered and which became known
as humanistic psychology. These techniques were then introduced to
schools where students were treated as clients. Students were allowed to
discover their own values as long as they were comfortable with what
they chose. The emphasis is on skills and opportunities for the students
to reflect on inputs and come up with their own thought-out answers.
The aim was to help students identify their own values and those of
others using both rational thinking and emotional awareness.

Another model was developed by Lawrence Kohlberg (1984). In this
abstract-reflective approach, development of moral life results from
making the right choice after considering the consequences. The students
were urged to discuss the reasons for their value choices and to foster
change in the stages of reasoning. A hypothetical or factual value

Udo Shaefer. Ethic for a Global Society. The BaháT Studies Review 1994 London, pp.
50-51.
58 THE SINGAPORE BAHAT STUDIES REVIEW

dilemma would be presented to the class and would be discussed in small
groups.

Some have claimed that the main reason for the failure of these models
in moral education is the lack of adult guidance. William Kilpatrick
wrote: "decision-making curriculums pose thorny and ethical dilemmas
to students, leaving them with the impression that all morality is
problematic and all questions of right and wrong are in dispute.
Youngsters are forced to question values and virtues they've never
acquired in the first place or upon which they have only a tenuous
hold."3 He claimed that the actual result of these methods is moral
confusion.

Why had so much freedom been given to the students in moral
education? Kirschenbaum explained in his article in which he tried to
analyze the reasons for the failure of values clarification model:

"This immoderation was understandable. Louis Raths, the founder of
values clarification, went through his professional formative years in the
aftermath of World War II. He saw the excesses of fascism. He
witnessed the newsreel of entire cultures that so relinquished their ability
to choose freely and to defend their convictions publicly that they blindly
followed their leaders into a moral abyss that surpassed the imagination.
Then Raths and his students Harmin and Simon watched the United
States go through the dark days of McCarthyism, when thinking for
oneself and publicly expressing even the slightest dissent were
considered by many to be un-American. To these three educators, values
clarification- which emphasizes critical thinking, rational individual
choice, and public affirmation- seemed a sensible and essential remedy
against authoritarian leadership wherever it might appear. Suffice to say
for now that we were so passionate about the importance of giving young
people the skills necessary to make their own responsible decisions that
we overstated our case."4

Kilpatrick, William. Experiments in Moral Education. Talk given at the Seventh
International Congress of Professors World Peace Academy Washington, 1997.
Kirschenbbaum, Howard. A Comprehensive Model for Values Education and Moral
Education, Journal: Phi Delta Kappan, v.73 n.10 June 1992, pp. 77-176.
The Human Spirit in Moral Education 59

So after 30 years of experimenting with different models in moral
education in schools, there are still disagreements on the most
fundamental issues. Now in the 90's there is a revival of character
education by which "good character" is placed as the central desirable
outcome of the school's moral enterprise. There are core values which
can withstand the test of reversibility (Would you want to be treated this
way?) and universalizability (Would you want all persons to act this way
in a similar situation?). Lickona writes about these values:

"They define our responsibilities in a democracy, and they are
recognized by all civilized people and taught by all enlightened creeds.
Not to teach children these core values is a grave moral failure."5

The new character education in the US calls upon an individual teacher
to act as caregiver, model, and mentor. It asks of the school to create a
moral community, to enforce rules and to involve students in decision-
making thereby creating a democratic classroom environment. It
suggests teaching of values through curriculum and through moral
reflection.

In this respect, Kilpatrick talks about the power of aesthetics and
believes that good books should be included in the moral education
curriculum. He believes that people are convinced not by arguments, but
by the force of beauty. The right and rich source of beauty comes from
stories, images and memories that inspire the students to do the right
things.

Moral Education in Singapore

Moral Education has been a compulsory subject in schools since
Singapore attained self-government in 1959 and independence in 1965.
Not unlike many newly independent countries, Singapore too was
looking into the issues of curriculum content and the nature of moral
education.6

Lickona, Thomas, The Return of Character Education, Journal, Educational
Leadership, Vol.51 no.3 Nov. 1993, pp. 6-11.
J Chew Oon Ai, Civic and Moral Education in Singapore: Lessons for Citizenship
Education? Journal of Moral Education, 1998, Vol. 27 no. 4, pp. 504-524.
60 THE SINGAPORE BAHAT STUDIES REVIEW

Starting with the late 1950's, a programme of "Ethics" was introduced in
all primary and secondary schools with the objectives of inculcating
values and laying the foundation for character development. The aim
was to nurture the pupil into self-respecting and good citizens. Stories
were used in primary schools and proverbs and aphorisms were taught in
the secondary schools.

