Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Universal House of Justice, The Baha'i World: Volume 22 (1993-1994), Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1994, bahai-library.com.
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THE BAHA'i WORLD
1993-94

150 OF THE BAHA'i ERA
THR,
BAHA' I
WORLD
1993á94
AN
INTERNATIONAL RECORD

BAHA'I WORLD CENTRE
HAIFA
© 1994 World Centre Publications

Order department: 46 High Street
Kidlington
Oxford OX5 2DN
England

ISBN 0-85398-992-3 (Hardcover)
ISBN 0-85398-993-1 (Softcover)

A Cataloguing-in-Publication number
is available from the British Library.

THR /
BAHA' I
WORLD
1993o94

Printed at Alden Press Limited,
Oxford and Northampton, Great Britain
CoNTENTS

Introduction

INTRODUCTION TO THE BAHA'i COMMUNITY
The Faith ofBaha'u'lhih 7
The Ministry of Shoghi Effendi 15
The Baha'i Community Today 23

WRITINGS AND MESSAGES
Baha'i Sacred Writings 33
From the Universal House of Justice 39

EVENTS 1993-94
The Seventh International Baha'i Convention 51
Conference of Baha'i Counsellors 59
Mount Carmel Projects: Progress 1993-94 67
Year in Review 77
The Baha'i International Community: Activities 1993-94 131
Update: the Situation of the Baha'is in Iran 139
Murder of Three Baha'is in Ciskei 147
The Baha'i Faith in the Eyes of the World 151
ESSAYS AND STATEMENTS
World Watch, by Ann Boyles 171
The Kitab-i-Aqdas: The Causality Principle
in the World of Being, by WilliamS. Hatcher 189
Towards the Goal of Full Partnership:
One Hundred and Fifty Years of the Advancement
of Women, by Ann Boyles 237
A Baha'i Perspective on Issues of Concern to the
World's Aboriginal Peoples, based on a statement
by the Baha 'i Community of Canada 277
Statements by the Baha'i International Community:
• World Citizenship: A Global Ethic for Sustainable
Development 295
• The Family in a World Community 305
• Submissions to the United Nations World
Conference on Human Rights 311

INFORMATION AND RESOURCES
Obituaries 319
Statistics 323
Directory 327
Selected New Publications 333
A Basic Baha'i Reading List 337
Glossary 341
INTRODUCTION

T 'he Baha'i World 1993-94 is the second in the new series of
The Baha'i World volumes. The original series, created in
1925 by Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith,
appeared periodically and served as a public record of the Baha'i
world community's activities and achievements from 1925 to
1992. The new series, the first volume of which covered the
period of the second Baha'i Holy Year, 1992-93, will appear
annually, and while it will continue to provide a record of the
Baha'i community's current undertakings, it will also offer
readers general information on the Baha'i Faith, its concerns,
and its teachings.
The 1993-94 volume is divided into five major sections. In
the first section, 'Introduction to the Baha'i Community,' a trio
of statements and articles provides an overview of the Baha'i
Faith. The first, "The Faith of Baha'u'llah," was written by
Shoghi Effendi in 194 7 to explain the independent status of the
Faith to the Special Committee on Palestine. The second article,
"The Ministry of Shoghi Effendi," is excerpted from J. Douglas

THE BAHA'I WORLD

Martin's and William S. Hatcher's excellent textbook The
Baha'i Faith: The Emerging Global Religion, named by the
Encyclopedia Britannica as a 1986 book of the year in religion.
The third brief article, "The Baha'i Community Today," outlines
the current conditions, activities, and future prospects of the
followers ofBaha'u'llah around the world.
The second section, 'Writings and Messages,' includes a
selection from the sacred writings of the Baha'i Faith on the
themes of unity, interdependence, and peace, and an article highlighting the major messages of the Universal House of Justice
during the year under review.
The third section of the volume, 'Events 1993-94,' offers an
account of the Seventh International Baha'i Convention held in
Haifa, Israel, in April 1993 and the International Counsellors'
Conference held immediately following the Convention. The
"Year in Review" comprises a survey of the multifarious undertakings of Baha'i communities from Vanuatu to Ireland,
Argentina to Zaire, Siberia to Jamaica, while the article on the
work of the Baha'i International Community highlights the
efforts of the community to work through the United Nations to
voice its ideals on the international stage. Other pieces feature
an update on the situation of the Baha'is in Iran during 1993-94
and an account of the tragic deaths of three Baha'is in Ciskei last
March. Progress on the monumental construction projects
underway on Mount Carmel at the Baha'i World Centre in Haifa
is detailed, with photos of various elements of the developments.
A general survey of the print media's reportage of Baha'is'
activities around the world completes the roundup of current
events.
'Essays and Statements,' the volume's fourth major section,
opens with "World Watch," a commentary on current world
events and the theories that shape commonly held contemporary
worldviews. William S. Hatcher's article "The Kitab-i-Aqdas:
the Causality Principle in the World of Being" takes a philosophical approach to understanding Baha'u'llah's Most Holy
Book, the first authorized translation of which was released in
March 1993. Ann Boyles' essay "Towards the Goal of Full
Partnership : One Hundred and Fifty Years of the Advancement

INTRODUCTION

of Women" discusses the distinctive Baha'i perspective on the
issue of the equality of women and men and surveys a variety of
historical and current enterprises undertaken by the Baha'i
community to promote the achievement of full equality. It
provides timely background reading as the world prepares for
the upcoming United Nations Fourth World Conference on
Women, to be held in Beijing in September 1995.
A series of statements on topics central to events of 1993-94
completes this portion of the volume. First is an edited version
of a statement on aboriginal peoples prepared by the Baha'i
Community of Canada and presented to the Royal Commission
on Aboriginal Peoples in November 1993. Following are a
series of statements prepared by the Baha'i International
Community during 1993-94: the statement "World Citizenship:
A Global Ethic for Sustainable Development" was presented to
the first session of the United Nations Commission on
Sustainable Development in New York in June 1993; "The
Family in a World Community" was first distributed at the
World NGO Forum launching the International Year of the
Family in Malta in November-December 1993; the final three
statements, dealing with various human rights issues, were
delivered at the World Conference on Human Rights held in
Vienna in June 1993.
The final section, 'Information and Resources,' provides a
number of useful reference items: brief sketches of prominent
Baha'is who died during 1993-94; current statistics pertaining to
the development of the Baha'i world community; a directory of
Baha'i agencies around the globe; and an annotated list of
selected new publications from Baha'i publishers. Finally, at the
back of the book readers will find a list of introductory and basic
reference books on the Baha'i Faith pointing to further sources
for the interested reader. A glossary is also included to assist
those who may be unfamiliar with certain Baha'i terms used
throughout the volume.
The scope of the international Baha'i community's undertakings expands rapidly, year by year, and it is hoped that the
Baha'i World series will prove to be an effective means for
briefly documenting those undertakings and for acquainting the

THE BAHA:f WORLD

general public with the aims and concerns of Baha'is around the
world, whose ultimate goal is nothing less than the realization of
Baha'u'llah's statement: "The earth is but one country, and
mankind its citizens." An international yearbook such as The
Baha'i World shows how five million inhabitants of the globe
are working to make that vision a reality.

INTRODUCTION
TO THEBAHA'f
CoMMUNITY
This statement was originally prepared by
Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Baha'i
Faith, for presentation to the United Nations
Special Committee on Palestine in 1947.

THEFAITH OF
BAHA'U'LLAH

he Faith established by Baha'u'lhih was born in Persia about
T the middle of the nineteeth century and has, as a result of the
successive banishments of its Founder, culminating in His exile
to the Turkish penal colony of Acre, and His subsequent death
and burial in its vicinity, fixed its permanent spiritual center in
the Holy Land, and is now in the process of laying the foundations of its world administrative center in the city of Haifa.
Alike in the claims unequivocally asserted by its Author and
the general character of the growth of the Baha'i community in
every continent of the globe, it can be regarded in no other light
than a world religion, destined to evolve in the course of time
into a world-embracing commonwealth, whose advent must signalize the Golden Age of mankind, the age in which the unity of
the human race will have been unassailably established, its
maturity attained, and its glorious destiny unfolded through the
birth and efflorescence of a world-encompassing civilization.

Restatement of Eternal Verities
Though sprung from Shi'ah Ishim, and regarded, in the early
stages of its development, by the followers of both the Muslim
and Christian Faiths, as an obscure sect, an Asiatic cult or an
offshoot of the Mu}lammadan religion, this Faith is now
increasingly demonstrating its right to be recognized, not as one
more religious system superimposed on the conflicting creeds
which for so many generations have divided mankind and
darkened its fortunes, but rather as a restatement of the eternal
verities underlying all the religions of the past, as a unifying
force instilling into the adherents of these religions a new
spiritual vigor, infusing them with a new hope and love for
mankind, firing them with a new vision of the fundamental unity
of their religious doctrines, and unfolding to their eyes the
glorious destiny that awaits the human race.
The fundamental principle enunciated by Baha'u'lhih, the
followers of His Faith frrmly believe, is that religious truth is not
absolute but relative, that Divine Revelation is a continuous and
progressive process, that all the great religions of the world are
divine in origin, that their basic principles are in complete
harmony, that their aims and purposes are one and the same, that
their teachings are but facets of one truth, that their functions are
complementary, that they differ only in the non-essential aspects
of their doctrines, and that their missions represent successive
stages in the spiritual evolution of human society.

Fulfills Past Revelations
The aim of Baha'u'llah, the Prophet of this new and great age
which humanity has entered upon- He whose advent fulfills the
prophecies of the Old and New Testaments as well as those of
the Qur'an regarding the coming of the Promised One in the end
of time, on the Day of Judgment- is not to destroy but to fulfill
the Revelations of the past, to reconcile rather than accentuate
the divergencies of the conflicting creeds which disrupt presentday society.
His purpose, far from belittling the station of the Prophets
gone before Him or of whittling down their teachings, is to
restate the basic truths which these teachings enshrine in a

THE FAITH OF BAHA'U'LLAH

manner that would conform to the needs, and be in consonance
with the capacity, and be applicable to the problems, the ills and
perplexities, of the age in which we live. His mission is to
proclaim that the ages of the infancy and of the childhood of the
human race are past, that the convulsions associated with the
present stage of its adolescence are slowly and painfully
preparing it to attain the stage of manhood, and are heralding the
approach of that Age of Ages when swords will be beaten into
plowshares, when the Kingdom promised by Jesus Christ will
have been established, and the peace of the planet definitely and
permanently ensured. Nor does Baha'u'lhih claim fmality for
His own Revelation, but rather stipulates that a fuller measure of
the truth He has been commissioned by the Almighty to
vouchsafe to humanity, at so critical a juncture in its fortunes,
must needs be disclosed at future stages in the constant and
limitless evolution of mankind.

Oneness of the Human Race
The Baha'i Faith upholds the unity of God, recognizes the unity
of His Prophets, and inculcates the principle of the oneness and
wholeness of the entire human race. It proclaims the necessity
and the inevitability of the unification of mankind, asserts that it
is gradually approaching, and claims that nothing short of the
transmuting spirit of God, working through His chosen Mouthpiece in this day, can ultimately succeed in bringing it about. It,
moreover, enjoins upon its followers the primary duty of an
unfettered search after truth, condemns all manner of prejudice
and superstition, declares the purpose of religion to be the
promotion of amity and concord, proclaims its essential
harmony with science, and recognizes it as the foremost agency
for the pacification and the orderly progress of human society. It
unequivocally maintains the principle of equal rights, opportunities and privileges for men and women, insists on compulsory
education, eliminates extremes of poverty and wealth, abolishes
the institution of priesthood, prohibits slavery, asceticism, mendicancy and monasticism, prescribes monogamy, discourages
divorce, emphasizes the necessity of strict obedience to one's
government, exalts any work performed in the spirit of service

to the level of worship, urges either the creation or the selection
of an auxiliary international language, and delineates the
outlines of those institutions that must establish and perpetuate
the general peace of mankind.

The Herald
The Baha'i Faith revolves around three central Figures, the first
of whom was a youth, a native of Shiraz, named Mirza 'Ali-
Mul)ammad, known as the Bab (Gate), who in May, 1844, at the
age of twenty-five, advanced the claim of being the Herald Who,
according to the sacred Scriptures of previous Dispensations,
must needs announce and prepare the way for the advent of One
greater than Himself, Whose mission would be, according to
those same Scriptures, to inaugurate an era of righteousness and
peace, an era that would be hailed as the consummation of all
previous Dispensations, and initiate a new cycle in the religious
history of mankind. Swift and severe persecution, launched by
the organized forces of Church and State in His native land, precipitated successfully His arrest, His exile to the mountains of
Adhirbayj an, His imprisonment in the fortresses of Mah- Ku and
Chihriq, and His execution, in July, 1850, by a firing squad in
the public square of Tabriz. No less than twenty thousand of his
followers were put to death with such barbarous cruelty as to
evoke the warm sympathy and the unqualified admiration of a
number of Western writers, diplomats, travelers and scholars,
some of whom were witnesses of these abominable outrages,
and were moved to record them in their books and diaries.

Baha'u'llah
Mirza I:Iusayn- 'Ali, surnamed Baha'u'llah (the Glory of God), a
native of Mazindaran, Whose advent the Bab had foretold, was
assailed by those same forces of ignorance and fanaticism, was
imprisoned in Teheran, was banished, in 1852, from His native
land to Baghdad, and thence to Constantinople and Adrianople,
and finally to the prison city of Acre, where He remained incarcerated for no less than twenty-four years, and in whose
neighborhood He passed away in 1892. In the course of His
banishment, and particularly in Adrianople and Acre, He formulated the laws and ordinances of His Dispensation, expounded,

THE FAITH OF BAHA'U'LLAH

in over a hundred volumes, the principles of His Faith,
proclaimed His Message to the kings and rulers of both the East
and the West, both Christian and Muslim, addressed the Pope,
the Caliph of Islam, the Chief Magistrates of the Republics of
the American continent, the entire Christian sacerdotal order, the
leaders of Shi'ah and Sunni Islam, and the high priests of
the Zoroastrian religion. In these writings He proclaimed His
Revelation, summoned those whom He addressed to heed His
call and espouse His Faith, warned them of the consequences of
their refusal, and denounced, in some cases, their arrogance and
tyranny.

'Abdu 'l-Baha
His eldest son, 'Abbas Effendi, known as 'Abdu'l-Baha (the
Servant of Baha), appointed by Him as His lawful successor and
the authorized interpreter of His teachings, Who since early
childhood had been closely associated with His Father, and
shared His exile and tribulations, remained a prisoner until 1908,
when, as a result of the Young Turk Revolution, He was released
from His confmement. Establishing His residence in Haifa, He
embarked soon after on His three-year journey to Egypt, Europe
and North America, in the course of which He expounded before
vast audiences, the teachings of His Father and predicted the
approach of that catastrophe that was soon to befall mankind. He
returned to His home on the eve of the first World War, in the
course of which He was exposed to constant danger, until the
liberation of Palestine by the forces under the command of
General Allenby, who extended the utmost consideration to Him
and to the small band of His fellow-exiles in Acre and Haifa. In
1921 He passed away, and was buried in a vault in the
mausoleum erected on Mount Carmel, at the express instruction
ofBaha'u'llah, for the remains of the Bab, which had previously
been transferred from Tabriz to the Holy Land after having been
preserved and concealed for no less than sixty years.

Administrative Order
The passing of 'Abdu'l-Baha marked the termination of the first
and Heroic Age of the Baha'i Faith and signalized the opening
of the Formative Age destined to witness the gradual emergence

of its Administrative Order, whose establishment had been
foretold by the Bah, whose laws were revealed by Baha'u'llah,
whose outlines were delineated by 'Abdu'l-Baha in His Will and
Testament, and whose foundations are now being laid by the
national and local councils which are elected by the professed
adherents of the Faith, and which are paving the way for the
constitution of the World Council, to be designated as the
Universal House of Justice, which, in conjunction with me, as its
appointed Head and the authorized interpreter of the Baha'i
teachings, must coordinate and direct the affairs of the Baha'i
community, and whose seat will be permanently established in
the Holy Land, in close proximity to its world spiritual center,
the resting-places of its Founders.
The Administrative Order of the Faith of Baha'u'llah, which
is destined to evolve into the Baha'i World Commonwealth, and
has already survived the assaults launched against its institutions
by such formidable foes as the kings of the Qajar dynasty, the
Caliphs of Islam, the ecclesiastical leaders of Egypt, and the
Nazi regime in Germany, has already extended its ramifications
to every continent of the globe, stretching from Iceland to the
extremity of Chile, has been established in no less than eightyeight countries of the world, has gathered within its pale
representatives of no less than thirty-one races, numbers among
its supporters Christians of various denominations, Muslims of
both Sunni and Shi'ah sects, Jews, Hindus, Sikhs, Zoroastrians
and Buddhists. It has published and disseminated, through its
appointed agencies, Baha'i literature in forty-eight languages;
has already consolidated its structure through the incorporation of five National Assemblies and seventy-seven local
Assemblies, in lands as far apart as South America, India and the
Antipodes- incorporations that legally empower its elected
representatives to hold property as trustees of the Baha'i
community. It disposes of international, national and local
endowments, estimated at several million pounds, and spread
over every continent of the globe, enjoys in several countries the
privilege of official recognition by the civil authorities, enabling
it to secure exemption from taxation for its endowments and to
solemnize Baha'i marriage, and numbers among its stately

THE FAITH OF BAHA'U'LLAH

edifices, two temples, the one erected in Russian Turkistan and
the other on the shore of Lake Michigan at Wilmette, on the
outskirts of Chicago. 1
This Administrative Order, unlike the systems evolved after
the death of the Founders of the various religions, is divine in
origin, rests securely on the laws, the precepts, the ordinances
and institutions which the Founder of the Faith has Himself specifically laid down and unequivocally established, and functions
in strict accordance with the interpretations of the authorized
Interpreters of its holy scriptures. Though fiercely assailed, ever
since its inception, it has, by virtue of its character, unique in the
annals of the world's religious history, succeeded in maintaining
the unity of the diversified and far-flung body of its supporters,
and enabled them to launch, unitedly and systematically,
enterprises in both Hemispheres, designed to extend its limits
and consolidate its administrative institutions.
The Faith which this order serves, safeguards and promotes,
is, it should be noted in this connection, essentially supernatural,
supranational, entirely non-political, non-partisan, and diametrically opposed to any policy or school of thought that seeks to
exalt any particular race, class or nation. It is free from any form
of ecclesiasticism, has neither priesthood nor rituals, and is
supported exclusively by voluntary contributions made by its
avowed adherents. Though loyal to their respective governments, though imbued with the love of their own country, and
anxious to promote at all times, its best interests, the followers
of the Baha'i Faith, nevertheless, viewing mankind as one entity,
and profoundly attached to its vital interests, will not hesitate to
subordinate every particular interest, be it personal, regional or
national, to the over-riding interests of the generality of
mankind, knowing full well that in a world of interdependent

1. By 1993, the Baha'i Faith was established in 188 independent countries
and 45 dependent territories or overseas departments, with a total of 165
National or Regional Assemblies. Literature had been published in more than
800 languages and dialects. There are Baha'i Houses of Worship in Australia,
Germany, India, Panama, Uganda, the United States and Western Samoa, and
lands have been purchased for at least an additional 112 Temples.

peoples and nations the advantage of the part is best to be
reached by the advantage of the whole, and that no lasting result
can be achieved by any of the component parts if the general
interests of the entity itself are neglected.
Nor should the fact be overlooked that the Faith has already
asserted and demonstrated its independent religious character,
has been emancipated from the fetters of orthodoxy in certain
Ishimic countries, has obtained in one of them an unsolicited
testimony to its independent religious status, and succeeded in
winning the allegiance of royalty to its cause ....

The following is an extract from William S.
Hatcher and J Douglas Martin, The Baha'i
Faith: The Emerging Global Religion
(Harper and Row, 1985), 64-72.

THE
MINISTRY
OFSHOGHI
EFFENDI
1921- 1957

T he period between 1921 and 1963 in Baha'i history is
most readily accessible through consideration of the major
projects undertaken by Shoghi Effendi in the execution of his
role as Guardian. Four areas of activity particularly stand out:
the development of the Baha'i World Centre, the translation and
interpretation of Baha'i teachings, the expansion of the administrative order, and the implementation of the divine plan of
'Abdu'l-Baha.
Immediately after assuming his responsibilities, and continuing throughout his life, Shoghi Effendi devoted a great deal of
time to the physical development of the Faith's international
headquarters in the area surrounding the Bay of Haifa. During
the lifetimes of Baha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha, several parcels
of land had been gradually acquired by the community of exiles.
Of these, the two most important were the site of the shrine
where the body of Baha'u'llah was interred (in the vicinity of
the mansion ofBahjijust outside Acre), and the site of the shrine
on the side of Mount Carmel above the city of Haifa which

contained the remains of the Bah. Through the generosity of
individual Baha'is, bequests, and responses to special appeals by
Shoghi Effendi, these properties were vastly increased during
the Guardian's ministry. Magnificent gardens were laid out, the
first of a number of monumental buildings were erected, and a
master plan was created for the development of a spiritual center
and administrative complex that would meet the needs of a
rapidly growing international community and which would be
able to expand with it, a complex designed to rank among the
most beautiful in the world. A widely dispersed religious community was thus provided with a center of pilgrimage and
guidance that would greatly contribute to creating a sense of
common identity.
High on the list of priorities of any religious system must be
the determination of the canon of its scripture and the application of these sacred writings to the circumstances of individual
and community life. Empowered by 'Abdu'l-Baha's Will as the
sole authoritative interpreter of the Baha'i writings, Shoghi
Effendi interpreted world events in the light of the Baha'i scriptures and shared with the Baha'i community the results of these
analyses in the form of lengthy letters to the Baha'i world.
At the same time, the nascent Baha'i communities around the
world were deluging Haifa with questions on an enormous range
of subjects in the Baha'i writings, and the Guardian's answers to
these inquiries also formed a significant portion of the interpretation of the revelation ofBaha'u'llah. In the early 1940s Shoghi
Effendi focused his analytical attention on the events of Baha'i
history; and in 1944, in commemoration of the centenary of the
declaration of the Bah, he produced a highly detailed study
covering the entire century from the Bah's first announcement of
his mission to Mulla I:Iusayn to the completion of the frrst
"Seven Year Plan."
Shoghi Effendi's program to interpret the Baha'i writings was
considerably aided by the fact that he was in a position to serve
as the principal translator of the writings from Persian and
Arabic into English. He had studied English from early
childhood and as a young man was able to continue his studies at
the American University of Beirut and subsequently at Oxford

THE MINISTRY OF 8fiOGHI EFFENDI

University, where he remained until the time of' Abdu'l-Baha's
death in 1921. Since the major administrative bodies of the
Baha'i Faith during the first critical decades of the Guardianship
were located in English-speaking countries, Shoghi Effendi's
ability to express and interpret Baha'i concepts in the English
language provided an invaluable source of guidance to the new
faith in the Western world.
His role as an interpreter was also of long-range importance
to the development of the Baha'i community. It assured unity of
doctrine during the early years of the faith's global expansion
and thus greatly reduced the threat of schism.
Parallel with his translation activities and the development of
the World Centre of the faith, Shoghi Effendi devoted much of
his energies to bringing into existence the system of administrative institutions as they had been conceived by Baha'u'llah and
established in embryonic form by 'Abdu'l-Baha. Each locality
with nine or more adult believers was encouraged to elect a
"Local Spiritual Assembly" to govern the affairs of the faith in
that area. As soon as the number of local spiritual assemblies in
any given country provided a sufficiently broad base, the
Guardian urged the election of a national spiritual assembly,
vested with full jurisdiction over the affairs of the faith in that
particular country.
A steady stream of correspondence from Haifa provided
these nascent institutions with guidance concerning the application of the Baha'i writings to the conduct of community life.
More general communications urged all believers to give their
wholehearted support and obedience to the bodies they elected.
Baha'i principles of consultation were identified and assemblies
were urged to conscientiously train themselves in group
decision-making.
In accordance with 'Abdu'l-Baha's Will, between the years
1951 and 1957, the Guardian appointed a number of distinguished believers as Hands of the Cause of God and charged
them with special responsibilities for teaching the faith and
protecting its institutions. The crowning unit of this global
administrative structure was the institution of the Universal
House of Justice, conceived and named by Baha'u'llah. Shoghi

Effendi indicated that, as soon as the expansion of the Baha'i
community permitted, a Universal House of Justice would be
elected by the entire international Baha'i community, acting
through their national spiritual assemblies.

Shoghi Effendi's reasons for devoting so much time and
energy to the development of the Baha'i administrative order
during the first years of his guardianship soon became apparent.
The administrative institutions of the faith provided the
necessary instruments for the implementation of 'Abdu'l-Baha's
"Divine Plan" to spread the message around the world. Before
the widely scattered community could undertake so great a task,
it was necessary to establish decision-making administrative
bodies capable of mobilizing the necessary manpower and
resources. Moreover, it was essential that adequate time be
allowed for these institutions to learn the rudiments of Baha'i
administration and consultation.
Accordingly, it was not until 193 7, sixteen years after the
death of 'Abdu'l-Baha, that Shoghi Effendi began systematically working on realizing the objectives laid out in the series of
letters sent by 'Abdu'l-Baha to the Baha'is of North America. In
April 1937 the first seven-year plan was launched with three
major goals: (1) to establish at least one local spiritual assembly
in every state of the United States and every province of Canada;
(2) to make certain that at least one Baha'i teacher was residing
in each Latin American republic; and (3) to complete the
exterior design of the first Baha'i house of worship in North
America- a building whose cornerstone had been laid by
'Abdu'l-Baha during his visit in 1912, and which, in many
ways, symbolized the international Baha'i community itself.
Despite the obstacles created by the outbreak of World War II,
this plan was successfully completed on the centenary of the
declaration of the Bah, in May 1944.
Following a two-year interval, a second seven-year plan was
launched in 1946. The focus of this effort was Europe, which at
the time had only two national spiritual assemblies: those of
Great Britain and Germany. The plan also called for the creation

THE MINISTRY OF SHOGHI EFFENDI

of local spiritual assemblies throughout Latin America and a
great multiplication of those in North America. The successful
conclusion of this plan likewise coincided with a major Baha'i
centenary, the one-hundredth anniversary of the inception of
Baha'u'llah's mission in the Siyah-Chal in 1953. One of the
major goals of this seven-year plan was the establishment of an
independent national spiritual assembly in Canada. This was
achieved in 1948, and in 1949 was followed by its incorporation
by a special Act of Parliament, an achievement which Shoghi
Effendi pointed out was "unique in the annals of the Faith,
whether of East or West."
The two most impressive single achievements of this second
plan had a special connection with the North American Baha'i
community. April 1953 marked the formal dedication of the
house of worship at Wilmette, Illinois, which was to be the first
of similar structures to be built on all five continents of the
globe. The designer was a French-Canadian architect named
Jean-Louis Bourgeois. His magnificent conception was hailed
by the Italian architect Luigi Quaglino as "a new creation which
will revolutionize architecture in the world. Without doubt," he
added, "it will have a lasting page in history." One other major
triumph of these years was also a building, a magnificent shrine
to crown the stone edifice built by 'Abdu'l-Baha to serve as a
mausoleum for the Bab. The architect of this shrine was another
Canadian, William Sutherland Maxwell, with whom 'Abdu'l-
Baha had stayed during his visit to Montreal. The exquisite
design, in which a golden dome crowns a white marble arcade
and rose-colored granite pillars, has provided the Baha'i World
Centre on Mount Carmel with one of the most beautiful
landmarks on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea.
In 1953, without any lapse of time, Shoghi Effendi launched
the Baha'i community on the most ambitious undertaking in its
history- a global plan which he termed a "Ten Year World
Crusade." This plan would conclude in 1963, the centenary of
the declaration of Baha'u'llah in the Garden of Ri<;lvan. One
hundred and thirty-two new countries and major territories
were to be opened to the faith and the existing communities in
120 countries and territories were to be expanded. National

spiritual assemblies were to be established in most countries in
Europe and Latin America, and vast increases were called for in
the numbers of assemblies, believers, and property endowments. This plan, like those before, was achieved on schedule
(indeed was far exceeded); but under circumstances very different from any the Baha'i community might have anticipated.
In early November 1957, while on a visit to England to
purchase furnishings for the Baha'i archives building on Mount
Carmel, Shoghi Effendi contracted Asian flu. On November 4,
he died of a heart attack, leaving the Baha'i world stunned and
temporarily distracted, its ten-year plan only half completed.
The Guardianship was theoretically a continuous one.
'Abdu'l-Baha's Will and Testament authorized the Guardian of
the Baha'i Faith to appoint a successor from among the direct
descendants of Baha'u'llah but indicated certain qualities such
a successor must possess. Shoghi Effendi died without
designating a successor, as apparently no other members of the
family met the demanding spiritual requirements laid down in
the Covenant of Baha'u'llah and in The Will and Testament of
'Abdu '1-Baha. There would, therefore, be no second Guardian;
the only other institution endowed with the authority to assume
the leadership of the Baha'i community was the Universal
House of Justice- a body which had yet to be elected.
Three interrelated factors provided an answer to the dilemma
facing the Baha'i world: (1) from statements Shoghi Effendi had
made, it was apparent that he considered that conditions would
be ready for the election of the Universal House of Justice when
the ten-year plan was successfully completed; (2) in the
meantime, the Baha'i community would receive the basic
guidance it required from the detailed plan already laid down by
Shoghi Effendi; and (3) fmally, in one of his last messages to the
Baha'i world, he had named the Hands of the Cause as the
"Chief Stewards" of the faith and called on them to collaborate
closely with the national spiritual assemblies in assuring that the
ten-year plan was carried out and that the unity of the faith was
protected.
Heartened by this last message, the Hands of the Cause
organized their work around a series of annual "Conclaves."

THE MINISTRY OF SHOGHI EFFENDI

These consultations produced a number of major statements,
including the formal declaration that Shoghi Effendi had left no
will and had appointed no heir to the Guardianship (Conclave of
1957), and the announcement that the Universal House of
Justice would be elected by the membership of all the national
spiritual assemblies of the Baha'is of the world in 1963
(Conclave of 1959).
By April 1961 twenty-one new national spiritual assemblies
were established in Latin America; and, a year later, an
additional eleven were elected in Europe. The remaining goals
of the ten-year plan were likewise either accomplished or
surpassed. In the spring of 1963, precisely one hundred years
after Baha'u'llah first declared his mission to a handful of
followers in the Garden of Ri<;lvan, the members of the fiftysix elected national spiritual assemblies around the world carried
out an election of the first Universal House of Justice. In a
remarkable gesture of renunciation, the Hands of the Cause disqualified themselves from serving as elected members of the
supreme administrative institution of the Baha'i community.
For Baha'is, the election of the first Universal House of
Justice represented an event of transcendent importance. After
more than a century of struggle, persecution, and recurrent
internal crises, and through democratic electoral processes, the
Baha'i community had succeeded in bringing into existence a
permanent institution for the guidance of all the affairs of the
faith. Moreover, its establishment had been conceived by
Baha'u'llah himself and was patterned on principles laid down
in his writings and in those of 'Abdu'l-Baha. The cosmopolitan
membership of the ftrst Universal House of Justice seemed particularly appropriate to the institution's nature and functions: the
nine members from four continents represented three major religious backgrounds (Jewish, Christian, and Muslim) as well as
several ethnic origins.
Beyond its institutional importance, the establishment of the
Universal House of Justice symbolized the element which
Baha'is regard as the essence of their faith: unity. The
emergence of the Universal House of Justice as the unchallenged authority in all the affairs of the community meant that

THE BAHA:f WORLD

the Baha'i Faith had remained united through the most critical
period of a religion's history, the vulnerable first century during
which schism almost traditionally takes root.

THEBAHA'f
CoMMUNITY
TODAY

I n the thirty-one years since the election of the Universal
House of Justice, the growth of the Baha'i community has
been dramatic. From a membership of an estimated 408,000 in
1963, the number of believers has now risen to some five
million. During the same period the number of National and
Regional Spiritual Assemblies has grown from 56 to 165 and
the number of Local Spiritual Assemblies from 3,555 to approximately 18,000. Altogether, it is estimated that at least 2,112
different ethnic and tribal backgrounds are represented, and the
literature of the Faith appears in over 800 different languages.
Statistics published by the Encyclopedia Britannica and the
World Christian Encyclopedia indicate that, with its diffusion to
205 countries, the Baha'i Faith is now the second most
widespread of the world's religions, exceeded only by Christianity. 1 These figures, the product of a conservative statistical

1. Encyclopedia Britannica, 1992; World Christian Encyclopedia, 1982.

methodology, indicate that the Baha'i community likely ranks as
the most diverse organized body of people on the planet today.
That a relatively small religious community should have
experienced such growth in both numbers and diversity at so
early a stage in its history is an extraordinary accomplishment.
The same may be said of the community's success in establishing its credentials in the eyes of civil authority. Far from
rejecting the world and the institutions that govern it, the Baha'i
community has deliberately pursued a close relationship with
civil authority, as an integral part of its development. Through
continuous efforts in a series of global development plans,
Baha'i Spiritual Assemblies at both local and national levels
have become legally incorporated in the great majority of the
territories where the Faith has been established. Similarly, the
Faith's marriage ceremony has secured formal recognition in a
great many civil jurisdictions and, in various parts of the world,
Baha'i holy days are beginning to gain a status similar to that
accorded to other independent faiths in the calendars of
businesses, schools, and government offices.
At the United Nations, the Baha'i International Community
has steadily expanded the recognition accorded to it as an
international non-governmental organization (NGO) enjoying
consultative status with the Economic and Social Council
(ECOSOC). It has been particularly active in the fields of
human rights, the needs of women and children, environmental
concerns, and the pursuit of sound sustainable development
policies. Its international efforts in these areas are coordinated
by various specialized agencies, the United Nations Office, the
Office of Public Information, the Office of the Environment, and
the Office for the Advancement of Women.
Far from acting merely as another international lobbying
group focused principally in New York and Geneva, however,
the Baha'i International Community represents an association of
democratically elected national and local councils united in their
beliefs and goals, and reflective of the entire diversity of
humankind. The community's efforts in the United Nations
system have gained not only a forum for the Baha'i Faith's
universal ideals, but also an opportunity to contribute directly to
laying the foundations of international order. Much attention is

THE BAHA'I COMMUNITY TODAY

given by Baha'is to ensuring that, to the extent circumstances in
various regions permit, society in general is made aware of the
existence of the Faith and its teachings. Publishing trusts print
and distribute a great variety of Baha'i literature, ranging from
compilations of the writings of the Central Figures of the Faith,
to scholarly commentaries, popular books, newsletters, and
magazines. Other media are also extensively utilized: films,
videos, television programs, spot announcements, radio broadcasts, newspaper articles and advertisements, pamphlets, posters
and manuals, correspondence courses, exhibitions, lecture
series, and winter and summer schools. The objective of all this
activity has been to ensure that, in time, every human being on
earth will come in contact with the message ofBaha'u'llah.
A Baha'i institution that has figured prominently in this
program of public education is the House of Worship. Today
there are Baha'i Houses of Worship on every continent, and a
great many additional sites have been purchased around the
world for future construction of these edifices, which are
intended to play a central role in Baha'i community life. Around
each, in time, will be constructed other institutions, such as
schools or colleges, hostels, homes for the aged, and administrative centers. At the present time the Houses of Worship are not
used principally for Baha'i community services. Rather, they are
open as places for persons of all religious backgrounds (or those
professing no particular faith) to meet in the worship of the one
God. Services are non-denominational and consist of readings
and prayers from the scriptures of the world's faiths, with no
sermons or other attempts to cast these teachings in a mold of
specifically Baha'i interpretation. The only requisite architectural feature of a House of Worship is that it have nine sides,
symbolic of completeness and comprehensiveness, as nine is the
highest single number.
The expansion of the Faith proceeds, as was the pattern established under the ministry of Shoghi Effendi, through a series of
international teaching plans. Increasingly, however, as the
national and local institutions of the Faith have matured and
become consolidated, the plans have been set in terms of general
objectives decided on by the Universal House of Justice, with
the details being established by the National Spiritual Ass em-

THE BAHA'I WORLD

blies themselves, in consultation with the Continental Boards of
Counsellors. A Six Year Teaching Plan, the fourth Plan undertaken since the election of the Universal House of Justice in
1963, was successfully concluded at Ri<;lvan 1992. Following
the Holy Year (1992-93), the Baha'i community embarked on a
Three Year Plan. An analysis of the achievements of the Six
Year Plan indicates that growth has been particularly rapid in
India, Russia, and several former Eastern Bloc countries, as well
as such far-flung countries as Bangladesh, Brazil, Chad,
Guyana, Haiti, Kenya, Macau, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New
Guinea, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Zaire.
By far the most dramatic feature of the recent expansion has
been the extraordinary response to the Faith by the peoples of
Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, following the
collapse of the barriers that had long prevented free intercourse
with the populations of these lands. National or Regional
Spiritual Assemblies were established in Czechoslovakia,
Romania, and the entire former USSR in 1991. In 1992,
National or Regional Assemblies were established in Albania;
Azerbaijan; the Baltic States; Central Asia; Hungary; Poland;
Russia, Georgia, and Armenia; and the Ukraine, Belarus, and
Moldova. The rapid expansion in the numbers of Local Spiritual
Assemblies throughout Central Asia led to the announcement by
the Universal House of Justice that at Ri<;lvan 1994 five
new National Assemblies would be established in the region
formerly under the jurisdiction of the one Regional Assembly.
Preparations were made for the Regional Spiritual Assembly of
Central Asia to be renamed the National Spiritual Assembly of
Turkmenistan and for four new National Spiritual Assemblies to
be established in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and
Uzbekistan. The Universal House of Justice also indicated that a
new Regional Spiritual Assembly would be formed in Slovenia
and Croatia and new National Spiritual Assemblies in Cambodia
and Mongolia.
A development which has given enormous impetus to the
expansion and consolidation of the Faith in the past decade has
been the intensification of its persecution in the country of its
birth. Throughout the last century the Baha'is of Iran were the

THE BAHA.'f COMMUNITY TODAY

object of bitter attacks by elements among the Muslim majority
incited and led by Islamic clerics. Under the Pahlavi Shahs
(1925-1979), this long-standing prejudice against the Faith on
the part of segments of the Muslim population was harnessed to
political ends, with the Baha'i minority serving to distract public
attention from various unpopular policies of the regime. With
the triumph of the Islamic Revolution in 1979, efforts at the total
suppression of the minority Faith became systematized. By 1993
more than two hundred Baha'is had been executed or assassinated, hundreds more had been imprisoned, and tens of
thousands had been deprived of jobs, pensions, businesses, and
educational opportunities. All national Baha'i administrative
structures had been banned by the government, and holy places,
shrines, and cemeteries had been confiscated, vandalized, and
destroyed.
Aroused by this deliberate attempt to destroy their parent
community, Baha'is around the world launched an intensive
campaign of protest. Many thousands of newspaper articles
appeared, and the situation was made the subject of countless
television and radio stories. Several national governments and
legislatures condemned the actions of the Iranian government or
expressed concern about the fate of the Iranian Baha'is. Most
important, in a series of resolutions that gave specific attention
to the Baha'i situation, the United Nations Commission on
Human Rights and fmally the General Assembly itself began to
press the Iranian regime to observe the international human
rights covenants to which it was committed. In response to this
international outcry, the ámost violent aspects of the persecution
gradually abated by the early 1990s. However, the Baha'is of
Iran remain without any fundamental guarantee of their rights to
practice their religion freely, and the efforts of their co-religionists around the world to maintain pressure for the emancipation
continues. 2

2. See "Update: The Situation of the Baha'is in Iran," pp. 139-145 of this
volume, as well as pp. 132-134, concerning the activities of the Baha'i International Community at the United Nations with regard to the human rights
situation in Iran.

As has so often been the case throughout religious history, the
persecution had effects almost precisely contrary to those
intended. The worldwide attention given to efforts to alleviate
the suffering of the victims entailed a massive education of
government officials, academics, the media, and the general
public in many lands about the nature of the Baha'i Faith and
its aims and teachings. The very nature of the issues involved
has tended to throw into clear relief the peaceful and progressive
character of the Baha'i community. It is hardly surprising that so
dramatic an increase in public awareness coincided with a great
increase in the membership of the Faith. Moreover, the
experience of arising together to defend their fellow believers
against an unprovoked assault had a powerful consolidating
effect on the Faith's highly diverse membership around the
world, deepening members' understanding of th~ implications
of their beliefs and providing Baha'i institutions with an unparalleled experience in coordinating their efforts.
Throughout these same years the education of the community
advanced greatly through a series of messages drafted by the
Universal House of Justice and published in many languages.
Particularly important was The Promise of World Peace, a
twenty-one page document issued in the fall of 1985, which
analyzed the reasons that world peace has for so long been
considered unattainable and declared that these barriers could at
last be overcome. The effect of this message, published in over a
million copies and distributed to leaders of thought, government
bodies, and the media, was to provide the members of the Baha'i
Faith with the conceptual framework for a program of collaborative action with a wide range of like-minded organizations.
The keynote, the message declares, is the coming of age of
humankind:

A candid acknowledgment that prejudice, war and
exploitation have been the expression of immature stages in
a vast historical process and that the human race is today
experiencing the unavoidable tumult which marks its
collective coming of age is not a reason for despair but a
prerequisite to undertaking the stupendous enterprise of
building a peaceful world. That such an enterprise is

THE BAHA'i COMMUNITY TODAY

possible, that the necessary constructive forces do exist, that
unifying social structures can be erected, is the theme we
urge you to examine. 3

As the Faith's teachings became even more widely known,
the Universal House of Justice decided that the time had come
for the public presentation of the Baha'i message to focus much
more directly on its Author. Accordingly, on 3 April 1991, it
forwarded to National Assemblies a statement prepared by the
Baha'i International Community's Office of Public Information,
entitled Baha 'u 'llah. Published, like the statement on peace, in
many languages and large print runs, the document was also
made the centerpiece of an intensive campaign of public
information. Its objective was to set Baha'u'llah's mission in the
context of the global crisis that had, by the closing decade of the
century, become a commonplace of public discussion:

As the new millennium approaches, the crucial need of
the human race is to find a unifying vision of the nature of
man and society ... For, without a common conviction about
the course and direction of human history, it is inconceivable
that foundations can be laid for a global society to which the
mass of humankind can commit themselves.
Such a vision unfolds in the writings of Baha'u'lhih, the
nineteenth-century prophetic figure whose growing influence
is the most remarkable development of contemporary
religious history ... The phenomenon is one that has no
reference points in the contemporary world, but is associated
rather with climactic changes of direction in the collective
past of the human race. For Baha'u'llah claimed to be no less
than the Messenger of God to the age of human maturity ....4

As the Baha'i community commemorated the centenary of
Baha'u'llah's passing in 1992, His message was seen to have
taken visible shape in a community that represents a microcosm

3. The Universal House of Justice, The Promise of World Peace (Haifa:
World Centre Publications, 1985), 3-4.
4. Baha'i International Community, Office of Public Information,
Baha 'u 'l!ah (London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1991), 1-2.

of the human race itself and is established in every comer of the
globe. The network of administrative institutions conceived by
the Founder is now in place throughout the planet. His teachings,
translated into many languages, now provide the central spiritual
guidance in the lives of its heterogeneous membership. In the
decades immediately ahead, the existence of such a community
will offer increasingly encouraging evidence that humanity, in all
its diversity, can learn to live and work as a single people in a
global homeland.

- á - -- -
!
BAHA'i
SACRED
WRITINGS

Writings of Baha 'u 'llah

T he purpose underlying the revelation of every heavenly
Book, nay, of every divinely-revealed verse, is to endue all
men with righteousness and understanding, so that peace and
tranquillity may be firmly established amongst them. Whatsoever instilleth assurance into the hearts of inen, whatsoever
exalteth their station or promoteth their contentment, is
acceptable in the sight of God. How lofty is the station which
man, if he but choose to fulfill his high destiny, can attain! To
what depths of degradation he can sink, depths which the
meanest of creatures have never reached! Seize, 0 friends, the
chance which this Day offereth you, and deprive not yourselves of the liberal effusions of His grace. I beseech God that
He may graciously enable every one of you to adorn himself, in
this blessed Day, with the ornament of pure and holy deeds.
He, verily, doeth whatsoever He willeth.

0 ye that dwell on earth! The distinguishing feature that
marketh the pre-eminent character of this Supreme Revelation
consisteth in that We have, on the one hand, blotted out from the
pages of God's holy Book whatsoever hath been the cause of
strife, of malice and mischief amongst the children of men, and
have, on the other, laid down the essential prerequisites of
concord, of understanding, of complete and enduring unity.
Well is it with them that keep My statutes .

. . .The well-being of mankind, its peace and security, are
unattainable unless and until its unity is firmly established. This
unity can never be achieved so long as the counsels which the
Pen of the Most High hath revealed are suffered to pass
unheeded.
Through the power of the words He hath uttered the whole of
the human race can be illumined with the light of unity, and the
remembrance of His Name is able to set on fire the hearts of all
men, and bum away the veils that intervene between them and
His glory. One righteous act is endowed with a potency that can
so elevate the dust as to cause it to pass beyond the heaven of
heavens. It can tear every bond asunder, and hath the power to
restore the force that hath spent itself and vanished ....

The utterance of God is a lamp, whose light is these words:
Ye are the fruits of one tree, and the leaves of one branch. Deal
ye one with another with the utmost love and harmony, with
friendliness and fellowship. He Who is the Day Star of Truth
beareth Me witness! So powerful is the light of unity that it can
illuminate the whole earth. The one true God, He Who knoweth
all things, Himself testifieth to the truth of these words .

. . .The light of men is Justice. Quench it not with the contrary
winds of oppression and tyranny. The purpose of justice is the
appearance of unity among men. The ocean of divine wisdom
surgeth within this exalted word, while the books of the world

BAHA'i SACRED WRITINGS

cannot contain its inner significance .... Appreciate ye the value
of this utterance; it is a noble fruit that the Tree of the Pen of
Glory hath yielded. Happy is the man that giveth ear unto it and
observeth its precepts. Verily I say, whatever is sent down from
the heaven of the Will of God is the means for the establishment
of order in the world and the instrument for promoting unity and
fellowship among its peoples .

. . .0 well-beloved ones! The tabernacle of unity hath been
raised; regard ye not one another as strangers. Ye are the fruits
of one tree, and the leaves of one branch. We cherish the hope
that the light of justice may shine upon the world and sanctify it
from tyranny. If the rulers and kings of the earth, the symbols of
the power of God, exalted be His glory, arise and resolve to
dedicate themselves to whatever will promote the highest interests of the whole of humanity, the reign of justice will assuredly
be established amongst the children of men, and the effulgence
of its light will envelop the whole earth.

This is -the Day in which God's most excellent favors have
been poured out upon men, the Day in which His most mighty
grace hath been infused into all created things. It is incumbent
upon all the peoples of the world to reconcile their differences,
and, with perfect unity and peace, abide beneath the shadow of
the Tree of His care and loving-kindness. It behoveth them
to cleave to whatsoever will, in this Day, be conducive to the
exaltation of their stations, and to the promotion of their best
interests. Happy are those whom the all-glorious Pen was
moved to remember, and blessed are those men whose names,
by virtue of Our inscrutable decree, We have preferred to
conceal.
Beseech ye the one true God to grant that all men may be graciously assisted to fulfil that which is acceptable in Our sight.
Soon will the present-day order be rolled up, and a new one
spread out in its stead. Verily, thy Lord speaketh the truth, and is
the Knower of things unseen.

THE BAHA:f WORLD

Writings and Utterances of 'Abdu '1-Bahti

F or thousands of years the human race has been at war. It is
enough. Now let mankind, for a time at least, consort in
amity and peace. Enmity and hatred have ruled. Let the world,
for a period, exercise love. For thousands of years the nations
have denied each other, considering each other as infidel and
inferior. It is sufficient. We must now realize that we are the
servants of one God, that we turn to one beneficent Father, live
under one divine law, seek one reality and have one desire.
Thus may we live in the utmost friendship and love, and in
return the favours and bounties of God shall surround us; the
world of humanity will be reformed; mankind, enjoy a new
life; eternal light will illumine, and heavenly moralities become
manifest.

As preordained by the Fountain-head of Creation, the temple
of the world hath been fashioned after the image and likeness of
the human body. In fact each mirroreth forth the image of the
other, wert thou but to observe with discerning eyes. By this is
meant that even as the human body in this world, which is outwardly composed of different limbs and organs, is in reality a
closely integrated, coherent entity, similarly the structure of the
physical world is like unto a single being whose limbs and
members are inseparably linked together.
Were one to observe with an eye that discovereth the realities
of all things, it would become clear that the greatest relationship
that bindeth the world of being together lieth in the range of
created things themselves, and that co-operation, mutual aid and
reciprocity are essential characteristics in the unified body of the
world of being, inasmuch as all created things are closely related
together and each is influenced by the other or deriveth benefit
therefrom, either directly or indirectly ....
. . .Hence it was stated that co-operation and reciprocity are
essential properties which are inherent in the unified system of
the world of existence, and without which the entire creation
would be reduced to nothingness ....

BAHA'I SACRED WRITINGS

... when contemplating the human world thou beholdest this
wondrous phenomenon shining resplendent from all sides with
the utmost perfection, inasmuch as in this station acts of cooperation, mutual assistance and reciprocity are not confmed to
the body and to things that pertain to the material world, but for
all conditions, whether physical or spiritual, such as those
related to minds, thoughts, opinions, manners, customs, attitudes, understandings, feelings or other human susceptibilities.
In all these thou shouldst find these binding relationships
securely established. The more this interrelationship is strengthened and expanded, the more will human society advance in
progress and prosperity. Indeed without these vital ties it would
be wholly impossible for the world of humanity to attain true
felicity and success .

. . . In cycles gone by, though harmony was established, yet,
owing to the absence of means, the unity of all mankind could
not have been achieved. Continents remained widely divided,
nay even among the peoples of one and the same continent association and interchange of thought were wellnigh impossible.
Consequently intercourse, understanding and unity amongst all
the peoples and kindreds of the earth were unattainable. In this
day, however, means of communication have multiplied, and the
five continents of the earth have virtually merged into one. And
for everyone it is now easy to travel to any land, to associate and
exchange views with its peoples, and to become familiar,
through publications, with the conditions, the religious beliefs
and the thoughts of all men. In like manner all the members of
the human family, whether peoples or governments, cities or
villages, have become increasingly interdependent. For none is
self-sufficiency any longer possible, inasmuch as political ties
unite all peoples and nations, and the bonds of trade and
industry, of agriculture and education, are being strengthened
e~ery day. Hence the unity of all mankind can in this day be
achieved. Verily this is none other but one of the wonders of
á this wondrous age, this glorious century. Of this past ages have
been deprived, for this century- the century of light- hath been

endowed with unique and unprecedented glory, power and illumination. Hence the miraculous unfolding of a fresh marvel
every day. Eventually it will be seen how bright its candles will
bum in the assemblage of man.
Behold how its light is now dawning upon the world's
darkened horizon. The first candle is unity in the political realm,
the early glimmerings of which can now be discerned. The
second candle is unity of thought in world undertakings, the
consummation of which will ere long be witnessed. The third
candle is unity in freedom which will surely come to pass. The
fourth candle is unity in religion which is the comer-stone of the
foundation itself, and which, by the power of God, will be
revealed in all its splendour. The fifth candle is the unity of
nations- a unity which in this century will be securely established, causing all the peoples of the world to regard themselves
as citizens of one common fatherland. The sixth candle is unity
of races, making of all that dwell on earth peoples and kindreds
of one race. The seventh candle is unity of language, i.e., the
choice of a universal tongue in which all peoples will be
instructed and converse. Each and every one of these will inevitably come to pass, inasmuch as the power of the Kingdom of
God will aid and assist in their realization.

FROM THE
UNIVERSAL
HOUSE OF
JUSTICE

T he Universal House of Justice was ordained by Baha'u'lhih,
in the Kitab-i-Aqdas, His book of laws, as the supreme
legislative institution of His Faith. The duties with which it has
been charged are outlined in the following statement from its
constitution:

To direct and canalize the forces released by His Revelation He
[Baha'u'lhih] instituted His Covenant, whose power has
preserved the integrity of His Faith, maintained its unity and
stimulated its world-wide expansion throughout the successive
ministries of 'Abdu'l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi. It continues to
fulfil its life-giving purpose through the agency of the
Universal House of Justice whose fundamental object, as one
of the twin successors of Baha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha, is to
ensure the continuity of that divinely-appointed authority
which flows from the Source of the Faith, to safeguard the
unity of its followers, -and to maintain the integrity and
flexibility of its teachings. 1

1. The Constitution of the Universal House of Justice (Haifa: Baha'i World
Centre, 1972), 3-4.

From the writings of Baha'u'lhih, 'Abdu'l-Baha, and Shoghi
Effendi; and from the communications of the Universal House
of Justice, Baha'is gain not only their vision of a world where
justice and unity prevail, but they are also provided with
guidance as to how to build that world. While the Universal
House of Justice communicates primarily with the Baha'i world
community, a wider public is acquainted with its statement on
peace, written in 1985 on the eve of the United Nations International Year of Peace and addressed to the peoples of the world.
Dissemination of this document formed the core of a global
campaign undertaken by the Baha'i community throughout the
Year of Peace and beyond.
Letters and messages, whether addressed to individual
believers, to Baha'i communities, or to the generality of
humankind, provide the major means by which the Universal
House of Justice communicates its vision and its directives to
the world. While letters to individuals often respond to personal
issues and queries on broader subjects, the circular letters of the.
Universal House of Justice, addressed to all or selected National
Spiritual Assemblies or collectively to the Baha'is of the world,
cover especially important topics and may give guidance,
analyze the situation of the world and of the community, or
announce significant events. This section of The Baha 'i World
features excerpts from a selection of major letters of the
Universal House of Justice written between April 1993 and
April1994.

Riqvtin Message 150 B.E.
Each year during Ric;lvan, the twelve-day period between
21 April and 2 May commemorating Baha'u'llah's public
declaration of His mission in the Ric;lvan Garden near Baghdad
in 1863, the Universal House of Justice addresses a major letter
to the Baha'is of the world. The letter often serves as a review
of significant events of the past year, setting them in the context
of the Baha'i Faith's development around the globe as well as
the general world condition. Often the letter also outlines the
challenges and opportunities lying before the community in the
year ahead. In its "Ric;lvan message" of 150 B.E., or April1993

THE WIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE

C.E., the Universal House of Justice begins by reviewing the
events of the second Baha'i Holy Year, from Ri<;lvan 1992 to
Ri<;lvan 1993, noting particularly the activities connected with
both the commemoration of the centenary of Baha'u'llah's
passing in the Holy Land in May and the World Congress,
attended by over 27,000 Baha'is from around the world, in New
York City in November 1992. "These," it remarks, "were of a
rare category of experience" which not only increased the
recognition of the Baha'i Faith by various agencies around the
world but also led the community "to a deeper understanding of
[its] relation to Baha'u'llah than hitherto obtained." Elaborating
this theme, the House of Justice continues:

The greater appreciation in ourselves of the universality of the
community, of its embodiment of the first and over-arching
principle of His Faith, has left a new and compelling
impression upon our hearts; the effects of that awareness were
strikingly demonstrated at the commemoration in the Holy
Land last May and more broadly at the World Congress last
November~ as if to confirm our assurance in these desperately
troubled times that the world of humanity is moving
inexorably towards its as-yet elusive destiny of unity and
peace.

Praising "the innumerable, imaginative efforts undertaken by
the friends around the world, from remote villages to great
cities, in observance of these important anniversaries," the
House of Justice goes on to note "the unprecedented publicity
accorded the purpose and activities of the Holy Year through the
mass media in large and small countries, the notice given by
legislative bodies and public officials to the centennial, the
gestures of recognition and appreciation of the Faith by governmental agencies, [and] the involvement of representatives of the
Baha'i International Co~unity in major global events." 2
Another event of great significance to the Baha'is, also noted
in the letter, was the release in March 1993 of the frrst

2. See The Baha 'i World 1992-93 for a complete account of the events in
which the Baha'i world community took part during the Holy Year.

THE BAHA'i WORLD

authorized English edition of the Kitab-i-Aqdas, known also as
the Most Holy Book, Baha'u'llah's book of laws. This release,
the Universal House of Justice states, carries implications not
only for the Baha'i community but for humanity as a whole,
with the gradual enforcement of the laws contained in it.
Addressing the increasingly "confused and paradoxical"
current world situation in which "simultaneous signs of order
and chaos, promise and frustration" become daily more
apparent, the Universal House of Justice instituted a Three Year
Plan for the growth and consolidation of the Baha'i community,
beginning at Riqvan 1993. Though "its brevity is compelled by
the swiftly changing tides of the times," the House of Justice
notes in its Riqvan letter that the Plan's "primary purpose is
indispensable to the future of the Cause and of humankind."
Necessary for the success of this Plan is, first of all, a
"massive expansion of the Baha'i community." The Universal
House of Justice notes the mutuality of the expansion and
administration of the Faith. Influx of great numbers of believers
will, it states, provide scope for the institutions of the Faith "to
be able to develop and adequately demonstrate their inherent
capacity to minister to the crying needs of human.ity in its hour
of deepening despair."
The three-fold theme of the Three Year Plan centers around
"enhancing the vitality of the faith of individual believers,
greatly developing the human resources of the Cause, and
fostering the proper functioning of local and national Baha'i
institutions." The Riqvan message deals with each of these
aspects in some detail. With regard to the first objective, the
Universal House of Justice points out the necessity for
individual believers to become spiritually transformed and to
cultivate a sense of spirituality, obeying the laws and principles
of Baha'u'llah which constitute a "wholesome medicine" for
humanity in this age. With regard to the development of the
human resources of the Faith, the Universal House of Justice
does not speak of training and the acquisition of knowledge as
ends in themselves but as means to apply spiritual principles to
administer the affairs of humanity. Finally, in writing about the
proper functioning of institutions, the House of Justice outlines

THE ljl{IVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE

the principles applicable: that the members should thoroughly
familiarize themselves with their duties; adhere strictly to
principle; remove estrangement and sectarian tendencies from
their modes of functioning; win the affection of those they serve;
involve individual members of their communities in the work as
much as possible; and aim constantly at improving their
performance. The end result, it states, will be a rekindling of
hope in disillusioned members of society.
In the final portion of its RiQ.van message, the Universal
House of Justice outlines its own activities, to be undertaken
simultaneously to the Baha'i world community's pursuit of the
objectives outlined above: it will coordinate the "widely diverse
activities" of the Baha'i community on a global scale, direct the
burgeoning external affairs work, and pursue the completion of
the Mount Carmel construction projects according to the
established timetable. 3 The letter concludes with a statement of
the need for increased material resources to complete the work
that has begun on Mount Carmel, and with an appeal to
individual believers throughout the world to arise and redouble
their efforts to serve their Faith. The House of Justice clearly
points out the crucial nature of their response:

The goals of the Three Year Plan will not be easily won, but
áthey must be magnificently achieved, whatever the sacrifice.
There should therefore be no hesitation or delay on the part of
individuals or Spiritual Assemblies in attending to them, lest
the problems of mankind pile up unchecked, or the rise of
internal crises slows us down.

Pointing to the historical pattern of alternating victory and
crisis within the Baha'i community, the Universal House of
Justiceá ends its message by saying, "As we savour the triumphs
of the Holy Year, let us not forget the reality of this recurrent
experience. Let us also remember that our blessings are equal to
our challenges, as repeatedly shown by our glorious history.."

3. For further discussion of the significance of the Mount Carmel Projects,
see The Baha'i World 1992-93, pp. 169-176.

Messages Regarding the Institutions of the Faith
Other major messages from the Universal House of Justice
written during the period from Riqvan 1993 to Riqvan 1994 can
be grouped according to a number of different topics. First,
there were a number of letters concerning the senior institutions
of the Faith. On 30 April1993, an electronic message was sent
to all National Spiritual Assemblies announcing the results of
the election of the Universal House of Justice at the Seventh
International Convention:

ANNOUNCE NEWLY ELECTED MEMBERS ~RSAL
HOUSE OF JUSTICE 'ALi NAKHJAVANi, GLENFORD
MITCHELL, ADIB TAHERZADEH, IAN SEMPLE, PETER
KHAN, HUSHMAND FATHEAZAM, HOOPER DUNBAR,
FARZAM ARBAB, DOUGLAS MARTIN.

On 13 May 1993, a message announced the appointment of
the International Teaching Centre for its next five-year term and
also thanked the retiring members for their services on the
institution:

WITH JOYFUL HEARTS WE ANNOUNCE APPOINTMENT
COUNSELLOR MEMBERS INTERNATIONAL TEACHING
CENTRE FOR FIVE-YEAR TERM BEGINNING 23 MAY 1993:
MR. KISER BARNES, MR. HARTMUT GROSSMANN, MRS.
LAURETTA KING, MRS. JOAN LINCOLN, MR. SHAPOOR
MONADJEM, MR. DONALD ROGERS, MR. FRED
SCHECHTER, MRS. KIMIKO SCHWERIN, MRS. JOY STEVEN-
SON. PROFOUNDLY GRATEFUL MR. MAS'Un KHAMSI AND
MR. PETER VUYIYA FOR ILLUSTRIOUS RECORD YEARS
DEVOTED LABOURS IN DEVELOPMENT WORLDWIDE
OPERATION THIS VITAL INSTITUTION.

On 24 June 1993 a letter to the Baha'is of the world
documented the significance of the consultations held at the
Counsellors' Conference following the International Convention
and outlined the functions of the International Teaching Centre,
an institution which the Universal House of Justice characterized as having "abundantly demonstrated its capacity and

THE "(lliiVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE

eagerness to assume the wide range of responsibilities conferred
upon it."4

Messages Concerning the Mount Carmel Projects
As work continued on the construction projects currently under
way on Mount Carmel in Haifa, Israel, including construction of
two administrative buildings at the Baha'i World Centre- the
Centre for the Study of the Texts and the International Teaching
Centre- and the building of the nineteen terraces to enhance the
beauty and dignity of the Shrine of the Bah, the Universal House
of Justice wrote to the Baha'i communities around the world
announcing the issuing of tenders for the projects and the
signing of contracts. A further letter outlining the significance
of the building projects was sent on 4 January 1994, referring to
them '-as "a manifest expression of the emergence from obscurity
of the Faith of Baha'u'llah and of the determining role it is
ordained to play in the affairs of humankind. When the
buildings are completed, they will stand as the visible seat of
mighty institutions whose purpose is no other than the spiritualization of humanity and the preservation of justice and unity
throughout the world. " 5

The Situation of the Bah a'is in Iran
The period 1993-94 witnessed further persecutions of the
Iranian Baha'i community, and the Universal House of Justice
wrote a number of letters to Baha'i National Spiritual
Assemblies around the world to inform them of the situation and
to urge them to bring it to the attention of their governments. On
17 May 1993, a letter was sent to selected National Spiritual
Assemblies concerning denial of legal reparations to the family
of a Baha'i killed in an automobile accident on the grounds that
the victim was a Baha'i, followed on 20 May by a letter

4. For a detailed discussion of the institution of the International Teaching
Centre and the deliberations held during this conference, see pp. 59-66.
5. See pp. 67-75 for further details concerning the work on the Mount Carmel Projects in 1993-94.

regarding the confiscation of Baha'i properties in various cities
in Iran. By July 1993, the Iranian government had undertaken
full-scale destruction of the Baha'i cemetery in Tehran,
desecrating Baha'i graves, disinterring some two thousand
bodies and transporting them to an unknown location. This
action prompted a letter from the Universal House of Justice on
4 July and a further letter on 21 July, informing National
Spiritual Assemblies .that work on the destruction of the
cemetery had been stepped up to three shifts per day in an effort
to complete the work before objections could be raised through
diplomatic channels. The response of Baha'i communities
around the world was evident in the extensive coverage of the
desecration carried by print media in widely diverse locations,
from the Cook Islands News in the South Pacific to the New York
Times. 6

Expansion of the Baha'i Faith
The Universal House of Justice addressed two letters to the
Baha'is of the world specifically regarding the expansion of the
Faith. The first, written on 9 November 1993, spoke in detail
about the receptive climate for massive expansion of the Baha'i
Faith in various areas and the means by which the Baha'i world
community can pursue such expansion. The second letter, of
26 November, announced the imminent formation, at Ri<Jvan
1994, of seven new National and Regional Assemblies in
different locations around the world.

Other Messages
Other messages dealt with a variety of different topics: the visit
of the Deputy Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea to the
Baha'i World Centre,? the murder of three Baha'is in Ciskei,
South Africa, 8 and a call for Baha'is around the world to arise
and settle in different geographical areas to promote the expan-

6. For further information on the situation of the Baha'is in Iran during 1993-
94, please see pp. 139-145; for details concerning the media coverage of the
destruction of the Tehran Baha'i cemetery, see pp. 153-156.
7. See "Year in Review," p. 78.
8. See pp. 147-150 for this story.

THE {lliNERSAL HOUSE OF JQSTICE

sion and consolidation of the Baha'i community worldwide.
The letters of the Universal House of Justice written between
Ri<;lvan 1993 and Ri<;lvan 1994 cover a breadth of topics which it
is not possible to contain in this brief summary. They show how
the supreme elected institution ordained by Baha'u'llah in His
writings functions, protecting the Baha'i community from
. persecution and division, applying the Baha'i teachings for the
current situation, guiding the Baha'i community in its course of
development, and sharing news of both crisis and victory in the
Baha'i world.

The Shrine ofBahti 'u 'l/ah
near Acre, Israel

EVENTS
1993-94
View ofthe dome of the Shrine ofthe Bah from the
Seat ofthe Universal House ofJustice, Haifa, Israel.

THE SEVENTH
INTERNATIONAL
BAHA'i
CoNVENTION

E very five years, a three-stage process culminates in the
election by the Baha'is of the world of the supreme
governing council of their community, the Universal House of
Justice. From 29 April to 2 May 1993, during the period known
as the RiQ.van Festival, the members of National Spiritual
Assemblies throughout the world gathered at the Seventh International Convention in Haifa, Israel, to participate in such an
election.
The process begins at the grass roots of the world community,
where adult members in hamlets, villages, towns, and cities
gather in unit conventions to elect their delegates to National
Conventions; at each National Convention the delegates elect
the nine members of the National Spiritual Assembly, the
supreme Baha'i council for their country. The members of all
National Spiritual Assemblies constitute the electoral college for
the Universal House of Justice and are invited to fulfill their
responsibilities at an International Convention, which has been
held at the Baha'i World Centre in the Holy Land since the first

THE BAHA'I WORLD

such gathering in 1963. In this manner the three parts of the
electoral process are completed.
As in all other instances at local and national levels in the
Baha'i community, the election proceeds by secret ballot in a
prayerful atmosphere. The Baha'i teachings forbid any form of
nomination or campaigning. In accordance with the dictates of
his or her conscience, each elector writes on a ballot nine names
from among those of the entire male adult Baha'i population.
The nine men receiving the highest number of votes are declared
members of the Universal House of Justice for a term of five
years. The Universal House of Justice is the only institution in
the Baha'i Faith where the membership is restricted to men; in
all other elections, voters may elect both men and women. 1
At Ri<;lvan 1993, there were 165 National and Regional
Spiritual Assemblies whose members were eligible to vote at the
International Convention. A total of 733 of these members
attended the event, representing 146 countries, while a further
690 sent their ballots by mail. Thus 1,423 out of a possible
1,485 ballots were cast.

Delegates to the Seventh International Baha'i Convention, held
29 April-2 May 1993, gathered on the steps ofthe Seat ofthe
Universal House ofJustice, Haifa, Israel.

1. See also pp. 232-234 regarding gender equality and membership of the
Universal House of Justice.

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION

In addition to the election, consultation on matters of vital
interest to the global development of the Baha'i Faith was held
among the delegates during the convention sessions, which took
place at the Haifa Auditorium. The occasion also allowed for
highly stimulating and informative interactions between
delegates and high ranking officers of the Faith who were in
attendance, including the three remaining Hands of the Cause of

Hands of the Cause of God 'Alf-Mu!Jammad Varqa, left,
Amatu '1-Bahti Ru!Jiyyih Kh.tinum, center, and 'Ali-Akbar Furntan, right,
at the Seventh International Convention.

God, namely, Amatu'l-Baha Rlli.riyyih K.hanum, 'Ali-Akbar
FurU.tan, and 'Ali-Mul).ammad Varqa; Counsellor members of
the International Teaching Centre; and Continental Counsellors.
Following the International Convention, these Baha'i dignitaries
met in a conference for several days to discuss their activities in
relation to the Three Year Plan launched at the Convention. 2
The majority of the delegates arrived in Haifa five days prior
to the Convention, in order to participate in the series of visits to
Baha'i shrines and holy places, arranged to help them prepare
themselves spiritually for their participation in the electoral
process. Delegates were given time to pray and meditate in the

2. See pp. 59-66 for further details on the International Counsellors' Conference.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

T1 11~ Kn.4H rAQD-
Delegates from Niger and other African countries, Bolivia, Bulgaria, Western
Samoa, and Central Asia at the International Convention.

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION

Shrines of Baha'u'lhih, the Bab, and 'Abdu'l-Baha. They were
able to visit the prison cell where Baha'u'llah was incarcerated
in Acre, the houses in that same city where He was later placed
under house arrest, and the mansion outside the city where He
spent the fmal years of His life and where He died. To give the
delegates a further connection with the history of their Faith,
they toured the International Archives Building and viewed
artifacts from the times of the Bab, Baha'u'llah, 'Abdu'l-Baha,
and Shoghi Effendi. They also had the opportunity to tour the
Seat of the Universal House of Justice, the body they would be
electing.
Opportunities for specialized consultation also presented
themselves during the five days immediately preceding the
Convention. A total of 130 pre-scheduled meetings were set up
by various National Spiritual Assemblies who wished to consult
with other national bodies from around the world, and 55 further
meetings were sc}ledtl:led by National Assemblies during the
Convention. These consultations, which focused on issues of
concern to the different countries or regions, grouped together
institutions from a particular continent or focused on topics of
mutual interest that .cut widely across the boundaries of the
planet, depending on the needs and wishes of the National
Spiritual Assemblies involved.
The Office of I:Iuququ'llah also held meetings in the days
prior to the Convention. The law of I:Iuququ'llah was made
universally binding on Baha'is around the world in 1992, and
this was the first opportunity many of the newly-appointed
deputies and representatives from various regions had to meet
one another and consult on matters of interest and concern to
this institution of the Faith.
On Thursday, 29 April, Amatu'l-Baha RUJ:llyyih Khanum
opened the Convention, the first item of whose agenda was the
election itself. In keeping with the spiritual nature of Baha'i
elections, voting at the Convention was conducted in a reverent
atmosphere. Prayers were read in four languages, following
which each delegate prayerfully considered, in the privacy of his
or her own conscience, the names of those who should be
elected to serve as members of the Universal House of Justice

for the next five years. Ballots were cast alphabetically by
country, with people from different races, tribes, ethnic
backgrounds, and language groups coming forward to deposit
their votes. Many were dressed in the characteristic garb of their
home countries. The election was a powerful expression of
unity in diversity, a hallmark of the Baha'i world community.
Members of the twenty-one new or re-formed National and
Regional Spiritual Assemblies established since the previous
International Convention in 1988 were present. 3 As well, three
delegates from the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of
Myanmar (formerly Burma) were granted permission by their
government to attend for the first time since the establishment of
the Universal House of Justice in 1963. The absence of the
Baha'is of Iran, whose National Spiritual Assembly was
dissolved in 1983 by order of the Islamic Revolutionary
Government, was noted with keen regret, as a token of their
love- a beautiful arrangement of red roses- was displayed on
the Convention stage.
Special messages to the Convention included one from His
Highness Malietoa Tanumafili II, the Head of State of Western
Samoa, who is himself a Baha'i.
On the evening of the first day, the delegates viewed a video
presentation on the activities of the second Baha'i Holy Year,
which had just ended, and received information on the progress
of the Mount Carmel Projects from a presentation by the two
architects involved in the design and execution of these projects,
Mr. Hossein Amanat and Mr. Fariborz Sahba. The projects
encompass the current construction of terraces above and below
the Shrine of the Bab and edifices to accommodate the administration of the Faith at its World Centre in Haifa. 4

3. These were the National Spiritual Assemblies of Albania, Angola, Azerbaijan, the Baltic States, Central Asia, the Congo Republic, Cote d'Ivoire,
Czechoslovakia, the East Leeward Islands, Greenland, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Hungary, Macau, Namibia, Niger, Poland, Romania, the West Leeward
Islands, as well as the Regional Spiritual Assembly of Russia, Georgia, and
Armenia and the Regional Spiritual Assembly of the Ukraine, Belarus, and
Moldova.
4. For further information on the progress of the Mount Carmel Projects, see
pp. 67-75.

- - - - -- -

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION

Newly elected members of the Universal House ofJustice on the stage of the
Haifa Auditorium, accompanied by former members Dr. David Ruhe
and Mr. Hugh Chance (second and third from the right).

Results of the balloting were announced the day after votes
were cast. The following individuals were elected to serve for a
five-year term and were called to the stage amid waves
of applause: Mr. 'Ali Nakhjavani, Mr. Glenford Mitchell,
Mr. Adib Taherzadeh, Mr. Ian Semple, Dr. Peter Khan,
Mr. Hushmand Fatheazam, Mr. Hooper Dunbar, Dr. Farzam
Arbab, and Mr. Douglas Martin. The two outgoing members of
the Universal House of Justice, Dr. David Ruhe and Mr. Hugh
Chance, joined the newly-elected body on the stage and were
recognized by all present for their longstanding, dedicated
service.
While the Convention's main item of business was the
election of the Universal House of Justice, the major portion of
the event was spent in consultation, both formal and informal.
Within the Convention schedule itself, time was allotted for
plenary consultations on the 150 B.E. message from the
Universal House of Justice to the Baha'is of the world, 5 and
consultation also centered on the three areas of focus within the
current Three Year Plan: enhancing the vitality of the faith of
the individual believers; developing the human resources of the

5. The 150th year of the Baha'i Era commenced on 21 March 1993. March
21, the vernal equinox, marks the beginning of the Baha'i year.

Cause; and the consolidation of local and national institutions of
the Cause. 6 The chairing of all five plenary consultative
sessions by female Continental Counsellors served as a
safeguard against electioneering and showed once again the
interrelated character of the institutions of the Faith.
Because the International Convention took place during the
Ri~van period, two Baha'i holy days, the Ninth and Twelfth
Days of Ri~van, occurred during the Convention, the former at
the beginning and the latter at the end. Joined by the staff
members serving at the Baha'i World Centre, making a total
number of approximately 1,400, the delegates observed the
Ninth Day ofRi~van in the gardens near the Shrine of the Bah in
Haifa; the Twelfth Day of Ri~van was commemorated at the
Shrine of Baha'u'llah at Bahji, near Acre. Prayers in six
languages, followed by the recital of the special prayers revealed
for those who visit the burial places of the Faith's Founders,
and circumambulation of the Shrines marked the simple but
powerful observances. Delegates departed from Haifa before
sunset on 3 May, following the holy day celebration that marked
the close of the Convention.

6. The expansion and consolidation of the Baha'i community has historically .
been effected through a series of global plans of varying lengths. The current
Three Year Plan began at Ri<;lvan 1993 and will end at Ri<;lvan 1996.

This article reports on the International
Counsellors' Conference held 3-8 May 1993
in the Holy Land and on the appointment of
the International Teaching Centre for a new
term of office on 23 May 1993.

Conference of

BAHA'i
CouNSELLORS

H ow can the Baha'i community around the world contribute
more directly to the application of Baha'i principles in the
various fields of human endeavor? What is the role of Baha'i
institutions in helping to increase the vitality of an individual's
faith? How can the Baha'i community foster the development
of its hurnan resources? How can Baha'i communities best
share the teachings of their Faith with the masses of humanity
who are spiritually hungry? These were some of the vital
questions addressed at a conference called by the International
Teaching Centre, the consultative body based at the Baha'i
World Centre that coordinates the activities of the five
Continental Boards of Counsellors with an aggregate of seventytwo members serving throughout the world.
Established in 1973 at the Baha'i World Centre by the
Universal House of Justice, the International Teaching Centre is
currently composed of the three remaining members of the
institution known as the Hands of the Cause of God and nine
Counsellors who are appointed for a term of five years.

Together, the members of the International Teaching Centre and
Continental Boards of Counsellors and their auxiliaries
constitute a distinctive arm of the Baha'i Administrative Order.
Their membership comprises, according to the Constitution of
the Universal House of Justice, "eminent and devoted believers
appointed for the specific purpose of protecting and propagating
the Faith of Baha'u'llah under the guidance of the Head of that
Faith."
Complementing the elected arm of the Baha'i administrative
system, these high-ranking officers have no legislative or
judicial powers. Their functions are twofold: to stimulate the
propagation of the Faith throughout the world by educating,
advising, and encouraging individuals, groups, and the nationally and locally elected Baha'i institutions; and to ensure the
protection and consolidation of the Baha'i community by
fostering adherence of its members to the unifying principles of
the Faith. Among the particular functions of the International
Teaching Centre are to devise and recommend teaching plans to
the Universal House of Justice.

International Counsellors' Conference
The Counsellors' five-day conference, held in Haifa from
3-8 May 1993, immediately following the Seventh International
Baha'i Convention- the occasion every five years for the
election of the Universal House of Justice- was a forum for
consultation among members of the International Teaching
Centre and some sixty-five Continental Counsellors who
remained in Haifa for the event.
In a letter written on 17 November 1992, the International
Teaching Centre expressed its perception that one of the major
responsibilities of the appointed institutions of the Faith is to
assist Baha'i communities "to advance beyond those early
stages of unity that are established through agreement on beliefs
a!ld ideals, further than concern for the well-being and happiness
of their own members, to a level of unity where love and high
ideals are naturally translated into harmonious collective
action." Conferences such as the one held in May 1993 assist in

COUNSELLORS

the achievement of this common vision necessary for the
promotion of higher levels of unity.
The International Teaching Centre has hosted a Counsellors'
Conference following each International Convention since 1978,
renewing the Counsellors' sense of vision pertaining to their
work and fostering an evolution in their manner of functioning.
Increasingly, the Boards of Counsellors and their Auxiliary
Boards are seen as essential catalysts for the work of the
community. Consultations at the May 1993 conference offered
participants the opportunity to exchange information on what
had been successful in their efforts so far, to look at what could
still be done, envisioning the needs of the community as far into
the future as the end of the century, and to anticipate the institutions' responses to those needs.
Held at the Seat of the Universal House of Justice, the
Counsellors' Conference was honored by the presence of the
Hands of the Cause of God Amatu'l-Baha. RUI;Jiyyih Khanum,
'Ali-Akbar Fun!tan, and 'Ali-Mul)ammad Varqa. Members of
the Universal House of Justice also attended the sessions, contributing to the consultation and helping give it focus .
l . - - _l_l ..... ~..,.....---á--rá•

Members of the International Teaching Centre and Continental Boards of
Counsellors from around the world, accompanied by members ofthe
Universal House ofJustice, at the international Counsellors '
Conference held at the Bahti 'i World Centre 3-8 May 1993.

The three Hands of the Cause addressed the conference on
different themes. Amatu'l-Baha Rulfiyyih Khanum spoke about
the urgency of the time in which we live and the accelerating
upheavals in the world. In the midst of this, she said, the
Baha'is need to focus their energies, and to bring the message of
the Baha'i Faith to the large numbers of people everywhere who
are spiritually hungry. Dr. Varqa addressed the conference on
the subject of I:Iuququ'llah, its significance, and its universal
application throughout the Baha'i community at this stage in the
development of the Faith. Mr. Furutan shared his insights on
several vital issues in his keynote talk.
Consultation centered on a number of specific topics. A
member of the Universal House of Justice spoke to the participants on the vitality of the faith of the individual, noting the
importance of empowering people through the Word of God in
literacy classes, working in villages with children, and incorporating spiritual aspects into education. The Baha'i International
Community's Office of Public Information made a presentation
on promoting public awareness of the Kitab-i-Aqdas and
showing the relevance of this Most Holy Book, Baha'u'llah's
book of laws, to issues of current concern to the world. 1
The Baha'i Faith encompasses individuals, local communities, and institutions. One of the conference sessions
focused on the need to strengthen all of these elements and
especially foster the maturation of the institutions of the Baha'i
Faith in preparation for world peace, which the Baha'i writings
anticipate will be effected through international agreement in the
not-too-distant future. To encourage the process of such
maturation, communities need to learn to think of their activities
in terms of patterns of growth contributing to this goal rather
than as isolated events carried out for their own sake. Such
thinking will contribute to a sense of continuity, give members a
vision of the future direction of the community, and will support
the systematic nature of the evolution. Once people have

1. For a discussion of the Kitab-i-Aqdas and its place in Baha'i literature, see
The Baha'i World 1992-93, pp. 105-118. See also WilliamS. Hatcher's essay
on pp. 189-236 of this volume.

COUNSELLORS

VISion, they collaborate more efficiently, create a nurturing
environment, and communities become transformed as human
resources develop systematically to meet envisioned needs.
At the root of all this social evolution and transformation is
the recognition of the sacred as the central motivating purpose of
all activities Baha'is undertake. For that reason, the conference
also studied qualities of spiritual leadership, leading to an understanding framed in terms set forth by 'Abdu' 1-Baha: first,
service to God, and then to the community. The role of the
Counsellors around the world in this area is to encourage the
focus on the sacred nature of Baha'i institutions to foster respect
for their authority and also to develop approaches to administration that empower the community by promoting a spirit of
enterprise among its members and encouraging individual
initiative. Counsellors, members of their Auxiliary Boards and
their assistants can help create a nurturing environment and
foster diversity in action. All of this involves learning to work
with the grassroots of the community in a different way from
that generally followed in society.
Grappling with the question of how the Baha'i community
can make its message known in order to have a significant
impact on human society as a whole, the conference addressed
the issue of teaching the masses of humanity about the Baha'i
Faith. Participants also discussed the need to collaborate with
non-political organizations that compose "civil society"-
people who are not Baha'is but who are attracted to Baha'i
ideals, who share similar values, and who also see the necessity
for the establishment of a new order in the world. Small group
consultations were arranged by countries and by groupings of
people in similar situations. Focusing on the power of the Holy
Spirit, on sacredness, and on reverence, the Counsellors engaged
in a very dynamic consultation on different methods of inviting
people into the Faith, according to their needs and conditions.
To promote the involvement of the Baha'i community in
human affairs and to direct the energies of its members in
applying Baha'i principles to various fields of human endeavor,
the International Teaching Centre identified six areas of focus:
moral education, the visual and performing arts, science and

THE BAHA'i WORLD

religion, ásustainable development, public and private administration, and culture and cultural development. Recognizing that
there are many people in these fields actively seeking to
transform society, Baha'is can develop collaborative efforts with
them.
Discussion concerning the development of human -resources
centered around the need for the training of children and youth.
The opening up of children's classes to the public, the need for
appropriate curricula, and the requirement to invest resources in
this area were cited as crucial.
The Counsellors also consulted on the topic of equality of the
sexes, agreeing that there needs to be a more concentrated effort
made to further this objective. Not only do women need special
attention and encouragement, they noted, but the men need to be
educated regarding their role in the encouragement of women.
Finally, the topic of institutes and other processes of training
was dealt with, focusing on the development of permanent
institutes to foster the involvement of youth, train children's
class teachers, encourage and train women, reach people of
capacity, and train assistants to members of the Auxiliary Board
to be better community development workers. In all of these
endeavors, the Counsellors stressed that the focus should be on
"process"--on the development of human resources in a broad
sense rather than a narrow one and on the development of an
education program for the entire community.
Aside from the consultative sessions of the conference, a
number of ancillary events occurred, including a visit by all of
the Counsellors to the Shrine ~f the Bah for prayers for their
work, a banquet hosted by Amatu'l-Baha Rul).iyyih Khanum at
. the Master's House, lunch at the Mansion of Mazra'ih at the
invitation of the Universal House of Justice, prayers at
the Shrine of Baha'u'llah, and lunch in the garden at the
International Teaching Centre. Each Counsellor member of the
International Teaching Centre also hosted a meal for a small
number of the visiting Counsellors and some members of the
Universal House of Justice to enhance the existing atmosphere
of goodwill and collaboration. Participants departed at the end

COUNSELLORS

Counsellor members of the International Teaching Centre,
appointed in May 1993, outside the Mansion ofBahji.

with a renewed commitment to their work in the Baha'i
community and a keener vision of the directions in which to
encourage development.

Appointment ofInternational Teaching Centre
for New Term of Office
Shortly after the conclusion of this signal conference, on
13 May 1993, the Universal House of Justice announced the
appointment of the Counsellor members of the International
Teaching Centre for the five-year term beginning 23 May 1993.
The nine. members appointed were Mr. Kiser Barnes from
Nigeria, Mr. Hartmut Grossmann from Finland, Mrs. Lauretta
King from Alaska, Mrs. Joan Lincoln from Cote d'Ivoire,
Mr. Shapoor Monadjem from Brazil, Mr. Donald Rogers from
Canada, Mr. Fred Schechter from the United States,
Mrs. Kimiko Schwerin from Japan, and Mrs. Joy Stevenson
from Australia. In the same message, the Universal House of
Justice also expressed its appreciation for the years of service
given to the International Teaching Centre by Mr. Mas'ud

Khamsi, who has returned to Peru, and Mr. Peter Vuyiya, who
has returned to Kenya.
The first act of the newly-appointed institution was the
joining of its members with the Hands of the Cause of God 'Ali-
Akbar Furutan and 'Ali-Mu1;tammad Varqa and the members of
the Universal House of Justice for prayers at the Shrine of
Baha'u'llah at Bahji, near Acre, on 5 June. Immediately
afterwards, all held a first meeting in the historically significant
room used by Shoghi Effendi in the Mansion of Bahji, where
Baha'u'llah spent the final years of His life. Joint consultation
continued during the afternoon in the Council Chamber of the
Universal House of Justice, back in Haifa.
The purpose of the meeting was to explore the tasks facing
the International Teaching Centre during its next five years.
Consultation focused on the laudable activities carried out thus
far and guidance previously given by the institution concerning
the initiation and sustaining of processes of growth in the Baha'i
community. Issues concerning questions about the Faith raised
by interested members of the public and attacks launched by
opponents, the role of the Teaching Centre in encouraging
systematic study of the Faith, the production and dissemination
of Baha'i literature, and the flow of pioneers and travelling
teachers were also discussed.
In a letter about the event, written 24 June 1994, the
Universal House of Justice described it as "highly significant"
and expressed the hope that the continuing developments in the
work of this institution "will impart a yet greater impetus to the
activities of the individual believers and their institutions
throughout the world and accelerate the work already so eagerly á
launched for the achievement of the Three Year Plan." During
these "climacteric years" before the world, as it faces the close
of the twentieth century, the heightened levels of functioning of
the International Teaching Centre, with its emphasis on the
collaboration between institutions at all levels and its encouragement of individual initiative, will play a significant role in the
development of the Baha'i community throughout the world.

MOUNT
CARMEL
PROJECTS:
Progress 1993-1994

D uring . 1993-94, progress continued apace on the great
construction projects under way on Mount Carmel in
Haifa, Israel. These comprise the construction of three buildings
of the Baha'i Faith's world administrative center and eighteen
terraces leading to the Shrine of the Bab: nine from the foot of
Mount Carmel and nine from its ridge.

áSignificance and Distinctiveness of the Projects
The seeds of these projects were planted over a century ago,
when Baha'u'llah revealed the Tablet of Carmel, the charter for
the World Centre of His Faith, and instructed 'Abdu'l-Baha to
build on the slope of Mount Carmel a befitting sepulchre for the
mortal remains of the Bab, the martyred Herald of His Faith.
'Abdu'l-Baha Himself constructed the Shrine. Shoghi Effendi,
the Guardian of the Faith, embellished this sacred edifice in
accordance with 'Abdu'l-Baha's wishes and constructed the first
nine terraces in rudimentary form, linking the Shrine with the
German Templer Colony at the foot of the mountain. Following

the passing of Baha'u'lhih's daughter Bahiyyih Khanum in
1932, Shoghi Effendi established the beautiful Monument
Gardens nearby as the site for her resting place and as the focal
point of the future administrative center of her Father's Faith.
The frrst building to be erected on the far-flung arc centering on the Monument Gardens was the International Baha'i
Archives, built under the supervision of Shoghi Effendi and
completed in 1957. This building houses sacred artifacts
associated with the history of the Faith and is visited by Baha'i
pilgrims from all parts of the world. The next phase of development occurred during the 1970s and 1980s, when the Baha'is
undertook the construction of a permanent Seat for the Universal
House of Justice. This was completed in 1983.
Now the Baha'i community is engaged in the erection of
three additional buildings on the Arc, and the re-development
and completion of eighteen monumental terraces: nine above
and nine below the Shrine of the Bab. This Shrine is, for
Baha'is, one of the most sacred spots on earth, second only to
the Shrine ofBaha'u'llah situated a few miles away, north of the
city of Acre. Both Shrines are visited by thousands of pilgrims
each year.
The three buildings now under construction are an extension
to the International Archives, the Centre for the Study of the
Texts, and the International Teaching Centre's permanent Seat.
At a future date the International Baha'i Library will be added to
complete the administrative center.
These edifices, however, represent much more than an
administrative center. In a letter to the Baha'is of the world
written on 4 January 1994, the Universal House of Justice points
out that the raising up of these buildings and the construction of
the Terraces of the Shrine of the Bab are "central to the work of
the Faith in eradicating the cause of the appalling suffering now
afflicting humanity." 1
The Mount Carmel Baha'i Projects are distinctive in several
ways. First, in dimensions and resources required, they are
several times greater than any project previously ventured upon

1. For a more detailed discussion of the history and significance of these
projects, see The Baha'i World 1992-93, pp. 169-176.

MOUNT CARMEL pROJECTS

by the Baha'i world community. Second, the buildings of the
Arc have been designed in a style that not only harmonizes with
the classical Greek design chosen by the Guardian for the International Baha'i Archives Building, but also respects the quality
of the mountain-slope setting and the relationship of the administrative center to the sacred character of the Shrine of the Bab,
which occupies a dominant position on M-ount Carmel. Instead
of rising upwards as massive structures, they are set in the
mountainside as colonnaded pavilions surrounded by gardens,
and with many of their storeys descending below ground. Third,
the terraces are designed to embrace the Shrine of the Bab like
the ornamental setting of a precious jewel. Intricately carved
gates, balustrades, fountain pools, and a colorful combination of
flowers, plants, and trees will provide further enhancement.

Progress in 1993-94
The impetus that the Holy Year lent to the Arc and the Terraces
Projects gathered momentum during the period Ri<;lvan 1993-
Ri<;lvan 1994. With the issuance of tender documents to building
contractors for the construction of the Centre for the Study of the
Texts and the Archives extension in June 1993, the stage was set

Members of the Universal House ofJustice at the site of
the Centre for the Study of the Texts in January 1994.

for the inauguration of another significant phase of construction.
On 19 December 1993, an agreement for the general contract for
the construction of the Centre for the Study of the Texts and

THE BAHA:t WORLD

the Archives extension was signed with one of the leading
contractors of Israel. By then, approximately 125,000 cubic
meters of rock had been excavated from the site. To support the
excavated cavity, a 30-meters high retaining wall had also been
completed. With a surface area of 2,000 square meters
reinforced by 340 steel anchors, the wall is one of the largest of
its type in Israel.
Next, as work on the foundation of the Centre for the
Study of the Texts began, a sophisticated survey system
was established to determine the exact coordinates of the architectural design on site. It was during this period, too, that a stateof-the-art air filtration system was installed in the existing
Archives Building. This will be essential to the protection of the
sacred texts, relics, and other historic documents of the Faith
from the dust pollution resulting from construction activities at
the adjacent site. The new filtration system now provides the
International Archives Building with a clean and protected environment, and pilgrims' visits have continued without interruption.
At the other end of the Arc, at the site of the International
Teaching Centre, excavations reaching a depth of 22 meters
yielded another 50,000 cubic meters of rock, which were used to
balance the levels of the upper terraces. Here again, a retaining

View of the anchored retaining wall at the site of the
International Teaching Centre, August 1993.

MOUNT CARMEL pROTECTS

wall of 12-meter-long micropiles and horizontal reinforced
concrete beams, supported by one hundred pre-stressed anchors,
was completed to stabilize the mountainside. Another major
development has been the commencement of excavations in
January 1994 for a pedestrian and service tunnel to link the
buildings on the Arc. Since the tunnel passes under the stairs
leading to the main entrance of the Seat of the Universal House
of Justice, crews excavated from both ends- the site of the
International Teaching Centre and that of the Centre for the
Study of the Texts and the Archives extension- to minimize
disturbance and expedite the process.
Work on the Terraces Project kept pace with the activities on
the Arc. Once earthwork on the five terraces immediately below
the Shrine of the Bab was completed, they were graded and
structured, and their shape began to emerge. Simultaneously,

Aerial photograph, taken in September 1993, showing work on upper
terraces of the Shrine ofthe Bah, and excavation work on the Seat ofthe
International Teaching Centre, left, and the Centre for the Study ofthe Texts,
right, with the Seat of the Universal House ofJustice at the apex ofthe Arc.
drainage and plumbing work began. By January 1994, this was
fmished, and the topsoil and grass cover on the inner zone of
these terraces were in place. On the outer edges of the terraces,
trees were planted and wild flowers were sown to develop the
informal forest areas. Mechanical rooms seven meters below
the surface were constructed on the west side to house water

The newly prepared gardens on the eastward extension of the
main terrace of the Shrine of the Bab, March 1994.

An aerial view of some of the terraces below the Shrine of
the Bab with finished concrete pools, March 1994.

MOUNT CARMEL pROJECTS

pumps for irrigation and fountains as well as controls for
underwater and terrace lighting. The installation of a large
transformer in the mechanical room on terrace six required the
use of one of the biggest cranes in Israel.
The design of the upper terraces differs from the ones below,
in that a straight line of stairs alternates with curved stairs
on two sides, because of the steepness of the mountain. On
the thirteenth, fifteenth, and seventeenth terraces, the stairs
converge on balconies which will serve as resting spots and
vantage points for pilgrims and visitors to view the terraces
below. Work carried out in this area between Ri~van 1993 and
Ri~van 1994 centered around the building of underground
retaining walls and the concreting of the stairs.

Relations with Authorities and Dignitaries
Significant as the progress on the construction of the Arc and the
Terraces has been, no less significant to the development of
these projects has been the approval that the Baha'i town
planning scheme has received from the Israeli authorities. In
February 1994, the District Committee for Planning and Construction, Haifa Region, the senior body responsible for town
planning, approved a revised scheme proposed by the , Mount
Carmel Baha'i Projects Office. This approval came in the wake
of sustained and delicate negotiations, spanning six years, with
all levels of authority within the Government of the State of
Israel.
Years before, during the 1940s and 1950s, Shoghi Effendi
had recorded his dissatisfaction and objection to the old town
planning scheme of Haifa Municipality which was passed at the
time and which remained iná effect until the town planning
scheme submitted by the Baha'is was approved. If all provisions
of the earlier plan had been enforced, they would effectively
have prevented construction on the Arc and Terraces. The
modified scheme incorporates the Baha'i plans for construction,
resolves the problems of road extensions and traffic, avoids
intrusions into the Baha'i properties, and addresses the code of
behavior for the general public while visiting these sites.
Approval of this document brings with it acceptance of the

spiritual significance of the Baha'i endowments and reaffmns
the recognition of special status conceded to all Baha'i holy
places- the continuation of a process initiated by the Guardian
himself.
Throughout the planning stages and more recently throughout
the early phases of construction, the Baha'i projects have
evoked growing interest among dignitaries in Israel, and several
high-level official delegations have visited the sites, including
the Israeli Minister of Tourism and the Mayor of Haifa.
Previously, the then President of Israel and the Deputy Prime
Minister and Foreign Minister had viewed the models of the
Mount Carmel Projects during visits to the Baha'i World Centre.
The Terraces Project has also caught the imagination of the
people of Haifa, and they anticipate that the "Baha'i hanging
gardens," as the media enthusiastically describe them, "will be
the most beautiful gardens in the world."