In the 60's, a programme of "Civics" replaced Ethics in upper primary
school and the content was geared towards nation building. It was
subsequently revised to introduce Asian values and culture in 1974, and
was re-named Education for Living (EFL). The new subject was an
integration of Civics, History and Geography and was taught in the
mother tongue (Mandarin, Malay or Tamil).

In 1979, the Ong Teng Cheong Report on Moral Education found that
Civics syllabus in secondary school as well as the EFL programme had
little content on moral values. Those that were dealt with were too
abstract and there were insufficient explanations on the moral and ethical
principles behind them. The Report recommended Civics and EFL be
replaced by Moral Education (ME) under three broad areas:

1) Personal Behaviour - habit formation and development of
character
2) Social Responsibility - sense of belonging to the community
and respect
for cultural heritage
3) Loyalty to the Country - love of country and spirit of nation
building.

Based on the Report, a common Moral Education syllabus for primary
one to secondary two was issued to schools in 1983 with "Being and
Becoming" Package for secondary and "Good Citizens" Package for
primary schools.

At upper secondary level, Religious Knowledge (RK) and Confucian
Ethics (CE) was introduced as a compulsory subject in 1984. The object
of teaching RK and CE was to anchor the values acquired from primary
one to secondary two through the teaching of one of the established
religions/ethical systems. However the introduction of RK and CE
proved to be controversial and was phased out in 1992.
The Human Spirit in Moral Education 61

Throughout the forty-odd years of implementing moral education in
schools, the main thrust has been citizenship training, incorporating
some moral development techniques such as values clarification into the
lessons, and lessons on social living such as social etiquette and boy-girl
relationships. With the introduction of the concept of National Education
in 1995 by the Prime Minister, Mr Goh Chok Tong , this trend seems set
to continue for many years to come.

Contributing Factors towards Limited Success of Moral
Education

Among contemporary works analyzing the shortcomings of various
moral education models in the US, the findings can be grouped under
three categories:

1. The Basic Flaws within the Models

The moral education of the 60's was concerned with ideas, with
intellectual skills, and with structures of thinking. There was
little attention to doing - to moral action or how one ought to
behave.

Winston Langley wrote:

"The approach (abstract reflective) tends to see moral education
and development as somewhat specialized rather than something
that is all-pervading, spreading and assimilated into all areas of
one's life. Second by virtue of its specialized and abstract nature,
the approach rarely induces one to see the relationship between
moral values and human condition. Indeed one can know very
well the formal ideals and rules and yet never understand their
application to ambient life."7

2. Whose Values Should We Teach?

Langley, Winston, Children, Moral Development, and Global Transformation, World
Order Magazine, Spring 1997, pp. 18-19.
62 THE SINGAPORE BAHA' I STUDIES REVIEW

In scientific and philosophical fields, values are not given the
same recognition as facts. Values are regarded as mere feelings
and not objective truths. Only facts, which can be scientifically
proven, are objective truths. As a result, moral values are
therefore relative truths, a matter of private and personal value
judgement. As a subject, moral education becomes more of
personal preference, as long as the reasoning power is cultivated
in the minds of the students.

The increasing secularization of the public arena is another
barrier to achieving the moral consensus indispensable for
character education in schools. Government schools retreated
from their once central role as moral and character educators.

3. The Constraint of Teachers

James Leming8 observed that teachers do not think of
themselves as moral educators. The education system requires
that teachers see themselves first as classroom managers. The
demands on teachers' time and energy are a very real problem
resulting in "burn-out" or cumulative fatigue. There is very little
passion left to teach moral values, which are considered
secondary in importance to academic subjects.

While these are very real problems and limitations, there are bigger
issues that contribute to the limited successful implementation of moral
education programmes.

The decline in moral discipline has to be looked upon as but one of the
many complex problems facing humanity, all of which are
interdependent. One of the main problems is the pattern of modern life
that is based on accumulation of material wealth. Schumacher
commented on the highest goals of the present generation :

"The development of production and acquisition of wealth have thus
become the highest goals of the modern world in relation to which all

Leming, James S., "Kholbergian Programmes in Moral Education: A Practical Review
& Assessment" in Lawrence Kholberg, Consensus and Controversy, Edited by Sohan
Modgil and Celia Modgil, Falmer Press, Philadelphia, 1986.
The Human Spirit in Moral Education 63

other goals, no matter how much lip service may still be paid to them,
have come to take second place. The highest goal require no
justification; all secondary goals have finally to justify themselves in
terms of the service their attainment renders to the attainment of the
highest. This is the philosophy of materialism, and it is this philosophy -
or metaphysics - which is now being challenged by events."9

Another worldwide trend that needs urgent address is the declining
influence of parents over their children. The present set-up of schools is
simply not equipped to take full responsibility in educating children, and
will not succeed until parents exercise their inescapable duty to educate
their children.