Support from Around the World
While the projects currently under way on Mount Carmel are
preeminently spiritual in character, their completion depends on
the voluntary and sacrificial contributions of Baha'is throughout
the world. In its 4 January 1994 letter to the Baha'is of the
world, the Universal House of Justice clearly outlines both the
significance of the undertaking and what is required for the task
to be seen through to its conclusion:

The establishment of the World Administrative Centre of
the Faith on Mount Carmel at this juncture in the fortunes of
mankind is essential to hasten the Order of Baha'u'llah. The
believers are called upon to sustain this vast collective
enterprise upon which the community of the Most Great
N arne is now embarked, through a sacrificial outpouring of
material resources and through their dedication to the work
of the Cause at this time of unprecedented need and
opportunity.

Every step in the construction of the edifices of the Arc
propels the world closer to the time when, in the words of the
Universal House of Justice, "they will stand as the visible seat of

MOUNT CARMEL pROJECTS

mighty institutions whose purpose is no other than the spiritualization of humanity and the preservation of justice and unity
throughout the world," while the "beauty and magnificence" of
the gardens and terraces are seen as symbolic of "the nature of
the transformation which is destined to occur both within the
hearts of the world's peoples and in the physical environment of
the planet."

A view of the lower and upper terraces of the
Shrine of the Bab, taken May 1993.

THEYEARrN
REVIEW

T he period under review, 21 April 1993 to 20 April 1994,
marked the first year of an international Three Year Plan for
the further development of the Baha'i community. Efforts to
attain the Plan's goals of enhancing the vitality of the faith of
individual believers, developing the human resources of the
Cause, and consolidating Baha'i institutions inspired activities
far beyond the number that can be comprehensively reported in
these pages. What follows, therefore, is a survey of highlights
arranged to provide a sense of some of the main areas of Baha'i
activity during this year. Beginning with a brief report on
significant events at the Baha'i World Centre in Haifa, Israel,
this survey covers the following: Baha'i institutions, the
advancement of women, indigenous peoples, environmental
protection, social and economic development (with a special
focus on education and health care), other areas of involvement,
sharing the message ofBaha'u'llah, expressing faith through the
arts, Baha'i youth, Baha'i scholarship, and Baha'i Houses of
Worship.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

Dignitaries Visit Baha'i World Centre
On 12 June 1993, the Deputy Prime Minister of Papua New
Guinea (who later became Prime Minister), Sir Julius Chan,
accompanied by Lady Chan, visited the Baha'i World Centre
during the course of his official visit to Israel. In response to Sir
Julius' request, the Universal House of Justice met with the

Deputy Prime
Minister of
Papua New
Guinea, Sir
Julius Chan,
right, visiting
the Baha'i
World Centre,
12 June 1993.

Deputy Prime Minister for consultation on the future role of
Papua New Guinea as an emerging nation and the destiny of the
Pacific region. Discussion focused on the potential for Pacific
nations to set an example of unity and mutual cooperation. The
visit was the third of its kind by a Pacific leader: the Prime
Minister of the Cook Islands met with the House of Justice in
1986, and the President of the Marshall Islands was received in
1990.
On 24 March 1994, the Dalai Lama visited the Baha'i World
Centre, becoming the most senior head of another religion to
enter the Shrine of the Bab. The distinguished guest reverently
meditated in the Shrine and then placed the traditional white silk
scarf on the threshold. The presentation of such a scarf
represents an act of deep respect on the part of the Dalai Lama.
Among other prominent personalities the Baha'i World
Centre welcomed were Zambia's Minister of Local Government

YEAR IN REVIEW

and Housing, Dr. Roger Chongwe,
in April 1993; Hungary's Minister
of Trade and Industry, Dr. James
Latorcai, in November 1993; and
Federal Deputy of Brazil, Mr.
Luis Gushiken, in February 1994.
Ambassadors from Canada, China,
the Dominican Republic, France,
India, Norway, the Philippines,
Poland, Sweden, and the European
Economic Community were also
received.

Baha'i Institutions
Baha'u'lhih's revelation brought
to the world not only spiritual The Dalai Lama, who visited
the Bahci 'i World Centre
principles to guide individual life
24 March 1994
and social principles to create
harmonious communities, but also an administrative order comprehensive and flexible enough to make possible the practical
realization of spiritual ideals. 1
This past year coincided with the Seventh International
Baha'i Convention held 29 April to 2 May 1993 in Haifa.
Members of the Universal House of Justice, the international
governing body of the worldwide Baha'i commmunity, were
elected to a five-year term, ballots being cast by delegates representing 165 National or Regional Spiritual Assemblies.
Members of 12 new National or Regional Assemblies voted for
the first time. 2
The Convention was also attended by high-ranking officers
holding appointed positions in the Faith: the Hands of the Cause
of God, the Counsellor members of the International Teaching
Centre, and Counsellors from all five Continental Boards, who

1. For a definition of the administrative order and other Baha'i terms, see
Glossary.
2. See full article on the Convention, pp. 51-58.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

stayed in Haifa one additional week for consultations of their
own. 3
The three Hands of the Cause of God, all of them of advanced
years, continued to serve the Cause untiringly during the year.
Amatu'l-Baha Rul.llyyih K.hanum undertook an arduous and
extensive journey to thirteen countries and independent
territories and seventeen major cities of the former Soviet
Union. Beginning with her attendance in May á 1993 at the
National Convention of Azerbaijan and the National Convention
of Uzbekistan, she travelled for four months, covering territory
from Yakutsk in Siberia to the Baltic States in the west, most of
the Central Asian Republics, and the central part of Russia. She
met with numerous high government officials, including the
Speaker of the Parliament of Azerbaijan, the Vice President and
Minister of Justice of Kyrgyzstan,á and the Speaker of the
Parliament of Turkmenistan. Amatu'l-Baha was invited to
address the Supreme Soviets of the Sakha Republic and the
Buryat Republic.

Handofthe
CauseofGod
Amatu '1-Bahil. B~~Grli
Ru~iyyih
Kh.anum, left,
accompanied
by the Minister
ofReligion of
Kyrgyzstan
during her
visit to that
Republic in
June 1993.

In October 1993, Amatu'l-Baha travelled to England and was
officially received at Buckingham Palace by His Royal
Highness the Prince Philip and at the House of Lords by Lord St.
John of Bletso. A luncheon was also given in her honor at the
private dining room of the Law Society in London with thirty
distinguished members .ofthe Bar.

3. See full article on the Counsellors' Conference, pp. 59-66.

YEAR IN REVIEW

Hand of the Cause of God 'Ali-AkbarFurlitan, who resides in
the Holy Land, continued to nurture the faith and enrich the
experience of Baha'i pilgrims, approximately two thousand of
whom visit the Baha'i World Centre each year. Hand of the

Hand of the Cause of God 'Ali-Akbar Furotan, counselling one ofthe
many Baha'is with whom he comes in contact each year.

Cause of God 'Ali-Mul).ammad Varqa, who has been
Trustee of I:Iuququ'llah for
the past thirty-eight years,
visited the Baha'i World
Centre and remained there
for several months to supervise and direct the work of
the Office of I:Iuququ'llah.
He also attended the seventeenth annual conference of
the Association for Baha'i
Studies in Montreal, Canada, in June 1993.
On the national and local
levels, a number of mile- CauseofGod
stones were passed in the 'Ali-Mu~ammad Varqa,
expansion of the elected arm Trustee of/fuququ 'llah

of the Baha'i administrative order. The National Spiritual
Assembly of Sierra Leone reported in April 1993 that it had
been legally incorporated. In September, advice was received
from the National Spiritual Assembly of Hungary that the government had officially recognized the Baha'i Faith as a religion,
thus paving the way for establishment there of Baha'i institutions. In December, the National Spiritual Assembly of Bulgaria
was formally registered by the Bulgarian Council of Ministers.
In Mongolia, the "Association of Baha'is" was officially
registered as a "public organization" in June 1993, effecting
formal registration at the highest level provided under Mongol
Law. As a result, the Mongolian Baha'i community gained the
right to own property and to issue invitations to foreign visitors,
and the way was opened for election of Mongolia's first
National Spiritual Assembly in the spring of 1994. The election
of the first National Spiritual Assembly of Cambodia in April
1994 had similarly been made possible when the Ministry of
Religion formally registered the Baha'i Faith in October 1993.
These developments and the expansion of the Baha'i
community made possible the formation at RiQ.van 1994 of new
National or Regional Spiritual Assemblies in Cambodia,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Slovenia and Croatia,
Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
Among the many Local Spiritual Assemblies formed during
the year, two merit particular mention. The Local Spiritual
Assembly of Tbilisi (Tiflis ), the capital of the Republic of
Georgia, was re-established at RiQ.van 1993; an Assembly had
first existed there during the 1930s. Likewise, the Local
Spiritual Assembly of Leipzig, Germany, was re-established
some fifty-six years after its dissolution during the time the Faith
was banned.
The fiftieth anniversary of the formation of the first Local
Spiritual Assembly of Santiago, Chile, at Ri<;lvan 1993, was
celebrated with a special public meeting, preparation of an
exhibit with photographs and text, the recording of a cassette of
sacred writings with musical background, and production of a

YEAR IN REVIEW

commemorative brochure. Finally, the Local Spiritual Assembly
of Curitiba, Brazil, received a special certificate of "Public
Recognition" from the City Council on the occasion of the 300th
anniversary of the city. It reads: "The City Council of
Curitiba ... pays homage to the Local Spiritual Assembly of the
Baha'is of Curitiba for its important services to the community
of Curitiba."

Advancement of Women
In May 1993, the Baha'i International Community's Office for
the Advancement of Women was officially opened in New York
City. One of the principle teachings of Baha'u'llah is the

Director of the Office for the Advancement of Women,
Mary Power, left, and "Women of Honor" award-winner
Mildred Mottahedeh were among the nearly one hundred people
present at the official opening of the office in May 1993.

equality of the sexes, and throughout its briefhistory, the Baha'i
community has achieved an extraordinary record in this area. 4

4. For a detailed discussion of the Baha'i teachings regarding the status of
women and a survey of activities undertaken by Baha'i communities around
the world in this field, please see pp. 237-275 .

The Office for the Advancement of Women was created in
response to greater demands for Baha'i interaction with international entities concerned with matters affecting the rights, status,
and well-being of women. Its aim is also to advise National
Spiritual Assemblies regarding programs and projects in which
Baha'i involvement can encourage efforts toward the realization
of equality. The ninety guests attending the opening of the
office viewed an exhibit entitled "Baha'i Women in the
Vanguard" which featured tributes to the work of Bahiyyih
Khanum, Elsie Austin, Laura Dreyfus-Bamey, Magdalene
Carney, Shirin Fozdar, Muna MaJ:.unudnizhad, Martha Root, and
Hilda Yen. 5
The Baha'i International Community has been extensively
involved in projects related to the advancement of women for
some time. Since 1988, the Baha'i International Community has
served as convenor of the organization Advocates for African
Food Security: Lessening the Burden on Women, and in October

5. Bahiyyih Khanum (1846-1932), daughter of Baha'u'lhih and sister of
'Abdu'l-Baha, was designated by Shoghi Effendi as "the outstanding heroine
of the Baha'i Dispensation." Elsie Austin, a lecturer with a distinguished
career in law and public service, was the first African-American woman to
serve as Assistant Attorney General of the State of Ohio. Laura Dreyfus-
Earney (1879-1974), an American who was one of the earliest Baha'is in
France, spent her life promoting unity and advocating women's rights through
her work with the League of Nations and the United Nations. Her interviews
with 'Abdu'l-Baha led to publication of the book Some Answered Questions.
Magdalene Carney (1929-1991), a dedicated educator who earned her doctorate in the field, spent thirteen years on the National Spiritual Assembly of the
United States and the last eight years of her life as a Counsellor member of the
International Teaching Centre at the Baha'i World Centre. Shirin Fozdar
(1905-1992) devoted her life to defending the rights of women, voicing their
concerns at the highest levels of government in Singapore, Vietnam, and
Thailand, and founding the Singapore Council of Women in 1952. Muna
Mal)mudnizhad (1966-1983) was a seventeen-year old teacher of children's
classes who was hanged in Iran for refusing to recant her beliefs. Martha Root
(1872-1939) was an American journalist who circled the globe several times
during twenty years oftravelling to teach about the Baha'i Faith. Hilda Yen
(1905-1970) was born in China, educated in the United States at Smith
College, and after World War II became a regular speaker on behalf of the
fledgling United Nations and the Baha'i Faith.

1993 that organization sponsored a workshop at the Association
for Women's Development Conference held in Washington,
DC. The workshop was chaired by Mary Power, director of the
new Baha'i office. The same month, the Baha'i International
Community was represented at the second "Symposium for
Women Farmers, Policy Makers and Agricultural Extension
Workers" sponsored by Advocates for African Food Security
and held in Tanzania.
In September 1993, the first phase of a project co-sponsored
by the Baha'i International Community and the United Nations
Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) was completed.
"Traditional Media as Change Agent," which began in October
1991, aims to uplift the status of women using traditional
theater, songs, and dances to raise awareness of equality issues
among both men and women. Begun in Cameroon, Bolivia, and
Malaysia, where national and local Baha' i communities
provided a network of motivated volunteers, the project shows
signs of expanding to other countries.
In November 1993, the director of the Office for the
Advancement of Women travelled with a member of the
Continental Board of Counsellors in Asia, Lee Lee Ludher, to
the Philippines for the Asia/Pacific Regional Non-Governmental
Organization (N GO) Conference held in preparation for the
Fourth World Conference on Women to take place in Beijing,
China, in 199 5.
Representatives of the Office for the Advancement of
Women were also present at the World Non-Governmental
Organization Forum launching 1994 as the International Year of
the Family. Baha'i participation in the event, held in Malta from .
29 November to 2 December 1993, included presentation of a
workshop entitled "Breaking the Equality Barrier: Emerging
Roles of Men and Women in Families"; construction of a
display featuring the Baha'i approach to family unity; and a new
brochure explaining the Baha'i teachings on the family.
On all continents, national Baha'i communities also
continued their work to raise the status of women. Conferences
to address a range of issues related to women were held in Costa

The World NGO Forum in Malta, held to launch the United Nations
International Year ofthe Family, was attended by representatives
of the Bahci 'i Office for the Advancement of Women.

Baha 'is in Zambia join representatives ofother non-governmental
organizations in a parade launching the International Year ofthe Family.

Rica, Germany, Kenya, Mauritius, Papua New Guinea, and the
Netherlands. A special conference to encourage indigenous
women was held in Panama in July 1993.

The important roles women play in social and economic
development were particularly emphasized in Asia this year. A
Baha'i delegation attended an NGO Symposium on Women in
Development held in the Philippines in November 1993. The
550 participants discussed how NGOs could help formulate a
regional plan of action for the advancement of women in Asia
and the Pacific. Another Baha'i delegation took part in the
fiftieth session of the United Nations Economic & Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific held in India in April 1994.
The Baha'is presented a statement during discussion of regional
preparations for the 1995 World Conference on Women.
The Baha'i Vocational Institute for Rural Women in Indore,
India, collaborated with the All-India Women's Conference to
organize a workshop with two objectives: to prepare for the
World Conference on Women and to identify the role of the
woman as social change agent. The workshop was held on
8 March to celebrate International Women's Day. Also in India,
the second Women's Tailoring and Integrated Rural
Development Course began at New Era Development Institute
in June. The course combines technical training in tailoring
with development education. To commemorate International
Women's Day in Bamenda, Cameroon, Baha'is distributed two
hundred copies of a document called "Peace, Equality,
Development" prepared by the Local Spiritual Assembly. The
theme of International Women's Day in Uganda was "Women
and the Constitution," and the National Spiritual Assembly of
that country presented a Baha'i proposal for the constitution to
the Central Government Representative. A conference held for
International Women's Day in Lubumbashi, Zaire, included a
drama portraying different ways women are treated and demonstrating an example of a Baha'i family. Baha'is co-sponsored
the event, which attracted more than 130 people, including 55
representatives from different religious and cultural congregations.
A characteristic feature of the Baha'i approach to the
advancement of women is the partnership of men and women in
the process leading toward the realization of true equality.
Baha'i men in the village of Honsee Bazaar, Sri Lanka, acted

THE BAHA'I WORLD
according to this principle by working with a local women's
organization to prepare a program for International Women's
Day. After a walk through the town with banners proclaiming
equality, the program unfolded until late in the night with talks,
poetry reading, songs, and discussion.
The Centennial Year of Women's Suffrage in New Zealand
was marked by the Whangarei Baha'i Women's Group with a
dinner to acknowledge the contributions made by local women.
More than one hundred women- health professionals, teachers,
business women, public service managers, local authorities,
media professionals, and social workers- listened to an account
of the life and vision of Tahirih.
The Local Spiritual Assembly of Hyderabad, Pakistan,
celebrated Human Rights Day by organizing a seminar entitled
"The Role of Women in Attaining Human Rights." Four
professors of the Sindh University participated iná a panel
discussion attended by more than two hundred people. Radio
Hyderabad recorded the proceedings and aired a twelve-minute
program on the event.
Baha'i teachings on the key role of women in establishing
lasting peace were communicated to the President of the
Republic of Ireland, Mary Robinson, when she received a
delegation of nineteen Baha'is from Northern Ireland. The
delegation was one of six women's groups welcomed to the
presidential residence in December.
A workshop entitled "Empowering Women: A Baha'i
Perspective" was an integral part of a two-day conference held
in Bendigo, Victoria, Australia, in June. The conference,
"Criminal Assault in the Home," was organized by local
community and health workers and the local police. The ninetyminute workshop considered the application of Baha'i principles
of consultation, education, equality, and justice to the empowerment of women.
A seminar called "Transformation" was offered throughout
Europe by the European Task Force for Women. The seminar
aimed to release the capacities of women by awakening them to
their own qualities. At seminars given in Moscow and Perm,
Russia, women identified in themselves characteristics such as

YEAR IN REVIEW

enthusiasm, reliability, empathy, and wide-ranging interests
which they could u~e for service to humanity.
In Togo, the Baha'i community of Lome created an exhibit
entitled "The Role of the Mother in the Future of World Civilization" in honor of Mother's Day in May. It was displayed at
the national Baha'i center.
Two Baha'i women were particularly honored this year for
their outstanding lifetime achievements. In May, the Shirin
Fozdar Trust Fund was launched by the Association of Women
for Action and Research (AWARE) in Singapore, in commemoration of the life of Shirin Fozdar. The Fund will support
facilities that are beneficial to women, such as training centers
and shelters for the needy; provide educational opportunities for women; support study of issues of gender and
national development; and finance publications relevant to the
advancement of women. Mrs. Fozdar's contributions to equality
were also memorialized in the book Voices and Choices: The
Women s Movement in Singapore which was released in July.
Mildred Mottahedeh of the United States was one of five
recipients of the National Council of Women's "Women of
Honor Awards," presented in May 1993. Mrs. Mottahedeh
served for nineteen years as an observer at the United Nations on
behalf of the Baha'i International Community, closely following
the progress of assistance to developing countries. In 1954 she
undertook the most comprehensive survey to date of
development possibilities throughout Southeast Asia and the
Pacific Islands. From 1961 to 1963 she served as a member of
the International Baha'i Council in Haifa.

_Indigenous Peoples
More than 2,100 tribes, races, and ethnic groups are now
represented in the Baha'i community. It is not surprising that
indigenous peoples, who have often felt forced to á choose
between relative isolation to protect their cultural traditions or
interaction with the modem world which threatens their
communities, would readily respond to the Faith ofBaha'u'llah.
They are reassured in fmding that it embodies both eternal
spiritual truths and teachings for today such as the value of

cultural diversity and universal participation in the decisionmaking process.
The number of indigenous peoples in the Baha'i community
and the value Baha'is place on preserving the beauty of diverse
cultures put the community in a unique position to respond to
the United Nations designation of 1993 as the International Year
for the World's Indigenous Peoples. In Australia, the Pacific
Islands, and North and South America, particularly, Baha'is
initiated and participated in special events related to this theme.
The Australian Baha'i community and the Arrente Aboriginal
tribe co-sponsored an intercultural celebration of indigenous
peoples entitled "Heart of Australia Calling" in October 1993, in
Alice Springs. This one-week festival brought together more
than 150 Baha'is from Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand,
Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Tonga, and Tuvalu. Her Highness
Princess To' oa Tosi Malietoa of Western Samoa officially
opened the festival, which included workshops, entertainment,
and consultation about future activities.
Participants had been personally invited to the gathering by
Aboriginal elder Raymond Wymarra, who travelled across the
islands of the South Pacific carrying a traditional Aboriginal
"message stick" bringing greetings from the Australian
government, the Arrente tribe of Alice Springs, and the Baha'i
National Spiritual Assembly of Australia. In addition to the
countries mentioned above, Mr. Wymarra visited Fiji, the
Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu, meeting with traditional leaders
and political leaders and exchanging gifts. During his visit to
Samoa in September, a special service was held at the House of
Worship. The service was attended by the Head of State of
Western Samoa, His Highness the Malietoa Tanumafili II, and
readers included the Australian High Commissioner, the United
Nations Coordinator for Samoa, and the Minister of Culture.
In addition to the "Heart of Australia Calling" gathering, a
number of other events in Australia commemorated the UN
Year. In April 1993, an Aboriginal Institute was held at
Yerrinbool Baha'i School to help the seventy-five participants
become more familiar with Aboriginal culture and history. In
July, the annual conference of the Association for Baha'i

People filing into the National Nakama! in Port Vila to hear speeches by
Raymond Wymarra and Chief Mariasua during Mr. Wymarra s visit to
Vanuatu in September 1993.

Aboriginal elder
Raymond Wymarra of
Australia raises the
traditional "message
stick" he carried
throughout the Pacific
region to invite
indigenous peoples to
an intercultural
celebration.

Studies-Australia focused on indigenous peoples. The same
month, National Aboriginal and Islanders' Week was celebrated
with a multicultural service at the House of Worship. An
audience of many different backgrounds listened to the sacred
scriptures being sung by an a capella choir, and then moved
outside the Temple to watch two'Lakota Sioux Indians from the
United States share their traditional dances and to hear a local
Baha'i sing Aborigine songs accompanied by clapping sticks
and didgeridoo.

In Sweden, American Baha'i Grace
Growing-Medicine Eagle, right, and
Auxiliary Board member Hans
Ohman participate in a Baha'i
summer camp held in connection
with the Cultural Festival for
Aboriginal Peoples.
Three Native Canadian travelling teachers,
Ernie Abel, left, Allison Healy, center, and Earl
Healy, right, with a young friend in lngra,
Russia, at the annual Reindeer Festival.
I

Youth dressed in traditional reindeer Elya Zlotnikou oflngra, Russia, with reindeer,
outfits, Ingra, Russia. at the time of the Reindeer Festival.

YEAR IN REVIEW

In September, the Australian Baha'i community took part in
the launching of a Week of Prayer for Aboriginal Reconciliation,
having been invited by the Australian government to read a
Baha'i prayer during the program held at the Parliament House
in Canberra.
The Baha'is of Tonga brought together members of nine
nationalities in September for a cultural festival to mark the Year
for the World's Indigenous Peoples. The more than one hundred
people who gathered at the National Cultural Center in Tofoa
came together to encourage harmony and understanding among
the various races. When the Baha'i community of Tonga
celebrated its fortieth anniversary in January 1994, members
made a traditional presentation of a large pig, a kava plant, food
crops, and traditionally strung flowers to the King, Taufa' ahau
Tupou IV, thanking him for allowing the Baha'i Faith to become
established in the country.
In November, the hereditary rulers of Wallis and Futuna, as
well as all their ministers and village chiefs, formally received a
group of Baha'is who came to present the Baha'i Faith in the
customary and traditional manner. The Futunan leaders stated
that the visit marked the first time a religious group had shown
such respect to the islands' kings.
A special conference was held in August on the island of
Upolu in Samoa to help deepen the understanding of village
chiefs who had recently enrolled in the Baha'i community.
They had learned about the Baha'i Faith from other village
chiefs who made special efforts to share Baha'u'llah's message
with their fellow traditional leaders.
In the Americas, special events marked the UN Year, and the
involvement of indigenous peoples in spreading the Baha'i Faith
to their peers continued. In November, representatives of the
National Spiritual Assembly of Canada addressed Canada's
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. The delegation
pointed out that governance should aim to educate and elevate
people, and the government should not be limited in conception
to being merely a regulative agency. The Commissioners who
heard the presentation stated they would bear in mind the
willingness of the Canadian .Baha'i community to collaborate

with government and aboriginal associations to pursue new
approaches to social and community development.
In Canada, too, indigenous Baha'is received special recognition. The Mayor and the Council of Coquitlam, British
Columbia, dedicated a park to the memory of Dorothy Maquabeak Francis, who spent her life preserving and promoting the
Salteaux culture and teaching the Baha'i Faith. Founder of the
first Native Friendship Center in Canada, social reformer,
author, native dancer, artist, and respected elder, Mrs. Francis
had been awarded the Order of Canada, the highest honor conferred on a civilian by the Canadian government. Another
Baha'i, Cindy Kenny-Gilday of Yellowknife, NWT, received the
National Aboriginal Achievement Award for 1994. Mrs. Gilday,
one of the first aboriginal teachers in the Northwest Territories,
has worked for many years with aboriginal organizations, hosted
a special television series on aboriginal issues in Canada, and
moderated the United Nations Conference on Traditional
Knowledge and the Environment in 1993.
A Unity of Vision Conference for the Indigenous Peoples,
held in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil, in September, brought together
representatives of four indigenous tribes. Rolf von Czekus,
member of the Continental Board of Counsellors in the
Americas, addressed the conference on the spiritual education
and the destiny of the indigenous peoples according to the
writings of 'Abdu'l-Baha.
The Local Spiritual Assembly of Nueva Imperial, Chile, cosponsored an event in December in honor of the Year for the
World's Indigenous Peoples. Other sponsors of the activity
included the Municipality of Nueva Imperial and the Special
Commission on Indigenous Peoples. A variety of music groups
visited eight schools in the area, and an Auxiliary Board
member spoke to a gathering of more than three hundred about
indigenous prophecies being fulfilled by the coming of
Baha'u'llah. The event was transmitted live by Radio Baha'i,
with simultaneous translations into Mapuche.
Indigenous peoples of South America actively spread the
teachings of Baha'u'llah. A group of Baha'is, many native
Wichis (Matacos) of Argentina, helped to establish the Baha'i

YEAR IN REVIEW

Faith among their people by sharing its teachings, further
educating new Baha'is about the history and principles of the
Cause, and conducting classes for children in aboriginal
settlements. In Peru, a project organized primarily by native
believers appointed by the National Spiritual Assembly
introduced the Faith to fourteen new Aymara communities and
seven new Quechua communities. More than two hundred
people in these areas declared their faith in Baha'u'llah.
A weekly Baha'i radio program called "Ewets Jolotsu Wataal
Malaa" ("Looking for the Morning Star"), produced in
Venezuela, has for more than three years been one of the few
radio programs in the Guajiro language. In June 1993, the first
programs completely written and produced by the Guajiro
Baha'is were aired.
Washington Araujo, author of Estamos desaparecendo da
Terra (We Are Disappearing from the Earth) and member of the
National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Brazil, was
invited by the National Spiritual Assembly of Spain to speak in
fourteen cities of Spain and Portugal to mark the Year for
Indigenous Peoples. His book calls for recognition of the value
of the indigenous cultures of the Americas, understanding of
their history, and protection of their heritage.
The Baha'is of Sweden hosted an annual Scandinavian
midsummer camp in association with the Cultural Festival for
Aboriginal Peoples. Held in Karesuando in June 1993, the camp
drew eighty participants, including a Hopi Indian Baha'i from
the United States. Grace áGrowing-Medicine Eagle shared
prophecies of the Hopi Indians and spoke in a kata, a traditional
Lapp tent, where information on the Baha'i Faith was
distributed during the festival.

Environmental Protection
Following extensive Baha'i involvement in the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro
(known as the Earth Summit) in June 1992 and its companion
conference, the Global Forum, Baha'is continued their efforts to
stimulate education about environmental protection.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

The Baha'i International Community's Office of the
Environment contributed an article called "The Earth One
Country, Mankind Its Citizens" to the book Masterworks ofMan
and Nature: Preserving Our World Heritage, which was
released in December 1993. The book was a joint project of
UNESCO and the World Conservation Union. The Office of
the Environment was approached for a contribution after an
organizer of the book project read the Baha'i International
Community statement "World Conservation Strategy for the
1990s."
In honor of the first anniversary of the Earth Summit, the
Office of the Environment sent to every Head of State a copy of
the . book Tomorrow Belongs to the Children, which it had
produced in collaboration with UNICEF. On World Environment Day 1993, June á5, a special commemoration took place at
the Baha'i Peace Monument in Rio de Janeiro which had been
dedicated during the Earth Summit. Fifteen new soil samples
from around the world were added to the fifty samples already
displayed inside the monument as a symbol of the unity of
nations. The new samples came from Chile, China, Colombia,
Germany, Grenada, Greece, Myanmar, Nepal, Senegal, Sweden,
Syria, Thailand, Tunisia, Uruguay, and Zaire.
For the five days preceding the ceremony at the Peace
Monument, a display prepared by the Baha'is of Brazil and
UNICEF was exhibited in a main hall of the Federal Chamber of
Deputies. The display, which included drawings and messages
from children around the world, was put together to commemorate the World Week for the Protection of the
Environment. Another Baha'i display on the environment was
exhibited at the International Wildlife Management Conference
in Costa Rica in September 1993. The conference was attended
by approximately six hundred scientists, environmentalists,
businessmen, and students from seventy countries. The Baha'i
exhibit featured photographs and quotations from Baha'u'llah's
writings on the balance between man, nature, and God.
A Baha'i exhibit entitled "Race Unity: America's Key to
Sustainable Development," was displayed at the first large-scale

YEAR IN REVIEW

discussion of environmental concerns held in the United States
following the Earth Summit. "From Rio to the Capitols: State
Strategies for Sustainable Development" brought sixteen
hundred representatives of state governments, NGOs, businesses, and environmental groups to Kentucky in May to find
common ground. In two keynote speeches to a workshop panel
on "Environmental and Economic Equity," the secretary-general
of the National Spiritual Assembly, Dr. Robert Henderson,
framed the issues in terms of social justice and the unity of
mankind. The points made in his speeches were complemented
by the exhibit, which showed that the promotion of race unity
must be at the heart of local, state, and national strategies for
successful sustainable development.
The crucial link between environmental protection and the
principle of the oneness of humanity also guided the work of the
Baha'i Office of the Environment for Taiwan. This agency

Dignitaries and onlookers gather on World Environment Day, 5 June 1993, in
Rio de Janeiro to deposit the soil of fifteen nations in the Peace Monument.
developed workshop lectures, radio tapes, and a thirty-minute
video on environmental education, all of which were made
available to the community free of charge. Environmental
education was also provided by the Baha'i Vocational Institute
for Rural Women in Indore, India, which increased its efforts in

this area after participating in the Earth Summit. In May the
institute organized and hosted a five-hour workshop to inspire
sixty engineering students to launch environmental awareness
campaigns in their rural and tribal communities. A few days
later, the institute hosted an environmental program and dinner
for eighty guests in honor of World Environment Day.
Approaches to environmental education ranged from the diplomatic to the artistic. The Baha'i Office of the Environment in
Singapore hosted a Japanese delegation in October, providing
requested information on environmental activities organized by
women. The Local Spiritual Assembly of Puerto Tejada,
Colombia, created a mural on ecology, with the statement
"Nature is a reflection of the Divine. Do not destroy it!" in
response to an invitation from the municipality to participate
in the community's frrst display of murals.
Two Baha'i communities were recognized for their efforts to
preserve the environment. The National Spiritual Assembly of
Mauritius was registered by the Ministry of the Environment
and Quality of Life as a non-governmental organization for the
purposes of promotion, protection, and conservation of the environment for the year 1993-94. The efforts made by the Baha'is
of Kigoma, Tanzania, in the area of tree conservation were cited
by the government as positive examples for the community.
At news stands in Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay,
the seventh edition of Ecologia y Unidad Mundial (Ecology and
World Unity) became available for sale in the spring of 1994.
The magazine, which is produced by the Baha'i Department of
Ecological Studies, contains articles related to the environment,
social and economic development, and Baha'i principles. More
than thirty-five hundred were sold during the Buenos Aires
Book Fair.

Social and Economic Development
During the period under review, Baha'is continued their efforts
to contribute to the discourse on social and economic

development and to expand their involvement in development
projects. 6
"A Global Strategy and Action Plan," a statement by the
Baha'i International Community, was presented to the first conference of the Preparatory Committee for the World Summit for
Social Development. The conference was held in New York
City in February 1994, as part of preparations for the World
Summit to be held in Copenhagen in March 1995. The statement, which was read to the plenary session of approximately
five hundred United Nations and government representatives,
urged the prepcom to make the principle of the oneness of
humanity the central unifying theme of the summit.
In December, more than 650 people representing nineteen
countries gathered in Orlando, Florida, in the United States for
the 1993 North American Baha'i Conference on Social and
Economic Development. Participants consulted about how
increasing knowledge and skills can bring about development
initiatives in the areas of race unity, family cohesion, the
advancement of women, education, environmental protection,
health, and the rights of indigenous peoples.
The Guyana Office of Social and Economic Development
(GOSED), a committee of the National Spiritual Assembly,
hosted a áconference in January 1994 focusing on sustainable
development. Approximately 185 people representing fifty nongovernmental associations and international donor agencies
attended. The official opening of the conference featured an
address by the Minister of Health, Gail Teixeira, and was
attended by the United States Ambassador and the Deputy
Ambassador of the People's Republic of China. The principal
addresses at both the opening and closing sessions were
delivered by Dr. Alfred Neumann, Director of the Preventative
Health Program at the University of California, Los Angeles,
and a representative of Health for Humanity, a Baha'i medical

6. For an overview of Baha'i social and economic development theory and
practice, see The Baha'i World 1992-93, pp. 229-245.

Daily classes in vocational education are offered to street children at the
Center for Social Well-Being operafed by the Bahti 'i community ofBrazil.

assoc1at10n. One of the highlights of the gathering was
the premiere of the video edition of Facts for Life, a health
education tool jointly created by UNICEF, the Guyana Community Based Rehabilitation Program, and GOSED.
The Baha'is of Ecuador participated in the first National
Seminar on Social and Economic Development, held in Quito
from 20 August to 2 September. The event was organized by
two foundations: the Third Millenium and New America. The
ninety participants heard presentations by a member of the
National Spiritual Assembly of Ecuador and a representative of
the Cultural and Educational Baha'i Foundation.
The first document to outline the Baha'i concepts of development in Spanish was released at the end of 1993. Bolivia's
National Baha'i Economic and Social Development Committee
published the proceedings of the first Latin American Seminar
on Baha'i Social and Economic Development which had taken
place in January 1993. The eighty-page document explains
Baha'i approaches and shares the experiences of Baha'is in the
field.
A seminar on development for the Pacific region was held in
Auckland, New Zealand, in July 1993. More than three hundred

YEAR IN REVIEW

Baha'is representing eighteen national communities listened to
speakers who emphasized the spiritual foundations of Baha'i
social and economic development and inspired the participants
to put the principles into action.
An exhibit of photographs demonstrating the contributions of
the Baha'i International Community to the social and economic
development of some French-speaking countries was displayed
at the City Hall of Port Louis, Mauritius, in October. The
National Spiritual Assembly organized the exhibition to
coincide with the French-Speaking Countries Summit.
In November, thirty individuals from ten countries gathered
in Switzerland for the third annual meeting of the International
Society for Agriculture and Rural Development, a Baha'i
professional organization. The conference focused on the
connection between agriculture, health, and nutrition, as participants represented agriculturalists, doctors, nutritionists, people
involved in community development, and farmers.
Education
On 26 November 1993, responsibility for the operation of five
elementary schools in the Marshall Islands was entrusted to the
Baha'i community when a Memorandum of Understanding was
signed by the Majuro Local Government and the National
Spiritual Assembly. The agreement came after a feasibility
study was completed by a consultant to the Office of Social and
Economic Development at the Baha'i World Centre, an initial
curriculum was drafted, and consultation took place among
President Amata Kabua, the Minister of Education, and
members of the National Spiritual Assembly. Members of the
Assembly then met with principals, teachers, and parents, who
expressed receptivity to the plan.
The turriculum for the Majuro Atoll schools will emphasize
character development and understanding of world interdependence, equipping students with moral and intellectual tools for
meeting the challenges of the modem age.
Baha'is continued to operate the hundreds of academic
schools, tutorial schools, and literacy programs they have
initiated around the world. In Swaziland, where the Baha'i
community runs five successful pre-schools, a new pnmary

In India, a young woman displays a Pygmy children in Benguis IL Gabon,
sample offabric she learned to tie-dye attend school in classrooms built by the
at the Narain Rao Vakil Institute during National Spiritual Assembly. This
a course which also included training in project provides education for eighty
literacy and community development. children who have no other schools.

Participants in the Rehema rug weaving project, a Baha 'i social and economic development project established in Kenya by three Baha'i women.

school was completed in Mbabane. In Zambia, where a Baha.'i
literacy project is responsible for thirty-two classes, International Literacy Day was celebrated 12 November 1993 with a
gathering of two hundred people. One local leader was so
impressed that his sixty-year-old wife had learned to read and
write that he declared he would donate land to help his village
literacy class begin an income-generating activity.

In April 1994, the first graduation ceremony was held for participants in a new one-year pre-primary teacher training course
offered by the New Era Development Institute in India. By the
time of graduation, two-thirds of the twenty-two graduates had
secured teaching jobs, and the rest had good opportunities.
Work in the field of education was balanced by participation
in the discourse about the nature of schooling.
A copy of the statement "World Citizenship" was distributed
to each of the twenty-one ministers of education and representatives of international organizations attending a meeting on
education in Brazil in July. The meeting was held as part of the
third Iberian-American Conference of Statesmen and Government Officials.
Following the success in Brazil of a Baha'i-produced radio
show on health, the government station Radio N acional da
Amazonia invited the Baha'i community to produce a twentyminute weekly talk show on education and family life. The
broadcasts began in July. Also in July, the President of
Honduras met with two representatives of the National Spiritual
Assembly who presented him with Baha'i literature as a contribution toward the education reform being sponsored by the
government.
A delegation of three Baha'is participated in the Non-
Governmental Organizations' Second Regional Consultation on
"Education For All by the Year 2000" in New Delhi, India, in
September. In Zambia, the Minister of Education, Dr. Kabunda
. Kayongo, invited Baha'i participation in an autumn seminar on
'the education of girls. Among the delegates was the principal of
the Baha'i-run Banani International Secondary School.
Ministry officials distributed copies of a paper prepared by the
Baha'i International Community to all the participants.
At the request of the National Centre for Educational
Resource Development of the Ministry of Education of Guyana,
a representative of the National Spiritual Assembly presented a
paper at a workshop on moral education held in November. The
thirty participants in the five-day workshop were asked to
examine papers presented by major religious, human rights, and

other organizations and to evaluate their contributions for
possible use in the country's school system.
Paraguay's Vice-Minister of Education and Religion received
a document on moral education from Baha'is in the community
in September. The Vice Minister promised to share the
information with the team working to develop the nation's
curriculum.
áBaha'i co-authors of The Virtues Guide, Linda Kavelin
Popov and Dan Popov, were presenters at the United Nations
World NGO Forum held on the island of Malta in December to
launch the International Year of the Family. Following the
conference, the authors were invited by the Cana Society
(Catholic Social Services) to stay and present The Virtues
Project to the Maltese people. Clergy, teachers, caregivers, and
lay people attended workshops on the strategies of the project.
Health Care
In the area of health care, Baha'i health educators addressed theá
long-term need to help local communities institute their own
comprehensive disease prevention programs, while Baha'i
doctors and health volunteers attempted to meet immediate
requirements for care.
More than one hundred health professionals gathered in
Evanston, Illinois, USA, in May 1993 for the first general
conference of Health for Humanity. The organization, incorporated in March 1992, is sponsored by the National Spiritual
Assembly of the United States and is based on the principles of
the nobility of humankind, group consultation, unified service,
and comprehensive health. Conference participants consulted
about the concept of linking hospitals in developed countries
with those in areas of greater need. The Ocotal Hospital in
Nicaragua linked with Princess Margaret Hospital in England
beginning in 1991 as part of a "hospital twinning project"
conceived by Nicaragua's Ministry of Health and the
Nicaraguan Baha'i community.
The frrst European Baha'i Medical Conference brought
together a similar number of professionals at De Poort, the
Netherlands, in October. Participants from twenty-six countries
studied the Baha'i teachings on the nature of man, health, and

YEAR IN REVIEW

healing and took preliminary steps to form a European Baha'i
Medical Association.
Kenya's Baha'i Social Mobilization Programme, which trains
community health workers for service in villages, was noted by
a representative of the Ministry of Health as a positive example
for other religious groups. The Baha'is were asked to describe
the function of the village health committees during a seminar
organized by a consultant from UNICEF to Kenya's Expanded
Programme for Immunization. The gathering was arranged to
enlist the assistance of religious leaders with improving immunization of children in Kenya. At the time of the seminar, Baha'i
community health workers were providing classes on hygiene,
immunization, breast feeding, malaria prevention, family
planning, and diarrhea control in more than eighty villages.
Health volunteers were also trained in Cameroon. The
Baha'i Village Health Volunteer Programme, which began in
East Province in October 1992, prepared another fifteen people
in North West Province to teach their peers about nutrition,
hygiene, and immunization.
The National Baha'i Development Institute in Rajshahi,
Bangladesh, held its first Rural Health Workers' Training
Course in August 1993. Twenty Baha'i youth who had applied

I

In Burkina Faso, a local woman conducts a health education class.

to be trained as community health workers took classes about
hygiene, child care, pre-natal care, common disease prevention,
and basic health care. The program constituted an orientation
preceding a full three-month training to be provided later.
Instruction was provided by two visiting doctors and doctors
from the health clinic sponsored by the institute. The visiting
doctors arrived in Rajshahi for the course after seeing more than
one thousand patients at a medical camp in Mymensingh and
speaking at the University of Dhaka.
A drug abuse prevention training course organized by the
Bangladesh Interreligious Brotherhood Association in August
was addressed by a member of the Baha'i Auxiliary Board. A
crowd of two hundred people representing more than fifty associations heard ideas about prevention measures on individual,
family, and societal levels, and listened to the Baha'i perspective
that drug abuse is only one among many social problems which
could be solved if humanity committed itself to fmding global
solutions.
Medical information about alcoholism was offered to the
people of Bulgaria through television programs prepared by a
Baha'i in Suriname. The programs, called "Because We Care,"
were delivered to Bulgaria as part of a cooperative project
involving Alcoholics Anonymous, Radio Hilversum, and the
Baha'i community of Utrecht, the Netherlands.
A program of public education about drug abuse was
launched in Guyana in February 1994 with the reading of a
statement prepared by the National Spiritual Assembly. The
program is sponsored by the Camp David Foundation, whose
aim is to educate and sensitize the public about the dangers of
drug abuse.
Efforts in the area of health education were joined by efforts
to meet immediate needs for health care. Two dentists and a
hygienic assistant from Europe treated more than seven hundred
patients in remote villages of India and offered classes on preventative dental care during a three-week visit in January. In
February, the National Baha'i Doctors Committee of Turkey
organized a free check-up campaign which reached more than
six hundred and fifty people.

YEAR IN REVIEW

Other Areas of Involvement
Issues related to women, indigenous peoples, the environment,
education, and health care were only a few of those addressed by
Baha'is, for whom the writings of Baha'u'lhih, 'Abdu'l-Baha,
and Shoghi Effendi provide solutions to the complex problems
of the day. Confident that world peace is inevitable, yet
conscious of the intensive work required, Baha'i communities
shared their ideas on the critical prerequisites for peace and
strove to bring about these conditions.
A delegation representing the Baha'i International Community participated in the United Nations World Conference on
Human Rights held in Vienna, Austria, in June 1993. The
delegation presented three statements at the conference, took
part in a panel discussion on religious intolerance, and was
represented on the twelve-person NGO Planning Committee
which organized the International NGO Forum preceding the
conference. The Baha'i display at the forum focused on
protecting human rights through education, the advancement of
women, and the strengthening of families.
Prior to the human rights conference, a representative of the
Baha'i International Community in France had been regularly
taking part in a series of meetings organized by the French
government to prepare for Vienna. While the conference was
proceeding in Vienna, Baha'is in the Netherlands, at the
invitation of the World Conference on Religion and Peace, were
participating in a round table discussion on the right to freedom
of thought and religion.
Human rights and conflict resolution were the topics
addressed by the Director of the Center for International
Development and Conflict Management of the University of
Maryland at College Park when he travelled from the United
States to Poland under the sponsorship of the Baha'i Chair for
World Peace, Landegg Academy, and the Adam Minkiewicz
University in Poznan. The Baha'i community of Poland played
an important role in arranging for the April 1994 visit.
The Baha'i International Community was represented at the
World Conference on Unity of Man held in Jalandar, Punjab,
India, in February 1994. The aim of the conference, which was

organized by the followers of Sant Kirpal Singh, was to explain
the basic unity of life and to make an appeal to the world against
aggression and violence, religious sectionalism, and racism.
The Baha'i representative addressed more than nine thousand
people.
The Baha'i view on peace was presented to a group in
Sweden which formed to study the United Nations statute and
make recommendations for revision. The Peace Popular
Academy, which was preparing a submission to the Ingvar
Carlsson Commission to help the Commission carry out its
official assignment to recommend statute changes, invited the
National Spiritual Assembly to share its perspective.
The Head of State of Jamaica, Sir Howard Cooke, invited the
National Spiritual Assembly of his country to visit him, and
ended up consulting with the members for more than an hour
about the issues facing Jamaica. Cameroon's nationwide
discussion about a new constitution prompted the National
Spiritual Assembly of that country to prepare a document
explaining Baha'i principles concerning the purpose and organization of government and law. It was presented to the members
of the Constitution Drafting Committee, key members of the
Parliament, and all major political parties.
As the people of Guinea-Bissau were preparing for their first
elections, the National Spiritual Assembly planned a conference
called "A New Model for Democratic Elections." Held in
August, the conference was attended by the President and three
members of theá Electoral Commission, the Ambassador from
Cuba, the Consul from Senegal, and representatives of two
political parties.
In South Africa, where a Peace Day was held on 2 September
1993, the Office of the Mayor of Johannesburg invited the Local
Spiritual Assembly to participate in a prayer and song meeting
in the City Library Gardens. A Baha'i prayer for mankind was
recited for a group of more than six hundred, and copies of The
Promise of World Peace were distributed.
The peace activities carried out by the National Spiritual
Assembly of Uruguay were recognized by the Oriental Cultural
Association with an award bestowed in September 1993.

In the Ukraine, a series of seminars on "The New World
Order," conducted by a visiting scholar, formally inaugurated
the Institute of Spiritual Foundations for World Civilization in
November. The institute, inspired by Baha'i teachings, was
constituted by the Ukraine Academy of Sciences for Social
Progress in Kiev. A second series of seminars, called "The
Spiritual Heritage of Humanity and its Relation to Civilization,"
was conducted in December.

The Bahti 'is ofNorthern Ireland organized a walk for world peace to bring
The Promise of World Peace to the attention of their fellow citizens.

The first Baha'i exhibition for peace in Peru was displayed in
Cuzco for five days in September. The documentary about
Baha'u'llah, entitled Prisoner of 'Akkci, a video about the World
Congress, and a slide show were presented. In conjunction with
the exhibition, a panel discussion on peace was organized.
Another panel discussion addressing the issues of moral
education, the environment, and the advancement of women
took place in Paraguay in November and was filmed for
television.
Baha'i participation in the Parliament of the World's
Religions, held in Chicago 28 August to 5 September, was
vigorous. Baha'is presented some thirty workshops and talks.
More than seven thousand people representing virtually every

major religion and coming from fifty-six countries were m
attendance at this commemoration of the one hundredth
anniversary of the frrst World's Parliament of Religions. At the
end of the event, a special assembly of religious and spiritual
leaders came together to sign a "Declaration of a Global Ethic,"
a five thousand word document that seeks to identify those
moral principles shared by the world's religions and promote
them as the basis for a sustainable world order.
The seminar "Interreligious Harmony for World Peace"
organized by the Religion and Peace Academy Nepal included
Baha'i presenters. The Academy was established by the World
Conference on Religion and Peace and the Asian Conference on
Religion and Peace.
In the United States, where racism poses a major barrier to
peace, the Baha'is tackled this issue in a number of ways. In
Los Angeles, the Baha'i community, the Human Rights
Commission, and the Office of the Mayor are co-sponsoring a
project called "Vision of a New Los Angeles." The project was
conceived after a meeting with the city's mayor in 1991 and
accelerated following race-related riots in the city in 1992. The
steering committee produced a directory of the city's three to
four hundred human rights agencies to promote collaboration
and produced a fourteen-page vision statement with nine major
premises on which participants in the project agree. On the
anniversary of the riots, 29 April 1993, the Los Angeles Baha'i
Center was the site of a day of spiritual cleansing organized by
LA Clean-Up, a group which had designed a program of
continual projects involving thousands of citizens. Because
of the Baha'i Center's reputation as a place welcoming people of
all backgrounds, it was selected as the location for a twentyfour-hour prayer vigil which began with a ceremonial planting
of a ' "peace pole"- a redwood pole bearing the phrase "May
peace prevail on earth; may peace prevail in our homes and
communities" in four languages.
On the other side of the United States, in New York City, the
"Racism. Just Undo It" Task Force of the Spiritual Assembly of
New York made plans for its local campaign to expand
nationally. Members of the campaign, who took part in twenty
events in the five boroughs of New York during the summer of

. 110
1993, design~d a brochure explaining the effort, began preparing
materials for schools, and held a contest to solicit creative
approaches to healing racism.
In other cities across the United States, Baha'is made a
variety of efforts to address this complicated issue. A full-length
musical drama about interracial á relationships, called "Out of
This Darkness," was created in Virginia with plans for a fivemonth tour of the mid-Atlantic region. Race Unity Day 1993,
13 June, was celebrated by Baha'is in numerous cities: a forum
called "How will the elimination of racism change my life?" was
sponsored in Waco, Texas; a "jazz jam" tribute to the late jazz
musician and long-time Baha'i Dizzy Gillespie was organized in
Ashland, Oregon; the first Race Unity Award was presented by
the Baha'is of St. Tammany Parish West, Louisiana; and a
celebration including dance, poetry, and music, drew two
thousand people in Boston.
In December, when three thousand Baha'is gathered for the
1993 Grand Canyon Conference in Phoenix, Arizona, the city
mayor proclaimed the dates of the meeting as Racial Unity
Weekend.
In Canada, too, racial issues received attention. The International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination- 21
March 1994-was selected for presentation of the Race Unity
Award 1994 by the National Spiritual Assembly. This was the
second annual presentation of the award.
Believing that individual moral rectitude is indispensable to
the solution of social problems, the Baha'i community sought to
draw attention to this critical, yet often ignored, issue. One
example comes from Bulgaria, where a conference was held on
"Moral and Ethical Principles in a Social Market Economy."
The November event was co-sponsored by the European Baha'i
Business Forum (EBBF), the National Spiritual Assembly of
Bulgaria, the Bulgarian Association of the Club of Rome, and
Bulgaria's Institute for Sustainable Development. During the
conference, the EBBF was invited by the principal of the College of Trade Export Marketing to lead a seminar on integrating
business ethics into the curriculum of the college.

THE BAHA:f WORLD

A national essay competition on the subject of "morality in
education and life" was sponsored by the Baha'i community of
Swaziland for students from high schools and universities. The
awards ceremony was held in July 1993, with the participation
of a representative of the Minister of Education.

Sharing the Message of Baha 'u 'llah
Believing that Baha'i principles shed light on the maJor
challenges facing humanity today, Baha'is are eager to share
with individuals and groups pursuing similar aims the reason for
their own optimism about the resolution of these issues. The
fundamental belief of every Baha'i is that Baha'u'llah is no less
than the Bearer of a Divine Revelation which fulfills the
promises made in earlier religions and which is powerful enough
to transform and unite the hearts of all people. Therefore
Baha'is continually strive to offer, in a spirit of openness, their
knowledge ofBaha'u'llah.
Baha'u'llah's teachings are enshrined in numerous volumes
of His writings, substantial portions of which have been
translated into a wide range of languages. Baha'i information
programs include presentation of the Creative Word of God, as
well as the writings of 'Abdu'l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi, who
were authorized to elucidate Baha'u'llah's writings after His
passing. To promote recognition and dissemination of these
sacred writings, Baha'i participation in book fairs and individual
presentations of literature continued vigorously during 1993-94.
Baha'i Publications International represented Baha'i publishing at the London International Book Fair in March 1994. For
the first time, the Baha'i Faith was included as a classified
subject category in the official fair catalogue. The Sixth International Book and Video Fair in Budapest, Hungary, also held in
March, featured a prominent stand with Baha'i literature.
Baha'i books, including Spanish translations of The Hidden
Words and the Baha'i International Community's statement on
Baha'u'llah, were sold at the International Book Fair held in
Guadalajara, Mexico, in November/December.
Baha'is also participated in significant book fairs on the
national level. A Baha'i booth at the Buenos Aires, Argentina,

YEAR IN REVIEW

The National Spiritual Assembly ofMexico is represented at the International
Book Fair in Guadalajara by Editorial Baha'i Indolatinoamericana.

Book Fair, held 25 March to 12 April 1994, was visited by
thousands of people. This is the largest Spanish language book
fair in the world. Baha'is of India were involved in major book
fairs in Bhubaneswar, Madras, and Phulbani. Approximately
fifty thousand people visited the Baha'i exhibit at the Himachal
Pradesh summer festival in Shimla, India. Spain's Barcelona
Book Fair and Sweden's Gothenberg Book Fair included Baha'i
exhibits. The Baha'i community of the Faeroe Islands displayed
the nine books it had published during the 1992-93 period at the
Faeroe Islands Book Exhibition held in November 1993.
More than five hundred Baha'i books in different languages
were displayed at the National Library in Tirana, Albania, for
one week in June 1993. The opening of the exhibit was attended
by about eighty people, including the Vice Minister of Culture.
A selection of Baha'i literature in Basque and French was
displayed in France at an annual gathering of writers and
publishers of the Basque Country in April 1994. Six Baha'i
books have been translated into the Basque language.
Baha'i literature was presented individually during meetings
with the President of Guinea-Bissau, Joao Bernardo Vieira; the

President of Suriname, Ronald R. Venetiaan; the Prime Minister
of Guyana, Sam Hinds; and the Governor of the State of Orissa,
India, the Honourable B. Satyanarayan Reddy, all in July 1993;
the Prime Minister of Liechtenstein, Markus Biichel, and the
President of Vanuatu, Fred Timakata, in October; the Prime
Minister of Lesotho, the Right Honourable Dr. Ntsu Mokhehle,
in January 1994; and the Premier of Bermuda, Sir John W.D.
Swan, in February.

The President ofGuinea-Bissau, Joiio Bernardo Vieira, second from right,
receives a copy ofthe statement on Bahil 'u '/lah from three representatives of
the National Spiritual Assembly.

Desiring to inform the public as quickly as possible about the
claims ofBaha'u'llah, Baha'is continued to organize systematic
campaigns of education. Individuals travelled great distances to
help'' their fellow Baha'is in other countries with these projects.
In some areas, large numbers of people responded quickly to
hearing about the Baha'i teachings, and they were welcomed
into the Baha'i community.
The National Spiritual Assembly of Albania offered
Baha'u'llah's message of hope to the people of Albania by
writing an "open letter" to them. The letter was published in
five newspapers and distributed throughout towns and villages

YEAR IN REVIEW

by a group of two hundred volunteers from thirty-three countries
during a two-week period in August.
In the Pacific region, a campaign called the "Ocean of Light,"
which seeks to spiritually empower indigenous Baha'is to
express the Baha'i Faith within the context of their own
traditions and cultures, continued into its third year. A dynamic
exchange of indigenous travelling teachers took place, and
institute courses taking into account different approaches to
learning helped the islands' Baha'is gain a deeper knowledge of
Baha'u'llah's teachings. One example of an Ocean of Light
project comes from the island of Mare in the Loyalty Islands. A
group of youth approached both the grand chief and several
local chiefs with traditional greetings and requests for
permission to teach. Then in each village they presented talks on
various subjects, sang songs, and shared traditional dances. In
this simple way, at least fifteen hundred people received the
Baha'i message. This kind of individual exchange occurred all
over Australasia. 7
The Baha'is in Africa also demonstrated their respect for
traditional customs when teaching about the Baha'i Faith. In
Chivhu, Zimbabwe, a team of four elders sought permission
from the chiefs in the area to tell their people about Baha'u'llah.
After reading some passages from the Baha'i writings, Chief
Chapungu gave full permission, inviting the Baha'is to speak in
his village. When they arrived, more than seven hundred people
had gathered. By the end of five days speaking in several
villages, more than one hundred people had joined the Baha'i
community and two Local Spiritual Assemblies had been
elected.
Gatherings of local chiefs were addressed in Kenya as part of
a project which also informed a large number of administrators
and teachers. More than 150 people declared their belief in
Baha'u'llah and ten new Local Assemblies were formed. A
tremendous response to the Baha'i Faith was encountered in
Nigeria, where the teachings were shared with school administrators, clergymen, police officers, and village chiefs. During a

7. See also pp. 89-93 for more information on events in this region.

THE BAHA:f WORLD

four-month period, more than seven hundred people embraced
the Cause.
Prominent people in the southern region of Guyana were
invited to learn about the Baha'i Faith by attending viewings of
films about the Baha'i World Congress and current international
activities. In Taiwan, members of the Philosophy Club of the
National Open University were offered a one-day seminar about
the Faith. The Temenos Academy in London, which was
founded in 1990 to study spirituality through traditional thought,
art, and literature, invited Professor Soheil Bushrui, holder of
the Baha'i Chair for World Peace at the University of Maryland,
to present a lecture entitled "On Retrieving Our Spiritual
Heritage" as part of its summer program.
The public was also educated apout the Baha'i Faith on a
broader scale, through the media. 8 In Zambia, two editions of
the Baha'i Newsreel and Prisoner of (Akka were screened on
national television during prime time. A thirty-minute program
called "Baha'u'llah's New World Order" was aired on
Portuguese National Television in July. A second program,
called "Prayer and Meditation: Baha'i Temples" was broadcast
later in the year.
Television viewers in La Ceiba, Honduras, were able to see
three videos on Baha'i" subjects and a live one-hour program on
the Baha'i Faith. On another program, all nine members of the
National Spiritual Assembly were introduced to the public and
interviewed.
In South America, as elsewpere, youth played a key role in
teaching the Faith. 9 An international team of youth travelled to
villages in Bolivia over a period of several months, teaching
classes and organizing public talks. At least 350 people enrolled
in the Baha'i community. Almost 900 people embraced the
Baha'i Faith in Kuna Yala, Panama, after ten Baha'is- á
including four local youth-informed them of the teachings.

8. See pp. 151-168 for article about news coverage of Baha'i activities.
9. See also pp. 121-125.

Expressing Faith through the Arts
"All art is a gift of the Holy Spirit. When this light shines
through the mind of a musician, it manifests itself in beautiful
harmonies. Again, shining through the mind of a poet, it is seen
in fme poetry and poetic prose. When the Light of the Sun of
Truth inspires the mind of a painter, he produces marvellous
pictures. These gifts are fulfillinfl their highest purpose, when
showing forth the praise of God." 0
The number of artists inspired in their áwork by the revelation
of Baha'u'lhih is growing too quickly to allow mention of them
all in this summary. The following examples are offered to
provide a sense of the range of art forms and venues being used
by Baha'i artists to share the richness of the Baha'i Faith with
diverse audiences.
In October, a Baha'i choir travelled to Moscow, Kishinev,
and Kiev to perform and record the music originally sung at the
Baha'i World Congress in New York City in November 1992.
The choir consisted of forty-three singers from Antigua,
Australia, Canada, China, Iran, Mexico, Norway, Sweden,
Switzerland, and the United States. Each of eight formal
concerts included an oratorio for choir and orchestra, reader and
soloists, entitled "Baha'u'llah, The Promise of All Ages";
stylized contemporary choral interpretations of classical Persian,
Jewish, and Indian themes; the music of Mozart; folk songs; and
newly-composed gospel-style hymns in praise ofBaha'u'llah.
Audiences in Honduras, Mongolia, Papua New Guinea, and
Thailand were treated to performances of the Lakota Sioux
Indian traditional hoop dance of Baha'i Kevin Locke during a
cultural tour sponsored by the United States government in commemoration of the United Nations Year for Indigenous
Peoples. Travelling during the summer of 1993, Mr. Locke
danc.ed with his daughter Kimimih1 and played a traditional flute
before audiences ranging from several hundred to several
thousand. Mr. Locke proclaimed the unity of mankind both

10. Attributed to 'Abdu'l-Baha; cited in Lady Sara Blomfield, The Chosen
Highway (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1967), 167.

Kevin Locke performing a
traditional Lakota Sioux
Indian hoop dance.

The Wildfire World
Theatre group performed
in Turkey, Romania,
Mauritius, and Australia.

Baha'i Chorale at the Hall of Writers in Kiev, Ukraine.

YEAR IN REVIEW

through the stories interwoven in the performance and through
the hoop dance, which vividly demonstrates the importance of
all cultures workmg together to maintain balance and harmony
in the world.
A group of eight Baha'i youth from Australia used their
talents and energies to create a drama, music, and comedy
production which conveys the principles of the Baha'i Faith.
Calling themselves Wildfire World Theatre, the group
performed in Turkey and Romania in May 1993, Mauritius in
September, and throughout Australia in the spring of 1994.
Highlights of the tour included performing before eight
thousand youth in Bucharest as part of an event co-sponsored by
Romania's Ministry for Youth and Sport and the Municipality,
and singing and being interviewed for a program broadcast on
Turkey's national television station and in seventeen other
countries of Europe and Central Asia.
Baha'i youth in North America, and increasingly around the
world, formed Baha'i Youth Workshops to share their beliefs
with peers using drama, dance, rap, and contemporary music.
During 1993-94 the number of workshops increased from about
twenty-five in five countries to about seventy-five in fifteen
countries. In August, fourteen of these groups from around the
United States and Canada converged on Atlanta, Georgia, to
spread the message of Baha'u'llah through more than fifty
public performances. The Vancouver, Canada, Baha'i Youth
Workshop toured Hawaii in July, playing to enthusiastic crowds
at schools, in parks, and in recreational centers.
"Art as an Act of Worship," an exhibition by Baha'i artists
which was displayed in the Harbour Museum, Londonderry,
Northern Ireland, in March 1993, was one of several exhibits
which demonstrated the effects of Baha'u'llah's revelation on
His followers. The pilgrimage of two Australian artists to the
Baha'i holy places in Israel and Turkey inspired them to create
93 paintings and 120 silk works which they displayed in a show
in Midland, Western Australia, viewed by fifteen hundred
people. Quotations from the writings of Baha'u'llah accompanied an exhibit in Luxembourg of large abstract paintings
expressing the emotions of two German artists as they

encountered the Sacred Word. The drawings ofBaha'i architect
William Sutherland Maxwell and a model of the Shrine of the
Bab, the superstructure of which Mr. Maxwell designed, were
seen by an estimated seventy thousand people as part of a
travelling display sponsored by the Montreal Museum of Fine
Arts in Canada.
The first exhibit in Norway of paintings by Mark Tobey
(1890-1976), distinguished American artist and member of the
Baha'i Faith, was held at H0vikodden from 23 March to 2 May
1993. For the exhibition opening, composer Lasse Thoresen
created vocal arrangements for two Baha'i prayers which were
performed by opera singer Anne-Lise Berntsen. Other Baha'i
writings set to music by Mr. Thoresen were aired on Radio
France on 29 November 1993, from the Grieg Jubilee concert in
Paris. Mr. Thoresen was the guest composer from Norway for
the event.
Pianist Mark Ochu, an American who has performed in many
parts of the world, held a series of concerts in Sweden in
October entitled "Prerequisites for Peace." Mr. Ochu combines
his music with commentary on the social principles necessary
for establishing peace. He also performed a concert for
UNICEF in Luxembourg in November.

Youth in Gambia present a "world peace" drama during a competition on the
theme ofabolishing prejudice.

In Taiwan, Baha'i children sing in a public square as part ofa Baha 'i holy
day celebration.

Five Baha'i singers and musicians were among those who
performed for the Commonwealth Heads of Government
Meeting held in Cyprus in October. Alex Zografov directed the
musical opening, Vic Salvo played the piano, and three members
of the Zografov family sang in the choir. The performance
moved many of the forty-eight leaders of Commonwealth
Nations so greatly that some of them commented on it in their
speeches.

Baha'i Youth
Many of the groups developing their artistic capabilities to
express the truths of the Baha'i Faith were composed of youth.
In addition to sharing their artistic talents to benefit the Cause,
youth also used their energy and creativity in other ways to
spread Baha'u'llah's message of hope and to serve their
communities.
The European Baha'i Youth Council, which was established
in 1989 to coordinate the activities of the Baha'i youth in
Europe, organized a series of training seminars during the
year to strengthen the leadership qualities among youth and
encourage them to exercise those qualities in their home

commumtles. During the summer of 1993, regional seminars
were conducted in Dublin, Ireland; Marseilles, France;
Wiesbaden, Germany; and Daugavpils, Latvia. During the
remainder of the Baha'i year, national seminars were held in
Bulgaria, England, Portugal, Romania, Spain, and Turkey.
Thousands of people heard about the Baha'i Faith in Spain
through a "Youth in Action" project held during the summer.
Two Baha'is created a sculpture exhibit composed of reproductions of places of worship from all religions, and the sixty youth
helped set up the display in seven different cities. At times more
than one thousand people a day visited the exhibit and heard
about the Baha'i Faith.
Topics such as "Racism's Inability to Heal Itself," "Benefits
of Unity in Diversity," and "How to Act at the Grassroots Level"
were discussed during a week-long Youth Forum organized by
Baha'is in Naantali, Finland. Every evening a public presentation was made, including special guest speakers and performers.
The forum ended with a concert of international performers
from various parts of Africa, Cambodia, England, India, Iran,
and the United States.

The Boston Baha'i Youth Workshop performs a dance about domestic and
societal violence entitled "This Strong Pillar. "

- - - - -- -- - - - - - - - -- - --- - - - --

YEAR IN REVIEW

In Gambia, four Baha'i youth from the United States and Canada pose with
the children who attend their weekly literacy and moral education classes in
the village ofNew Yundun.

The first International Baha'i Youth Conference to be held in
Belarus took place in August. More than 160 young people
from fifteen countries participated. The first National Baha'i
Youth Conference in Bulgaria was preceded and followed by a
service project cleaning a canal which runs through the center of
Haskovo, while displays in the park informed people about the
Faith.
In early April 1994, the European Baha'i Youth Council
organized the fifth annual conference for representatives of
National Baha'i Youth Committees around Europe. The
gathering took place in Bmo, the Czech Republic.
Once again, a group of youth from the United States
organized a trip to Siberia to help establish and strengthen
Baha'i communities. Called Marion Jack V, in honor of a
renowned Baha'i teacher, this year's project included fifty-six
Russian youth and young Baha'is from eleven other nations, for
a total of more than one hundred participants. Travelling
through forty-nine cities in Siberia, Mongolia, and Sakhalin
Island, the youth gave approximately two hundred presentations,
granted one hundred interviews for television, radio, and

newspaper, and distributed about sixty thousand pteces of
Baha'i literature.
The first Baha'i Youth Symposium to be held in the Marshall
Islands took place in July 1993. Youth from the Eastern
Caroline Islands, Hawaii, Kiribati, the Mariana Islands, and the
Solomon Islands came to Majuro to consult with each other and
with Counsellors, Auxiliary Board members, and members of
the National Spiritual Assembly about service to the community.
Four American youth who were volunteering a year of
service travelled to Guam and formed the Baha'i Youth
Workshop to teach the Baha'i Faith using dance (see also section
on the arts). Almost immediately, their performances led to
twelve people accepting the Baha'i Faith. These youth, along
with a Baha'i youth group from Saipan, performed before
thousands of people at the Micronesian Day Festival in
November.
In March 1994, a conference was held in Sydney, Australia,
to mark the completion of the National Youth Scholarship
Programme's term of classes and to give its students an
opportunity to present the papers they had written. The participants undertook in-depth study of Baha' i writings over a period
of eighteen months. Each student committed to running study
classes for other youth in the area.
The Baha'i youth of the Cook Islands participated in a youth
rally with the theme "unity in diversity" which was organized by
the nation's Youth Council. The rally was the opening ceremony
for Constitution celebrations. In Papua New Guinea, the first
regional youth conference to be organized in the Southern
Highlands attracted more than seventy youth.
The students of Maxwell International School, an accredited
secondary school established in Canada by Baha'is, continued to
demonstrate their commitment to community service. The
Maxwell Baha'i Youth Dance Workshop participated in a
program sponsored by the Ministry of Education and Multiculturalism to observe the International Day for the Elimination of
Racial Discrimination. As a result of the program, the Workshop
was asked to provide a panel of students to discuss youth
violence with three hundred high school students.

YEAR IN REVIEW

Students from Maxwell also did well in the Cowichan Valley
Music and Arts Competition, receiving eight awards for first
place, four for second place, and one for third place. They also
won awards in speech, poetry, drama, and essay-writing.
When the International Committee of the Global Youth
Forum, an entity organizing an international youth gathering in
Brazil, held a preparatory meeting with representatives from
forty-four NGOs, the Baha'is participated. The Brazilian Baha'i
Choir sang, one of 'Abdu'l-Baha's Tablets was read, and a
presentation was made about the Tomorrow Belongs to the
Children Project.
An International Baha'i Youth Conference with the theme
"Let's Build a New World" was held in Otavalo, Ecuador, in
August. More than two hundred youth from thirteen countries
participated.
The youth of the Seychelles responded to an appeal made by
the Ministry of Environment, Economic Planning, and External
Relations for help with cleaning a river. Baha'i youth removed
five truck-loads of debris from the St. Louis River. It was the
third time Baha'is had helped clean the river.
In India, 122 students from the New Era Development
Institute conducted fourteen village-based youth institutes
attended by 320 young adults. Each five-day institute had
courses in the areas of spiritual foundations, technical training,
service training, and cultural programs.

Baha'i Scholarship
The Baha'i writings exhort each individual to take personal
responsibility for investigating truth and to view learning as an
endless process. Baha'u'llah also gives His followers the
obligation and privilege of sharing His teachings with humanity,
relating His revelation to current knowledge, and applying its
truths to the problems of the day. Thus each Baha'i is a potential
scholar of the teachings, and the Baha'i community is committed to creating opportunities for serious study of its sacred
writings.
The North American Association for Baha'i Studies held its
seventeenth annual meeting in June 1993, marking the

Dr. Pierre- lVes
Mocquais, Academic
Director of the
Association for Baha'i
Studies, addressing a
symposium preceding
the 17th annual
conference of the •..ac>.._.f'•á•á•.n•,
association.

nineteenth year since the association was conceived. The more
than six hundred people who gathered in Montreal, Canada,
witnessed renewed contact with McGill University, intensification of dialogue with a broad variety of scholars, and artistic
presentations of exceptional merit. Awards of excellence were
bestowed for outstanding entries in an essay contest, and four
names were placed on the 1993 Honor Roll for services to
Baha'i scholarship: Dr. Will C. van den Hoonaard, Dr. Todd
Lawson, Mr. Robert Ahdieh, and Mrs. Christine Zerbinis.
The twentieth international affiliate of the association was
founded in October when the inaugural conference of the
Russian Association for Baha'i Studies took place in St.
Petersburg. Under the heading "The Spiritual Basis of Civilization," the conference included presentations on economics,
gender and development, law and spirit, the concept of spirituality, and models of the role of religion in society.
The inaugural address of the Baha'i Chair for World Peace at
the University of Maryland in the United States was delivered in
March 1994. Professor Suheil Bushrui called on the more than
two hundred faculty members, students, and other guests present
to develop a global code of ethics from humanity's rich religious
heritage as an essential step towards universal peace. The
lecture was the first in what will be a series of annual lectures by
the Baha'i Chair to be sponsored by the University.
In April1994, the Baha'i Chair co-sponsored a gathering of
scholars and eminent personalities who came together to consult

about how ethnic diversity and religious belief can become
foundations for peace rather than conflict. "Once Empires Fade:
Religion, Ethnicity, and the Possibilities for Peace" was also
sponsored by the University of Maryland at College Park's
Meyerhoff Centre for Jewish Studies and the Department of
History.
Other activities of the Baha'i Chair in the past year include
creation of a course on humanity's spiritual history which has
become a major feature of the University's Honors Program, and
co-sponsorship with the On Earth Peace Assembly of an
interfaith conference called "Religious Perspectives on
Peacemaking."
The University of Toronto, in Canada, offered its first credit
course on the Baha'i Faith in the spring of 1993. Taught by
Dr. Todd Lawson, the course covered the history of the Babi and
Baha'i Faiths, the distinctive teachings of the Baha'i Faith, and
its current status. The course will be offered again in 1995.
A new course on the Baha'i Faith was also offered in Brazil
by the State University of Rio de Janeiro during the spring of
1994.
Brazil's Federal University of Parana and the Baha'i
community co-sponsored the frrst South American Symposium,
"Foundations of a New World Order," in October. More than six
hundred people participated, the majority being professors of the
state system and people prominent in the nation's public and
political life. The same month, an agreement on cultural,
scientific, and technical cooperation was signed between
Brazil's University of Bahia and the Local Spiritual Assembly of
Salvador. The chancellor, Dr. Joaquim de Almeida Mendes, said
the university had researched Baha'i educational activities and
had obtained positive information from other sectors of the
Brazilian university community.
In July 1993, a second class of students received certificates
for successful completion of the Three-Year Program in World
Order Studies at Landegg Academy in Switzerland. Landegg is
a Baha'i-sponsored institution which offers a variety of courses,
forums, and symposia on aspects of the Baha'i Faith and on
issues related to Baha'i principles. The Program in World Order

THE BAHA:f WORLD

Studies, which graduated its first class in July 1992, requires
participants to complete three month-long seminars in residence
and submit assignments from home during the intervening
months.
In each Baha'i community around the world, study of the
sacred writings is undertaken by groups: some participate in
ongoing institutes, others attend periodic conferences and
seminars, and some take courses at permanent schools. Two
examples of new developments in this area during the year
include completion of the first in-depth, three-day, study course
in Hindi offered by the National Baha'i Institute for Advanced
Studies in India on 1 January 1994, and creation of the Baha'i
Academy in Dhaka, Bangladesh, which conducted its first weeklong course in September.
For the first time in the history of Bangladesh, a university
student chose a Baha'i subject for his final year thesis. The
student of the Bangladesh University of Engineering and
Technology designed and wrote his thesis on "Baha'i Temple
Complex, Bangladesh." He successfully defended it in
November before more than twenty-five professors and
architects.

Houses of Worship
Baha'i Houses of Worship (in Arabic, Ma.shriqu'l-Adhkar,
which means "dawning-place of the remembrance of God") are
open to followers of all faiths who wish to worship God within
their walls. No sermons are given; only the revealed Word of
God, as delivered by His various Messengers throughout history,
is spoken, chanted, or sung, and private devotions are offered in
the sacred atmosphere. At this time, seven Houses of Worship
exist around the globe.
In January, severe bushfires which burned for days in the area
of Sydney, Australia, causing widespread destruction, threatened
the Baha'i House of Worship in that city. Twice the fire came
within three meters of the property, but both times the wind
suddenly changed direction, carrying the fires away. When the
fire once again approached, the efforts of the caretaker, the book

YEAR IN REVIEW

sales manager, and two neighbors, who fought the frres until
3:30 in the morning, were instrumental in saving the House of
Worship. Sydney's Telegraph Mirror stated, "Amid the smoky
ruins of the parklands, the Baha'i Temple stood like a gleaming
white beacon on the hill between Mona Vale and Ingleside." A
special service was held in the Temple the following week to
remember those who had suffered because of the blaze and to
offer gratitude to those who had worked so hard to combat it.
The House of Worship in New Delhi, India, continued to
receive a record number of visitors, with more than three million
people crossing its threshold during the year. One of these
honored guests was Mrs. Sonia Gandhi, widow of the late Prime
Minister Rajiv Gandhi, who visited the Temple in August 1993.
In April 1994, two hundred of the delegates to the fiftieth
session of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific were received at the House of Worship
by special invitation of the Baha'i International Community representatives to the conference.
In November 1993, the Baha'i Temple in Kampala, Uganda,
was visited by Mrs. Mwinyi, wife of the President of Tanzania;
Mrs. Chakaumba, wife of the Chairman of the Presidential
Council of Malawi; Mrs. Neally Adyebo, wife of the Prime
Minister of Uganda; and the Hon. Betty Okwir, Deputy Minister
of Labour and Social Affairs.
A public service to commemorate the forty-eighth anniversary of the United Nations was held at the Baha'i Temple in
Apia, Western Samoa, in October 1993. More than 350 people,
including government officials, UN personnel, and members of
the diplomatic corps attended, some taking part in reading for
the service.
The high quality of the concrete repair work done on the
Mashriqu'l-A.dhkar in Wilmette, Illinois, USA, earned the
House of Worship the International Concrete Repair Institute's
"Repair Award of the Year" for 1993. A mounted photograph of
the Temple was accepted by the project manager on behalf of the
National Assembly during the Institute's annual convention in
October.

THE BAHA'I WORLD
Also in October, a meeting room at the Masb.riqu'l-Adbkar in
Panama was the site of a seminar on the municipal development
of Central America, organized by the Spanish Agency of International Cooperation. The more than seventy mayors from
Costa Rica, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua,
Panama, and Spain were offered a devotional program each of
the first four days of the sessions, and they were provided with a
brief explanation of Baha'i teachings.
The House of Worship standing in the heart of Europe, at
Langenhain, Germany, became home to the new German Baha'i
Temple Choir, which began performing regularly at Baha'i holy
day commemorations and the last Sunday of every month as part
of public worship services in the Temple. In order to create
greater awareness of the interreligious character of the Baha'i
House of Worship, the National Spiritual Assembly inaugurated
a series of public events called "Forum Langenhain" at the
National Baha'i Center located nearby. Once a month, issues of
concern to society were addressed by guest speakers, including
Kyrgyzian author Tschingis Aitmatow, whose talk on "Thoughts
for a Better World" attracted three hundred people.

This article traces the Baha'i International
Community s work as a non-governmental
organization accredited by the
United Nations.

Historical Background

I n 1945, one hundred and one years after the founding of the
Baha'i Faith, Baha'i representatives at an historic conference
in San Francisco witnessed the birth of the United Nations. Two
years later the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the
United States and Canada was accredited to the United Nations
as a national non-governmental organization (NGO) qualified to
be represented at United Nations conferences through an
observer. A year after that, in 1948, the eight National Spiritual
Assemblies then existing were recognized collectively under the
title of "The Baha'i International Community." Since then the
national affiliates of the Baha'i International Community have
increased to 165. Today, Baha'i activities in relation to the
United Nations are reinforced by an expanded permanent office
in New York with a branch in Geneva and Baha'i representations to Regional United Nations Offices in Addis Ababa,
Bangkok, Nairobi, Rome, Santiago, and Vienna. Two associate
offices of the Baha'i International Community's United Nations

Office have been established in New York: the Office of the
Environment in 1989 and the Office for the Advancement of
Women in 1992. They lend emphasis to these two areas of
particular interest to the community.
The evolution of the Baha'i International Community's work
at the United Nations has led to changes in its status through the
years. In May 1970, it was granted consultative status, Category
II, with the United Nations Economic and Social Council
(ECOSOC); in 1976, consultative status with the United Nations
Children's Fund (UNICEF); and in 1989, working relations with
the World Health Organization (WH0). 1

Scope of Baha'i Activities at the United Nations
The Baha'i International Community is involved in a wide range
of issues of concern to the United Nations, including human
rights, peace, the environment, social and economic development, and the advancement of women.
Under the guidance of the Universal House of Justice, the
Baha'i International Community United Nations Office representatives participate in UN world conferences, preparatory
committee meetings, and correlating activities, providing
information and documents to special representatives and
rapporteurs on various themes, such as the human rights
situation of the Baha'is in Iran, religious tolerance, and freedom
of expression. Additionally, the office supports external affairs
of different National Spiritual Assemblies around the world and
produces numerous statements and reports for the UN each year.

Human Rights
With regard to human rights, the Baha'i International
Community promotes the issue by contributing to those aims of
the United Nations that are akin to the teachings of the Baha'i
Faith, holding or collaborating in workshops, conferences and
other events, or making statements, alone or in collaboration

1. For a more complete discussion of the Baha'i International Community's
historical involvement with and activities at the United Nations, see The
Baha'i World, vol. 19 (1983-1986), 378-397.

BABA.'f I NTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY

with other NGOs, to impart the Baha'i viewpoint. The
Community also takes an active role in protecting the human
rights of persecuted Baha'is and in correcting misinformation
about the Faith. Finally, the Baha'i International Community
assists national Baha'i communities to gain recognition by their
national governments by making contacts with senior
government officials, foreign ministers, and UN missions.
Since human rights issues that have been raised by the
Commission on Human Rights, the . Sub-Commission on
Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, or by
ECOSOC must be acted upon by the UN General Assembly, the
Baha'i International Community must prepare materials for each
of these bodies to ensure that its voice is heard effectively.
During 1993-94, the Baha'i International Community was
involved in the UN World Conference on Human Rights
(UNWCHR) held in Vienna in June 1993. The Community took
part in a number of different conferences and preparatory
meetings for the conference, including a meeting on the "Role of
NGOs in the UN Human Rights System," which was sponsored
by the International NGO Committee on Human Rights and was
held in New York in May 1993. At the UNWCHR itself, the
Baha'i International Community representatives participated in
an "Expert Seminar on Appropriate Indicators of the Progressive
Realization of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights,"
monitored activities at the "Survivors' Committee and Ad Hoc
Committee" organized by the US branch of Amnesty International, participated in the "Panel on World Report on Freedom of
Thought, Conscience and Religion or Belief, " and assisted in
writing a report on religious freedom. Finally, a Baha'i International Community representative served as a member of the
steering committee that organized the NGO Forum at the
conference, with some fifteen hundred NGOs participating. The
Community submitted three oral and three written statements
that were issued as official UN documents, submitted joint oral
statements to the plenary session on religious tolerance on
behalf of sixteen religious NGOs, chaired one of the five
workshops on "Democracy, Human Rights and Development,"
distributed one thousand packets of information, produced and

THE BAHA'i WORLD

exhibited a display pronouncing "The Earth Is But One Country
and Mankind Its Citizens" in six official UN languages, and held
a reception and chamber concert for 110 invited guests. 2
A booklet entitled The Baha 'i Question: Iran s Secret
Blueprint for the Destruction of a Religious Community, which
examines the persecution of the Baha'is in Iran during the period
1979-1993, was also published and widely distributed in June
1993. As a result of the intensive work done by the Baha'i International Community, mention of the situation of the Iranian
Baha'i community was included in the strongly worded
resolution approved by the United Nations General Assembly. 3

Office of the Environment
The mandate of the Office of the Environment includes representing the diplomatic interests of the Faith to the UN on issues
of environment, development, and such social issues as
education, population, health, youth, aging, narcotic drugs, and
indigenous peoples. To do this effectively, the office has
developed relations with the UN Commission on Sustainable
Development, WHO, the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), UNICEF, the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the UN Commission
on Social Development, the Economic Commission for Latin
America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), and other regional UN
commissions. The office also coordinates Baha'i International
Community representation at international conferences on issues
of environment and development. 4 During 1993-94, the Office
of the Environment sent representatives to meetings such as
those on "The Ethical Dimensions of Agenda 21" (New York,
January 1994) and the World Conservation Union General
Assembly (Buenos Aires, January 1994), as well as NGO com-

2. For the text of three of the statements submitted at the conference, see pp.
311-316 of this volume.
3. See pp. 139-145 for further details regarding the situation of the Baha'is in
Iran during 1993-94.
4. See The Baha'i World 1992-93, pp. 177-189, for a report on the Baha'i
International Community's involvement in the Earth Summit, for example.

BAHA:f INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY

mittees on sustainable development, youth and aging, indigenous peoples, education, and the UNICEF NGO Committee. It
also continued to interact with the Worldwide Fund for Nature's
Network on Conservation and Religion.
Follow-up to the Earth Summit and the Peace Monument
Project in Rio de Janeiro also occupied the Office of the
Environment during 1993-94, with the collaboration of the
National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Brazil. The
Baha'i International Community's goal is to continue soliciting
soil samples from the different governments of the world until
all countries have contributed. In 1993, a further fifteen
countries added soil to the monument in a ceremony held on
Earth Day; the countries were Chile, China, Colombia,
Germany, Greece, Grenada, Myanmar, Nepal, Senegal, Sweden,
Syria, Thailand, Tunisia, Uruguay, and Zaire. Initiated by the
Baha'i International Community and the Baha'i community of
Brazil with the support of the Mayor's Office of Rio de Janeiro
and the '92 Global Forum, the Peace Monument is the only
enduring monument in Rio to the Earth Summit and the Global
Forum.
Leading up to the World Summit on Social Development, to
be held in Copenhagen in March 1995, the office participated in
the preparatory committee meetings held in January 1994 in
New York and has generated a number of statements, including
"A Global Strategy and Action Plan for Social Development,"
"A New Paradigm for Social Development," and "World
Citizenship: A Global Ethic for Sustainable Development."
The latter is available in English, French, Spanish, and
Portuguese and has been widely distributed. 5

Office for the Advancement of Women
The mandate of the Office for the Advancement of Women is
twofold: to promote the principles of the Baha'i Faith by
interacting with international agencies and organizations
involved in issues surrounding the rights, status, and well-being
of women, and to keep National Spiritual Assemblies around the

5. This statement is reprinted on pp. 295-304.

world informed about projects and programs in which the Baha'i
community can become involved to promote the equality of the
sexes.
The major responsibility of the Office for the Advancement
of Women is to represent the diplomatic interests of the Faith in
relation to the UN and with international NGOs in consultative
status with the UN with regard to the advancement of women
and the family. The representative attends annual sessions of the
Commission on the Status of Women and develops the working
relationship of the Baha'i International Community with
UNICEF and the United Nations Development Fund for Women
(UNIFEM). This has resulted in a growing number of collaborative ventures, such as the "Traditional Media as Change
Agent" project with UNIFEM. A report of this innovative
project was featured in an article entitled "Approaching Men
to Improve Lives for Women" in the June 1993 edition
of UNIFEM News. 6 Additionally, the Baha'i International
Community has taken a lead role in the advocacy process,
serving as convenor of the group Advocates for African Food
Security: Lessening the Burden on Women for several years.
The Office for the Advancement of Women is currently
heavily involved in preparations for the Fourth World
Conference on Women to be held in Beijing in September 1995.
In March 1994, the Baha'i International Community was
represented at the first of five regional UN conferences and
parallel NGO Forums. The director, in her position as
chairperson of the NGO Committee on the Status of Women,
New York, is a member of the Facilitating Committee
organizing the NGO Forum on Women '95 to take place in
Beijing at the time of the World Conference. In Geneva, a
Baha'i International Community representative is the only male
on the NGO Committee on the Status of Women, Geneva, and
serves as convenor of the Committee's NGO Working Group for
the NGO Forum '95.
The Office for the Advancement of Women found itself particularly busy during the United Nations International Year of

6. See also pp. 259-263 for further details.

BAHA'I INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY

the Family (IYF), observed in 1994. A Baha'i International
Community representative currently serves as secretary of the
NGO Committee on the Family in New York, and the office was
represented at the year's major conferences. At the NGO World
Forum on the Family in Malta, held in November-December
1993 to launch the International Year of the Family, the Baha'i
delegation consisted of some twenty-three individuals from
thirteen countries. Three of the one hundred "testimonial"
awards given at the conference to organizations and individuals
who promoted the IYF were given to the Baha'i International
Community. The Community sponsored one of the conference's
forty workshops, called "Breaking the Equality Barrier:
Emerging Roles of Men and Women in the Family." A
statement by the Baha'i International Community entitled "The
Family in a World Community" was produced for, and first
distributed at, the Forum in Malta; subsequently, in January
1994, it was printed as a pamphlet for use during the IYF?
The establishment of the Office for the Advancement of
Women has seen a visible increase in the response of National
Spiritual Assemblies to the issue of the advancement of women,
particularly with regard to the creation of their own agencies on
the status of women.

Office of Public Information
As a corollary to the above-mentioned offices that attend to the
diplomatic relations of the Baha'i International Community, an
Office of Public Information was established at the Baha'i
World Centr.e in 1985. With its branches in New York, London,
and Paris, this office continued its activities in preparing and
disseminating information about the Baha'i Faith and the
Baha'i International Community to international and national
organizations, agencies, and other bodies, as well as to leaders
of thought, prominent people, the mass media, and the general
public. Its main organ of communication with the public is One
Country, the Baha'i International Community's award-winning
quarterly newsletter, with a circulation of more than 25,000

7. This statement is reprinted on pp. 305-309.

readers in at least 150 countries. During 1993-94, One Country
reported on issues pertaining to the environment, the advancement of women, social and economic development, and human
rights, among other topics, including UN activities. By spring
1994, One Country was being published in English, French,
Chinese, Russian, Spanish, and German.

Conclusion
The Baha'i International Community is generally recognized as
a highly effective non-governmental organization at the United
Nations. Its objectives- to establish and strengthen the links
with the UN system, governments, and international organizations, as well as to increase the recognition of the Baha'i Faith in
international circles, promote acceptance of its principles and
defend its interests- are met through its service on committees
at various levels and its statements and publications. Further, its
collaboration with National Spiritual Assemblies around the
globe provides it with a sizable army of fellow believers able to
arise and promote- and sometimes to benefit from- its work at
the United Nations which, in 1993-94, focused largely on issues
concerning human rights, the family, the advancement of
women, and the environment.

Update: The Situation of
THE BAHA'iS
IN IRAN

T he situation of the Baha'i community in Iran remained
precarious during 1993-94, despite a lessening of some of
the more overt forms of persecution- perhaps a result of the
government's intention to cool international concern. Nevertheless, violation of the full range of the community's rights in Iran
persists. 1
Overwhelming evidence indicates that the Iranian Baha'i
community is still a major target of persecution. All Baha'i
youth continue to be denied access to university. Thousands of
Baha'is are still prevented from obtaining employment and are
denied the right to own their own businesses or receive a
pension. As of January 1994, eleven Baha'is were in prison,
two under sentence of death. The rights of Baha'is to function
as a religious community are entirely denied. Baha'i marriages
are not recognized under the law; Baha'is are denied the right of

1. For a full discussion of the situation of the Baha'is in Iran, see "The Case
of the Baha'i Minority in Iran" by Douglas Martin, in The Baha'i World
1992-93, pp. 247-271.

assembly; and Baha'i cemeteries, holy places, historical sites,
and other assets have been either confiscated or destroyed.

Desecration of the Baha'i Cemetery in Tehran
In July 1993 a section of the Baha'i cemetery in Tehran was,
under orders of the municipal authority, excavated by bulldozers
for the construction of an Islamic cultural center. This involved
the desecration of about two thousand graves. The remains of
the Baha'is interred there were loaded onto trucks for an
undisclosed destination. In response to protests, authorities
responded with contradictory assertions and explanations, both
denying and confirming the destruction of the cemetery. Some
officials claimed that the cemetery was a public health hazard
and that several Muslim cemeteries had been subjected to
similar conversion projects. Others indicated that the purpose of
the project was to level the uneven topsoil (about twenty to
thirty centimeters) of graves older than thirty years to modernize
and update the quality of the cemetery. The director of the
Muslim Burial Society asserted that such projects were
approved and implemented only after replacement properties
had been allocated and the Baha'is had been assigned a property
of some twenty-five thousand square meters with mortuary and
other facilities.
The facts of the case, however, contradict the various official
explanations. The Baha'i cemetery was in usage for burial at the
time of its confiscation at the beginning of Iran's Islamic
Revolution in 1979 and had not yet been used to full capacity.
Even some of the Baha'is executed during the rule of the current
regime are buried there, and the claim that only graves older
than the thirty-year legal limit were interfered with is completely
false. At the beginning of the Revolution, the cemetery's
mortuary facilities and memorial hall were demolished, the
marble grave coverings were removed, and all grave site
marking was obliterated. The headstones, many of which were
of high quality, were subsequently sold at public auctions. Since
the confiscation, Tehran's Baha'is have been permitted to bury
their dead only in a piece of wasteland measuring approximately
ten thousand square meters, already almost filled to capacity,

BAHA.'is IN IRAN
which has not been officially allocated to them. In other
localities, having access only to those cemeteries the
government has designated for them, Baha'is also experience
difficulties in burying their dead. Furthermore, they are not
permitted to mark the graves of fellow Baha'is, making it almost
impossible to identify the graves of their loved ones.
As the Baha'i International Community remarked in a
statement on the situation of the Baha'is in Iran released in
October 1993, the government's right to renovate areas formerly
used for the burial of its Muslim citizens, in accordance with
Islamic law, is not disputed. However, the seizure of the central
cemetery of the oldest Baha'i community in the world, the
erasure of all traces of its existence, and now the exhumation
and removal of the corpses of illustrious figures of that religion
"is an egregious offense against the conscience and cultural
patrimony of the Baha'is throughout the world." The statement
continued:

Attempts to mm1m1ze or obfuscate this basic truth only
underscore the fact that this is but one more step in an ongoing
campaign waged against the country's largest religious
minority, deemed "unprotected infidels" and "members of the
wayward sect" by the Iranian religious and judicial
authorities.

The cemetery desecration brought vividly to mind the goal
of the revolutionary government of Iran, as stated in a secret
1991 memorandum endorsed by the Ayatollah Khamenei
and disclosed in 1993, to block systematically the progress and
development of the Baha'is in that country and "to combat
and destroy the cultural roots which this group has outside the
country."

Baha'is and the Iranian Justice System
While there was an abatement in the executions of Baha'is in
Iran during 1993-94, on 8 December 1993 death sentences were
pronounced by the Islamic Revolutionary . Council against
Bihnam Mithaqi and Kayvan K.halajabadi. These verdicts rise
solely from the men's membership in the Baha'i community.

The Court of Tehran accused them of collaborating with the
United Nations to the detriment of their country by giving
information on their case, but their only meeting with the United
Nations Special Representative during his last visit to Iran was
authorized by the Iranian government itself.
Their cases also underline the highly precarious situation
facing Baha'is once in prison. When their original death
sentences were overturned by the High Court, a second death
sentence was handed down by the Islamic Revolutionary
Council. Further, the death sentences were pronounced orally,
and no written documentation exists of the court's verdict. The
religious nature of such persecution is further underscored by
the case against another Baha'i, Mr. Rami<;lan- 'Ali Dhulfaqari,
who was arrested and charged with apostasy on 7 September
1993. He was subsequently released, but no reason was given,
and the charge of apostasy has not yet been addressed. Indeed, it
has been officially intimated to Mr. Dhulfaqari that he is
condemned to death.
In another instance, an Iranian criminal court in a town near
Tehran found that two Iranian Muslims had kidnapped and
killed a Baha'i, Rul).u'llah Qadami. But because the victim was
"a member of the misguided and misguiding Baha'i sect," the
court ruled, "the issue of retribution is null and void." Since a
Baha'i is an "unprotected infidel," the accused were acquitted of
murder. Instead they were sentenced to eighteen months in
prison, including time already served, for "disturbance of order
and security of society." Such a court decision sends a clear
signal that Baha'is cannot expect any protection or redress from
the Iranian justice system.