Human Spirit in Moral Education

Morality in the Baha'i Faith is not merely following a set of do's and
don'ts. Neither is it solely about the learning of virtues and values, both
of which are insufficient. It is based upon relationships between people
that necessitate moral behaviour and two powerful forces that can instill
these moral virtues and values, religion and world citizenship, are
presented here for discussion. They function in the domain of the human
spirit and are the foundation for a new morality in a broadened, universal
arena.

Religion as A Motivation Force

Teaching our children to differentiate right from wrong is not difficult.
The problem is the cultivation of the will to do the right thing. Even as
Confucius said of himself:

"Morality cannot be properly cultivated, learning cannot be deeply
pursued, words of wisdom cannot be put into practice, bad habits cannot
be changed - these are my greatest worries."

E.F. Schumacher, Small is Beautiful, Sphere Books, 1974, p. 246.
Confucius. Analects Chap 9 Verse 23. (Direct translation from Chinese text).
64 THE SINGAPORE BAHA' I STUDIES REVIEW

The current focus on moral education has been far removed from
religion. Yet again and again when the issue of universal values is
discussed, the recognised values such as justice, kindness, honesty and
integrity are found in the teachings of all religions. There is little doubt
that religion has the power to inspire scholars and the illiterate to a
higher level of sacrifice and altruistic love, a feat no secular learning can
match.

The Baha'i Faith regards religion as a means for man to establish an
authentic relationship with his Creator. In the process of knowing his
Creator and thereby learning to love Him, he is able to establish the right
relationship with his fellow men. Morality can then be firmly established
upon greater and greater understanding of God: sacrifices are evoked for
the love of God.

Fasting is a good example of sacrifice and self-discipline. Very few
people would go on a period of fasting even when it has been proven
medically to be beneficial to the body. Yet millions of religious
followers abide by this law every year without the need of any physical
justification. Many virtues are learnt in fasting: patience, moderation,
mindfulness of the less fortunate, self-discipline, a prayerful attitude and
humility. What lesson is more powerful than this?

On the enlightening and spiritualizing power of divine religions,
' Abdu'1-Bahá quoted the comment of Galen, a Greek philosopher, on the
early Christians:

"The generality of mankind are unable to grasp a sequence of logical
arguments. For this reason they stand in need of symbols and parables
telling of rewards and punishments in the next worlds. A confirmatory
evidence of this is that today we observe a people called Christians, who
believe devoutly in rewards and punishments in a future state. This group
shows forth excellent actions, similar to the actions of an individual who
is a true philosopher. For example, we all see with our own eyes that
they have no fear of death, and their passion for justice and fair-dealing
is so great that they should be considered true philosophers."11

'Abdu'1-Bahá. The Secret of Divine Civilization, Baha'i Publishing Trust, Wilmette,
1970, p. 84.
The Human Spirit in Moral Education 65

However, many religious teachings are now obscured by prejudices and
dogmas. One of the most dangerous of present day religious dogmas is
the prejudice that only one religion contains all truth, and the other
religions are false. The degeneration of true religion into a set of dogmas
has been the chief source of suffering. Religious followers were
persecuted and at times put to death for subscribing to differing views.
This frame of superiority and the desire to convert everyone else to the
sole truth was the beginning of cultural disharmony when the Western
powers expanded their influence and colonised the rest of the world.

While my proposition is to reintroduce religious teachings into the
school curriculum on moral education, we have to be selective by
excluding religious prejudices and concentrate on values that will
promote understanding and love between people of all races and creeds.
Religion has the force to empower man to rise above material pursuits. It
induces in the human spirit a higher aspiration, a motivation and will to
act beyond what he is normally asked for. To deprive our children of this
immense source of knowledge and inspiration is both a disservice to
them and to future generations.

World Citizenship

The idea that the next stage of man's social evolution is global unity is
not new. World consciousness has been expressed by poets, gurus,
saints, and many thoughtful men throughout history. It is not difficult to
see that the world has to function as one country as we witness economic
problems and environmental disasters that are global in scale and that are
becoming more acute with each passing day. World summits and
conferences have been called by world leaders from all nations to find
ways to combat these issues on a united front, and yet we are still
clinging to the age-old nationalistic, patriotic and racial loyalties that
divide the world.