International Response
To address these and other similar situations, the Baha'i International Community turned once again, as it has done repeatedly
in the past, to the United Nations. During 1993 three United
Nations committees- the Human Rights Committee, the
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the
Committee for the Elimination of Racial Discriminationmonitored the human rights of minorities in Iran and received

BAHA'is IN IRAN
reports, both oral and written, made on behalf of the Iranian
government. While the government asserted that no one in Iran
can be harassed on the basis of his or her beliefs, and a press
release issued by the Iranian Embassy in Bonn on 23 September
1993 declared that "the fact that the Baha'i Religion is not
recognized as a revealed religion in Islam should not be
interpreted as if the adherents of the Faith were persecuted," the
fmdings of the three United Nations committees show that such
statements do not reflect the actual situation of the Baha'is in
Iran. In fact, the committees' comments not only express dissatisfaction with the Iranian delegation's presentation of the
situation of the Baha'is, but convey in unequivocal language a
grave concern for the treatment of the Baha'is in Iran.
The Baha'i International Community made a strong representation concerning the case of the Baha'is in Iran at the World
Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in June 1993. Later in
the year, the United Nations Special Representative investigating the human rights situation in Iran, Mr. Reynaldo Galindo
Pohl, specifically mentioned the Baha'is in both his interim
report of November 1993 and his fmal report of March 1994,
where he devoted thirteen pages to comments on the Baha'is'
situation. Shortly after the release of the interim report, in
December 1993, the forty-eighth session of the United Nations
General Assembly passed a resolution on the human rights
situation in Iran with specific mention of the Baha'is. On
9 March 1994 the United Nations Human Rights Commission
adopted a strong resolution in which it cites religious discrimination against the Baha'is, "whose existence as a viable
religious community" in Iran "is threatened."

Action by the Baha'i Community
Baha'i communities around the world, galvanized by the plight
of their Iranian brethren, worked through legitimate governmental and diplomatic channels to keep the situation of the Baha'is
of Iran in the consciousness of their elected and appointed representatives on the national and international stage.
The Baha'i community in France sent representatives to a
meeting with the Iran Desk of the French government, resulting

THE BAHA:f WORLD

in newspaper articles in Le Monde and Liberation in July 1993.
During the same month the British Broadcasting Corporation
(BBC) interviewed the secretary of the National Spiritual
Assembly of the United Kingdom about the destruction of the
Tehran cemetery and about the secret government memorandum
outlining plans for the destruction of the Baha'i community both
within and outside Iran. Also in July, a government deputy in
Brazil met with the Iranian ambassador to that country in
support of the Baha'is in Iran.
The American Baha'i community sponsored "An Appeal to
the Conscience of Humankind," urging the world's leaders to
continue to speak out against Iran's plan to destroy the Baha'is.
It was co-signed by forty-nine prominent American cultural and
political figures and appeared in the New York Times and the Los
Angeles Times in November 1993. During that same month the
US Senate adopted, by unanimous vote, a resolution calling
upon Iran to end its persecution of the Baha'is in Iran, and in
April 1994 the US House of Representatives adopted the same
resolution, also by unanimous vote. This marked the sixth time
since 1982 that the US Congress had expressed, in the words of
Senators Christopher J. Dodd and Joseph I. Lieberman, "its deep
sense of concern over the officially-sponsored repression that
has been directed against Baha'is since the Iranian Revolution.
While this repression has been less violent in recent years, we
remain concerned that the Baha'is- Iran's largest religious
minority-continue to be singled out for persecution based on
their religious beliefs." Also in April 1994, in a speech at the
dedication of the Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington,
DC, President Clinton cited Iran's "abusive treatment" of
Baha'is, along with "ethnic cleansing" in the former Yugoslavia,
as a critical human rights concern.
There is no doubt that the efforts of Baha'i communities
around the world, from Africa to Europe, from South America to
the islands in the South Pacific, from North America to Asia,
have been instrumental in the abatement of the worst atrocities
practiced by the Islamic Republic of Iran against the Baha'i
minority in Iran. Through direct letter-writing campaigns from
National Spiritual Assemblies around the globe to the Iranian

government leaders, through urgent protests to the Iranian
embassies or consulates around the world, through approaches
to governments and requests for their intervention on behalf of
the Baha'is, and finally through contacts with the news media
resulting in widespread coverage, the Baha'i community has
focused the world's attention on the activities of the Iranian
government and has thus effectively stemmed the tide of executions.2 Nevertheless, the less sensational forms of persecution
persist, and the dangers facing the Baha'i community are still
very real. Until they are permitted by law to receive education
at the university level in the fields they wish to study, until they
are permitted by law to own their own businesses and property,
until they have the same privileges and freedoms by law as their
fellow citizens, the Baha'is' rights are threatened, and the world
must not forget their plight.

2. See pp. 153-156 of this volume for a survey of the coverage received in
various print media about the situation of the Baha'is in Iran.

Murder of
THR)3Jj
BAHA'IS
INCISKEI

O n 13 March 1994, three Baha'is who had been living and
working in South Africa for years and whose actions
testified to their commitment to race unity were gunned down in
a racially motivated attack at the Baha'i Center in Mdantsane,
Ciskei. Two of the men had been invited by the Baha'i
community of Mdantsane to consult on a program for the United
Nations International Year of the Family and the third was
manager of the center.
Around midday, four black gunmen burst into the center just
as a prayer service was concluding, and they demanded that
the white and black Baha'is be separated. The three men
present who were considered white- Mr. Houshmand Anvari,
Dr. Shamam Bakhshandegi, and Mr. Riaz Razavi- were lined
up against a wall and ordered to empty their pockets of car keys.
Then, as the adults and children who had gathered for Sunday
classes watched in disbelief, the three men were shot with
automatic rifles. Mr. Anvari, a 43-year-old computer salesman

with a wife and three young children, died instantly, as did
Mr. Razavi, the 44-year-old director of finance at the nearby
University of Fort Hare. Dr. Bakhshandegi, a 29-year-old
dentist, died shortly after arriving at the hospital- the same
hospital where he saw patients, mostly black, each weekday
mommg.
In a phone call to the South African Press Association, a man
claimed the killings had been done by a militant black group
called the Azanian Liberation Army.
The incident was reported in news media all over the world
(see pp. 156-157), with both Baha'is and others expressing
shock at this tragic and ironic attack. While those claiming
responsibility said there is no place in South Africa for anyone
belonging to the race that oppressed them, the commentator
reporting the killings on National Public Radio in the United
States noted that "since Baha'is arrived in South Africa about
forty years ago, they have refused to accommodate themselves
to apartheid." All three of the murdered men were deeply
involved in attempting to promote racial unity and to improve
social conditions for the black majority. All were in South
Africa by choice, attracted by the opportunity to work for racial
justice.
Mr. Anvari and his 33-year-old wife, Dina, had recently
established a tutorial school for young black children to

Mr. Houshmand Anvari Dr. Shamam Bakhshandegi

help them overcome the huge
gap between the education they
had received and the admission requirements of the white
schools. At the time of Mr.
Anvari's death, the school was
serving about eighty students.
Dr. Bakhshandegi, supervisor
of the community dental
section at the primarily black
Cecilia Makiwane Hospital,
had completed his research
for a master's degree in com-
Mr. Riaz Razavi
munity dentistry, studying
"The Oral Health, Treatment Needs and Personnel Requirements of School Children in Mdantsane" (the first scientific
dental research performed in Ciskei). Mr. Razavi, who is survived by his wife, Vera, and two children, was likewise one of a
handful of white staff at the all-black University of Fort Hare.
Baha'is worldwide were deeply saddened by the news of the
murders, yet they remained aware that such an event gives
greater meaning to the work toward unity that dominated the
men's lives.
Upon being informed of the tragic occurrence, the Universal
House of Justice sent the following cable to the National
Spiritual Assembly of South Africa:
SHOCKED GRIEVED NEWS VIOLENT DEATH
HOUSHMAND ANVARI, SHAMAM BAKHSHANDEGI AND
RIAZ RAZAVI IN CISKEI. PROFOUNDLY IMPRESSED
STERLING EXAMPLE SET BY THEIR DEDICATION CAUSE
BAHA'U'LLAH IN WHOSE SERVICE THEY WERE
DIRECTLY ENGAGED WHEN STRUCK DOWN BY
ASSASSINS' BULLETS. DEEPLY SYMPATHIZE IRREPARA-
BLE LOSS THEIR DEAR FAMILIES AND FRIENDS. MAY
ALL HEARTS BE COMFORTED BY PROMISE BLESSED
BEAUTY THAT THEY THAT HAVE FORSAKEN THEIR
COUNTRY IN PATH GOD AND SUBSEQUENTLY ASCENDED
UNTO HIS PRESENCE SHALL BE BLESSED BY
CONCOURSE ON HIGH AND THEIR NAMES RECORDED BY

THE BAHA:f WORLD

PEN GLORY AMONG SUCH AS HAVE LAID DOWN THEIR
LIVES AS MARTYRS PATH GOD. CONFIDENT JOYOUS
WELCOME ABHA KINGDOM THESE DISTINGUISHED
SOULS. ARDENTLY PRAYING HOLY SHRINES THEIR
PROGRESS DIVINE WORLDS. ALSO OFFERING SUPPLICA-
TIONS BEHALF ALL RELATIVES FRIENDS. ADVISE HOLD
MEMORIAL GATHERINGS THROUGHOUT SOUTH AFRICA.

This message was read during the funeral on 19 March,
which was held in the town hall of Cambridge, a suburb of East
London. More than five hundred people crowded the flowerfilled hall, including Baha'is from Bophuthatswana, Botswana,
Ciskei, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland, Transkei, and the rest of
South Africa. Prayers and readings were recited in English,
Arabic, Persian, Xhosa, and Afrikaans. The Mayor of East
London spoke of the sacrifice which had been made for the sake
of the unity of mankind, a member of the Auxiliary Board spoke
about the nature of the soul, and a member of the Continental
Board of Counsellors delivered a moving tribute to the three
martyrs.
The Baha'i community was established in South Africa in the
mid-1950s. The first national Baha'i governing council, elected
in 1956, had four white members and five blacks- a degree of
integration that was extremely rare for any sort of national organization in South Africa at the time. Today, the Baha'i
community is spread throughout the country, with Local
Spiritual Assemblies in more than two hundred cities and towns
and members representing the Zulu, Xhosa, Venda, Sotho,
Swazi, and Tswana groups. "In times to come, we will probably
hear more and more about the Baha'is," said Dr. Gerrie Lubbe,
national president of the South African chapter of the World
Conference on Religion and Peace, an internationally
recognized interfaith organization that strives to promote the
peace process worldwide. The Baha'i attitude about racial unity,
he said, "is so much in line with how we hope to see the new
South Africa developing."

This article highlights print media
coverage of the Baha'i Faith
during 1993-94.

The Baha'i Faith in the

EYES OF THE
WORLD

T he Baha'i World 1992-93 includes a survey describing the
development of press coverage of the Baha'i community
from its inception in 1844 through the Holy Year which ended at
RiQ.van 1993. The present volume updates that article with a
review covering the period from 21 April 1993 to 20 April 1994.
As noted in its predecessor, the reporting of Baha'i activities and
perspectives has now reached a scale such that it is not realistic
to attempt a truly comprehensive summary. This article
provides, rather, a general overview of the range of Baha'i
activities reported by the print media, the wide geographic distribution of press coverage, and selected highlights from the
year's stories.
One of the most laudatory summaries of Baha'i teachings and
practice published this year came from Germany. Journalist
Dr. Susanne Schaup, who is particularly known in Germany for
addressing issues related to religion, women, development, and
world peace, wrote an article entitled "The Earth Is But One
Country" for an independent Christian weekly paper Deutsches

Allgemeines Sonntagsblatt (31 December 1993). Dr. Schaup
explains and praises a wide range of Baha'i teachings and
describes in a very positive manner her experiences interacting
with members of the Baha'i community. She writes that the
natural growth of the community is not surprising "since
the Baha'is from the beginning have tackled all the problems of
the world and have created credible models for a solution."
Elsewhere in the article, she writes, "With the integration of
'diversity in unity' the Baha'is make a very important contribution to a future world society."
Journalists in countries ranging from Russia to Bolivia, from
the United Kingdom to Thailand, wrote general articles on the
Baha'i Faith, thereby informing the public about the basic
Baha'i teachings. Many were based on interviews with Baha'is.
Some articles were extensive, including photographs of Baha'i
holy places and of 'Abdu'l-Baha, and quite a few, although
written as features rather than editorials, implicitly expressed
support for the efforts of Baha'is. Articles providing general
information on the Faith were also contributed, and sometimes
sponsored, by Baha'is. Regular columns on the Baha'i Faith
included "Baha'i Forum" in New Zealand (Northland Age
Courier), "Baha'i Comer" in Swaziland (Swazi News), and
"Baha'i: The Spirit of the Age" in Canada (Opascula Times).
Two national Baha'i communities wrote "open letters" to their
fellow citizens and paid to print them in newspapers so they
could share with their compatriots the perspective Baha'u'llah's
teachings offer regarding the challenges facing their nations.
Such letters were printed in Albania and in Nigeria.
Another frequently noted type of general article on the Faith
covered a story on a particular Baha'i event and included basic
facts on Baha'i teachings. Baha'i conferences, summer schools,
public talks, visits of Baha'i travelling teachers, and exhibits
were among the events covered in newspapers all over the
world. (For a summary of reporting on Baha'i events explicitly
aimed at addressing social problems, see "Service to Society"
section on pp. 162-163.) Commemorations of Baha'i holy days
accounted for nearly as many articles as the other activities
combined. This year, for example, readers in Belgium, Ethiopia,

Nepal, and Sri Lanka were informed about the anniversary of
the birth of Baha'u'llah; in Germany, Ireland, Macau, and the
United States about the anniversary of Baha'u'llah's ascension;
and in Austria, Bangladesh, Costa Rica, and France about Naw-
Ruz (the Baha'i New Year). In addition to the articles printed in
papers in Germany, India, and Northern Ireland to mark the
anniversary of Baha'u'llah's declaration of His mission in the
garden of Riqvan, the BBC World Service broadcast an
explanation of Riqvan by the secretary-general of the United
Kingdom's Baha'i governing council on its "Words of Faith"
program.
News coverage of meetings between Baha'is and prominent
people, such as a London luncheon given by the Law Society in
honor of Madame Rul)_iyyih Rabbani and attended by prominent
figures, also brought the name of the Faith to public attention.
The visit of Papua New Guinea's Deputy Prime Minister Sir
Julius Chan to the Baha'i World Centre in Israel was mentioned
in Papua New Guinea's Post-Courier (16 June 1993). The Dalai
Lama's visit to the World Centre was reported in the US paper
the Baltimore Sun (22 March 1994). The attendance of Her
Highness Princess To' oa Tosi Malietoa of Western Samoa at the
Baha'i-sponsored "Heart of Australia Calling" conference in
Alice Springs, Australia, was reported in the Samoa Observer
(15 September 1993).
Other meetings reported in newspapers included a ceremony
at the Hawaii Baha'i Centre recognizing Her Highness Tosi
Malietoa; a visit by several First Ladies of Africa to the Baha'i
House of Worship in Uganda; and a presentation by the State
Baha'i Council of Orissa, India, to the Governor of Orissa.

Persecutions in Iran
The ongoing persecutions of Baha'is in Iran took a new turn in
June 1993 when it was discovered that in a Tehran cemetery, the
bodies of Baha'is were being exhumed and trucked unceremoniously to unknown destinations, while burial plots were being
bulldozed, ostensibly to make way for construction of an Islamic
cultural center. The cemetery contains the graves of many of the
Faith's earliest adherents and was also in current use. News of

the desecration spread quickly to countries on every continent
and was reported in newspapers throughout the world, including
Canada, the United States, El Salvador, and Peru; France, the
Netherlands, and Portugal; Botswana, Kenya, and Tanzania;
Australia, the Cook Islands, and the Mariana Islands; and India,
Sri Lanka, and Thailand. Many of the articles reported the
shock and sadness expressed by local Baha'i communities
regarding these attacks on their fellow believers in Iran.
Editorials condemning the actions taken to destroy the graves
were also printed worldwide, the most notable being a New York
Times piece called "Iran Stoops to Grave-Robbing" (8 July
1993). The editorial, which mentioned the history of persecutions of Baha'is in Iran, said, "Reverence for the dead reaches
across all cultures and religions. A regime that stoops to bodysnatching can hardly reach lower."
In early 1993, a secret Iranian government document written
in 1991 had come to light which explicitly called for the
destruction of Baha'i cultural roots both inside and outside the
country and outlined a series of discriminatory practices
sanctioned by the government. Reports on this document, and
on efforts made to raise international protest concerning it,
continued during the rest of 1993 and into 1994. Bolivia, Chad,
Ecuador, the Republic of Ireland, Mauritius, and Spain are a few
of the countries where newspapers kept the public aware of the
document. On 22 November 1993, the op-ed section of the New
York Times carried a quarter-page statement, "An Appeal to the
Conscience of Humankind," sponsored by the National Spiritual
Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States. Co-signed by
forty-nine leaders of thought, the appeal stated, in part: "As
Americans who cherish religious freedom and tolerance, we
urge the world's leaders to continue to speak out against Iran's
plan to destroy the Baha'is. We urge the United Nations and
other organizations such as the Council of Europe and the
European Community to call upon the Government of Iran to
extend to Baha'is the religious rights guaranteed by the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights." The same appeal
appeared in the Los Angeles Times one week later.

When three Baha'is in Iran were condemned to death in
December 1993, solely because of their beliefs, the news was
reported as far away as the Cook Islands. Editorials quickly
appeared in the New York Times (31 December 1993) and in
Germany's Franlifurter Allgemeine Zeitung (27 January 1994).
Commenting on the case of two of the Baha'is, the New York
Times editorial read, in part: "No criminal acts are cited in the
700-word verdict reaffirming the death sentence. The two
Baha'is are simply accused of holding feasts, owning books and
being 'unprivileged infidels at war with the Muslim nation.'"
The editorial ended with the following: "As many as 350,000
Baha'is, who are the largest religious minority in Iran, are
already deprived of jobs, property and schooling. If revolutionary courts carry out these death sentences, which are reportedly
under appeal, Iran will have compounded bigotry and
persecution with murder."
In addition to articles specifically about the situation of
Baha'is in Iran, numerous stories mentioned the ongoing persecutions in the context of reports about human rights abuses or
interviews with expatriate Iranian Baha'is. When United States
President Bill Clinton spoke at the dedication of the US
Holocaust Museum in Washington, DC, on 23 April 1993, he
said the evils the museum represents still find echoes in the
oppression of today, and he specifically mentioned "the abusive
treatment of the Baha'i in Iran." Mr. Clinton's speech was
widely reported by the major newspapers in the United States.
Other mentions of the persecution of Baha'is in Iran came in
Le Monde (France) in an article about persecuted minorities
being forced to leave their homelands (10 March 1994), and in
the Wall Street Journal Europe (14 December 1993) as part of a
letter to the editor about barriers to peace in the Middle East.
United Nations action related to the persecutions also
garnered press coverage. Le Monde (France) reported adoption
by the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and
Protection of Minorities of a resolution on human rights in Iran
(25 August 1993). The article refers to the ongoing persecution
inflicted on the Baha'is. Also reported in a variety of papers
was the United Nations General Assembly's call, in December

THE BAHA'i WORLD

1993, for Iran to comply with international human rights
agreements. The General Assembly took special note of the
religious discrimination faced by the Baha'is and warned that
"the existence of the Baha'i community is threatened." On
18 February 1994, special rapporteur Reynaldo Galindo Pohl's
report to the UN Commission on Human Rights was released; it
said Iran's Islamic government relies heavily on executions,
torture, repression, and intimidation to enforce obedience to its
ideals. The report mentioned that repression of the Baha'is was
continuing.
The public was made much more aware of the painful
individual stories behind the statistics and reports when the book
Olya s Story was released in 1993 and its author, Olya Roohizadegan, travelled to speak about her experiences. Eleven years
ago, Mrs. Roohizadegan was one of a group of eleven Iranian
women jailed and tortured for their Baha'i beliefs; she was
released and the ten other women were all hanged. Interviews
with Mrs. Roohizadegan and synopses of her book were
published in newspapers in Canada, the United States, Panama,
and extensively- approximately two hundred articles- in the
United Kingdom.

Killings in Ciskei
On 13 March 1994, gunmen entered a Baha'i centre in Ciskei,
separated the worshippers according to race, and murdered the
three Baha'is they classified as white. 1 News of this reprehensible act was carried in newspapers around the world, including
the New York Times, France's Le Figaro, newspapers in Guam,
the Mariana Islands, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, and
Portugal, and papers throughout South Africa.
The murders in Ciskei formed the basis of an op-ed article by
Harvard University professor Henry Louis Gates Jr. which was
printed in the New York Times (27 March 1994) under the title
"A Liberalism of Heart and Spine" and in the International

1. See pp. 147-150 for more on this story.

Herald Tribune (30 March 1994) under the title "Living
Together: For a Humanism That Cares to Speak Its Mind."
National Public Radio in the US aired an item about the
killings on 19 March 1994, noting:

The Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is in South Africa has
reacted to the killings with a sadness and a sageness that says
much about their Faith. They've called the deaths of their
brethren a tragedy but go on to say that the last remorseless
legacy of apartheid is that people who were brutally kept
down because of their color might rise up now with
indiscriminate revenge pressed into their hearts rather than
love. The Baha'is have their own experience of repression,
especially in today's Iran, where they've been hunted down
and suppressed by a fundamentalist government that cannot
abide the Baha'i dedication to the equality of all races,
genders, faiths, and nations.

Seventh International Convention
More than 750 Baha'is from 150 countries gathered in Haifa,
Israel, from 29 April to 2 May 1993 for the Seventh International Baha'i Convention. The Convention is held every five
years to elect the members of the Universal House of Justice and
to provide an opportunity for consultation among members of
various Baha'i institutions. 2 Newspapers in a number of the
countries sending delegates reported on their citizens' participation in the Convention. The articles explained the spiritual
nature of the elections, the absence of electioneering and
nominations, and the importance of a prayerful attitude. A
reporter from United Press International also covered the events.
Delegates to International Baha'i Conventions are all
members of National Spiritual Assemblies and are elected
during National Conventions held each spring. Among the
countries reporting on their communities' National Conventions
in 1993 were Albania, Guyana, Macau, Malaysia, New
Caledonia, Panama, and Papua New Guinea.

2. See pp. 51-58 for further information on the Seventh International Baha'i
Convention.

The Advancement of Women
The opening of the Baha'i International Community's Office for
the Advancement of Women in New York City in May 1993
received press coverage in such disparate locations as Grenada,
New Zealand, Panama, and Sri Lanka. In addition to printing
news of this international event, newspapers covered national
and local Baha'i activities dedicated to the advancement of
women, such as courses at India's Baha'i Vocational Institute for
Rural Women, which were reported upon at least four times as
classes of women graduated. The Vocational Institute for Rural
Women was also in the news at least five times when it joined
with the All-India Women's Conference to organize a
preparatory workshop in advance of the UN Fourth World
Conference on Women to be held in Beijing in 1995.
Baha'i involvement with the United Nations Development
Fund for Women (UNIFEM) was reported in at least five
features on Malaysia's participation in the UNIFEM-funded
project "Traditional Media as Change Agent." 3 The efforts of
Baha'is in New Zealand to support UNIFEM by holding informational and fund-raising breakfasts in a dozen cities resulted in
four newspaper articles. When a member of the Baha'i
Women's Association in Guam returned from a UNIFEM
conference in Fiji for non-governmental organizations around
the Pacific, her thoughts on the event were reported in Pacific
Daily News. This paper also carried a story on two members of
the Guam Baha'i Women's Association attending the Asia-
Pacific Symposium on Women in Development in the
Philippines.
Coverage of Baha'i efforts to educate the public about
Baha'u'llah's teachings on the status of women included stories
on an exhibit about the importance of women in society,
organized by the Baha'i Women's Association of Guam; a
celebration of women's suffrage hosted by a Baha'i women's
group in Whangarei, New Zealand; and interviews with Baha'i
professor Dr. Tahirih Vajdi, printed in Fiji and the Marshall
Islands during her visit to those countries.

3. See pp. 259-263 for further details on this project.

Publication of the book Voices and Choices: The Women s
Movement in Singapore, which was commissioned by the
Singapore Council of Women's Organizations and the Singapore
Baha'i Women's Committee, resulted in at least two full-page
reviews.
Baha'is also wrote and sponsored articles on topics such as
women and education (Portugal), equal rights for women
(Zimbabwe), and Baha'i heroine Tahirih (New Zealand).

Indigenous Peoples
The second half of the United Nations International Year for the
World's Indigenous Peoples fell into the period under review,
and a number of stories about Baha'i activities and statements
related to this topic appeared in print. A National Baha'i Studies
conference on indigenous peoples took place in Brisbane,
Australia, in July 1993, and was reported in the Australian and
the Courier Mail. The travels of Raymond Wymarra throughout
the Pacific to invite indigenous people to a festival of cultural
unity in Australia were reported in Samoa and New Caledonia.
A newspaper in Norway covered the visit of Grace Growing
Medicine Eagle, a Baha'i of Native American and Dutch
background. In Portugal, two papers printed stories about a
conference organized by Baha'is in honor of the visit of
Washington Araujo, Brazilian author of a book about the destiny
of indigenous peoples.
Baha'i commentary on the importance of preserving
indigenous cultures and treasuring indigenous contributions to
discussion of the world's issues appeared in papers in the Canary
Islands, Guatemala, and Honduras.

Environment
Baha'i participation in efforts to educate the public about
environmental concerns entered a new stage in 1989 with establishment of the Baha'i International Community's Office of the
Environment in New York City and expanded dramatically with
Baha'i involvement at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in
1992. The Peace Monument erected in Brazil by the Baha'is

during that Summit continued to be mentioned in the news as
more countries donated soil to be deposited in the hourglassshaped monument. The Grenadian Voice (4 September 1993)
announced that Grenada was among fifteen nations to add soil to
the monument on World Environment Day 1993. In April 1994,
articles appeared in the Cook Islands and in Denmark reporting
that soil from those countries would be added to the monument
in 1994.
A two-day public conference on sustainable development
sponsored by the Guyana Office of Social and Economic
Development, a Baha'i agency, was reported in the Mirror
(19 January 1994). The article said the conference was being
organized to "encourage 'open and equitable consultation' as an
integral part of Guyana's developmental process, encourage
environmental preservation and sustainability, promote the
wisest use of environmental resources, and forge harmonious
development consistent with local culture and social mores."
Two statements relating the Baha'i perspective on environmental protection were printed in newspapers in Honduras and
Ghana. The latter was a half-page commentary in the Weekly
Spectator (8 May 1993) by Michael Richards of the International Institute for Environment and Development which quoted
Baha'u'llah in explaining that the environmental crisis is fundamentally a reflection of mankind's spiritual crisis and that the
remedy must involve spiritual solutions. The article, which ran
under the headline, "Religion, Science and the Environment,"
said:

Our relationship with nature reflects the stage of the
development of our society or civilization. This has evolved
from a childlike stage characterized by ritualistic belief
systems which worshipped nature, the sun, 'Mother Earth',
etc., and in which material understanding was very limited.
We are now passing through an adolescent, 'rational' and
exploitative phase in which science and religion are divorced,
and need to evolve towards maturity through a conscious
integration of scientific and spiritual viewpoints.

Human Rights
The Baha'i International Community presented three statements
at the United Nations World Conference on Human Rights in
Vienna, Austria, in June 1993, a fact that was reported as far
away from this gathering as El Salvador (El Mundo, 30 June
1993). A summary of the contents of the statements, which was
printed in New Zealand (Northland Times, 24 June 1993),
pointed out the interdependence of different kinds of rights.
'"Without economic rights, the exercise of civil or social rights
is severely attenuated,' the statement says. 'Without cultural
rights, an individual or community will have the greatest
difficulty in exercising political or economic rights to a degree
that meets the essential requirements of their respective
situations.'"
Baha'i participation in the World Conference on Human
Rights was noted in an article written by Ronald Bates, a Baha'i,
to mark Human Rights Day in New Zealand. "Protecting human
rights globally" (Northern Advocate, 11 December 1993) related
the Baha'i International Community's emphasis on the
importance of education in promoting human rights. Baha'i
activities for Human Rights Day were also reported in two
newspapers in Belgium. Baha'is in the city of Mons organized a
gathering of approximately five hundred children who created a
cooperative mural to illustrate Baha'u'llah's assertion that "The
earth is but one country and mankind its citizens."

Moral Education
Public talks by Baha'i educators, commenting on the distinctive
Baha'i approach to moral education, were covered by reporters
in several countries. The visit to India of American education
professor Dr. Dwight Allen resulted in numerous articles. Dr.
Allen, author of seven books on educational reform, spoke at the
National Baha'i Conference on Education held in Panchgani and
delivered the Silver Jubilee Celebration Lecture at the Inter-
University Consortium under the auspices of the Institute of
Management Studies and the Centre for Baha'i Studies. He also
}

gave interviews to various reporters. In Australia, newspapers

THE BAHA'I WORLD

carried reports about Canadian educator Ed Muttart, who visited
the country to speak about an educational children's publication
called The Virtues Guide and his commitment to "re-awakening
in human minds and hearts what it means to be a human being."
In November 1993, the Chinese-English Weekly in Taiwan
reprinted an interview with Dr. Farzam Arbab, member of the
Universal House of Justice, who has extensive experience with
educational programs in developing countries. Dr. Arbab
described how moral education is not simply a matter of
inculcating do's and don't's, but rather involves nurturing understanding of principles such as unity in diversity and the oneness
of humanity as bedrocks of a whole moral framework. Articles
on the subject of moral education, written by Baha'is, were
printed in the Canary Islands, Panama, and Paraguay, and a
description of classes for the moral education of children in
India formed an article in The Daily (Bombay).

Service to Society
Reporters around the world wrote about projects initiated by
Baha'is to serve immediate community needs or to address longterm issues. Among the projects reported upon were the
agreement signed in the Marshall Islands for Baha'is to run five
government schools; involvement in a local program in the
United States to support social 'vorkers meeting the needs of
neglected or abused children; training of literacy instructors in
India and Zambia; organization of a festival for intercultural
understanding in Germany; the voluntary services of a Canadian
Baha'i doctor to the people of Guyana and help with the rehabilitation of a hospital in that country; donation of bedding to the
children's ward of a Malawi hospital by Baha'i youth and
children; sponsorship of an essay contest in the Cook Islands on
the theme "Elimination of Violence"; and organization of
"walks for peace" in Ireland and Panama.
A conference held in Ireland in support of the United Nations
International Year of the Family was reported in four papers.
The gathering was entitled "The Family: Unity in Diversity."
Another conference on the family was organized by the Baha'is

in the Canary Islands. Stories on other activities in support of
the Year of the Family were printed in the Cook Islands and
Macau, and articles expressing Baha'i views on the family were
printed in Finland and Singapore.
News of events organized to promote racial harmony
appeared in print in Ireland, Norway, the West Leeward Islands,
and the United States. The Los Angeles Times (2 June 1993) ran
a brief story announcing "'A Year of Healing' at Baha'i
Center"- an art show created by children from the areas of Los
Angeles affected by race riots in 1992. Statements by Baha'is
urging their fellow citizens to embrace race unity were printed in
Australia, Northern Ireland, and Panama.
In support of international cooperation, celebrations of
United Nations Day 1993 were held in Botswana, India, and Sri
Lanka, and the forty-eighth anniversary of the United Nations
was commemorated with a special service at the Baha'i House
of Worship in Apia, Western Samoa.

Baha'i Artists
The performances of Baha'is expressing their Faith through
music, drama, and dance and exhibits by Baha'i visual artists
were the subject of stories on every continent. Wildfire World
Theatre is a group of young people from Australia who present a
program of music, comedy, and dance that conveys the essential
principles of the Baha'i Faith. Their 1993 tour generated
numerous articles in the Czech and Slovak Republics, Germany,
Hungary, Mauritius, Romania, Switzerland, Turkey, and back
home in Australia. Other Baha'i artists who received press
coverage were pianist Mark Ochu, who played in Denmark, and
native American dancer, musician, and storyteller Kevin Locke,
whose performances in Thailand were both previewed and
reviewed in the Bangkok Post (27 and 31 May 1993). The
premiere of a new vocal composition by Norwegian composer
Lasse Thoresen, which opened the first exhibition of the late
noted American artist Mark Tobey's paintings in Norway, was
reported during the early spring of 1993 in several newspapers,
including Oslo's Aftenposten and Verdens Gang, and Sandvika's

THE BAHA'i WORLD

Asker og B(£rums Budstikke. Other stories on Baha'i musical
performances or art exhibits were printed in such widely
scattered locations as Ghana, France, Macau, Mexico, and
Northern Ireland.
On 17 May 1993, the Canadian newspaper The Independent reported that an album of eleven devotional songs
written by sitar maestro Ravi Shankar was being released by
the Baha'i community of Toronto. The songs, all in Hindi,
are based on the words of the Founder of the Baha'i Faith,
Baha'u'llah, and were written for the opening of the Baha'i
House of Worship inN ew Delhi, India. On 19 May 1993, the
Chicago Tribune printed an item from Reuters news service
announcing that the late American jazz trumpeter Dizzy
Gillespie, a long-time Baha'i, had been posthumously
awarded one of the world's most valuable musical prizes by
the King of Sweden, the 1993 Polar Music Prize.

Local Human Interest
Profiles of individual Baha'is and Baha'i families described how
the Faith affects the daily life of its adherents, influencing their
decisions, behavior, and outlook. American Janet Coester's
walk alone across Russia to spread the cause of peace and
ecology resulted in dozens of articles mentioning her Faith.
Some of the six hundred or so volunteers at the Baha'i World
Centre were interviewed about their services for their hometown
newspapers. A reporter in India interviewed American Baha'i
Allison Vaccaro who spent three months volunteering at the
House of Worship in India before returning to her home in
Dominica. When the Irish-born deputy secretary-general of the
Baha'i International Community Paul Reynolds visited his
birthplace, several interviews with him were printed. A young
Russian Baha'i, Svetlana Vinnik, visiting Northern Ireland on a
student exchange, spoke to a reporter about what attracted her to
the Baha'i Faith. A New Zealand paper ran a story about Judy
Forbes, director of anaesthetics for Christchurch Women's
Hospital, preparing to leave for a three-month trip to South
Africa organized by Health Volunteers Overseas.

IN THE EYES OF THE WORLD

Response to Attacks and Misrepresentation
Of course, not all press coverage was posttlve. When
widespread coverage of the persecutions in Iran appeared, some
articles defended the actions of the Iranian government and
accused the Baha'is of committing actions that justified their
harsh treatment. Such claims were printed, for example, in
letters to the editor from representatives of the embassies of Iran
in India, Kenya, and Namibia, and in interviews with the Iranian
ambassador to the United Nations, Kamal Kharrazi, who
insisted that there is nothing wrong with the Iranian
government's treatment of the country's Baha'is.
In Romania, two newspapers printed an interview with an
unnamed individual who claimed to be a Baha'i but then
attacked Baha'i materials and proceeded to inaccurately explain
Baha'i teachings and make wild and unsubstantiated statements
about the Bab and the activities of the Baha'i community. In
such cases the Baha'i community often did not formally
respond, because the statements were outrageous and could
easily be investigated.
In other cases, where opposition seemed to be based on misinterpretation of authentic Baha'i texts, Baha'is defended their
Faith with letters to the editor. One example comes from St.
Vincent. A letter to the editor of the Vincentian argued that
Baha'u'llah claims to be God and that the Bab should not be
considered a Prophet because He claims several stations for
Himself. The National Spiritual Assembly responded to these
arguments with a letter in the same paper clarifying the stations
of both Baha'u'llah and the Bab and stating that the Baha'i
sacred writings were available for independent investigation. In
Albania, the monthly newspaper Le Religioni Nei Balcani
printed extracts from interviews with various religious leaders in
the country. A representative of the Muslim believers in
Albania referred to the "viruses of pseudo-religions like the one
of the Baha'is" and said "we are at war with them." The
secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of
Albania replied to the criticism by saying, "When Jesus Christ
came, he was not welcomed and everybody is aware of the

persecutions that His disciples had to suffer. The same occurred
to Mul::mmmad, even though His preachers were irreproachable.
In essence, this is a matter of misunderstanding if not of
ignorance, that often the one that criticizes lacks knowledge .. .."

Interfaith Dialogue
The Baha'i Faith was first publicly mentioned in the United
States at the Parliament of the World's Religions held in
Chicago in 1893. One hundred years later, in August/September
1993, a commemorative conference brought together leaders
from approximately 125 religions and denominations and si~
thousand participants to pray together and share ideas about
solutions to the world's ills. A Chicago Tribune article about the
planning of the second Parliament mentioned that Baha'is were
among the dozen people who initiated preparations for the
centennial event five years before it took place. A member of
the Baha'i host committee, Leilani Smith, was quoted as saying,
"We are coming to this parliament because our basic belief is
that we should consort with followers of all religions in
harmony." The Associated Press story on the event noted the
invocation given by Dr. Wilma Ellis representing the "Spiritual
Assembly of Baha'i": "If warfare and strife be for the sake of
religion, it is evident that it violates the spirit and basis of all
religion," she said. "The fundamental truth of the manifestations of God is peace. This underlies all religions." Other print
media mentioning Baha'i participation in the Parliament of the
World's Religions included the New York Times, the Chicago
Sun-Times, and Tribune Magazine. Stories from the Associated
Press and Reuters news services were printed in Germany,
Hawaii, the Netherlands, and New Zealand.
Baha'i participation in other interfaith activities- such as celebrations of World Religion Day, a seminar on fmding common
ethics in a multicultural society, the formation of an interreligious
organization to promote unity and tolerance, and interfaith prayer
services for world peace- were reported in such diverse
locations as Ghana, Norway, Trinidad & Tobago, El Salvador,
Mozambique, Germany, Panama, and the United States.

It is significant that the Baha'i Faith, which has often been
mistakenly referred to in the media as a "sect" or not mentioned at
all in the context of articles on major religions, was repeatedly
noted in articles about the world's religions. In a special issue of
Time magazine called "The New Face of America" (November
1993), a chart was printed showing the Baha'i Faith to be the fifth
most populous non-Christian religion in the United States. A
feature in Canada's Toronto Star called "Time to bring spirituality
out of the closet" (14 November 1993) quoted a Baha'i International Community public information officer as saying, "There is a
growing recognition by political leaders that political ideology and
money can't solve problems. They recognize that there is another
component, which you can call values, or ethics, or morality, or
spirituality." An Associated Press article about a Harvard
University professor tracking religions in the United States
mentions her "notebooks stuffed with research about Baha'i."
When an interfaith panel was established to monitor South Africa's
frrst non-racial elections, representatives came from "the Buddhist,
Jewish, Hindu, Baha'i, Muslim, and Christian faiths" (Church
Times, London, 4 June 1993). An item in the Orange County
Register in the United States (4 May 1993) noted that at the request
of Mayor Robert Breton, the city clerk drafted a policy that would
avoid scheduling city meetings or public events on "major
religious holidays, including holy days for Muslims, Jews,
Buddhists, Christians, and Baha'is. Breton emphasized the need to
limit the policy to major religions; otherwise 'we would never be
able to hold a meeting.'"

Houses of Worship
The Baha'i House of Worship in Sydney, Australia, figured
prominently in a story about the devastating bush frres in the
region, which caused widespread destruction but left the Temple
intact. Sydney's Telegraph Mirror reported, "Amid the smoky
ruins of the parklands, the Baha'i Temple stood like a gleaming
white beacon on the hill between Mona Vale and Ingleside." The
Herald Sun reported on a special service held at the Temple after
the frre to thank frrefighters and the caretakers who saved the
House of Worship. At least ten articles about the House of

Worship in India appeared, including interviews with visiting
architect Fariborz Sahba and reviews of books about the Temple. A
photograph and brief article on the Temple in Panama was printed
when the site was used for a meeting of Central American mayors.
A photograph of the Temple outside Chicago, in the United States,
accompanied a paragraph about the contributions made by
African-Americans to construction of the House of Worship,
motivated by the Baha'i Faith's teaching of racial equality.

Conclusion
In summary, print media articles about the Baha'i Faith, Baha'i
communities, and individual members of the Faith appeared in
widely divergent locations and publications throughout 1993-94,
and members of the press were drawn to report on diverse aspects
of Baha'i life. Some covered artistic presentations, service
projects, major events and prominent people, while others focused
on principles such as the advancement of women, moral education,
and human rights. Still others showed efforts made by Baha'is
around the world to tackle issues such as environmental concerns
and the promotion of interfaith dialogue. The plight of the Baha'is
in Iran and the murder of three Baha'is in Ciskei received much
coverage. Local human interest stories and general introductory
articles about the Faith were also widespread.
From this survey, it is clear that the Baha'i Faith enjoys mostly
positive coverage by print media and that it is increasingly viewed
by writers as one of the world's major religions. Indeed, the
number of times the Baha'i Faith has been mentioned in passing
references to major religious groups is growing yearly. Much of
this increase is, no doubt, due to the persecution of the Baha'is in
Iran and the continuing coverage their situation has received over
the past decade and a half, but both large-scale and local coverage
of activities in which Baha'is have been involved is growing
steadily as well. Stories about the Iranian situation have shown
vividly the suffering of the Baha'i community in that country, but
the efforts of Baha'is in their own communities from Western
Samoa to Siberia have garnered coverage with a different slant,
showing how the Baha'i Faith contributes positively to society all
over the globe.

ESSAYS
STATEMENTS
Ann Boyles comments on the effects of
the postmodernist perspective on our
contemporary worldview and offers an
alternative framework for understanding
current trends and events.

wr,WORLD
w'ATCH

Introduction

I n the closing years of the twentieth century, the moral
paradoxes and tragic juxtapositions of life on this planet are
becoming increasingly insupportable. The horrors of tribal
violence in Rwanda and "ethnic cleansing" in the Balkans
appear in vivid images on television screens and magazine and
newspaper pages around the globe, yet no agency seems to
possess the moral and practical authority to do more than utter a
hollow condemnation of the atrocities. The media report the
proliferation of drug trafficking and child prostitution in various
parts of the world and the rise in teenage violence, but no body
or government has stepped forward to curb these activities. The
traffic of drugs that cause untold human misery is acceptable in
some quarters because the income generated by the cultivation
of drug-producing plants brings prosperity to impoverished rural
villages around the world. Child prostitution in southeast Asian
cities is quietly condoned by some governments because it
increases regional tourism. Powerful lobby groups in the United

States agitate against more stringent gun control laws as an
infringement on their personal liberty, while children with
automatic weapons kill each other in schoolyards across the
nation. The moral failings of politicians all over the world are
widely publicized and condemned by a public that engages in
many of the same activities. The gap between public morality
and private life grows ever wider.
Such contradictions are, in no small measure, the legacy of
intellectual and political ideas that have carried us through much
of the twentieth century. On the one hand, we want to believe
that we can build a better world, but on the other, while we may
cry for the leadership that will assist us to build such a world, we
reject the idea of central global authority or a structure of
governance capable of dealing with the pressing problems
confronting us all. The result is essentially a world adrift, where
no certain values remain. There is a sense of events running out
of control, accompanied by a perception of randomness- an
impression that many things occur without cause and are
therefore irresolvable.
Yet an irrepressible sense of hope remains: people still dare
to believe that the world will become a place of peace, that the
poverty-stricken will one day live in dignity, that the oppressed
will be released from their bondage. The world looks hopefully towards a post-apartheid South Africa. Peace negotiations
between entrenched foes inspire cautious optimism. And
people's unhappiness with their governments and leaders
generates a re-examination of outworn political systems. In
essence, then, the world is currently torn by two opposing
forces: an almost nihilistic conviction that humanity is destined
to pursue a path of self-destruction versus a drive towards redefinition of ourselves, our social systems, and our world. How can
we come to terms with these two opposing views? Is the world
caught in an irreversible spiral towards anarchy, as many
modern commentators would have us believe? In considering
these questions, a critical look at a theory that has held sway
over many thinkers during the past decades will be helpful.

Modernism and Postmodernism
The problem with structure and authority that lies at the heart of
modem life is part of a phenomenon that has acquired the
designation "postmodernism." It underscores discussions about
organized religion and the authority of religious leaders, colors
perceptions of political and civil life around the world, shapes
current literature and contemporary arts, calls into question the
validity of the traditional family as an institution, and
determines theories and practices in the fields of business and
economics.
Postmodemism's precursor, the modernist movement,
originated in the early years of the twentieth century, the result
of the modem perception of a loss of center in the world and the
search to regain that center. The postmodemist era into which
we have moved in the latter half of this century could be termed
a period when people have given up searching for that lost
center and have come to believe that there never was such a
thing in the first place. Among the major characteristics of postmodernism that have drifted from the intellectual arena into
popular culture and thus affect our daily life are a real or
perceived lack of leadership; a questioning and rejection of
authority; an absence of systems of hierarchical ordering,
resulting in fragmentation and a sense of randomness; attempts
to redefme basic structures in society; an assertion of invalidity
of many previously held beliefs; a lack of accountability;
violence; discordance; studied ugliness.
The paradigm contains both positive and negative implications. This is a pluralistic world, in many ways, where it is no
longer generally acceptable to impose Western culture and
values on others. Similarly, in the realm of belief, many people
now recognize that there are many different religions and values
systems operating in the world. It is no longer tolerable for one
race or culture to be enslaved in any way by another. These are
forward steps. But the loss of a common point of reference or
authority has alarming ramifications. Since there are no
unalterable rules and everything is negotiable, nothing possesses
absolute meaning. For example, if we talk about "human
rights," how can we agree on exactly what are human rights? Or

if we talk about the equality of women and men, how can we
agree exactly what that entails? If we accept that there is validity
in many different religions, how do we decide which teachings,
if any, are to be universally respected?
An illustration of the difficulties engendered by such a lack of
authority is found in several issues arising in the field of medical
ethics during 1993-94. Discussions concerning legality of
euthanasia, the cloning of human embryos, and post-menopausal
pregnancies exposed the ethical dilemmas created by the rapid
advance of science beyond traditionally accepted limits. How
can one resolve such discussions without recourse to a central,
universally respected moral authority? Such is the difficulty
encountered in many fields throughout the postmodern world,
leaving us with more "deconstructions" than "constructions,"
more of a fragmented view than one of wholeness, and more
questions than answers.

Postmodernism and Reportage
While historical events of the past century have served to
destabilize and fragment established patterns of society around
the world, the rapid development of telecommunications has
given steadily greater substance to Marshall McLuhan's "global
village," so that we now have the technology to communicate in
ways scarcely dreamed of in past ages. The technological tools
available to create a peaceful, unified world exist. Yet they have
seldom been effectively used towards such ends.
Contemporary reportage in the global media clearly
evidences the tendencies and biases of postmodernism.
Information is disseminated broadly and rapidly; strange juxtapositions occur, and what may be considered important one day
is forgotten the next, as illustrated by the following example.
"New world order" became a buzzword in the late 1980s with
the breakup of the Soviet Union, the demolition of the Berlin
Wall, the reunification of Germany, and a variety of other
occurrences that were hailed widely by the international media
as proof that the world was being reshaped and reconfigured into
a new, global order that would be significantly different from

WORLD WATCH

and better than the previous one. Yet, within a very brief
timespan, the same international media were trumpeting the
downfall of the new order, branding it the "new world disorder"
and generally heralding its quick demise.
Perhaps the world was too naive in its expectations about
what the "new world order" would bring and about the effort
required to ensure its survival. It quickly became apparent that
the structure of this new order is ill-defmed- even chaotic; with
one of the two former superpowers now gone, the tensions
driving international relations, directing nations' foreign
policies, and governing international economics have radically
changed. Small nations attempting to establish their own
sovereignty are largely inexperienced in the art of governance;
governments all around the world have been subverted by
internal strife, corruption, public dissatisfaction, recalcitrant
military forces, and by their own ineptitude. In some cases their
structures have begun to disintegrate, and in others their stature
has declined considerably. Who or what, then, will provide
structure in this post-Colonial, post-Cold War world? To whom
are people to tum as an authority? Such questions have assumed
central importance as either explicit or implicit concerns of
media coverage of current events.
The major stories and editorial commentaries of 1993-94
clearly reflect this preoccupation with our destabilized present
and our uncertain future. In the spheres of politics and civil life,
the press worried constantly about the absence of strong, upright
leadership in various countries of the world, from the US to
Russia, from Japan to Italy; civil uprisings against governments
occurred in widely disparate areas, including Moscow in
October 1993 and the Chiapas region of Mexico in January
1994; international organized crime was seen as a growing
problem around the world.
In the realm of the family, 1994's United Nations International Year of the Family sparked broad discussion about the
viability of the family as an institution, and commentators
mused whether the family as a social unit needed to be
redefmed. Meanwhile, various stories in the media examined

family breakdown, citing examples of neglect of children by
their parents, the selling of children into prostitution, and the rise
in violence among teenagers.
The business world experienced a strange volatility in the
stock markets, saw a "jobless recovery" to the global recession,
and witnessed the emergence of competitive new economic
centers around the world- particularly in the Far East and Latin
America- to the consternation of traditional leaders such as
Europe and the US . While China was hailed as a new
"superpower" on the world scene, concerns about its human
rights violations were renewed, and in the West alarms were
sounded about the North Korean government's capability to
produce nuclear arms .
Conflicts fuelled by racial and ethnic hatred escalated in
various locations : "ethnic cleansing" occurred in Cambodia and
in Bosnia, in spite of the establishment of "safe havens" by the
United Nations peacekeeping forces; tribal violence erupted in
Rwanda, Burundi, Kenya, and Algeria; there was a general
backlash against foreigners in western Europe, and fascism
gained popularity as a movement; the path to South Africa's frrst
multiracial democratic elections was paved with bloodshed.
Commentators noted the rising number of conflicts between
ethnic identity and the modem nation; such retreats into tribal
and ethnic conclaves are marked by a disregard for laws of
governments and established national boundaries.
Some of these conflicts were additionally kindled by
religious strife; the term "religious nationalism" defined
movements in which religious beliefs combined with political
ambitions to create explosive situations such as the murder of
Muslim worshippers in a mosque in Hebron, Israel, by a
fanatical Zionist, the call by Hindu revivalists for India to
become a solely Hindu nation, and the bombing of the World
Trade Center in New York by Muslim fundamentalists. The
Branch Davidian cult in Waco, Texas, also made the news with
the violent deaths of its members in a standoff with the FBI. In
the mainstream Christian churches, the authority of the Pope
came under heavy fire with regard to his position on abortion

WORLD WATCH

and birth control issues, and revisionist histories of the life of
Christ promoted a far different understanding of His life and
mission than the generally accepted one.
In the face of international disputes, the United Nations was
pressed to send peacekeeping troops, but the success of these
interventions was, at best, limited. The press endlessly debated
the actions of UN peacekeepers in Somalia and Bosnia, and
some commentators urged that the entire UN peacekeeping
system be overhauled to meet the new and expanding demands
placed upon it by the world situation. The reluctance of the US
to assume a large share of peacekeeping duties was increased by
the deaths of a number of American soldiers in Somalia.
Meanwhile, members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) considered the post-Cold War future of the body,
debating whether it should assume peacekeeping duties similar
to those of the UN.
With increasing ethnic, racial, cultural, and religious
conflicts, the number of the world's refugees continued to rise
dramatically in 1993-94, while fewer and fewer countries
appeared willing to welcome them, fearing a decline in their
own standard of living. Clearly such a global problem demands
a comprehensive global solution, but none appears in sight.
Other stories featured in the news during 1993-94 dealt with
widely contrasting issues: the resurgence of a number of
diseases such as tuberculosis and malaria that health officials
considered to be under control; the AIDS epidemic that
continued to ravage populations, largely in Africa; the
information highway on the anarchical Internet system, which
allowed the millions who logged on instant access to
information and other users in far distant locations. And fmally,
in the realm of arts and entertainment, the press obliged the
public's taste for scandal in its tabloid depictions of the private
lives of celebrities.
All of these stories illustrate the sense of fragmentation,
randomness, and inability to deal effectively with crises
besetting humanity. But perhaps the most cogent and succinct
example of the postmodernist view of the world offered to the
reading public by contemporary commentators on the world

scene can be found in an article entitled "The Coming Anarchy,"
written by Robert Kaplan and published in the February 1994
issue of The Atlantic Monthly. This piece graphically depicts the
social and political ramifications of the postmodern condition
and makes shocking predictions about the future according to
current trends. It is a graphic and compelling discussion,
outlining, in Kaplan?s own words, the "political and cartographic implications of postmodernism- an epoch of themeless
juxtapositions in which the classificatory grid of nation-states is
going to be replaced by a jagged-glass pattern of city-states,
shanty-states, nebulous and anarchic regionalisms."
This view of "re-primitivized man," depicting "warrior
societies operating at a time of unprecedented resource scarcity
and planetary overcrowding" and a world where "technology
will be used toward primitive ends," comes to Kaplan through
the research of scholars such as Thomas Fraser Homer-Dixon,
whose study of planetary overcrowding suggests that global
strife fuelled by environmental degradation, ethnic hatreds,
overpopulation, and a widening gap between the rich and poor
will shape our future. Kaplan calls to witness incidents from his
own travels through West Africa and the Balkan areas of Europe
as support for his conclusions, and there are certainly major
recent news stories that bear out these observations as well.
Tracing factors such as environmental degradation, ethnic
and historical disputes, cultural conflicts, the breakdown of the
family, the drift of populations away from rural life to the cities,
and the population swell, Kaplan envisions three choices for
future governance of the world: totalitarianism, fascist ministates, or road-warrior cultures. We live in a "bifurcated world,"
as he expresses it, with "cadillac" societies on the one hand,
impoverished have-not states on the other, and the gap between
the two widening with every passing day.
In Kaplan's view, there is only one logical outcome to such a
situation: conflict. War is, in fact, a step up for the povertystricken, he points out. There is "liberation in violence," and
"worrying about mines and ambushes frees you from worrying
about mundane details of daily existence." Increasingly, he
predicts, there will be a breakdown of the distinctions between

"war" and "crime," with wars waged by small "subnational"
groups for "communal survival." Witness, for example, the
militia forces of Beirut in the 1980s and, more recently, those of
Haiti. Maps, asserts Kaplan, no longer indicate real borders, nor
do they indicate the impending global political crackup. The era
of the nation is past. Rather, we will retreat into ethnic enclaves
and stay there in our isolated cocoons.

An Alternative Perspective
Kaplan's graphic depiction of global social breakdown is welldocumented, but his scenario for the world's future is colored by
a number of rather doubtful assumptions about the nature of
humans and society. In evaluating his analysis and predictions,
we need to consider an alternative perspective offered by the
Universal House of Justice, in a statement on peace addressed to
the peoples of the world and widely disseminated by the
members of the Baha'i community in 1986, the United Nations
International Year of Peace, and in the years since. 1
The document states unequivocally, "World peace is not only
possible but inevitable. It is the next stage in the evolution of
this planet .... " Lest one think this is some sort of naive utopian
view, however, the Universal House of Justice goes directly on
to position the world at a dramatic crossroads: "Whether peace
is to be reached only after unimaginable horrors precipitated by
humanity's stubborn clinging to old patterns of behaviour, or is
to be embraced now by an act of consultative will, is the choice
before all who inhabit the earth." While Kaplan's analysis and
predictions seem to assume that humanity exercises no real
choice in its actions but is merely prey to external forces and its
own aggressive tendencies, the Universal House of Justice
asserts that humanity can and must assert control over its own
destiny and then outlines concrete actions it can take towards
establishing a peaceful world.
One of the factors identified in the peace statement as
crippling efforts to establish peace is a paralysis of will

1. The Universal House of Justice, The Promise of World Peace (Haifa:
Baha'i World Centre, 1985).

centering around a widely-held conception of human nature as
incorrigibly selfish and aggressive. In "The Coming Anarchy,"
for example, Kaplan asserts, "Physical aggression is part of
being human," and "Only when people attain a certain
economic, educational, and cultural standard is this trait tranquilized." Certainly relief from poverty and the benefits of
education can allow people and their societies to develop;
however, there are also examples from recent history amply
demonstrating that relative prosperity and high educational
standards do not necessarily lead to a peaceful society. Further,
the word "tranquilized" suggests that the aggression remains
beneath the surface much as the feral instinct remains in domesticated animals. Such a view ignores the widespread expression
of longing for peace and harmony current in the world. It seems
impossible to reconcile the view of human nature as innately
aggressive with the widely-held desire for peace, and therefore
some reassessment of our conception of human nature is in
order.
Viewing selfish, aggressive behavior as a "distortion of the
human spirit" rather than its true expression and accepting such
behavior as part of a phase of immaturity promotes acknowledgement and transcendence; it frees us to establish social
structures that will enhance the peace-building process. Then
consultation can take place among the world's peoples, leading
to a "united search for appropriate solutions." The longer
humanity remains mired in the perception of innate aggression,
the longer we impede the journey towards peace, as we merely
justify our current behavior rather than promote the will to
change.
Other factors contribute to the world's paralysis of will in
addressing humanity's current ills. One such factor, according
to the statement on peace, is an unwillingness to face the implications of the establishment of a world authority; thus, we
retreat into nationalistic or ethnic enclaves that mistrust each
other, and no effective model of international authority exists to
assure us that we should place our trust in it. Another factor is
the incapacity of uneducated masses to articulate their desire for
a new order. Additionally, the Universal House of Justice

WORLD WATCH

identifies several barriers to peace, including racism, disparity
between the rich and poor peoples of the world, unbridled
nationalism, and religious strife. These factors are very similar
to those outlined in the Kaplan article, but the Universal House
of Justice, in contrast, goes beyond mere analysis to articulate
the means whereby, if humanity chooses, we may take the
alternative route leading to peace, without experiencing the
preceding global anarchy.
The Baha'i approach to the subject is essentially optimistic,
but the pursuit of peace is recognized as complex, involving
three essential prerequisites: the equality of the sexes, universal
education, and improved global communication, including the
selection of a universal auxiliary language. Underlying each of
these is a notion of organic unity concerning human relationships; as the Universal House of Justice phrases it: "Acceptance
of the oneness of mankind is the first fundamental prerequisite
for reorganization and administration of the world as one
country, the home of humankind." This view stands in direct
opposition to the prediction of retreat into ethnic enclaves, an
action that an observer like Kaplan seems to regard as
inevitable.
In its peace statement, the Universal House of Justice stresses
that

the emancipation of women, the achievement of full equality
between the sexes, is one of the most important, though less
acknowledged prerequisites of peace. The denial of such
equality perpetrates an injustice against one half of the
world's population and promotes in men harmful attitudes
and habits that are carried from the family to the workplace,
to political life, and ultimately to international relations.
There are no grounds, moral, practical, or biological, upon
which such denial can be justified.

Women are strangely absent from Kaplan's view of the
future. Their status does not seem to be of any concern to him,
though surely the condition of half of the world's populationand, at that, the half that is chiefly responsible for raising the
next generation- is significant to the direction humanity will
take. Ignoring women perpetuates the idea that they are

THE BAHA:f WORLD

insignificant in factoring the course of humanity's future .
Surely this must be questioned. In fact, as the world gears up for
the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, to be
held in Beijing in 1995, the situation and condition of women
around the world is coming under growing scrutiny. To ignore
the progress that has been made thus far, and the very real challenges that remain to be met, is to do a disservice to women and
their power to shape the course of future generations as well as
to participate in the governance of peoples around the world.
Kaplan overlooks them at his own peril.
Further, to view education as "tranquilizing" aggressive
tendencies is to disregard its power to change people's attitudes
and thus the course of the future. The Universal House of
Justice identifies "ignorance [as] indisputably the principal
reason for the decline and fall of peoples and the perpetuation of
prejudice." Further, it states, "No nation can achieve success
unless education is accorded all its citizens." This issue is
crucial and is connected to the issue of women's status.
Although universal education is the ultimate objective, nations
with limited resources must reconsider their priorities to meet
this need; the Baha'i teachings give preference to the education
of women and girls, "since it is through educated mothers that
the benefits of knowledge can be most effectively and rapidly
diffused throughout society." Significantly, one subject
identified as crucial for study by all children is the concept of
world citizenship. Within a generation or two, such study would
certainly promote the development of societies able to withstand
the temptation to retreat into ethnic, racial, or cultural enclaves.
"The Coming Anarchy" asserts that borders drawn on maps
no longer represent any real separations into different
collections of populations, as the idea of the state is outdated.
Baha'is have held this view for over one hundred years, but their
vision of what is to replace the state is rather different.
Baha'u'llah wrote, in the late nineteenth century, "The earth is
but one country, and mankind its citizens."2 Then, writing in

2. Baha'u'lhih, Gleanings from the Writings ofBaha 'u 'llah (Wilmette: Baha'i
Publishing Trust), 250; cited in The Promise of World Peace, 11.

WORLD WATCH

1936, Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith,
analyzed the world situation in the following terms: "The
anarchy inherent in state sovereignty is moving towards a
climax. A world, growing to maturity, must abandon this fetish,
recognize the oneness and wholeness of human relationships,
and establish once for all the machinery that can best incarnate
this fundamental principle of its life." 3 Where Kaplan sees
humanity's retreat into small ethnic or tribal enclaves as
something amounting to the inevitable, Baha'is see another
force at work in.the world counteracting such action: "Together
with the opposing tendency to warfare and self-aggrandizement
against which it ceaselessly struggles, the drive towards world
unity is one of the dominant, pervasive features of life on the
planet during the closing years of the twentieth century."4
The real issue here is choice- the exercise of human willand responsibility, not inevitability. The view represented in
"The Coming Anarchy" may well prove to be an accurate
picture of the direction humanity takes over the next years, but
there is nothing inevitable about it. Governments and leaders in
many fields have the knowledge necessary for them to choose a
path that addresses the fundamental problems Kaplan delineates.
Issues related to human rights, global prosperity, the equality of
men and women, and moral development need the world's
serious, sustained attention characterized by a unity of approach.
Yet we cannot lay all the responsibility at the feet of
governments. Individual citizens of this global village need to
be educated about their responsibilities as members of a new
kind of civilization. If we envision ourselves on the threshold of
maturity rather than retreating into a re-primitivized state, then
we can raise ourselves up according to that vision. If we
envision an ever-advancing civilization rather than a disintegrating one, then we have an orientation that will lead us forward
rather than backward.

3. Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of Baha 'u 'llah (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1974), 202; cited in The Promise of World Peace, 18-19.
4. The Promise of World Peace, 19.

No consideration of society's development and future can
ignore the importance of religion as a force. Although religious
strife abounds in the world, we cannot disregard the essential
benefits conferred upon humanity by religion. It is a potent
positive social force- "the greatest of all means for the establishment of order in the world and for the peaceful contentment
of all that dwell therein," in the words of Baha'u'lhih, who also
cautioned, "Should the lamp of religion be obscured, chaos and
confusion will ensue, and the lights of fairness, of justice, of
tranquillity and peace cease to shine." 5 Within religion lie the
possibilities for the reconstruction of the world's society on a
more just and equitable basis.
At present, there are two processes simultaneously at work in
the world: the rolling up of the old world order and the rolling
out of the new. The media, with their postmodemist perspective,
largely focus on the former, with its emphasis on violence,
randomness, disintegration, despair, and, eventually, complete
breakdown and anarchy. But we can see evidence of this other
process, which admittedly receives much less emphasis. Nevertheless, some of the news stories of 1993-94 can be summoned
to witness this second process.
The world, for example, anticipated widespread bloodshed
during the first democratic elections ever held in South Africa,
and indeed, the prelude to the elections was violent to the
extreme. 6 Yet, the voting itself was carried out peacefully, and
the transition to the new government was an emotionally
moving experience to witness, even for a cynical public.
Despite tremendous difficulties, democratic elections were also
held in Cambodia for the first time in over twenty years, under
the watchful eyes of UN observers.
Economic forces led different governments to move towards
regional and even global free trade zones. The North American
Free Trade Agreement (NAFfA) and the qualified success of the

5. Baha'u'lhih, Tablets of Baha 'u 'llah (Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1978),
125; cited in The Promise of World Peace, 5.
6. For an account ofthe effects of this violence on the Baha'i community of
South Africa, see pp. 147-150.

Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs
(GATT) were heralded by some critics as disasters- the
"GATTastrophe," according to one commentator- and as major
steps towards the recognition of a global economy by others.
Whatever their limitations, they do show a world attempting to
come to terms with itself on a global scale. Such agreements
may be first steps towards more comprehensive endeavors,
leading perhaps to a world economy.
While the United Nations and NATO struggled to make or
maintain peace in some parts of the world, peace talks sprang up
in some surprising locations and between some unlikely
negotiators. In the Middle East, negotiations commenced in
Israel between two former bitter rivals, with the goal of
resolving longstanding disputes. In Ireland, the Irish Republican
Army signalled its willingness to talk with the government about
ending the twenty-odd years of violence in Northern Ireland.
And in contrast to the divisive religious strife occurring in
various locations, ecumenical activities proliferated, including
the gathering of representatives of the world's major faiths for
the second Parliament of the World's Religions. Held in
Chicago in September 1993, the event demonstrated through the
manifesto produced at the end of the session that goodwill and
tolerance are possible among peoples of differing beliefs.
Such stories show that on the world stage there are efforts
being made to come to grips with what it actually means to be
part of a global society. Rather than focusing on disintegration,
some forces and agencies have elected to focus on integration
and redefinition. But efforts in this direction are also possible on
a small scale, and the Baha'i international community offers one
working model of a functioning world entity. Throughout the
world, the affairs of Baha'i communities are governed by Local
Spiritual Assemblies. As the Baha'i Faith has no clergy, these
nine-member bodies, elected by secret ballot in every
community where there are nine or more adult believers in good
standing, govern the affairs of the Baha'i communities they
serve. A 1993 count indicated that there were almost 18,000 of
these bodies around the world. Members of these institutions are
elected for their spiritual qualities and service to the community;

THE BAHA'I WORLD

they are not necessarily highly educated or even literate, though
of course many are. Yet they learn to function as a united body
through experience in the art of consultation. The existence and
increasing maturity of functioning of these assemblies in all
parts of the world is a potent argument against the kind of global
anarchy that Kaplan predicts. If nations break down, Local
Spiritual Assemblies will still be able to govern the affairs of the
communities they serve, often with a greater sense of service
than officials elected through the traditional democratic process,
where campaigns feature empty promises, attacks on opponents,
and various types of electioneering. In Baha'i elections there is
no campaigning or electioneering. Every adult believer
is eligible to vote and to be voted for; if elected, she or he must
serve. The existence of such a broad-based, functioning system
of governance in the Baha'i community around the world shows
that all people, from villagers in remote rural areas to inhabitants
of large cities, can assume responsibility for the affairs that
affect them. This sort of responsible community-based
government is a strong alternative to the forces of violence some
see as taking over the world.
Kaplan himself posits, "Whereas the distant future will
probably see the emergence of a racially hybrid, globalized man,
the coming decades will see us more aware of our differences
than of our similarities." To this assertion, one may well
respond by asking whether it is not possible to see both
differences and similarities and to accept them as essential parts
of our humanness. The unity about which so much has been
written in the Baha'i Faith is not uniformity. Shoghi Effendi
described it thus:

It can conflict with no legitimate allegiances, nor can it
undermine essential loyalties. Its purpose is neither to stifle
the flame of a sane and intelligent patriotism in men's hearts,
nor to abolish the system of national autonomy so essential if
the evils of excessive centralization are to be avoided. It does
not ignore, nor does it attempt to suppress, the diversity of
ethnical origins, of climate, of history, of language and
tradition, of thought and habit, that differentiate the peoples
and nations of the world. It calls for a wider loyalty, for a

larger aspiration than any that has animated the human race.
It insists upon the subordination of national impulses and
interests to the imperative claims of a unified world. It
repudiates excessive centralization on one hand, and
disclaims all attempts at uniformity on the other. Its
watchword is unity in diversity .. .. 7

Unity and diversity are not mutually exclusive or incompatible, in the Baha'i view. In fact, they enrich one another by their
interaction. Against what, then, does the Baha'i Faith stand?
This question áis, once again, answered succinctly by Shoghi
Effendi:

The call of Baha'u'llah is primarily directed against all
forms of provincialism, all insularities and prejudices. If
long-cherished ideals and time-honored institutions, if certain
social assumptions and religious formulae have ceased to
promote the welfare of the generality of mankind, if they no
longer minister to the needs of a continually evolving
humanity, let them be swept away and relegated to the limbo
of obsolescent and forgotten doctrines. Why should these, in
a world subject to the immutable law of change and decay, be
exempt from the deterioration that must needs overtake every
human institution? For legal standards, political and
economic theories are solely designed to safeguard the
interests of humanity as a whole, and not humanity to be
crucified for the preservation of the integrity of any particular
law or doctrine. 8

Conclusion
Could it be that our notions about what is happening in the world
around us, shaped by postmodemist theorists, belong to those
obsolescent doctrines that should be swept away because they
no longer minister to our needs? Could it be that we are too
attached to the prophecies of the doomsayers, which predict
momentous and catastrophic future events far larger than the

7. Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of Baha 'u 'llah (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1974), 41- 42.
8. Ibid., 42.

scope of individuals to deal with, thus paralyzing our collective
will?
We choose the way we view the world. There are powerful
forces at work to shape our view- political, journalistic,
commercial, social- but we are capable of choosing whether or
not we wish to view the world through the lenses offered to us
by these forces, which are often sustained by powerful selfinterest. Do we really believe that we are doomed to endure
global anarchy and that there is nothing we can do to halt the
process? Or can we adjust our vision somewhat to see that there
are other constructive forces at work in the world, that what may
appear randomly destructive is part of a process of renewal of
civilization, and that it is in our power to determine the speed
and course of that process?

William S. Hatcher explores the
philosophical framework of the Baha'i
Faith as a basis for an adequate
understanding of the Kitab-i-Aqdas,
Baha 'u 'llah s Most Holy Book.

THE ~
KITAB-I-AQDAS:
The Causality Principle in the
World of Being

Introduction

T he usual articulation of the well-known Baha'i principle that
prejudices are truly immoral and not just socially
troublesome affective attitudes tends to obscure another,
cognitive defect of prejudice: prejudiced thinking is lazy
thinking, signifying the subject's refusal to come to grips with
the object as it truly is, in all its dimensions. Prejudiced thinking
is stereotypical thinking in which we try to assimilate or reduce
something new to a previously known category. Such a reductionist approach to life deprives new experiences of their
capacity to transform or change us. In our rigidity and self-satisfaction, we require that each newly encountered phenomenon
somehow accommodate itself to our preconceived categories of
thought and experience.
Nowhere else will the reductionistic approach to life be more
disastrous than if applied in our attempt to understand the Kitabi-Aqdas, Baha'u'llah's Most Holy Book, for this work can in no
way be assimilated to any previous category of religious writing

or any pre-ex1stmg conception of religious thought. It sees
spiritual laws neither as social conventions nor as divinely
imposed rules of behavior, but rather as exact expressions of
fundamental, objective relationships inherent in the very
structure of reality.
Thus, the worldview of the Kitab-i-Aqdas is fundamentally
scientific. It considers that reality is structured by objective
relationships of cause and effect (i.e., laws) which can be
rationally understood and articulated. The very purpose of the
Kitab-i-Aqdas is the articulation of some of the most basic laws
of spiritual reality. However, an adequate understanding of
these laws also involves some knowledge of the overall philosophical framework of the Baha'i Faith. The next four sections
seek to provide the essentials of this framework, after which we
will undertake a more direct and detailed study of the Kitab-i-
Aqdas itself.-

Levels of Existence; the Material World
The Baha'i writings affirm that reality is an integrated whole but
that this wholeness is a unity in diversity, not a uniformity. In
particular, within the context of overall wholeness, there are
distinct levels of being. The lowest of these levels is the natural
or material world, where the principle of existence is one of
composition of elements. As 'Abdu'l-Baha has expressed it:

Nature is that condition, that reality, which in appearance
consists in life and death, or, in other words, in the
composition and decomposition of all things.
This Nature is subjected to an absolute organization, to
determined laws, to a complete order and a finished design,
from which it will never depart- to such a degree, indeed,
that if you look carefully and with keen sight, from the
smallest invisible atom up to such large bodies of the world
of existence as the globe of the sun or the other great stars
and luminous spheres, whether you regard their arrangement,
their composition, their form or their movement, you will
find that all are in the highest degree of organization and are
under one law from which they will never 9epart. 1

1. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Some Answered Questions (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing
Trust, 1981), 3.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

'Abdu'l-Baha further explains that this natural order, though
objective, is an expression of the will of God: " ... Nature, which
has neither perception nor intelligence, is in the grasp of
Almighty God, Who is the Ruler of the world of Nature;
whatever He wishes, He causes Nature to manifest." 2 Bereft
of the capacity for thought (intelligence) or experience
(perception), the material world also lacks the power of will:
" ... when you look at Nature itself, you see that it has no intelligence, no will." 3 In other words, the material world totally
lacks the capacity of consciousness or self-awareness.
One of the consequences of the composite principle of
existence in the material world is that all material systems are
temporary; they have a finite life span. A material entity is born
when the particular combination of elements that determines its
existence is established. As long as the relationships necessary
to sustain this configuration are maintained, the material entity
exists, and when these relationships are destroyed it dies or
decomposes, i.e., ceases to exist:

The whole physical creation is perishable. These material
bodies are composed of atoms; when these atoms begin to
separate decomposition sets in, then comes what we call
death. This composition of atoms, which constitutes the
body or mortal element of any created being, is temporary.
When the power of attraction, which holds these atoms
together, is withdrawn, the body, as such, ceases to exist.4

Another feature of the material world is that it is dynamic; it
is in continual movement:

Absolute repose does not exist in nature. All things either
make progress or lose ground. Everything moves forward or
backward, nothing is without motion. From his birth, a man
progresses physically until he reaches maturity, then, having
arrived at the prime of his life, he begins to decline, the
strength and powers of his body decrease, and he gradually

2. Ibid., 4.
3. Ibid., 3.
4. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Paris Talks (London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1979), 90-
91.

arrives at the hour of death .. .. All material things progress to
a certain point, then begin to decline. 5

As explained here, the nature of movement in the material
world is a reciprocal, back-and-forth motion both of progress
and of regress. This, 'Abdu'l-Baha explains, is because the
material world is a tension of opposites, an arena of opposing
forces: "The world of mortality is a world of contradictions,
of opposites; motion being compulsory everything must
either go forward or retreat. " 6
Thus, the dynamic of the material world is one of
continual motion within fixed limits. This kind of motion is
called periodic or cyclic, and it is the fundamental characteristic of all material phenomena. From the beating of the
human heart, to the movement of the planets around the sun,
the material world exhibits this cyclic feature. Periodic
motion is the way God has chosen to endow the material
world with both dynamism and stability. Dynamism without
stability produces an unbridled, purely quantitative (and
ultimately catastrophic) growth, while stability without
dynamism is death.
Even though the material world, and all material
composites, are on the same ontological level, there is
nonetheless an ordering or hierarchy among physical systems
resulting from the relative complexity of their structure, the
lower systems being less structured (or ordered) and the
higher more structured. At the top of this hierarchy is the
human body, which constitutes the most complex and highly
structured physical system: "The body of man, which is
composed from the elements, is combined and mingled in the
most perfect form; it is the most solid construction, the
noblest combination, the most perfect existence." 7

5. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Paris Talks, 88-89.
6. Ibid., 90.
7. 'Abdu' l-Baha, Some Answered Questions, 143-144.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE 1
That the human body is indeed the most complex of all
systems in the known physical universe has also been confirmed
and validated by modem neuroscience. 8

The Knowledge ofMaterial Reality
According to the Baha'i teachings, God has not only established
the laws that govern material reality, but He has also given to
humanity the power for the rational and systematic understanding of these laws. This power is what we call 'science':

The outcome of this [human] intellectual endowment is
science, which is especially characteristic of man. This
scientific power investigates and apprehends created objects
and the laws surrounding them. It is the discoverer of the
hidden and mysterious secrets of the material universe and is
peculiar to man alone. The most noble and praiseworthy
accomplishment of man, therefore, is scientific knowledge
and attainment. 9

'Abdu'l-Baha makes it clear that science is not just a serendipitous accident of history, but a divine, supernatural
endowment:

All blessings are divine in ong1n, but none can be
compared with this power of intellectual investigation and
research, which is an eternal gift producing fruits of unending
delight. Man is ever partaking of these fruits. All other
blessings are temporary; this is an everlasting possession ....
it is an eternal blessing and divine bestowal, the supreme gift
of God to man .
. . . science or the attribute of scientific penetration is
supernatura1.... 10

8. See, for example, the four-volume series The Neurosciences: [First] Study
Program, Rockefeller Press, New York 1967; Second Study Program, Rockefeller Press, New York, 1970; Third Study Program, MIT Press, Cambridge,
Mass., 1974; Fourth Study Program, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1979.
9. 'Abdu'l-Baha, The Promulgation of Universal Peace (Wilmette: Baha'i
Publishing Trust, 1982), 29.
10. Ibid., 50.

-------,
I

THE BAHA:f WORLD !

As we have already noted, material reality is composed of
physical systems in continual movement. Through science, we
gain knowledge of the laws governing the evolution of these
systems and also of their current, particular conditions (states).
This scientific knowledge enables us to determine and predictnot perfectly but with a practically significant degree of
accuracy- the future states of these systems, given some
particular set of initial conditions. This, in tum, enables us to act
in the present so as to bring about a desired future configuration
of a system: by deliberately establishing, in the short run, certain
particular conditions of a system, we can bring about, in the long
run, certain desired future states of the system, i.e., configurations that are favorable to our goals and our (perceived)
interests. This is the power that scientific knowledge gives us,
the power to control our future- to participate in the processes
of the natural world and not just endure them. In other words,
scientific knowledge has the effect of increasing our autonomy
with regard to the natural world.
Of course, what we perceive to be in our own interest will, in
itself, depend on our knowledge of reality, including the reality
that is within us, the reality of our own selves. But whatever we
perceive our interest to be, we generally seek to bring about
those configurations that will, according to our present
knowledge of reality, maximize the joy and pleasure of life and
minimize its pain and suffering. Thus, scientific knowledge is a
knowledge of the relationship of cause and effect in material
reality, and this knowledge, when properly used, gives us the
power to produce or increase our material happiness and wellbeing.
This power of scientific knowledge to produce happiness and
to increase our autonomy depends fundamentally on two things:
(1) that the material world is regulated by objective laws, and (2)
that we are able to apprehend these laws, if not absolutely, at
least to a degree sufficient to allow for reasonably accurate
predictions and manipulations of future events. These two
features of the material world are all we need if our goal in life is
to maximize our well-being and our autonomy. The other
particular features of the material world (e.g., periodic motion,

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

the temporary existence of objects) are incidental to this
fundamental, binary goal.

Spiritual Reality
Above and beyond material reality lies a second level of
existence that is not directly accessible to physical observation.
In the Baha'i writings this is called spiritual reality or the
spiritual world. Like material reality, spiritual reality has
objective existence and is governed by lawful, cause-and-effect
relationships. However, the laws governing spiritual reality, and
the structure resulting from the operation of these laws, are significantly different from the laws and structures of material
reality, mainly because the principle of existence in the spiritual
world is different from that of the material world: spiritual
entities exist as undivided wholes rather than as composites; and
chief among these spiritual entities is the soul or spirit of each
human being: "The soul is not a combination of elements, it is
not composed of many atoms, it is of one indivisible substance
and therefore eternal. It is entirely out of the order of the
physical creation; it is immortal!" 11
Because spiritual entities are noncomposite, there is no
tension of opposites in spiritual reality, and thus no retrogres-
Sion:

In the world of spirit there is no retrogression. The world
of mortality is a world of contradictions, of opposites; motion
being compulsory everything must either go forward or
retreat. In the realm of spirit there is no retreat possible, all
movement is bound to be towards a perfect state. 'Progress'
is the expression of spirit in the world of matter. The
intelligence of man, his reasoning powers, his knowledge, his
scientific achievements, all these being manifestations of the
spirit, partake of the inevitable law of spiritual progress and
are, therefore, of necessity, immortal. 12

Thus, in contrast to the movement of physical systems which,
as we have seen above, is cyclical and always within fixed

11. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Paris Talks, 91.
12. Ibid., 90.

THE BAHA'i WORLD

limits, the motion of the soul is unidirected, irreversible and
potentially infinite:

Now let us consider the soul. We have seen that
movement is essential to existence; nothing that has life is
without motion. All creation, whether of the mineral,
vegetable or animal kingdom, is compelled to obey the law of
motion; it must either ascend or descend. But with the
human soul, there is no decline. Its only movement is
towards perfection; growth and progress alone constitute the
motion of the soul.
Divine perfection is infinite, therefore the progress of the
soul is also infinite. 13

The Baha'i writings teach that the fundamental capacities of
the soul are those of knowledge, of love, and of will. That is, the
soul has the intellectual capacity of understanding or mind, the
affective capacity of feeling or emotion, and the voluntary
capacity of willing or acting. Because the soul is a noncomposite entity, it has no parts. Thus, the soul's capacities are inherent
in its very nature, rather than being alienable parts of it.
This characteristic of the soul constitutes an extremely
important difference from a physical system such as the body.
The higher-order properties of the physical body are entirely due
to its relative complexity in terms both of the number of its
components (i.e., the cells of the body) and the complex nature
of the relationship between these components. Any such
composite entity has parts which may be alienated from the
organism without necessarily destroying the organism. For
example, a person may well survive the amputation of both his
legs. But he will have lost the function of autonomous
ambulation.
According to the Baha'i writings, the intrinsic capacities of
the individual's soul (called his 'spiritual' capacities) are
eternally fixed. They can never be diminished or alienated from
the soul, nor can they be increased; they can only be developed:

13. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Paris Talks, 89.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

Know thou that all men have been created in the nature
made by God, the Guardian, the Self-Subsisting. Unto each
one hath been prescribed a pre-ordained measure, as decreed
in God's mighty and guarded Tablets. All that which ye
potentially possess can, however, be manifested only as a
result of your own volition. 14

Thus, the soul can never lose any of its capacities, unless it be
totally destroyed, which, we are assured, God will never do.
This fundamental difference between the nature of the soul
and the nature of the physical body is important for an understanding of the difference between the laws governing spiritual
reality and those governing material reality. Because it is such a
delicate and complex system, the physical body is fragile and
vulnerable. It is more or less continually threatened by the
possibility of either a partial or total loss of functioning (i.e.,
death). But the soul is threatened by neither of these possibilities.
However, the soul does face a different kind of threat: it is
threatened by the possibility of a relative underdevelopment of
its intrinsic capacities. To say that the soul cannot retrogress is
not to say that its progress is automatic:

My hope for you is that you will progress in the world of
spirit, as well as in the world of matter; that your intelligence
will develop, your knowledge will augment, and your
understanding be widened.
You must ever press forward, never standing still; avoid
.
stagnatiOn .... 15

The process of developing the intrinsic capacities of the soul
is called 'spiritual growth' or 'spiritual progress'. Such a
process implies both an increase in spiritual autonomy and an
increase in spiritual happiness and well-being.
The Baha'i writings affirm that learning how to grow
spiritually is the fundamental purpose of our existence. We

14. Baha'u'llah, Gleanings from the Writings of Baha 'u 'l/ah (Wilmette:
Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1976), 149.
15. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Paris Talks, 90.

accomplish this purpose by first understanding the laws that
govern spiritual reality and then by applying them to the
particular circumstances of our life. Just as scientific knowledge
of the laws of physical reality enables us to act in the present in
such a way as to produce a desired future state of increased
material happiness, so a knowledge of the laws governing
spiritual reality enables us to act in the present in such a way as
to produce a desired future state of increased spiritual happiness.
Thus, we progress towards spiritual happiness by increasing our
knowledge of spiritual reality, and this, in tum, represents an
increase in our spiritual autonomy. This accretion of spiritual
happiness and spiritual autonomy is just another name for
spiritual growth, or the development of the intrinsic capacities of
our souls.

The Knowledge of Spiritual Reality
In the foregoing, we have seen that science is the means God has
given us for the understanding of material reality. Scientific
method is based on direct observation of the physical world
followed by logically sound deductions based on such observations. But spiritual reality is not directly observable. We do not
have direct access to spiritual reality, only an indirect access
through observation of the effects of the action of spiritual
forces on observable phenomena, such as the action of the soul
on the physical body. God has therefore ordained a second
source of valid knowledge about reality: religion.
The Baha'i writings make it clear that religion and science
are just two different segments of a continuum of knowledge
about reality. Since the laws governing spiritual reality are
objective, they are potentially discoverable by scientific method.
However, because of the relative inaccessibility of spiritual
phenomena to spontaneous human observation, it would take us
an impractically long time to discover even the simplest of
spiritual laws by an unassisted application of scientific method.
Thus, religion operates by revelation in which God freely
explains or 'reveals' to us certain of the laws and principles
governing spiritual reality. We are thus spared the pain and
effort that would be involved in discovering these truths for

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

ourselves. However, these spiritual truths are objective and can
therefore be tested experientially and applied practically when
once understood.
Thus, in the Baha'i conception, religion, like science, is most
correctly viewed as a knowledge-generating enterprise, rather
than a belief-affirming or rule-making enterprise: " .. .religion is
the essential connection which proceeds from áthe realities of
things. . . . [it] is the necessary connection which emanates from
the reality of things .... " 16
This conception of religion clearly differs from the received
idea that science is an expression of reason and rationality while
religion operates on "blind" faith and unreasoned belief. Indeed,
the Baha'i writings define faith as the deliberate implementation
of consciously-acquired knowledge: "Although a blind man
produceth a most wonderful and exquisite art, yet he is deprived
of seeing it .... By faith is meant, first, conscious knowledge, and
second, the practice of good deeds." 17
The Baha'i Faith teaches that the revelation of religious truth
(that is, of valid knowledge of the laws and structure of spiritual
reality) is a progressive phenomenon in which God periodically
communicates with humanity through the agency of a specially
chosen human being or Manifestation. These Manifestations are
none other than the great religious Founders of history, some of
whose names we know (such as Moses, Jesus, Buddha,
Zoroaster, Mu}:lammad, the Bab and Baha'u'llah, Founder of the
Baha'i Faith). These unique beings are endowed by God with a
direct knowledge of spiritual reality, and this endowment allows
them to become the teachers of the laws of spiritual reality to
humanity:

Briefly, the supreme Manifestations of God are aware of the
reality of the mysteries of beings. Therefore, They establish
laws which are suitable and adapted to the state of the world
of man .... the supreme Manifestations of God are aware of

16. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Some Answered Questions, 158-159.
17. Tablet of 'Abdu'l-Baha, cited in Baha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha, Baha'i
World Faith: Selected Writings of Baha 'u 'llah and 'Abdu 'l-Baha (Wilmette:
Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1956), 382-383.

the mysteries of beings, therefore, They understand this
essential connection [emanating from the realiti of things],
and by this knowledge establish the Law of God. 8

In further elaboration of this point, 'Abdu'l-Baha explains:

Knowledge is of two kinds. One is subjective and the
other objective knowledge- that is to say, an intuitive
knowledge and a knowledge derived from perception.
The knowledge of things which men universally have is
gained by reflection or by evidence .... The circle of this
knowledge is very limited because it depends upon effort and
attainment.
But the second sort of knowledge, which is the
knowledge of being, is intuitive; it is like the cognizance and
consciousness that man has of himself [i.e., of his own being
or existence]. ... This knowledge is not the outcome of effort
and study. It is an existing thing; it is an absolute gift.
Since the Sanctified Realities, the supreme Manifestations of God, surround the essence and qualities of the
creatures, transcend and contain existing realities and
understand all things, therefore, Their knowledge is divine
knowledge, and not acquired- that is to say, it is a holy
bounty; it is a divine revelation. 19

In other words, in the same way that ordinary human beings
have the spontaneous knowledge of their own being and
existence, the Manifestations of God are endowed with the
spontaneous knowledge of the laws of all being. In fact, the
Manifestations constitute a distinct ontological level intermediate between God and ordinarily-endowed humans: "Know that
the conditions of [conscious] existence are limited to the
conditions of servitude, of prophethood, and of Deity, but the
divine and the contingent perfections are unlimited [on each
level of existence]. " 20
Elsewhere, it is explained that the Manifestations can be
thought of as absolutely perfected human beings- as human

18. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Some Answered Questions, 158-159.
19.1bid., 157-158.
20. Ibid., 230.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

beings all of whose spiritual capacities have been developed to
the maximum degree possible. They thus represent an ideal or
model of the ultimate limits of human á spiritual development.
However, the Manifestations are created in this state of absolute
perfection, whereas ordinary humans can only progressively
approximate this condition through the process of spiritual
growth. As 'Abdu'l-Baha has stated, there is "progress in
perfection but not in state." 21 In other words, 'progress' never
implies a change from one level of being to another, only a
progressive unfolding of the potential inherent in a given level
of being.
We can thus sum up the Baha'i teachings concerning the
levels of existence as follows : Within the framework of the
overall wholeness of reality, there are four distinct levels of
being. The first and highest level is that of the essence or being
of God. The second level is that of the Manifestation of God,
who perfectly manifests or incarnates all of the attributes of God
but not His essence. The third level is that of the human soul,
which has consciousness and the capacity to reflect progressively all of the attributes of God. Finally, the lowest level is
that of the material world, which is totally devoid of consciousness and will.
The third level, that of the human soul, is the only level of
being that exhibits true irreversible progress. God and the Manifestations are already in perfect states of existence on Their
respective levels of being and therefore have no need of
progression. The material world exhibits continual movement
within fixed limits, which involves temporary progression, but a
progression that is always followed sooner or later by retrogression and degeneration. However, the human soul, while created
in an unperfected state, has the potential for perfection. After
being freed from the constraints of the material world, the only
movement of the soul is an irreversible progression towards
God. The rate of progression, however, is specific for each
person and depends on the quality and appropriateness of that
person's response to the circumstances of his life.

21. Ibid., 237.

The Baha'i writings further explain that, from the point of
view of human spiritual development, the material world
functions as the womb of preparation for birth into the purely
spiritual world. The special conditions in the physical womb of
our mother enable us to progress from a one-celled organism to
a mature human form- effectively compressing five hundred
million years of biological evolution into nine short months. In
the same way, it is explained, the tests and trials of this material
world provide us with the possibility of compressing an
immense quantum of spiritual growth into the short period of a
human physical lifetime.
However, whereas the physical growth and development in
the maternal womb is an automatic process, our spiritual growth
during our earthly lives depends on the efforts we make in
response to the conditions of our lives. Moreover, during our
earthly life, but not afterwards, our souls are subject to the effect
of material forces that serve as a resistance against which we
struggle in our efforts to grow spiritually. It is this aspect of the
material world, the tension of opposition between spiritual and
material forces, that provides the opportunity for rapid spiritual
growth. But a necessary concomitant of this configuration is
that both spiritual progression and spiritual retrogression can
occur in this life, whereas (relative) progession alone is the
movement of the soul in the next life.
Thus, the fundamental task of our earthly lives is to
understand and apprehend the laws governing the process of
spiritual growth so that we may generate the appropriate,
growth-inducing responses to the circumstances of our lives and
thereby profit from the unique opportunities for spiritual growth
with which God has endowed this life. This knowledge and
understanding can only come from religion and, more particularly, from the holy books of the Manifestations, which explain
and expound the principles of spiritual reality.
The experience of five hundred million years of biological
evolution is genetically encoded in the DNA of the human
genome, and it is this "knowledge" that enables the human fetus
to profit from the special environment of the maternal womb and
accomplish its astonishing development from a single fertilized

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

egg to a multi-billion-celled mature and complex organism. The
teachings of the Manifestations may be thought of as the
spiritual counterpart of the genetic code. These teachings are
recorded (encoded) in the holy writings of the great religions,
and when the knowledge they contain is implemented, genuine
spiritual growth is the result.
The revelation of God to humanity is progressive, because
spiritual growth is both collective and individual, and the
knowledge appropriate to one stage of spiritual growth may not
be appropriate to a later stage. Thus, as the most recent Manifestation of God, Baha'u'lhih represents the most appropriate
and mature expression of our understanding of spiritual laws and
principles, and the Kitab-i-Aqdas is the Most Holy Book of
Baha'u'llah- the book that epitomizes His divinely-inspired
articulation of the laws governing spiritual reality.
Because spiritual growth is collective as well as individual,
the laws and principles of the Kitab-i-Aqdas are partly social
and partly individual. Indeed, Baha'u'llah explains that religion
has always had these two fundamental aspects:

God's purpose in sending His Prophets unto men is twofold.
The first is to liberate the children of men from the darkness
of ignorance, and guide them to the light of true
understanding. The second is to ensure the peace and
tranquillity of mankind, and provide all the means by which
they can be established. 22

According to Baha'u'llah, the history of the last few thousand
years has been the history of the childhood and youth of
humanity, during which most social forms and structures have
had a temporary, experimental quality. We are now in late
adolescence, in the transition towards full maturity, when all the
potential latent within the human being will be actualized. Thus,
the social laws of the Kitab-i-Aqdas seek to provide the basis for
this transition, as well as to establish the framework for the
emerging, mature, and stable world order, founded on spiritual
principles.

22. Baha'u'lhih, Gleanings, 79-80.

The Kitab-i-Aqdas therefore represents the culmination not
only of the revelation of Baha'u'llah, but also of the process of
progressive revelation itself. Humanity now stands on the brink
of its maturity, and we are now in the throes of the greatest
single transition in the history of the human race: the transition
from our collective adolescence to our collective maturity. The
Kitab-i-Aqdas reveals to us the knowledge necessary for the
successful completion of this transition.