On the subject of world education, Harold Taylor writes:

"In the most optimistic reading of contemporary history, we could now
say that we have reached a stage at which it has become necessary for
the educated man to extend the dimension of his loyalty to the entire
66 THE SINGAPORE BAHA' I STUDIES REVIEW

human race. The conception of education itself must now be one which
locates man intellectually in a universe described by scientists, artists,
and writers, and in a cultural setting as big as the globe. To enjoy any
longer the luxury of defining one's nation, one's society, or oneself in
terms of pride of ancestry, social superiority, or power of destruction is
not only supremely dangerous to the survival of the race, but
intellectually and socially obsolete."12

World education is not just about geography, different cultures and
lifestyles. It is about creating feelings of affection towards people of
different beliefs, cultures and races in a globalised world. Where love
and respect are shown only within limited sections of the community,
hostility and prejudice will breed and no amount of moral education can
transform prejudiced hearts.

Based on the Baha'i principle of the oneness of the human race, teaching
of world citizenship should cover those ethics that contribute to world
civilization. It should teach the principle of "unity in diversity" with a
common vision of world unity. Its promotion of the principle of oneness
of mankind will be a potent force against the tide of racism, prejudice
and violence to minorities. With this principle as the foundation, other
virtues such as co-operation, kindness, integrity and the rest will become
more meaningful in this period of the global maturity of man.
A new spirit has been infused by the teachings of Baha'u'llah, as
'Abdu'1-Bahá elaborated:

"In this age his holiness Baha'u'llah has breathed the holy spirit into the
dead body of the world; consequently every weak soul is strengthened by
these fresh divine out-breathings - every poor man will become rich,
every darkened soul will become illumined, every ignorant one will
become wise, because the confirmations of the holy spirit are descending
like torrents. A new era of divine consciousness is upon us. The world of
humanity is going through a process of transformation. A new race is
being developed. The thoughts of human brotherhood are permeating all

Taylor, Harold. The World as Teacher, Doubleday, New York, 1969, p. 3 quoted in
Gayle Morrison's Education for Worldmindedness, World Order Magazine, Summer
1972.
The Human Spirit in Moral Education 67

regions. New ideals are stirring the depths of hearts and a new spirit of
universal consciousness is profoundly felt by all men."13

Conclusion

At this juncture of human history, morality loses its meaning when it is
confined to a single race, group or nation. It actually becomes dangerous
and harmful to humanity as a whole. For moral education to succeed and
serve mankind, sweeping changes to the structure of society also has to
take place, for the school cannot effectively teach world citizenship
while the world is still in disarray and divided along racial and
ideological lines.

Throughout the history of man, the majority of immoral acts are
committed not by the ordinary folk, but by the people in authority. They
exploit, manipulate, persecute, and even put to death people who are
weaker and people who profess different beliefs to theirs, all in the name
of racial superiority, economic development and religion. It is no wonder
why many have looked away from religion as a legitimate source of
knowledge and inspiration. This is indeed the tragedy of mankind:
skepticism on one side and blind belief on the other. To construct a new
world civilization, moral education can play a part in offering the middle
path and promote the principle of the oneness of man and his share and
responsibility in a borderless world.

'Abdu'1-Bahá. Star of the West, Vol. VIII no. 1 (March 21, 1917) p. 16.
68 THE SINGAPORE BAHA' I STUDIES REVIEW

Works Cited

Rogers, Carl Ransom, Client-centered Therapy: Its Current Practice,
implications, and theory, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1965.

Simon, Sidney B., Howe, Leland W., & Kirschenbaum, Howard,
Values Clarification - A Handbook of Practical Strategies for Teachers
and Students, Hart Publishing Company, New York, 1972.

Kohlberg, Lawrence, Essays on Moral Development, Harper & Row,
San Francisco, 1984.

Lickona, Thomas, Education for Character, Bantam Books 1991 USA
& Canada. Tokyo, Japan: National Institute for Educational Research,
1990.
A New Decade of Moral Education: A Report of the Regional Workshop
pp. 104-109.

Kirschenbaum, Howard & Simon, Sidney, Readings in Values
Clarification, Winston Press, USA, 1993.

Wynne & Ryan, Reclaiming Our Schools: A Handbook on Teaching
Character,
Academics and Discipline, Prentice Hall, USA, 1997.

Choose a second text to read in parallel — a translation, or any other text.