The Laws of Spiritual Reality
In God Passes By, Shoghi Effendi describes the Kitab-i-Aqdas
as, among other things:

... the principal repository of that Law which the Prophet
Isaiah had anticipated, and which the writer of the Apo<alypse had described as the "new heaven" and the "new
earth," as "the Tabernacle of God," as the "Holy City," as the
"Bride," the "New Jerusalem coming down from God," this
"Most Holy Book," whose provisions must remain inviolate
for no less than a thousand years, and whose system will
embrace the entire planet. .. as the brightest emanation of
the mind of Baha'u'lhih, as the Mother Book of His Dispmsation, and the Charter of His New World Order. 23

In the light of this, and other similarly exalted descriptions of
the Kitab-i-Aqdas, one might expect to be confronted with a
formal legal text in an inflated style. Instead, one finds nothing
less than an extended love letter from God to humanity, an
outpouring of tenderness and concern for every detail of human
existence such as to dispel any possible doubt of God's
overwhelming love for His creatures. Moreover, the Kitab-i-
Aqdas exhibits a remarkable harmony of content and style that
heightens this impression of God's love and concern for us.
The development of ideas in the Kitab-i-Aqdas is not strictly
linear but rather cyclical or spiral. The Author discusses certain

23. Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust,
1957), 213; quoted in the introductory material of the first authorized English
translation of the Kitab-i-Aqdas (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1993),
13.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

questions, then turns to other issues, and later returns to the
initial questions, amplifying and elaborating with each
subsequent discussion. There is also an ongoing alternation
between the abstract and the concrete, the general and the
specific, the universal and the particular. Nevertheless there is
an overall progression throughout this dialectical development.
Fundamentally, the Kitab-i-Aqdas views life as a continual
dialogue between God and humanity. Thus, not only does the
content of the Kitab-i-Aqdas treat a wide spectrum of life's
questions, the work's very form reproduces our experience of
life, in which profound philosophical and moral issues are
continually juxtaposed with practical and concrete questions of
everyday life. By reproducing this existential juxtaposition
within the text itself, Baha'u'llah allows us to see how the most
significant and abstract philosophical and spiritual questions are
indeed related to the most homely issues of our material
existence. Also, these textual juxtapositions help the reader
make logical connections that might otherwise remain obscure.
This, in tum, increases the reader's autonomy in confronting and
understanding the Kitab-i-Aqdas, enabling him to "see with his
own eyes and hear with his own ears." 24
According to Baha'u'llah, our dialogue with God is pursued
on both the individual and the collective level; it is initiated by
God, who also establishes its parameters, but its success is
dependent upon our ability to generate an appropriate response
to God's overtures. Thus, the laws and principles of the Kitab-i-
Aqdas are presented in the form of a covenant or agreement in
which God requires certain things from us but solemnly
promises that spiritual growth, progress, and happiness will
inevitably follow if these actions and attitudes on our part are
forthcoming.
The opening paragraph of the Kitab-i-Aqdas states that the
fundamental duty of man towards God is "the recognition of
Him Who is the Dayspring of His Revelation and the Fountain
of His laws ... " and that the second duty is "to observe every

24. See 'Abdu'l-Baha, Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu 'l-Baha (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1978), 29.

ordinance of Him Who is the Desire of the world." It is then
stated that "These twin duties are inseparable. Neither is
acceptable without the other."25
Thus, the individual dialogue takes place within the
framework of the collective dialogue. The collective dialogue is
initiated by God's sending of the Manifestations, and the first
response required of us is to recognize and accept the spiritual
authority of these figures. Indeed, if God has taken the trouble
to send the Manifestations to give us valid knowledge of the
laws governing spiritual reality, then the minimal acceptable
response on our part is to tum to Them and follow Their
instruction. In particular, we must signify our true acceptance
by implementing the laws and principles They teach.
Following this opening statement, paragraphs 2-5 of the
Kitab-i-Aqdas constitute a powerful articulation of the
importance generally of obeying and implementing the laws
of God and of the benefits to be derived from such obedience.
For example:

0 ye peoples of the world! Know assuredly that My
commandments are the lamps of My loving providence
among My servants, and the keys of My mercy for My
creatures ....
. . ."Observe My commandments, for the love of My
beauty." Happy is the lover that hath inhaled the divine
fragrance of his Best-Beloved from these words, laden with
the perfume of a grace which no tongue can describe. 26

This portion of the text culminates (paragraph 5) in the
following metaphor for the whole of the Kitab-i-Aqdas itself:
"Think not that We have revealed unto you a mere code of laws.
Nay, rather, We have unsealed the choice Wine with the fingers
of might and power .. ..Meditate upon this, 0 men of insight! " 27
The symbolic use of "Wine" in this passage powerfully conveys

25. Baha'u'lhih, Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 1. The presently-published version of the
Kitab-i-Aqdas has sequentially numbered paragraphs, which we will use as
our main reference points in alluding to the text.
26. Ibid., K 3-4.
27. Ibid., K 5.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

the notion that implementation of the laws of spiritual reality
produces an effect of spiritual euphoria- thus of extreme
spiritual happiness. Baha'u'llah's choice of image here is particularly significant given the fact that, subsequently in the
Kitab-i-Aqdas, He strictly forbids the drinking of wine and other
intoxicants (paragraph 119), stating, "It is inadmissible that
man, who hath been endowed with reason, should consume that
which stealeth it away. " 28
Thus, true happiness- spiritual euphoria--comes not from
the abandonment of rationality but by its disciplined application
to an understanding of the laws governing spiritual reality.
Divine proscriptions are not intended to deny us genuine joy but
rather to teach us the conditions under which the greatest and
most enduring joy can be obtained. What is being given us is no
less than the keys to a true and lasting paradise.
In this way, the opening five paragraphs of the Kitab-i-Aqdas
lay out the general parameters of the dialogue, or covenant,
between God and humanity: God initiates the dialogue by
sending the Manifestations to teach us the fundamental laws of
spiritual reality. We respond by recognizing the spiritual
authority (validity) of the Manifestation and obeying His laws.
The result is increased spiritual development leading to
increased happiness and, ultimately, to a state of extreme and
enduring joy.
The Kitab-i-Aqdas also affirms that the implementation of
the laws of spiritual reality increases the individual's spiritual
autonomy, which Baha'u'llah calls "true liberty":

Say: True liberty consisteth in man's submission unto My
commandments, little as ye know it. Were men to observe
that which We have sent down unto them from the Heaven of
Revelation, they would, of a certainty, attain unto perfect
liberty. Happy is the man that hath apprehended the Purpose
of God in whatever He hath revealed .... Say: The liberty that
profiteth you is to be found nowhere except in complete
servitude unto God, the Eternal Truth. 29

28. Ibid., K 119.
29. Ibid., K 125.

THE BAHA.'f WORLD

In this and other passages, Baha'u'lhih makes unequivocally
clear that God does not seek an obedience of childlike weakness,
but a mature, intelligent obedience based on deliberate
individual choice. We must submit our wills to God's, but this
submission results from a disciplined accretion of spiritual
power to the individual, not from a helpless capitulation.

The Covenant and the Universal House of Justice
Before examining some specific laws and principles contained
in the Kitab-i-Aqdas, it is important to understand several
fundamental features of Baha'u'llah's Covenant, which, as
mentioned above, constitutes the basic framework for the
dialogue between God and humanity. The first concerns the
question of the interpretation of Baha'u'llah's writings and, in
particular, the interpretation of the Kitab-i-Aqdas. Baha'u'llah
Himself wrote elucidations of several passages of the Kitab-i-
Aqdas during His lifetime, many of which are included in the
current English edition of the Kitab-i-Aqdas. Given the fact that
certain laws of the Kitab-i-Aqdas "have been formulated in
anticipation of a [future] state of society destined to emerge
from the chaotic conditions that prevail today ... ," Baha'u'llah
foresaw the necessity of providing for further authoritative interpretation of His writings after His death. 30 He therefore
appointed His eldest son 'Abdu'l-Baha as the "Center of the
Covenant," the authorized interpreter of Baha'u'llah's writings,
and as the perfect exemplar of Baha'i teachings. 'Abdu'l-Baha
survived Baha'u'llah by twenty-nine years during which time
He wrote a number of texts, including explanations of certain
passages of the Kitab-i-Aqdas. 'Abdu'l-Baha in tum appointed
His eldest grandson, Shoghi Effendi, to succeed Him as the
authorized interpreter of the Baha'i writings.
Beginning in 1921, Shoghi Effendi's ministry continued for
thirty-six years until his death in 1957. During this period,
Shoghi Effendi generated an extensive corpus of detailed
commentary and interpretation of the writings of Baha'u'llah,
including the Kitab-i-Aqdas. Certain portions of Shoghi

30. Baha'u'lhih, K.itab-i-Aqdas, 7.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

Effendi's commentary are likewise included In the present
English edition of the Kitab-i-Aqdas.
Thus, in a certain sense, "the Kitab-i-Aqdas" is not just the
relatively brief (but extraordinarily concentrated) text of the
Kitab-i-Aqdas itself, but also includes the extensive body of
authoritative commentaries by Baha'u'llah, 'Abdu'l-Baha, and
Shoghi Effendi.
Another fundamental aspect of Baha'u'llah's Covenant
derives from Baha'u'llah's declared intention of establishing a
system of divine governance adequate for the needs of humanity
for at least a thousand years. Such a system must take into
account permanence, stability, and order, on one hand, and
change, progression, and dynamism, on the other. The specific
laws of the Kitab-i-Aqdas constitute the permanent or stable
underpinnings of Baha'u'llah's system; they are to remain
inviolate for at least a thousand years. To provide for change
and flexibility in His system, Baha'u'llah has established a
supreme legislative organ, called the Universal House of Justice.
According to the specific texts of Baha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-
Baha, the Universal House of Justice is invested with the
authority to legislate on all matters not specifically dealt with in
the Kitab-i-Aqdas or elsewhere in the Baha'i sacred writings.
Moreover, the Universal House of Justice can repeal or alter any
of its previous decisions. This feature provides Baha'u'llah's
system with a great flexibility and adaptability. As the
conditions of humanity change and as scientific progress alters
various social realities, the Universal House of Justice can
legislate in order to take into account this evolution.
For example, the Kitab-i-Aqdas specifically proscribes
murder, defined as the willful taking of another human life.
This, then, is an absolute prohibition. However, while
specifying certain penalties for murder (either execution or life
imprisonment), Baha'u'llah leaves the Universal House of
Justice free to determine their application. Moreover, He also
leaves to the Universal House of Justice the task of establishing
various degrees of murder and the appropriate penalty for each
degree. Or, to take another example, the laws of the Kitab-i-
Aqdas do not deal directly with the question of birth control,

THE BAHA'i WORLD

leaving the House of Justice free to legislate (or not) in this area.
It is therefore logically possible for the Universal House of
Justice to legislate in a certain manner regarding this question
and later, perhaps in the light of changed demographic circumstances, repeal or alter this legislation.
Though the Universal House of Justice cannot repeal or alter
any of the laws of the Kitab-i-Aqdas, it is nevertheless
empowered by Baha'u'llah to oversee the gradual and
progressive application of those laws. The Universal House of
Justice is also invested with the quasi-judicial function of
rendering an authoritative and final verdict in all disputes or
controversies that arise within the Baha'i community. These
functions are summed up in the following passage from the Will
and Testament of' Abdu'l-Baha:

It is incumbent upon these members (of the Universal
House of Justice) to gather in a certain place and deliberate
upon all problems which have caused difference, questions
that are obscure and matters that are not expressly recorded
in the Book. Whatsoever they decide has the same effect as
the Text itself. And inasmuch as this House of Justice hath
power to enact laws that are not expressly recorded in the
Book and bear upon daily transactions, so also it hath power
to repeal the same .... The House of Justice is both the initiator
and the abrogator of its own laws. 31

The House of Justice was first elected in 1963 in the manner
outlined by 'Abdu'l-Baha and has functioned continually since
that date. Election of the membership of the House of Justice is
held every five years.
In the Kitab-i-Aqdas Baha'u'llah also establishes local
Houses of Justice, which have administrative jurisdiction on a
local- usually municipal or county- level. Acting on the
authority given Him by Baha'u'llah, 'Abdu'l-Baha established
secondary Houses of Justice on an intermediate- national or

31. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Will and Testament of 'Abdu 'l-Baha (Wilmette: Baha'i
Publishing Trust, 1968), 20.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

regional- level. Membership in these governing councils 1s
also by election. 32
Thus, the administrative structure of the Baha'i community
exists at three levels: local, national, and international.
Decisions of local Houses of Justice can be altered by the
secondary House of Justice on which they depend, and the
Universal House of Justice can change a decision of any local or
secondary House of Justice.
Underlying all the laws and community structures in
the Baha'i Faith is a group decision-making process called
consultation. This process was instituted by Baha'u'llah
himself in the Kitab-i-Aqdas, and further elaborated and
explained by 'Abdu'l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi. Essentially,
Baha'i consultation involves a frank but loving exchange of
opinions by members of a group with a view towards the
determination of the objective truth of some matter and the
consequent establishment of a genuine group consensus. In
particular, consultation is the basic mode of functioning of the
Houses of Justice. Thus, in Baha'u'llah's system of governance,
all decision-making authority derives from consultative bodies.
No individual has decision-making authority unless such
authority has been specifically granted by an appropriate
consultative decision of a collective organ functioning under one
of the Houses of Justice.
The central role that consultation plays throughout
Baha'u'llah's system, and Baha'i community life in general,
gives a non-authoritarian, collaborative spirit to the functioning
of the Baha'i community at all levels. The ideal of Baha'i
consultation is to arrive at a unanimous decision of the
consultative group. In the instances where such unanimity is not
forthcoming, a vote is taken and the majority view prevails.

Unity, the Fundamental Goal of the Baha'i Faith
It is important here to stress that all of the laws, institutions, and
principles that Baha'u'llah has established are expressions of the

32. It should be noted that local and secondary Houses of Justice are presently known as Spiritual Assemblies.

THE BAHA.'f WORLD

two fundamental principles of justice and love. Justice has to do
with the recognition of and respect for the role, status, and worth
of a given individual, of a given social function, or of a given
institution or principle. Justice provides the component of
stability and order to the social fabric and to human relationships
generally. Love is the underlying dynamic and motivating force
of the whole of creation. Without love, justice degenerates into
dry formalities, and without justice love may be improperly
channeled and therefore unproductive of effective results.
The principles of justice and love are thus complementary,
and each is essential to the fundamental Baha'i goal of establishing the unity of humanity at all levels of human interaction.
Indeed, the unity of the material world itself results from the
natural laws Uustice) which regulate the dynamic interactions
(love) among the different physical forces and entities.
According to Baha'u'llah, the ultimate expression of the unity of
humanity will be the organization of the life of the entire planet
into one coherent social system based on justice and
cooperation: "The well-being of mankind, its peace and security, are unattainable unless and until its unity is fmnly
established. " 33
Given the breathtaking scope of Baha'u'llah's vision of the
future of mankind, we might anticipate that His system would
exalt justice over love, order over dynamism. However, we will
see that, if anything, the opposite is true: love is the most
fundamental principle of all, and the laws of the Kitab-i-Aqdas
reflect the fact that, in all of God's creation, justice is the servant
of love. As 'Abdu'l-Baha has expressed it:

Love is the mystery of divine revelations! ... Love is the
breath of the Holy Spirit inspired into the human spirit! Love
is the cause of the manifestation of the Truth (God) in the
phenomenal world! Love is the necessary tie proceeding
from the realities of things through divine creation! Love is
the means of the most great happiness in both the material
and spiritual worlds!. .. Love is the greatest law in this vast
universe of God! Love is the one law which causeth and

33. Baha'u'lhih, Kitab-i-Aqdas, 12.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

controlleth order among the existing atoms! ... Love is the
cause of the civilization of nations in this mortal world! 34

The Individual Dialogue with God
Having established, in the opening passages, the fundamental
premise of the Kitab-i-Aqdas- the collective and individual
dialogue or covenant between God and humanity- Baha'u'llah
now turns, in paragraphs 6-15, to the first specific and most
basic law of the Kitab-i-Aqdas, the law of prayer. Prayer is the
foundation of the individual dialogue between God and man.
Through it, the individual establishes a direct, unmediated, inner
connection between his soul and God. Moreover, this relationship is the most fundamental of all relationships accessible to
the individual. Unless this relationship be correctly and firmly
established, all other relationships, whether with other
individuals, with society, or with nature, will be essentially
flawed.
The following statement, written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi,
illustrates the importance that Baha'u'llah gives to prayer:

How to attain spirituality is indeed a question to which
every young man and woman must sooner or later try to find
a satisfactory answer ....
Indeed the chief reason for the evils now rampant in
society is the lack of spirituality. The materialistic civilization of our age has so much absorbed the energy and
interest of mankind that people in general do no longer feel
the necessity of raising themselves above the forces and
conditions of their daily material existence. There is not
sufficient demand for things that we call spiritual to
differentiate them from the needs and requirements of our
physical existence ....
The universal crisis affecting mankind is, therefore,
essentially spiritual in its causes .... the core of religious faith
is that mystic feeling which unites Man with God. This state
of spiritual communion can be brought about and maintained
by means of meditation and prayer. And this is the reason
why Baha'u'llah has so much stressed the importance of

34. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Tablets ofAbdul-Baha Abbas (Chicago: Baha'i Publishing
Committee, 1930), vol. 3, 525-526.

THE BAHA'i WORLD

worship .. .. The Baha'i Faith, like all other Divine Religions,
is thus fundamentally mystic in character. Its chief goal is
the development of the individual and society, through the
acquisition of spiritual virtues and powers. It is the soul of
man which has first to be fed. And this spiritual nourishment
prayer can best provide. 35

Among the various prescriptions Baha'u'lhih gives concerning prayer is a specific, daily obligatory prayer. This prayer
has three forms: short, medium, and long. Baha'u'llah makes it
clear that the individual is entirely free to choose, each day,
whichever of the three forms he prefers, but is spiritually and
morally obligated to offer an obligatory prayer at least once
every twenty-four hours. The text of the short prayer is as
follows:

I bear witness, 0 My God, that Thou has created me to
know Thee and to worship Thee. I testify, at this moment,
to my powerlessness and to Thy might, to my poverty and to
Thy wealth.
There is none other God but Thee, the Help in Peril, the
Self-Subsisting. 36

A detailed study of the obligatory prayers is beyond the scope
of the present article, but one main feature is already clear from
the content of the short obligatory prayer: the key to spiritual
happiness and autonomy is recognition of our total dependence
on God. In other words, spiritual growth is not a process of
becoming more dependent on God, but of becoming more aware
of our dependence on God.
The obligatory prayers, as well as other prayers, are offered
individually in private. The Baha'i Faith has no priesthood or
clergy, and each individual believer is responsible before God
for his own spiritual development.
The habit of regular prayer is collateral with other spiritual
disciplines such as the daily reading of and meditation upon the

35. Shoghi Effendi, Directives from the Guardian. Compiled by Gertrude
Garrida (New Delhi: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1973), 86-87.
36. Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-Aqdas, 101.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

texts revealed by Baha'u'llah. For example, in paragraph 149 of
the Kitab-i-Aqdas, Baha'u'llah says: "Recite ye the verses of
God every mom and eventide. Whoso faileth to recite them
hath not been faithful to the Covenant of God and His
Testament .... " 37 Thus, prayer, meditation, and the thoughtful
study of the holy writings constitute the fundamentals of the
individual covenant or dialogue between God and ourselves.
However, it is important to realize that the daily obligatory
prayers constitute only a spiritual minimum, not a maximum or
an optimum. Baha'u'llah stresses throughout His writings that
we should pursue communion with God at every moment of our
existence, in such wise that the attitude of prayerfulness
pervades our entire life and all of our human interactions. As
Shoghi Effendi has expressed in a letter written on his behalf:
"We must become entirely selfless and devoted to God so that
every day and every moment we seek to do only what God
would have us do and in the way He would have us do it." 38
A second key element of individual spiritual discipline is
fasting, and Baha'u'llah mentions the law of fasting in
paragraph 16, immediately following his initial discussion of the
obligatory prayers. He later elaborates the details of the law of
fasting: Baha'is are to fast from sunrise to sunset for nineteen
successive days during the same period (2 March to 21 March)
each solar year. This periodic, temporary suspension of eating
and drinking allows the individual to experience his soul as an
entity separate from the body. In this way, the individual's soul
or spirit becomes a palpable reality and not just an intellectual
abstraction.
Most of the other prescriptions pertaining to individuals are
related, in one way or another, to prayer and fasting. For
example, Baha'u'llah stresses physical cleanliness, stating that it
has an effect on spiritual purity and thereby on the heart's
receptivity to communion with God. As mentioned above, He
also forbids recourse to alcohol, opium, and other substances

37. Ibid., K 149.
38. Lights of Guidance: A Baha'i Reference File. Compiled by Helen Hornby.
2nd rev. and enlarged ed. (New Delhi: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1988), 111.

THE BAHA'i WORLD

which distort perception and thus inhibit the individual's
capacity to maintain an ongoing state of communion with God.
The importance Baha'u'llah gives to our individual relationship with God and the centrality of this relationship within
Baha'u'llah's system are expressions of the fundamental role
that the love of God plays in all human relationships.

Lateral Relationships; Marriage
The vertical relationship between each individual and God is the
necessary basis for harmonious and productive lateral relationships between and among human beings. Of all these lateral
relationships, the most fundamental is that between husband and
wife. Indeed, society comes forth from the family and the
family from the couple. Ultimately, society cannot be more
healthy than its families nor families more healthy than the relationship between wife and husband. Thus, Baha'u'llah devotes
a portion of the Kitab-i-Aqdas to laying out the fundamental
parameters of the marriage relationship.
As viewed by Baha'u'llah, the relationship between husband
and wife is governed by two basic principles: equality (or
reciprocity) and fidelity. The principle of equality is the
expression of justice within the marriage, and the principle of
fideli~; is an expression of love. We will discuss each in tum.
The equality of women and men is a fundamental principle of
the Baha'i Faith. This principle implies not only social equality
but total reciprocity within the marriage relationship. In making
decisions that are not purely individual- that relate to the
married couple as a social entity- the marriage partners are
enjoined to use consultation. As mentioned in our brief
discussion of Baha'i consultation above, the goal is to seek a
consensual view of the matter at hand, and to abide by a
majority view when such a consensus cannot be attained. When,
as in the case of husband and wife, no non-unanimous majority
is possible, then the couple must find a creative way of making a
given decision when differences of opinion persist. This may
involve either one deferring to the other in certain given
instances, but in the Baha'i conception of the marriage
relationship, there is no presumption that either party should

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

ever dominate the other or impose his or her will by force or
manipulation.
Consultation, and the pursuit of justice within the marriage
relationship, is best thought of as a lateral extension of the
intimate dialogue between each individual and God. Viewed in
this way, consultation between the couple becomes a sort of
collective prayer: in the same way that the individual seeks the
truth through his internal dialogue with God, so the couple must
seek the truth in their intimate dialogue with each other.
Clearly, this conception of the relationship between marriage
partners represents a certain challenge to the maturity of their
relationship. But this can be seen as a healthy challenge,
conducive to spiritual growth and thus to the purpose of human
existence.
The second basic principle governing the relationship
between husband and wife is absolute fidelity. Among other
things, the Kitab-i-Aqdas specifically states that a sexual
relationship is spiritually legitimate only between a man and
a woman who are married to each other. Thus, sexual
relationships outside of the marriage bond are proscribed in the
Kitab-i-Aqdas, and those who violate this prohibition are subject
to a penalty which, in the case of consenting adults, is the
payment of an identical fine by both parties, the amount being
doubled with each subsequent offense. The penalty for other
particular violations of this law, such as rape, incest or adultery,
are to be determined by the Universal House of Justice.
Baha'u'llah's conception of loyalty between the marriage
partners implies not only the act of sexual faithfulness, but also
an attitude of mind in which each partner continually gives
priority to the well-being of the other in all circumstances. The
importance Baha'u'llah gives to loyalty within marriage is
apparent from His first mention of the principle in paragraph 19:
"Ye have been forbidden to commit murder or adultery, or to
engage in backbiting or calumny; shun ye, then, what hath been
prohibited in the holy Books and Tablets. " 39

39. Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 19.

Just as murder is the most grievous possible violation of the
sanctity of individual life, so adultery is the most grievous
possible violation of the sanctity of the marriage relationship.
Backbiting and calumny destroy the individual by assassinating
his character and reputation rather than his physical person.
Similarly, other more subtle forms of unfaithfulness may
assassinate the marriage relationship. But sexual faithfulness is
the minimum challenge to be met by the marriage partners.
Probably most people would agree that the combination of
sexual chastity before marriage and faithfulness within marriage
will serve to strengthen the marriage bond. However, many may
also feel that this discipline will impose an intolerable hardship
on the individual. The accepted idea in many quarters is that
men especially cannot be seriously expected to restrain
themselves sexually before marriage or to confine themselves to
only one partner after marriage.
Clearly, Baha'u'llah does not agree with such notions. To
begin with, there is no trace whatsoever of any sexual double
standard in the Kitab-i-Aqdas. Marriage is monogamous, the
principles of chastity and fidelity are equally binding on men
and women, and all penalties for violations of these principles
between consenting adults apply equally to both partners.
Moreover, a number of special conditions regarding prayer and
fasting apply to women only, such as special prayers to be said
in lieu of fasting for menstruating women. The overall resultconfirmed in other writings of Baha'u'llah as well- is to exalt
the position of the woman as the bearer and nurturer of life,
while maintaining total social equality between women and men
in all other respects.
As to the question of sexual discipline, Baha'u'llah considers
this to be a particular means God has provided for our spiritual
development. If God has so freely endowed us with the precious
and potent gift of sexuality, He has also endowed us with the
capacity for its disciplined and responsible use. Throughout His
writings, Baha'u'lhih insists that one of the basic principles God
has established in His dealings with humanity is that He never
requires from us anything of which we are not truly capable:
"He will never deal unjustly with any one, neither will He task

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

a soul beyond its power."40 Indeed, explains Baha'u'lhih,
everything God imposes upon us is for our benefit alone, for
there is no self-interest on the part of God. God is totally selfsufficient and His love for us is absolutely pure.
Thus, according to Baha'u'llah, the sexual discipline of
chastity and fidelity contained in the Kitab-i-Aqdas is for our
benefit and fully within our God-given power to accomplish.
Had God withheld the gift of so powerful a sexuality from us,
we would have been spared the tensions sometimes involved in
the exercise of sexual discipline, but we would have been denied
the opportunities for substantial and rapid spiritual growth this
discipline affords. Thus, Baha'u'llah's prescriptions regarding
sexuality constitute a prime example of teachings that can be
understood only in the light of Baha'u'llah's conception of
human purpose.
Although the prescription of chastity and fidelity are not
original with the Baha'i teachings, historical attempts to practice
these disciplines have been marred by several factors. First is
the often unspoken assumption that human sexuality is
animalistic, dirty, or debased. The Baha'i teachings specifically
contradict this notion, teaching that all of the naturally-given
human capacities- both physical and spiritual-----come from God
and are good in themselves. Any evil connected therewith is
strictly a result of our misuse of them. Human sexuality is
divine and sacred, not animal and exploitative, unless we debase
it through willful misuse. Moreover, Baha'u'llah specifically
states that there is no moral value whatsoever in celibacy itself.
Not only does the Kitab-i-Aqdas condemn asceticism and other
forms of extreme self-denial, it criticizes harshly anyone who,
for example, "hath secluded himself in the climes of India,
denied himself the things that God hath decreed as lawful,
imposed upon himself austerities and mortifications," stating
that such a person "hath not been remembered by God, the
Revealer ofVerses."41

40. Baha'u'lhih, Gleanings, 106.
41. Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 36.

A second feature that has prevented mankind from
benefitting appropriately from the disciplines of chastity and
fidelity has been the historic inequality between men and
women. Polygamous marriage (specifically forbidden in the
Kitab-i-Aqdas), the sexual double standard (in which, curiously,
women are blamed for male promiscuity), and the dominance of
women by men generally have prevented the marriage relationship from reaping anything like the full benefits of sexual
discipline, even when it was sincerely practiced. However, the
channelling of sexual expression into long-term, stable marriage
relationships, in conjunction with the Baha'i practice of equality,
reciprocity, and consultation between the marriage partners, will
undoubtedly allow marriage relationships to achieve unprecedented levels of harmony, loyalty, intimacy, and satisfaction.
Indeed, 'Abdu' 1-Baha is reported to have said that no human can
conceive of the union and harmony that God has destined for
husband and wife. 42 In Baha'u'lhih's view, such a consummation is more than adequate compensation for whatever
temporary frustrations must be endured in the practice of sexual
discipline before marriage.
Importantly, the Kitab-i-Aqdas allows divorce:

Should resentment or antipathy arise between husband
and wife, [they must] bide in patience throughout the course
of one whole year, that perchance the fragrance of affection
may be renewed between them. If, upon the completion of
this period, their love hath not returned, it is permissible
for divorce to take place. God's wisdom, verily, hath
encompassed all things.43

It is often true that whatever has great potential for good
when properly implemented also has great potential for evil if
misused. Thus, Baha'u'llah exalts the station of marriage and its
positive spiritual potential, but recognizes that there is no
spiritual value- and, in fact, much potential spiritual harm- in

42. From the "Marriage Tablet" of 'Abdu'l-Baha; see, for example, Star of
the West 11: 1 (21 March 1920), 20.
43. Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 68.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

forcing a couple to maintain the formalities of a relationship that
no longer exists in fact. Notice that the grounds for divorce are
"resentment or antipathy," not necessarily a specific act of
(sexual or other) unfaithfulness. As with other aspects of
marriage, both husband and wife have an equal right to divorce,
when once the year of waiting has been accomplished. Neither
party can block or refuse divorce to the other.

The Family
We have seen that the two basic parameters of marriageequality and fidelity- are particular instances of the two
fundamental pillars of all human relationships, justice and love.
We now want to see how these same principles operate in the
context of the next most intimate category of human relationships, namely the relationships within the family.
Equality and reciprocity are the expression of justice within
the marriage relationship because Baha'i marriage is conceived
as a completely symmetrical relationship between two equally
mature and competent adults. But other relationships within the
family, and in particular the relationship between parents and
children, are not symmetrical. Therefore, the expression of
justice within the family involves certain subtleties and nuances,
which Baha'u'llah addresses in the Kitab-i-Aqdas.
To begin with, Baha'u'llah makes it clear that the primary
purpose of spiritually healthy marriages is to bring forth
spiritually healthy children. Indeed, a high quality of relationship between the marriage partners provides an appropriate
milieu for the healthy growth and development of each member
of the family and, in particular, for the children: "Enter into
wedlock, 0 people, that ye may bring forth one who will make
mention of Me amid My servants. This is My bidding unto you;
hold fast to it as an assistance to yourselves."44 Thus, the
purpose of the family is not just the physical propagation of
children but also their spiritual education. The emphasis which
Baha'u'llah places on the parents' responsibilities is indicated
by the following commentary ofBaha'u'llah:

44. Ibid., K 63.

Unto every father hath been enjoined the instruction of his
son and daughter in the art of reading and writing and in all
that hath been laid down in the Holy Tablet. He that putteth
away that which is commanded unto him, the Trustees are
then to take from him that which is required for their
instruction if he be wealthy and, if not, the matter devolveth
upon the House of Justice. Verily we have made it a shelter
for the poor and needy. He that bringeth up his son or the son
of another, it is as though he hath brought up a son of Mine;
upon him rest My glory, MY. loving-kindness, My mercy, that
have compassed the world. 45

Elsewhere it is explained that the spiritual and moral
obligation to educate children devolves equally upon both
parents, but in different ways. The mother is declared to be the
"first educator" of the child, and she has the right to material
support from the father in this task. Indeed, each succeeding
generation of the human race is founded on the willingness of its
mothers to dedicate themselves to the best interests of their
children. This pivotal role of motherhood is stressed throughout
the Baha'i writings. It means that society in general, and men in
particular, must arrange their affairs so that mothers receive all
of the necessary recognition, support, and reward for their
accomplishment of this sacred task.
For example, Baha'u'llah states that sons and daughters must
be educated equally (and, according to 'Abdu'l-Baha, with the
same curriculum), but that whenever choices must be made in
the education of children, preference is given to daughters
because it is they who, upon becoming mothers, will be the first
educators of the next generation. This principle shows clearly a
shift of values away from the traditional view that the primary
goal of education is to prepare males for economic or material
success and towards the view that education must serve the
primary goal of fostering the spiritual development of the entire
future generation.
Thus, according to Baha'u'llah's view of the family, children
have certain rights, such as the right to education, which the
parents are obliged to respect. In a commentary on the Kitab-i-

45. Baha'u'lhih, Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 48.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

Aqdas, Baha'u'lhih states that a parent who neglects these
sacred obligations may be declared by the House of Justice to
have lost his rights of parenthood: "Should a father neglect this
most weighty commandment [to educate one's children] laid
down in the Kitab-i-Aqdas by the Pen of the Eternal King, he
shall forfeit rights of fatherhood, and be accounted guilty before
God."46
Thus, children are not viewed as chattels or possessions of
their parents, and parents do not have absolute authority over
their children. Appropriate community agencies and authorities,
under the guidance of the House of Justice, can intervene when
necessary for the protection of children. According to
Baha'u'llah's prescriptions, children reach the age of discretion
at fifteen, after which they are held individually responsible for
their actions and for the fulfillment of all adult spiritual responsibilities. Fifteen is also the age at which individuals are free to
contract marriage.
A counterpart to these spiritual obligations devolving upon
parents are similar obligations on children to respect the rights
and station of their parents. Baha'u'llah has said:

Well is it with him who in the Day of God hath laid fast
hold upon His precepts and hath not deviated from His true
and fundamental Law. The fruits that best befit the tree of
human life are trustworthiness and godliness, truthfulness
and sincerity; but greater than all, after recognition of the
unity of God, praised and glorified be He, is regard for the
rights that are due to one's parents .... Observe how lovingkindness to one's ~arents hath been linked to recognition of
the one true God! 7

The mutual respect for the rights and obligations of each
member of the family provides a framework of justice which
allows for true and enduring love to exist within the family. In
the past, family relationships have too often been based on
power rather than love. If the power of the parents is dominant,
then the family falls into an authoritarian mode in which

46. Ibid., 136.
47. Ibid., 136-137.

children can become virtual slaves to their parents' purely
egotistical wishes. If the power of the children is dominant, the
family tends to become indulgent and degenerates into anarchy
and chaos.
In Baha'u'lhih's conception of the family, none have
dominance over others. Rather, the entire family and its
members are subject, one and all, to the spiritual authority of
Baha'i principles and laws. In particular, parents recognize and
acknowledge that they also are guided by a moral law greater
than their own individual will. This acknowledgement confers
upon them the necessary moral authority to direct, guide, and
teach their children. Thus, the parents function as instruments or
vehicles for the spiritual education of their children, not as
tyrants or dictators who rule over them.
Of course, this quality of education requires continual and
significant sacrifice on the part of the parents. Thus, children
are obliged to show forth respect and kindness for their parents
as a recognition of the sacrifice their parents make for the sake
of the children's education. The experience of many Baha'i
families has been that children respond positively to principles
to which their parents also submit, whereas the common
experience of humanity is that children tend to resent the
imposition of principles and rules they perceive as arbitrary
dictates of their parents as individuals. Indeed, is it not the gap
between deeds and words that so often leads the younger
generation to view the older generation as hypocritical?
Because of the great sacrifice parents make for the spiritual
education of their children, and because of the seriousness of
marriage and its centrality to the human enterprise, Baha'u'llah
requires that a couple, once they have freely chosen each other
as future marriage partners, must seek the blessing and
permission of their parents for the marriage. This requirement
serves the fundamental Baha'i goal of promoting unity. It can
also be seen both as a formal recognition of the contribution the
parents have made to the person's spiritual development, as well
as a protection against a hasty choice of marriage partner,
perhaps made under a spell of infatuation. Here is Baha'u'llah's
statement of this principle in paragraph 65 of the Kitab-i-Aqdas:

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

... marriage is dependent upon the consent of both parties.
Desiring to establish love, unity and harmony amidst Our
servants, We have conditioned it, once the couple's wish is
known, upon the permission of their parents, lest enmity and
rancor should arise amongst them. And in this We have yet
other pur.&oses. Thus hath Our commandment been
ordained.

Those who have some knowledge of the immense cultural
diversity abroad in the world today can appreciate the fineness
and wisdom with which Baha'u'lhih has established these
various parameters of marriage and family relationships. One
cultural extreme places the emphasis on absolute parental
authority, where marriages are forced and arranged for economic
or cultural reasons having little or nothing to do with the quality
of spiritual relationship between the marriage partners. This has
led to such terrible abuses as bride selling, bride burning, and
involuntary surrogate motherhood. Thus, Baha'u'lhih makes it
absolutely clear that, unless and until the marriage partners have
made a personal decision that they desire to marry, the parents
have no right to interfere in the process. Furthermore, the Kitabi-Aqdas strictly limits any dowry to a symbolic amount, thereby
permanently removing any basis for the infernal manipulations
so widespread in many parts of the world today.
At the other end of the cultural spectrum, as for example in
North America, marriage is usually viewed as an absolute free
choice between two individuals, without regard for the
perceptions or wishes of the parents. As a consequence of this
pattern, marriages are often entered into for immature and
frivolous reasons, and frequently without the vital and necessary
support of the families involved. Consequently, marriages may
begin under conditions of intolerable stress, leading to early and
acrimonious divorce, with attendant destabilisation of the family
milieu and catastrophic effects on the children involved. By
making marriage conditional upon parental consent, "once the
couple's wish is known," Baha'u'llah maximizes the possibility
that marriages will begin under conditions of loving family

48. Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 65.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

support and that young people will be protected from immature
choices.
Interestingly and significantly, Baha'u'lhih has not made
divorce conditional on the approval of others, once the year of
waiting and attempted reconciliation has been faithfully
observed. Thus, on one hand, Baha'u'llah optimizes the
possibility that marriages will be spiritually healthy and
successful, and, on the other hand, He allows for the possibility
that sincere mistakes can and will occur. Such a balanced,
responsible and reasonable approach to the whole question of
marriage and family shows the faith that Baha'u'llah has in the
human potential for mature and responsible spirituality.
The Baha'i principles regarding marriage and family life are
not the only examples where the Kitab-i-Aqdas deals with
the question of cultural relativity and conflicting cultural
traditions. Indeed, many of the ordinances in the Kitab-i-Aqdas
represent liberalizations and abolitions of past practices.
For example, in paragraphs 74-76 of the Kitab-i-Aqdas,
Baha'u'llah states:

God hath decreed, in token of His mercy unto His
creatures, that semen is not unclean ....
God hath, likewise, as a bounty from His presence,
abolished the concept of "uncleanness," whereby divers
things and peoples have been held to be impure ....
God hath enjoined upon you to observe the utmost
cleanliness, to the extent of washing what is soiled with dust,
let alone with hardened dirt and similar defilement.49

Thus, with one stroke of His pen, Baha'u'llah completely
abolishes the whole, hoary fetish of ritual uncleanness, which
has lain at the root of centuries- indeed millennia--of superstitious and obsessive social practices in many parts of the world.
He likewise stresses the importance of genuine physical
cleanliness.
There are a number of other instances in the Kitab-i-Aqdas
where Baha'u'llah specifically declares previous religious

49. Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 74-76.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

practices to have been based on superstition or gross misinterpretation of previous holy texts such as the Qur'an or the Bible.

The Extended Family; the Larger Society
In a certain sense, all of the challenges of human relationships
are reproduced within the milieu of each extended family. The
dynamics of family relationships are subtle and constantly
changing. As time passes, the parents, who were once young,
vigorous, and powerful, become weak, fragile, and vulnerable;
whereas the children, who were dependent, vulnerable, and
untutored, become strong, virile, and accomplished. The
children no longer see their parents as god-like- as representing
the ultimate in human accomplishment. They began to achieve
things their parents have not or could not have achieved. When
the parents approach old age, there is almost a complete reversal
of roles in which they become, in some ways, like dependent
children to the same younger generation they have propagated.
Nevertheless, as grandparents, uncles, and aunts, they have
various other important roles to play, providing a needed sense
of historical perspective and continuity to the family. Under
stable social conditions, the experiential oral history of a family
can encompass almost a hundred years, involving three or even
four generations.
These same dynamics exist within the larger society, in which
roles and interdependencies are constantly shifting. This raises,
in a very sharp way, the question of how to maintain the
cohesion, the stability and progressiveness of social systems,
while giving ample scope for individual freedom and initiative.
Baha'u'lhih articulates two fundamental principles that are
necessary to the spiritual health of society: cooperation and
service. These are the general social expression of justice and
love. To the degree that society, at any level, is founded on
cooperation and service, it will succeed and prosper, spiritually
and materially. And, in the same way, the extent to which
competition displaces cooperation and self-seeking displaces
service in human motivation, society will degenerate. Here is
one strong statement Baha'u'llah makes concerning the

THE BAHA'I WORLD

destructive effects of competition and self-seeking in human
society:

And amongst the realms of unity is the unity of rank and
station. It redoundeth to the exaltation of the Cause,
glorifying it among all peoples. Ever since the seeking of
preference and distinction came into play, the world hath
been laid waste. It hath become desolate. Those who have
quaffed from the ocean of divine utterance and fixed their
gaze upon the Realm of Glory should regard themselves as
being on the same level as the others and in the same station.
Were this matter to be definitely established and conclusively demonstrated through the power and might of God,
the world would become as the Abha Paradise.
Indeed, man is noble, inasmuch as each one is a
repository of the sign of God. Nevertheless, to regard oneself
as superior in knowledge, learning or virtue, or to exalt
oneself or seek preference, is a grievous transgression. Great
is the blessedness of those who are adorned with the
ornament of this unity and have been graciously confirmed
by God. 50

Although most people would admit that competition does
indeed have negative aspects, the extreme individualism and
competitiveness of modem Western society are often justified as
an evil that is necessary for the achievement of excellence.
However, Baha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha strongly reject
this view. The pursuit of excellence proceeds by vertical
comparisons between the performances of the same individual at
different times; whereas competition proceeds by the horizontal
comparison of the performances of different individuals at the
same time. As a basic motivation, pure competition may
sometimes stimulate the pursuit of excellence, but it may also
generate efforts to sabotage or undermine the performance of
others (by the passive refusal to collaborate, if not through more
active means). The Baha'i writings stress that the underlying
motivation for the pursuit of excellence should be to put our
God-given talents at the service of others. When this intrinsic

50. Quoted in a letter of the Universal House of Justice, published in Baha'i
Canada (June-July 1978), 3.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

motivation is dominant, individuals strive to enhance their
performance for greater development both of society and self,
regardless of whether this leads them to outperform other
individuals.
The other pillar of the spiritualization of society is service.
Service involves not only a general attitude towards others, but
also the discipline of daily work at a chosen profession:

0 people ofBaha! It is incumbent upon each one of you to
engage in some occupation- such as a craft, a trade or the
like. We have exalted your engagement in such work to the
rank of worship of the one true God. Reflect, 0 people, on
the grace and blessings of your Lord, and yield Him thanks at
eventide and dawn. Waste not your hours in idleness and
sloth, but occupy yourselves with what will profit you and
others. 51

Other statements in the Baha'i writings make it clear that the
obligation to work is a spiritual law equally binding on
everyone, regardless of the degree of material necessity.
Homemaking is considered a noble profession and, accordingly,
an act of worship. However, this in no way precludes mothers'
and homemakers' engaging in other professions outside the
home.
The Baha'i view of work as worship brings us back again to
the theme that the fundamental purpose of the laws and
principles of the Kitab-i-Aqdas is to foster the spiritual and
material development of humanity. Baha'i morality is thus not a
morality of avoidance and withdrawal but a proactive dynamic
of accomplishment and progression, motivated by the principles
of justice and love, service and cooperation, reciprocity and
loyalty.

Inheritance Laws; Ifuququ '1/ah
The application of the general social principles of service and
cooperation can take many forms in particular contexts. In most
instances, Baha'u'llah has left to individual judgment, and to the

51. Baha'u'lhih, Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 33.

THE BAHA.'f WORLD

Universal House of Justice, the task of establishing or defming
the implementation of these important principles. With regard to the age-old question of the distribution of wealth,
'Abdu'l-Baha has enunciated the general principle that gross
accumulation of wealth, whether by individuals or groups within
society, should be avoided. He states that such overconcentration of wealth is harmful not only for society but also for the
individuals involved. In the light of this principle, Baha'u'llah
has instituted certain practical measures that, while allowing the
necessary latitude for entrepreneurial initiative and individual
freedom of economic action, nevertheless help to avoid
extremes both of poverty and of excessive wealth.
One of these measures is called J:Iuququ'llah or "the right of
God." In summary form, this measure stipulates that every
believer must pay, once only, 19 percent of the value of his
possessions, less various exempt items, such as one's home and
its furnishings. Baha'u'llah extols the spiritual benefits of
J:Iuququ'llah and states, "By this means He [God] hath desired
to purify what ye possess and to enable you to draw nigh unto
such stations as none can comprehend save those whom God
hath willed. " 52
J:Iuququ'llah is paid to the Universal House of Justice, and
thus sums derived from it can be redistributed and redeployed to
maximum social benefit. One can imagine, for example, that
favorable local conditions could create an economic boom in
one area of the planet while difficult financial conditions
elsewhere generate poverty. The Universal House of Justice
could use the sums derived from the J:Iuququ'llah paid in the
prosperous region to help alleviate economic hardship in the
depressed zone. Since such patterns of economic boom and bust
are often temporary and shifting, it might be that, subsequently,
the operation of redistribution of wealth will take place in the
opposite direction. In any case, the Universal House of Justice,
as the supreme governing organ of 4-he entire Baha'i world, will
have the necessary information to assess accurately the situation

52. Baha'u'lhih, Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 97.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

and the necessary authority to implement the appropriate
measures.
Through the payment of I:Iuququ'lhih, the believer "purifies"
his savings. Baha'u'llah institutes another tax, called Zakat,
through which the believer purifies his means of sustenance: "It
hath been enjoined upon you to purify your means of sustenance
and other such things through payment of Zakat. " 53 The term
"Zakat" derives from the Qur' an and refers to an obligatory tax
levied for the relief of the poor and other charitable purposes.
Baha'u'llah has left to the Universal House of Justice the
freedom to determine the various parameters of Zakat (e.g.,
exemptions, categories of income, scales of rates, frequency of
payment).
I:Iuququ'llah and Zakat, together with the general mandate
given the Universal House of Justice, provide the necessary
measures for the "horizontal" adjustment of gross economic
disparities within each generation. However, there is also the
question of "vertical" inequities resulting from the gradual
overconcentration of wealth over succeeding generations.
Baha'u'llah addresses this issue by specifying certain principles
for the distribution of inheritance in the absence of a will on the
part of the deceased: "We have divided inheritance into seven
categories .... " 54 With respect to the decease of a given
individual, these categories are children, wife or husband, father,
mother, brothers, sisters, and teachers. Baha'u'llah specifies the
proportion of a given inheritance that is to be allotted to each
category. However, this distribution is obligatory only in the
case that the individual dies without writing a will. Moreover,
Baha'u'llah has specifically enjoined each individual to make a
testament establishing the manner of distribution of that person's
accumulated wealth after his or her passing:

A person hath full jurisdiction over his property. If he is
able to discharge the I:Iuququ'lhih, and is free of debt, then all
that is recorded in his will, and any declaration or avowal it
containeth, shall be acceptable. God, verily, hath permitted

53. Ibid., K 146.
54. Ibid., K 20.

him to deal with that which He hath bestowed upon him in
whatever manner he may desire. 55

Of course, it is presumed that, in writing his will, the individual
will take into account the general Baha'i principle of avoiding the overconcentration of wealth in the hands of a few
individuals. 56

Gender Equality and the Membership
of the Universal House of Justice
As is well known, and as already mentioned above in the
discussion of marriage and the family, one of the fundamental
principles of the Baha'i Faith is the equality of men and women.
The Baha'i writings affirm unequivocally that women have historically been dominated and subjugated by men, creating a
disastrous imbalance in society. For example, both Baha'u'llah
and 'Abdu'l-Baha attribute the prevalence of war and bloodshed
in human history primarily to the predominance of aggressiveness, which has tended to characterize men, over compassion
and common sense, which have been more characteristic of
women. If women had been allowed to achieve the same level
of education as men, and contribute on an equal basis to civilization, then many historic injustices, such as slavery and child
labor, would have been greatly diminished if not avoided
altogether. Here is one of the many strong statements in the
Baha'i writings concerning these questions:

The world in the past has been ruled by force and man has
dominated over woman by reason of his more forceful and
aggressive qualities both of body and mind. But the scales
are already shifting, force is losing its weight, and mental
alertness, intuition, and the spiritual qualities of love and
service, in which woman is strong, are gaining ascendency.
Hence the new age will be an age less masculine and more
permeated with the feminine ideals, or, to speak more
exactly, will be an age in which the masculine and feminine
elements of civilization will be more properly balanced.57 á

55. Baha'u'lhih, Kitab-i-Aqdas, 126.
56. Ibid., 183-184.
57. Star of the West 9:7 (13 July 1918), 87.

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

Not only does this passage acknowledge the imbalances of
the past, it asserts that women tend to possess certain qualities to
a degree superior to men. Elsewhere, 'Abdu'l-Baha stresses that
women possess all intellectual and creative abilities exhibited by
men and that any lack of achievement on the part of women is
due only to lack of adequate access to education: "If given the
same educational opportunities or course of study, [women]
would develop the same capacity and abilities [as men]" and
this "whether in scientific research, political ability or any
other sphere of human activity." 58 Moreover, 'Abdu'l-Baha
underlines the necessity for women to enter all arenas of social
and public life:

So it will come to pass that when women participate fully and
equally in the affairs of the world, when they enter
confidently and capably the great arena of laws and politics,
war will cease; for woman will be the obstacle and hindrance
to it. This is true and without doubt. 59

In the light of these and other strong statements in the Baha'i
writings concerning the capacity and role of women, it is
surprising, and somewhat puzzling at first, that the Kitab-i-
Aqdas restricts the membership of the Universal House of
Justice, but not the local and secondary Houses of Justice, to
men alone. Indeed, in all other public functions and roles
instituted by Baha'u'llah, women and men have equal access.
The only exception at any level is membership in the Universal
House of Justice. Moreover, there is no indication whatsoever,
in any statement ofBaha'u'llah or 'Abdu'l-Baha, that exClusion
of women from membership on the Universal House of Justice
is based on any ápresumed incapacity of women to serve in this
way.
The perception of paradox is reinforced when we recall that,
as the supreme institution of Baha'u'llah's world order, the
Universal House of Justice is the chief promulgator of all Baha'i
principles, including the principle of the equality of men and

58. 'Abdu'l-Baha, The Promulgation of Universal Peace, 281.
59. Ibid., 135.

THE BAHA'i WORLD

women. Why, one may reasonably ask, has Baha'u'lhih
excluded women from membership in the one institution that
bears the primary responsibility for promoting the cause of the
equality and rights of women?
This feature of Baha'u'lhih's system has long given rise to
discussion and speculation. When questioned on this subject,
'Abdu'l-Baha only reiterated his affirmation that this restriction
had nothing to do with the capacities of women and that the
reason for their exclusion from membership in the Universal
House of Justice would, in time, become absolutely clear to
everyone.

Conclusions
The task of exploring the implications of so profound a work as
the Kitab-i-Aqdas is ongoing and progressive. Certainly the
present article cannot claim to be more than a modest, initial
contribution to this enterprise. Nevertheless, the fundamental
outlines of Baha'u'llah's vision of a global planetary order can
already be clearly seen. The goal is a unified, universal society,
founded on spiritual principles and allowing for both stability
and dynamism, global order and individual initiative. This
world order has two fundamental components, one personal and
spiritual, the other social and structural.
The personal component is based on the direct relationship
between each human soul and the God who has created us all.
The Kitab-i-Aqdas instructs us in the fundamental parameters of
this relationship. Baha'u'llah thereby tells us that the ultimate
category of existence, Being Itself, is not an abstract principle
but a loving Person who seeks intimate communion with each
human being.
This vertical relationship between each individual and God is
the necessary source of the love and compassion that must
infuse all human relationships. But this great force of love must
be properly harnessed if it is to produce a truly progressive
and stable society. The Kitab-i-Aqdas therefore institutes
appropriate, just social structures, at every level of society, to
allow for the free and unhampered flow and diffusion of love.
These structures constitute a system of rights and obligations

CAUSALITY pRINCIPLE

within marriage, the nuclear family, the extended family, and
ultimately the whole of society. They involve potent institutions
which allow for the implementation, at all levels of society, of
decisions taken through consultation. These structures also
provide the basis of a stable but dynamic economic system
which, while not imposing the umealistic and unhealthy norm of
total economic egalitarianism, nevertheless eliminates the
extremes of poverty and the gross accumulation of wealth.
Human history has witnessed a wide variety of social
systems. Some have crushed individual freedom and initiative
either through dictatorship or else an extreme collectivism that
attributes little intrinsic value to the individual person. At the
other extreme are highly individualistic systems in which interpersonal competition tends to permeate every aspect of society.
Such systems are certainly dynamic but tend to be volatile and
unstable.
Social philosophers have often held that there is an intrinsic,
logical opposition between the good of the individual and the
good of society as a whole. As a consequence of this view, most
social systems are seen as a compromise in which some degree
of individual self-realization must be sacrificed for the sake of
social order.
Baha'u'llah's vision of society challenges this received idea.
In His view, there can be no contradiction between what is truly
good for the individual and what is truly good for the collectivity. Indeed, Baha'u'llah conceives that the very purpose of
society is to create a milieu that optimizes the opportunities for
the spiritual growth and development of each of its members. In
the Kitab-i-Aqdas we have the balanced conception of a society
that is founded on the sacred, intrinsic value of each individual
human soul, independently of the role that person may play
within society. At the same time, the Kitab-i-Aqdas lays the
structural foundations of a stable and progressive social life that
favors the maximum degree of self-realization for everyone.
Now that the publication of the full, annotated edition of the
Kitab-i-Aqdas is accomplished, the eyes of the Baha'i world are
turned towards the institution of the Universal House of Justice
whose sacred task it is to oversee the wise, gradual but steady

implementation of the laws and principles of the Kitab-i-Aqdas,
which are nothing less than the laws governing the spiritual
world, the world of being. But the ultimate responsibility for the
implementation of these laws and principles lies not with any
institution. Rather it lies with each of us, in whose hearts and
minds the intimate communion with our Creator must be
diligently pursued. This is an immense responsibility, but also a
unique privilege given us by God- that we can participate, to
whatever degree we choose, in the building of the mighty
spiritual edifice of a world united on the basis of the very law of
causality God has inscribed in the innermost recesses of reality.

Ann Boyles surveys the Baha'i community s
past and present efforts to understand and
practice the principle of equality between
men and women .

TOWARDS
THE GOAL

OF FULL
PARTNERSHIP:
One Hundred and Fifty Years of the
Advancement of Women

B etween 4 and 15 September 199 5, some twenty thousand
participants from all parts of the world will converge in
Beijing for the United Nations' Fourth World Conference on
Women. They will focus on a number of critical areas of
concern: the sharing of power and decision-making; mechanisms to promote the advancement of women; awareness of
and commitment to women's rights; poverty; women's access to
and participation in the defmition of economic structures and
policies and the productive process; access to education, health,
and employment; violence against women; and the effects on
women of continuing national and international armed or other
kinds of conflict. The Baha'i community will be represented by
an official delegation at the conference itself, while a large representation of Baha'is from all regions of the world will
participate in the Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO)
Forum on Women, which is open to everyone and will be held
immediately preceding and overlapping the first four days of the
conference.
Members ofthe Baha'i
delegation to the Asian
and Pacific NGO Symposium on Women in
Development, Manila,
the Philippines,
16-20 November 1993,
held in preparation for
the Fourth World
Conference on Women.

Baha'is have participated in the previous three world
conferences on women in 1975, 1980, and 1985, and, indeed,
the community's delegations are uniquely well-equipped to
consult on issues pertaining to the advancement of women. The
Baha'i world community has a distinctive approach to the
subject, clearly delineated in its sacred writings; it has a century
and a half of practical experience in promoting equality of the
sexes; and it has a willingness to share its teachings and
experience with others struggling to overcome inequality around
the world.

Principles Distinctive to the Baha'i Approach to Equality
Perhaps the most distinctive element of the Baha'i approach to
the issue of equality is the conviction that change must be a
unifying force, leading towards full partnership of men and
women- and beyond this toward the unity of the human family.
Baha'i activities focusing on the advancement of women take
their direction from passages such as the following: "The world
of humanity has two wings-one is women and the other men.
Not until both wings are equally developed can the bird fly." 1
Baha'is see the need to involve men in recognizing and
promoting the issue of equality. What benefits will accrue

1. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu '1-Bahil (Haifa: World
Centre Publications, 1978), 302; cited in Women: A Compilation, in The
Compilation of Compilations, vol. 2 (Australia: Baha'i Publications Australia, 1991), 362.

FULL pARTNERSHIP

either to men or to women if only women see the need for
equality in their lives? How can the sexes advance harmoniously and unitedly unless both become aware of this essential
principle? For example, in many development projects
focusing solely on women the results are not enduring for a
number of reasons: women, by themselves, cannot effectively
make cultural changes; the attitudes of women (and men) have
not been fundamentally altered even where the projects
themselves have been successful; women's concerns and
women's projects are seen to be unimportant to the society as a
whole; or projects have tended to put women in the roles of
"consumers" rather than training them to continue effecting
change in their communities once the project ends. Often,
gender-focused activities for women only have resulted in
conflict between men and women and have therefore been seen
as detrimental to community life rather than beneficial, since
they may polarize the sexes rather than improve relationships
between them. Conscious of this, the Baha'i community has
increasingly sought to involve both women and men in
discussion and activities pertaining to the equality issue.
Obviously the process of change is one that spans years and
perhaps generations before effects are readily noticeable, but
the Baha'i community knows it is essential to lay the
foundation now for future progress- for the flight of the bird of
humanity.
If the first distinctive element of the Baha'i approach to the
advancement of women is the insistence that the process be a
unifying force, it is no surprise that the second is its emphasis
on equilibrium and harmony, as evidenced by this recorded
utterance of' Abdu'l-Baha:

The world in the past has been ruled by force, and man
has dominated over woman by reason of his more forceful
and aggressive qualities both of body and mind. But the
balance is already shifting; force is losing its dominance,
and mental alertness, intuition, and the spiritual qualities of
love and service, in which woman is strong, are gaining
ascendancy. Hence the new age will be an age less
masculine and more permeated with the feminine ideals, or,

to speak more exactly, will be an age in which the masculine
and feminine elements of civilization will be more evenly
balanced. 2

Such pronouncements are far from being utopian visions or
expressions of pious hope. Laws and ordinances, woven into the
fabric of the Baha'i social order, facilitate the integration of
women into all aspects of social life, and the Baha'i administrative system promotes practical steps leading to a society where
equality will be the norm. For example, while universal
education is desirable, if the parents do not have the funds to
send all their children to school, they must be guided by the
Baha'i teaching that the education of girls takes precedence over
the education of boys, because the mother is the first educator of
the child and society will not progress as long as mothers remain
in a state of ignorance. Within the school system, "daughters
and sons must follow the same curriculum of study, thereby
promoting unity of the sexes." 3 It is obvious that realizing this
goal, of unity rather than hegemony in male-female relations,
will radically alter the social life of the human family.
The vision of a future society in which women and men enter
into a full and equal partnership is, then, set unequivocally
before the Baha'i community. While employing the means to
achieve the goal demands perseverance, audacity, imagination,
and development of consultative skills, the ultimate objective
remains clear. And this view of change leading to unity appears
to be catching on in circles far wider than the Baha'i community
itself, judging from recent statements made at the annual
meeting of the United Nations Commission on the Status of
Women, held in New York in March 1994. The planning
committee for the NGO Forum '95 described the upcoming
event in Beijing as a place "to bring together women and men to
challenge, create and transform global structures and processes
at all levels through the empowerment and celebration of
women."4

2. 'Abdu'l-Baha, quoted in John Esslemont, Baha'u'llilh and the New Era,
5th rev. ed. (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1987), 149.
3. 'Abdu'l-Baha, The Promulgation of Universal Peace, 2nd ed. (Wilmette:
Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1982), 175.
4. Cited in One Country: Newsletter of the Baha'i bdernational Community
6.1 (April-June 1994), 9.

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Principle of Equality: an Historical Overview
The power of the Baha'i teachings to reshape radically the
attitudes and lives of the approximately five million men and
women around the world who call themselves Baha'is is frrmly
and uniquely rooted in what they consider to be divine
revelation: the Baha'i Faith is the only major religion in
recorded history whose Founder has unequivocally stated the
principle of the equality of women and men. Over one hundred
years ago, Baha'u'llah wrote: "In this Day the Hand of divine
grace hath removed all distinctions. The servants of God and
His handmaidens are regarded on the same plane." 5 The revolutionary and revolutionizing power of this statement may be lost
on many readers in the late twentieth century, but set in the
context of nineteenth century Persia, where women were treated
as chattel or as mere reproductive vessels, were held virtually as
domestic prisoners, and were not deemed worthy of any formal
education that would equip them for any role in greater
society--or, indeed, that would adequately prepare them to be
educators of their own children- this fundamental spiritual
principle enunciated by Baha'u'llah presented an electrifying
challenge to all who heard it.
One small incident suffices to illustrate the difficulty posed to
Persian society by the idea of equality. The veil was held to be the
symbol of a woman's purity; according to the dictates of Persian
Islamic society, a man simply did not look at the face of a
respectable woman who was not a family member. Thus, when
one of the heroines of the Babi Faith6 appeared unveiled in a
gathering of fellow believers, the men were greatly distressed,
one so much that he ran off and slit his throat. In Persian society
at large, reactions were even more extreme, violent, and abusive.
But such limited human responses could not thwart divine

5. Baha'u'lhih, extract from a previously untranslated tablet; cited in
Women, 358.
6. The Babi Faith, proclaimed in Persia in 1844 by Siyyid 'Ali Mul).ammad,
entitled "The Bab" or "The Gate," was the revelation immediately preceding
the Baha'i dispensation and was intimately linked to it. The Bab Himself
stated that He had come to prepare the way for "Him Whom God Shall Make
Manifest," the Promised One of all the religions who would bring unity to the
entire world- Baha'u'llah.

revelation: Baha'u'lh1h proclaimed women to be equal, and so
humanity began its slow and often painful journey towards the
realization of this ideal.
To foster a deeper understanding of the principle both within
the Baha'i community and in the general public, Baha'u'llah's
son 'Abdu'l-Baha, authorized interpreter of His Father's
writings and appointed by Him as Center of His Covenant and
the one to whom all Baha'is should tum as the source of
authority, expounded this theme of equality. In a tablet to an
individual woman He wrote,

Know thou, 0 handmaid, that in the sight of Baha, women
are accounted the same as men, and God hath created all
humankind in His own image, and after His own likeness.
That is, men and women alike are the revealers of His names
and attributes, and from the spiritual viewpoint there is no
difference between them. 7

:Abdu'l-Baha also elaborated upon this theme in many public
talks He gave in Europe and America, where He travelled from
1911 to 1913 after His release from imprisonment in Palestine.
Speaking in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, He said,

Woman's lack of progress and proficiency has been due to
her need of equal education and opportunity. Had she been
allowed this equality, there is no doubt she would be the
counterpart of man in ability and capacity. The happiness of
mankind will be realized when women and men coordinate
and advance equallt, for each is the complement and
helpmeet of the other

'Abdu'l-Baha made a crucial distinction in these elucidations
of His Father's teachings. In asserting that women will be the
"counterparts" of men in ability and capacity when they are
offered equal opportunities for education, He did not assert that

7. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu '1-Baha, 79-80; cited
in Women, 362.
8. 'Abdu'l-Baha, The Promulgation of Universal Peace, 182; cited in Women,
365-366.

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women are or will be identical to men. Thus, Baha'is understand
that equality does not mean identity of function; rather complementarity is its hallmark, according to the Baha'i teachings.
During the period 1921-1957, Shoghi Effendi, who was
chosen by 'Abdu'l-Baha to be His appointed successor as interpreter of Baha'i scripture and named Guardian of the Baha'i
Faith in His Will and Testament, encouraged Baha'i communities to grow further into the notion of equality of the sexes,
particularly in their service to Baha'i administrative institutions.
In a letter to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of
India and Burma, written in 1923, he urged the women of those
countries to

endeavour to the best of their ability to acquire a better and
more profound knowledge of the Cause, to take a more active
and systematic part in the general affairs of the Movement,
and prove themselves in every way enlightened, responsible
and efficient co-workers to their fellow-men in their common
task for the advancement of the Cause throughout their
country. 9

During the period of his leadership, he actively encouraged
women as well as men to arise and assist in efforts to establish
the Baha'i Faith widely throughout the globe by resettling in
foreign countries.
Since its establishment in 1963, the supreme governing body
of the Baha'i world community, the Universal House of Justice,
has further educated the Baha'i community on the principle of
equality, writing of the "mutual and complementary duties" of
men and women within the context of the family as well as the
"much wider sphere of relationships between men and women"
that should be considered "in the context of Baha'i society, not
in that of past or present social norms." 10 The Baha'i writings

9. Shoghi Effendi, from a letter dated 27 December 1923 to the National Spiritual Assembly of India and Burma; cited in Women, 402.
10. From a letter written on behalf of the Universal House of Justice, dated
28 December 1980, to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of
New Zealand; cited in Family Life, in The Compilation of Compilations, vol.
1, 414-415.

THE BAHA'i WORLD

clearly give the mother the role of her children's first educator,
but the Universal House of Justice also points out:

... this does not by any means imply that the place of
woman is confined to the home. On the contrary, 'Abdu'l-
Baha has stated:

In the Dispensation of Baha'u'llah, women are
advancing side by side with the men. There is no area
or instance where they will lag behind: they have
equal rights with men, and will enter, in the future, into
all branches of the administration of society. Such will
be their elevation that, in every area of endeavour, they
will occupy the highest levels in the human world.

and again:

So it will come to pass that when women
participate fully and equally in the affairs of the world,
when they enter confidently and capably the great
arena of laws and politics, war will cease .. .. 11

There are no universal, compulsory rules governing how
women balance their responsibilities both as mothers and as
active members of society outside the home. The Universal
House of Justice has stated that this decision must be made by
the individual, saying: "It is for every woman, if and when she
becomes a mother, to determine how best she can discharge on
the one hand her chief responsibility as a mother and on the
other, to the extent possible, to participate in other aspects of the
activities of the society of which she forms a part .... " 12 Thus,
for the first time in religious history, women have been

11. From a letter written on behalf of the Universal House of Justice, dated
28 December 1980, to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is ofNew
Zealand; cited in Women, 392-393. The first cited passage is a revised translation of part of a talk by 'Abdu'l-Baha from Paris Talks, 11th ed. (London:
Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1972), 182; the second is from 'Abdu'l-Baha, The
Promulgation of Universal Peace, 135.
12. From a letter written on behalf of the Universal House of Justice, dated
22 April1981 to an individual believer; cited in Women, 393.

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recognized and are treated as mature, responsible human beings,
capable of arranging their lives individually to meet the
demands placed upon them.
To assist women and men to understand their evolving roles
within the family and in the world at large, the Universal House
of Justice has, over the past number of years, released compilations of Baha'i writings which group together passages on
various subjects. The publication in January 1986 of a
compilation of extracts dedicated solely to the subject of
women, taken from the writings of Baha'u'llah, 'Abdu'l-Baha,
Shoghi Effendi, and the Universal House of Justice, constitutes a
direct invitation to Baha'is around the world to deepen their
knowledge on this subject, to discuss what they learn with
others, and to apply it in their daily lives.
It is an indication of humanity's spiritual development that
we are capable of recognizing equality as a complex and
profound spiritual principle with ramifications in all areas of
life, and undoubtedly society will continue to evolve to
accommodate such a shift in consciousness. Consider, for
example, the effects that heeding the following passage of
Baha'u'llah will have on humanity:

Women and men have been and will always be equal in
the sight of God ....
The friends of God must be adorned with the ornament of
justice, equity, kindness and love. As they do not allow
themselves to be the object of cruelty and transgression, in
like manner they should not allow such tyranny to visit the
handmaidens of God. 13

From the level of the family, the realm of domestic violence, to
that of society, where, for example, sexual harassment,
pornography, and forced prostitution plague women in all
comers of the world, the effectsá of acting upon this directive will
be dramatic and far-reaching.

13. Baha'u'lhih, from a previously untranslated tablet; cited in Women, 379.

THE BAHA:i WORLD

Women as Peacemakers
Even more dramatic, far-reaching, and profound ramifications
of equality are evident when one considers the role of women in
establishing world peace. As mothers, 'Abdu'l-Baha has said,
women will reach a stage when they are no longer willing to
send their sons to war:

In past ages humanity has been defective and inefficient
because it has been incomplete. War and its ravages have
blighted the world; the education of woman will be a mighty
step toward its abolition and ending, for she will use her
whole influence against war. Woman rears the child and
educates the youth to maturity. She will refuse to give her
sons for sacrifice upon the field of battle. In truth, she will be
the greatest factor in establishing universal peace and
international arbitration. Assuredly, woman will abolish
warfare among mankind .... 14

Furthermore, as participants in "the great arena of laws and
politics" women will have effective means to enact laws to
ensure they will not be forced to send their children to wage war.
But the importance of the emancipation of women goes far
beyond the laying down of arms, as the Universal House of
Justice points out in a message written to the peoples of the
world on the occasion of the United Nations International Year
of Peace, saying: "Only as women are welcomed into full
partnership in all fields of human endeavour will the moral and
psychological climate be created in which international peace
can emerge." 15 The abandonment of weapons is certainly
necessary and important in the achievement of peace, but
without the proper "moral and psychological climate" such an
action is ultimately fruitless.

Outstanding Women
The Baha'i writings offer a dynamic vision of the potentialities
of women and the changes they can effect in the world, and the

14. 'Abdu'l-Baha, The Promulgation of Universal Peace, 108.
15. The Universal House of Justice, The Promise of World Peace (Haifa:
Baha'i World Centre, 1985), 12.

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history of the Baha'i Faith offers many examples of outstanding
women who serve as models or paradigms of this "new
womanhood." Two women in particular stand out, one
associated with qualities of strength and audacity and the other
with tenderness and servitude. The frrst is Tahirih, the Persian
poet and fearless defender of the Babi Faith, for which she
eventually suffered a martyr's death, and the second is Bahiyyih
K.hanum, the daughter of Baha'u'llah who served her Father
selflessly throughout His life, forgoing marriage and the establishment of a family of her own in order to care for Him.
Tahirih was an exceptional woman for her time and place,
breaking the bonds that normally enslaved women in nineteenth
century Persia. She attained a level of education unusual for
women; she composed poems still widely regarded as masterpieces of literature; as one of the original nineteen followers of
the Bah, she became a leader of the Babi community and taught
her faith fearlessly; she had the temerity to refuse a proposal of
the Shah, who was greatly attracted by her beauty, that she
become one of his wives; she is reported to have said, shortly
before her death, "You can kill me as soon as you like, but you
cannot stop the emancipation ofwomen." 16
In addressing her, the Bah wrote: "0 Qurratu'l-'Ayn! I
recognize in Thee none other except the 'Great Announcemenf- the Announcement voiced by the Concourse on high.
By this name, I bear witness, they that circle the Throne of Glory
have ever known Thee." 17 What is the nature of this
"Announcement" personified, according to the Bah, by Tahirih?
The answer seems to lie in Shoghi Effendi's reference to her as
"the first woman suffrage martyr." 18 Intrepid and outspoken, she
did not allow the social dictates of her society to hold her back
from reaching her potential. Yet she paid a terrible price for her
courageous acts; she was imprisoned for some time by her

16. Cited by Shoghi Effendi in God Passes By, 3rd ed. (Wilmette: Baha'i
Publishing Trust, 1974), 75.
17. The Bab, Selections from the Writings of the Bah (Haifa: Baha'i World
Centre, 1976), 72. Qurratu'1-'Ayn means "solace of the eyes" and is a title
given Tahirih by her teacher.
18. Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, 75.

husband, and when she escaped she was forced to leave her
children behind, never to see them again. Brief years later, she
was again imprisoned, this time by government officials who
were disturbed by her success in winning converts to the Faith of
the Bah, which they saw as heretical to Islam and a threat to the
stability of Persian government and society. A group of soldiers
was sent to end her life by strangulation, and her body was
thrown down a well. Yet her fmal words proved prophetic; they
express a certainty about the future- a vision evoking both hope
and strength.
Tahirih, "the Great Announcement," ranks as the foremost
woman of the Babi revelation, and in the Baha'i dispensation
another female figure has been accorded a similar distinction.
Bahiyyih K.hanum, the saintly daughter of Baha'u'llah who was
given the title "the Greatest Holy Leaf," was addressed by her
Father in the following words: "Verily, We have elevated thee to
the rank of one of the most distinguished among thy sex, and
granted thee, in My court, a station such as none other woman
hath surpassed." 19 Shoghi Effendi, her great-nephew, extolled
her as "the outstanding heroine of the Baha'i Dispensation."20
The qualities of her character that led to this distinction are
summed up in the following passage, also written by him:

Whether in the management of the affairs of His
Household in which she excelled, or in the social
relationships which she so assiduously cultivated in order to
shield both Baha'u'lhih and 'Abdu'l-Baha, whether in the
unfailing attention she paid to the everyday needs of her
Father, or in the traits of generosity, of affability and
kindness, which she manifested, the Greatest Holy Leaf
had by that time abundantly demonstrated her worthiness to
rank as one of the noblest figures intimately associated with
the life-long work ofBaha'u'llah. 21

19. Bahiyyih Khlmum: The Greatest Holy Leaf, A Compilation (Haifa: Baha'i
World Centre, 1982), 3.
20. Ibid., 62.
21. Ibid., 34-35.

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Shoghi Effendi remarked
upon her serenity in the face of
the terrible deprivations and
degradations of exile and imprisonment, through which she
accompanied her Father from
the time she was six years old.
He pointed to her care for all the
members of the holy family
and of the pilgrims who came Bahiyyih Khlmum,
from both East and West. Her daughter ofBahci 'u 'llah
physical frailty belied her spiritual strength, which was fully demonstrated at the time of
'Abdu'l-Baha.'s passing: Shoghi Effendi, then a young student at
Oxford University, was first devastated by the news of his Grandfather's death and was subsequently overwhelmed at the prospect
of assuming the leadership of the Baha'i world community, as
set forth in 'Abdu'l-Baha's Will and Testament. While the
young Guardian secluded himself and prepared to take up the
burden and responsibility that had been bequeathed to him, his
elderly aunt, at that time over seventy years of age, took the
reins of the Baha'i community in her hands and directed its
affairs until his return. Years later, in an eloquent tribute written
at the time of her death, Shoghi Effendi described her as his
"chief sustainer," his "most affectionate comforter," "the joy and
inspiration of [his] life."22
In Bahiyyih K.hanum's own writings, letters written to Baha'is
all over the world, her strength of character and of expression is
evident. The treacherous actions of some members of her own
family taught her all too well the difficulties posed by disloyalty
and disunity; thus the following passage, written just after the
passing of 'Abdu'l-Baha at a time of crisis in the Baha'i world,
takes on great significance:

All the virtues of humankind are summed up in the one
word ' steadfastness ', if we but act according to its laws. It

22. Ibid., 31.

THE BAHA'i WORLD

draws to us by a magnet the blessings and bestowals of
Heaven, if we but rise up according to the obligations it
implies. 23

Similarly, her writings on service show the focus of her life:

In this Day nothing is so important as service. Did not
'Abdu'l-Baha voluntarily call Himself the 'Servant' ofBaha,
manifesting also in His life the perfections of servitude to
God and man?
We, wishing to follow the commands left by Baha'u'llah,
spread and lived by 'Abdu'l-Baha, we can take no greater
step toward the Heavenly Kingdom- can give no greater joy
to the present beloved Guardian of the Cause Shoghi
Effendi- than that of loving service to all mankind. 24

The examples of Tahirih and Bahiyyih Khanum show vividly
how both strength and audacity as well as "the spiritual qualities
of love and service" are part of the paradigm of Baha'i
womanhood. 25 Since their time, numerous Baha'i women from
many different cultural backgrounds have arisen to demonstrate
through their actions how these qualities can be combined. One
such woman who served the cause of international peace was
Laura Dreyfus-Barney, an American who became a member of
the first Baha'i community in Europe around 1900. A leader in
promoting the advancement of women in the early years of this
century, she focused her attention on mobilizing women for
peace and represented the International Council of Women
(ICW) in the League of Nations when it was established
following World War I. In 193 7 she was elected president of
ICW's Peace and Arbitration Commission, and following World
War II she played an important role in the development of the
relationship between the United Nations International
Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) and non-governmental
organizations. These are only a few highlights ofMme Dreyfus-
Earney's many humanitarian activities, undertaken over the

23. Bahiyyih Kh.imum: The Greatest Holy Leaf, A Compilation, 148.
24. Ibid., 224.
25. 'Abdu'l-Baha, cited in Baha 'u 'llah and the New Era, 149; Women, 369.

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entire span of her adult life and motivated by her deep love for
humankind and her vision of the earth as one home for all
peoples.
While women are called upon to enter the great arena of laws
and politics, they should not sacrifice their qualities of love and
service in order to advance. By their actions, and by the actions
of a society which supports them, they must change the world so
that man no longer dominates and "the masculine and feminine
elements of civilization will be more evenly balanced."26 When
that balance is attained-when feminine qualities are valued and
respected, when women's traditional activities such as
mothering are seen as a valuable, meritorious contribution to
society, when women speak confidently and are accorded
respect for their contributions in public life, and when society
changes to recognize women's diverse roles and capacitiesthen peace will be a real possibility in the world. That is the
goal towards which Baha'i women and men look with eager
anticipation; that is the reason for the long history of Baha'i
efforts to advance the cause of women; that is the lesson learned
from the examples of Tahirih and Bahiyyih K.hanum, as well as
Laura Dreyfus-Barney.

Baha'i Efforts to Advance the Cause of Women
As we have seen, the impetus for Baha'i efforts to advance the
cause of women comes directly from the spiritual teachings of
the Faith's Founder, and thence from the succession of
leadership, first appointed and later elected, throughout the
Faith's 150-year history. The Baha'i community's commitment
to the issue is well-grounded in divine scripture, and history
provides examples of women who embody the ideals outlined in
the Faith's sacred writings, but, one may well ask, how has the
Baha'i commitment been translated into action on a wider scale,
and have activities been carried out in all parts of the world?
In arriving at a clear, broad understanding of the term
"advancement of women," it is necessary to consider the many
ways this term can be understood in different parts of the world.

26. Ibid.

For example, what does the advancement of women mean in
societies where women must still haul water or firewood long
distances each day for their households, as they must in rural
communities of Cameroon or Bolivia, compared to societies
where women executives must deal with the "glass ceiling" that
bars promotion to top positions, as seen predominantly in the
more "developed" countries? Although these two manifestations of inequality are undeniably different in degree of
oppression, with the former condemning women to a life of
virtual slavery, the net result in both cases is the same: women
are denied the opportunity to "progress" and become
"proficient" outside traditionally accepted spheres of activity.
Similarly, the effects on men, on families, and ultimately on
society, are the same. As the Universal House of Justice pointed
out in its message on peace:

The denial of such equality perpetrates an injustice
against one half of the world's population and promotes in
men harmful attitudes and habits that are carried from the
family to the workplace, to political life, and ultimately
to international relations. There are no grounds, moral,
practical, or biological, upon which such denial can be
justified. 27

Thus, although promotion of the advancement of women may
manifest itself at many different levels, serve many different
needs, and involve many different activities, the end goal is the
same. Through a diversity of approaches, commensurate with
the requirements of the societies in which they operate, the
Baha'is seek one ultimate goal: the unity of humanity, of which
the equality of women is an integral part. As 'Abdu'l-Baha
stated: "As long as women are prevented from attaining their
highest possibilities, so long will men be unable to achieve the
greatness which might be theirs." 28
To hasten the achievement of this "greatness," since the time
of Baha'u'llah and of 'Abdu'l-Baha, the Baha'i community

27. The Promise ofWorld Peace, 11-12.
28. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Paris Talks, 133; Women, 366.

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around the world has striven to put these teachings and
principles into action. As one might expect in the context of an
evolving community, its efforts to promote the advancement of
women have likewise evolved. Through the years, one can see
an increase in the number of activities as well as an increasing
diversity in approaches. Some of these projects include efforts
to improve the basic literacy of women through establishment of
schools, whether simple tutorial schools or more formal
educational institutions; training in income-generating skills;
education about health care and hygiene; skill-building in
community development; conferences on women's issues; environmental involvement; administrative training; publications for
and by women; and international collaboration between women
in the Baha'i community. A brief survey of some of these
efforts follows.
Literacy Training and the Education of Women
Perhaps the first concrete expression of the Baha'i community's
commitment to the advancement of women was the establishment of a number of girls' schools in Persia (now Iran) at the
tum of the century. Writing to one group which had asked for
advice concerning the establishment of schools for children of
both sexes in their community, 'Abdu'l-Baha said:

The school for girls taketh precedence over the school for
boys, for it is incumbent upon the girls of this glorious era to
be fully versed in the various branches of knowledge, in
sciences and the arts and all the wonders of this pre-eminent
time, that they may then educate their children and train them
from their earliest days in the ways of perfection. If, as
she ought, the mother possesseth the learning and accomplishments of humankind, her children, like unto angels, will
be fostered in all excellence, in right conduct and beauty.
Therefore the School for Girls that hath been established in
that place must be made the obJect of the deep concern and
high endeavours of the friends. 9

29. 'Abdu'l-Baha, cited inA Compilation on Baha'i Education, in The Compilation of Compilations, vol. 1, 284.

The pre-eminent girls' school established in Persia at this
time was the Tarbiyat School in Tehran. Funded through the
cooperation of members of the Persian and American Baha'i
communities, the Tarbiyat Girls' School began operating in
1911. The involvement of American Baha'is in the endeavor
meant that the methods used and subjects taught were
considered progressive-even radical-by traditional Persian
standards. Girls at Tarbiyat had recess and gymnastics more
than fifteen years before government schools allowed physical
education for girls, as Holly Hanson Vick points out in her
article about earld Baha'i social and economic development
projects in Iran. 3 Furthermore, in the Tarbiyat School girls
were allowed to dance, sing, and pray aloud, and 'Abdu'l-Baha
repeatedly stressed in tablets to the school's organizers that there
should be no difference between the curriculum offered to boys
and that offered to girls. To support the mothers of the children
in the school, monthly conferences were held for women, where
different topics designed to interest and inform them were
covered in plays, talks, and demonstrations. Between three and
four hundred women attended these events. 31 The result of all
this activity was a remarkable degree of progress among the
Persian Baha'i women. As Hanson Vick points out, the girls'
schools established throughout Persia in these very early years
of the development of the Baha'i community trained "the first
generation af professional women in Iranian society, and the
example set by Baha'i women had an impact on the whole
society." 32 These early Baha'i efforts also had a dramatic effect
on the literacy rate among Persian Baha'i women. Hanson Vick
states, "In 1973 it was announced that the Baha'is had achieved
a literacy rate of 100 percent among women under the age of
40, despite the national literacy rate of 15 percent."33

30. Holly Hanson Vick, "Shining Example in Cradle of Faith," US. Baha'i
News 675 (June 1987), 9.
31. Genevieve L. Coy, "Educating the Women of Persia," Star of the West
17:2 (May 1926), 50-55; cited in Hanson Vick, 9-10.
32. Hanson Vick, 10.
33. Hanson Vick, 10. See also "A Current Survey of Baha'i Activities," The
Baha'i World, vol. 15 (1969-1973) (Haifa: World Centre Publications, 1976),
248.

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From their early beginnings in Persia, Baha'i projects
designed to foster the development of women have set a high
standard that the community has striven to surpass as it gains
experience and expertise. And indeed, there has been consistent
progress, both quantitative and qualitative, in the efforts it has
undertaken on behalf of women.
Since those first efforts, numerous Baha'i schools have begun
to operate around the world. Most of them are co-educational,
but the particular need to educate girls, as outlined in the
writings of 'Abdu'l-Baha, has not been neglected. A case in
point is the recent establishment of a girls' school in Africa. In
January 1993, seeing a need for educational opportunities
among the young women of Zambia, Baha'is opened the Banani
International Secondary School for Girls. Only 20 percent of
girls in Zambia receive basic education, and to correct this
situation the Banani School, built entirely by the Baha'i
community, accepts only girls. Currently consisting of six
classrooms, a 120-bed dormitory, and a dining hall, the school
concentrates on providing practical training in science and
agriculture. Upon graduation, students receive the International
General Certificate of Secondary Education. 34
The Baha'i Vocational Institute for Rural Women in Indore is
another educational facility addressing the particular needs of a
population-this time the women of rural India. The institute
offers programs relating to literacy, health care, hygiene, and
income-generating skills, with the overall focus of improving
the education and status of women, the poorest members of
society; in rural India. Inaugurated on 24 February 1983, its
development was swift; within two years it had developed
resources and programs and was functioning regularly,
offering one three-week course per month. Originally funded
entirely by Baha'is, the institute's success has prompted the
Indian government, the Canadian High Commission, and
numerous individuals to offer their assistance with grants and

34. See The Baha'i World 1992-93: An International Record (Haifa: World
Centre Publications, 1993), 141.

donations of various materials. The institute has also begun
to reach out to the wider community: in June 1986, for
example, the Government of India's Madhya Pradesh Council
of Science and Technology asked the institute to conduct a
workshop on socio-economic development of tribal women
and appropriate technology. Such requests are becoming
more frequent as the fame and prestige of the institute grows
throughout the region.
In a society where females are generally considered
valuable only for reproduction and manual work, where there
is a 90 percent illiteracy rate among women, and where the
mortality rate for females is very high due to the neglect of
girl babies and grown women, there is a great need to change
established attitudes. The institute's explicit goal is to
improve the lives of rural Indian women by training them in
crafts, literacy, health, and hygiene. In keeping with Baha'i
principles, the program integrates the spiritual and the
practical, with the object not only of making an immediate
material difference in the women's lives but also of changing
attitudes about women among participants and their families.
The spiritual component of education is seen as central to the
process, for only through a transformation of heart and mind
can meaningful change take place.
The program, accommodating up to thirty women for each
residential course, fosters independence and raises consciousness about the current and historical role of women in
Indian society. Programs focus on Baha'i principles,
encouraging participants, whether Baha'is or not, to develop
their spiritual identities and encourage similar development
in their children once they return home.
Through the years, the institute has evolved and become
more diversified, with sub-centres opening in nearby villages.
In each of these locations fifteen women who have already gone
through the program at Indore receive a further six months of
training in literacy and weaving. Their training is paid for by the
government during the program, following which the
government also provides, at 75 percent subsidy, handlooms for
the women to use in their homes. The institute has received

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large orders for clothing produced by its students and graduates,
and the government has agreed to supply worksheds for the
women's training.
The institute is becoming well-known as a center for the
concrete application of Baha'i principles in service to humanity.
A telling example of the changes in attitudes it has effected
involves women from two untouchable tribes that normally
never eat together, intermarry, or even meet. Members from
both tribes were chosen to participate in the institute and thus
were expected to live and work together during their stay at
Indore. Initially prejudiced against each other through years of
social conditioning, at the institute they overcame the taboos of
the caste system to live and work together once they understood
the Baha'i principle of the oneness of humanity.
Numerous other educational programs operate for women
around the world, including literacy classes in locations as
diverse as Cote d'Ivoire, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, India, Papua
New Guinea, Vanuatu, Zaire, and Zambia. In France, the Baha'i
community has sponsored literacy classes for Turkish-speaking
women, in cooperation with non-government agencies, and the
United States has also offered literacy classes for new
immigrants. In many cases, Baha'is do not view the acquiring
of literacy skills as an end in itself. The Guaymi Cultural Center
in Panama, for example, has placed the advancement of women
at the forefront of its activities and has redesigned literacy
materials around this and similarly progressive moral principles,
rather than focusing solely on topics such as food production
and land ownership. The idea behind this approach is that such
elements of moral education, which form the foundation for
cooperation among individuals and unity in the community, will
ultimately have a far more lasting effect on the quality of life in
participants' communities than the simple acquisition of skills.
Often literacy classes are combined with skills training, as in
the Gabon project, where women are also taught sewing,
cooking, and child care. Sometimes focus rests more on the
acquisition of income-generating skills; some Indian projects
teach participants to sew and to make a variety of crafts, and
also promote topics such as appropriate technology and
sustainable agriculture. Such skill-intensive training can result

in unexpected benefits; for example, a sewing, home crafts, and
food-making project in Papua New Guinea has blossomed into a
catering project that has garnered much praise from government
officials. "Skills training" may also deal with the basic concepts
of preparing young women for adult life, and so in several
countries, the Baha'i community is sponsoring development
courses specifically for teenage girls. Projects can also aim at
empowering women through validating the skills they already
possess: in Finland a project has been organized to encourage
local Same women to appreciate and preserve the handicrafts of
their culture.
Health Care
In addition to promoting the advancement of women through
basic education and skills training, the Baha'i community has
been active from the early years of the twentieth century in the
field of health care, when the pioneering efforts of a number of
American Baha'i women who settled in Tehran resulted in a
primary health care project and the holding of classes for
mothers. Although they were unable to establish the nursing
school they had envisioned, their years of selfless service to the
community in Iran provided the Baha'is in that country with a
potent example of the capacity of women. 35
Health care has been a central component of many different
undertakings throughout the Baha'i world ever since that time.
In India, students at the Baha'i Vocational Institute for Rural
Women at Indore are taught how to establish and maintain a
simple kitchen garden to improve their families' nutrition. They
are also educated about hygiene and trained to generate
awareness in their communities concerning personal and home
hygiene, sanitation, child care, immunization, nutrition, and first
aid. As a result of its services to women, and in particular its
contribution to the eradication of guinea worm caused by contaminated water in 302 villages in central India, the institute
was given a "Global 500 Award" in 1992 by the United
Nations Environment Program for outstanding environmental
achievement.

35. See Hanson Vick, 11.

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In Africa, the Baha'i women have also addressed the issue of
nutrition. In Imo State, Nigeria, women have introduced a
social and economic development project promoting the use of
soya bean products to provide much-needed proteins for
families who cannot afford to include animal milk, eggs, or meat
in their daily diet. An institute to teach the method of making
soya milk was organized inNovember 1990 for men and women
in the area and was attended by over one hundred people.
Primary health education training programs in countries such as
Zambia have also met with success.
The national Baha'i Women's Committee in Malaysia has
launched a five-year program to assist women, especially those
in squatter camps and rural areas, to become more self-reliant
and to develop more of their potential. Here again, an important
feature in the program is two health projects, resulting in
improved cleanliness and personal hygiene of the communities
involved. In the more remote and conservative villages, project
facilitators have found that once the women overcome their
initial reticence they begin to question the validity of many local
myths, fallacies, and superstitions concerning health in light of
what they have learned in the project.
Environmental issues bear no small relation to those of
health, and in Uganda, the Baha'i women in the Mbale district
have become involved in the Ugandan tree planting movement
and have subsequently been given a plot of five hectares in the
Namanve forest to grow trees. Commended for their activities
by the Regional Forest Officer, they are showing their
commitment to environmental preservation, not only for
themselves but for their children and generations to come.
"Traditional Media as Change Agent" Project
In keeping with both the broad base of Baha'i efforts to advance
the status of women and the evolutionary nature of activities
undertaken throughout the past years, in October 1991 the
Baha'i community embarked upon an imaginative and
ambitious development project on three far-flung sites:
Cameroon, Bolivia, and Malaysia. Entitled "Traditional Media
as Change Agent" and funded through the Baha'i International
Community by the United Nations Development Fund for

Women (UNIFEM), the project has sought to use traditional
media of song, dance, and drama to promote social and
economic well-being by uplifting the status of women.
Many development projects focus on implementing new
technology or teaching project-specific skills to a particular
population, but the Baha'i-UNIFEM endeavor adopts a different
approach, emphasizing communication itself. Since messages
presented through traditional media are taken very seriously in
the target communities, project originators felt that such
effective channels could be used to generate discussion about
the roles of women and men.
The underlying assumption of the project is that change in the
status of women will not occur until attitudes change, and
attitudes change only when hearts are transformed. Such an
approach recognizes the importance of the spiritual dimension to
the partnership between men and women, raising the issue to a
level of principle far beyond that of many gender-based
discussions.
To promote an atmosphere of trust, where meaningful, constructive dialogue between the sexes can occur without
alienating confrontations, the project trains people in the art of
"consultation," the non-adversarial, non-threatening method of
discussion and decision-making used in Baha'i communities
around the world. Following from this, the basic method of the
project is simple, often using the membership of alreadyexisting, functioning Baha'i administrative bodies, called Local

Participants in the
"Traditional Media
as Change Agent"
project in Cameroon
list the tasks men and
women perform in
their village.

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Spiritual Assemblies, as core groups of volunteers trained to
facilitate consultation, conduct participatory surveys, and lead
focus groups, with the object of identifying community needs,
assessing them, keeping records, and organizing further
activities.
The consultative process, a fundamental Baha'i approach to
problem-solving, forms the basis for fostering community
change in a positive atmosphere. In one exercise designed to
help project participants analyze gender roles in their village,
men and women are asked to list daily tasks; invariably, men's
lists are scarcely half as long as women's. From here, the group
makes use of Baha'i consultation with the understanding that the
moral principle of equality is to be the basis for discussion; this
enables the group to undertake an informed and enlightened
grassroots-level analysis of the situation, draw its own
conclusions from its own findings, and translate those
conclusions into non-threatening, locally appropriate media presentations, which are then presented to the larger community at
gatherings. And what conclusions have been drawn in the
different locations? Not surprisingly, in all three project sites,
consultation and analysis have revealed a commonality of
concerns: women's illiteracy, men's mismanagement of family
money, and the unfair burden of work on women. Participants,
feeling a sense of "ownership" of the issues because they have
been involved in the process of identification and examination,
have responded positively to the challenge of raising the status
of women.
In Eastern Province, Cameroon, for example, where the
project has operated in seven villages, the results by the end of
the first two-year phase were heartening: men were joining the
women to work in the fields, consulting more about family
finances, and allowing women to take a greater part in
community decision-making. A 1992 survey indicated that men
were making all financial decisions alone, while a 1993 survey
showed that more than 80 percent of such decisions were being
made after consultation between husbands and wives. The
survey also indicated that the number of girls being sent to
school in one of the villages increased by 82 percent since

the start of the project. Project participants themselves testify to
the effect their experience has had on them. One female farmer
and mother of six put it this way:

At the beginning, the project did not mean anything to me.
Later on I discovered the advantages of the project. Now I see
that my husband, who was not helping me before the project,
has now changed. We work together at home and in the field.
My husband helps me more now with the housework that
before he thought was the sole duty of woman. He carries
the baby, cleans the dishes and clothes. I also learned the
importance of children's education and that it is first my
responsibility and now I try to take better care of them. I got
those ideas through songs because through the songs I listened
carefully to what was being said. 36

A male participant also testified to the change occurring in his
community as a result of the UNIFEM project:

Here in the village men and women were not used to
working together but through the project I was surprised to
see that they are working hand in hand. I personally have
witnessed a change in my way of life. Concerning the
equality of man and woman I see also that there is a change
in the attitude of men. Now they consult with their wives.
And I do the same. Before the project it was very difficult to
know what women do with their money, but now my wife
consults with me. I also work with my wife in the same farm,
and I help with cleaning the house, for example; things I have
never done before. 37

Similarly, in the eight participating villages of the southern
central province of Chuquisaca, Bolivia, women say they are
now participating more in community decision-making, are
more willing to express desire for education, and are receiving
more help from men with daily chores. The first woman ever
elected to the local political council was recently voted into
office, and shortly after her election the council passed a

36. Cited in One Country 5:3 (October-December 1993), 9.
37. Ibid.

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resolution urging greater attention to the concerns of women.
Finally, in Malaysia, where the project has included two villages
and an urban area, reports indicate that in one of the remote
villages community decision-making has resulted in a new
vegetable garden, new latrines, and adult literacy classes
designed for women but open to men.
While the projects have been organized by Baha'i
communities, the Baha'i population ranges from less than
1 percent to about 10 percent in project locations; thus, in order
to make any real difference in attitude, projects must seek to
effect change within the entire population of areas involved. In
bringing about such transformation, the traditional media have
been instrumental.
Within the Baha'i community itself there have been some
noticeable effects. For example, in all three project sites, more
women are being elected to Baha'i Local Spiritual Assemblies
since the beginning of the project. And the project has inspired
other Baha'i communities: at the national level, Nigeria and
Brazil have launched their own projects, while other local
Malaysian Baha'i communities, impressed by what they have
seen in the project areas, have also started similar programs.
With this kind of response, the Baha'i International Community
hopes to continue the project and expand the number of sites.
Conferences, Seminars, and Workshops
While the UNIFEM-funded project and numerous other Baha'i
efforts to promote women's well-being and advancement have
focused directly on basic grassroots issues, a wide variety of
activities exists around the world. In many cases, the Baha'i
community has encouraged women to move beyond the sphere
of their homes and to address the larger concerns of the society
in which they live. Conferences, seminars, and workshops
furthering discussion of the equality of the sexes are useful
means for accomplishing this goal.
All over the world, from Chad to New Zealand to Alaska to the
Netherlands, conferences and meetings of various sizes seem to
be the forums most widely used by Baha'is for exploring the issue
of equality. Organized at local, regional, and national levels, such
gatherings have resulted in the establishment of broad networks

of groups, often crossing international boundaries around the
globe. Their focus has been wide-ranging, dealing with issues
such as sexual abuse, family violence, aboriginal women's
concerns, mothering, careers, and other topics, but always turning
to the Baha'i teachings as their point of reference.
One of the largest Baha'i-sponsored conferences held to
highlight the equality of women occurred in September 1989
when the North American Association for Baha'i Studies'
fourteenth annual conference, held in Irvine, California, was
entitled "Full Partnership" and focused on the equality of the
sexes. For three days over eight hundred conference attendees
took part in sessions on "Universals of Equality," "Women and
Equality," and "Jv1en and Equality"; they heard papers in plenary
sessions, took part in small-group workshops, and were treated
to a variety of artistic presentations, including drama, music, and
dance. Several noted scholars in women's studies were invited
to present papers at the conference, and a lively exchange of
views took place.
A Pacific women's conference, entitled "Empowering
Women to Achieve" took place at the University of Hawaii in
1992. Sponsored by national and local Baha'i governing bodies,
it attracted the participation of 140 women from nineteen islands
and countries bordering the Pacific basin. The purpose was to
offer them information, education, and new technologies that
would strengthen their leadership skills and educational
foundations.
In recent years New Zealand has organized a number of
national "huis" (conferences, in Maori) focusing on the encouragement of women. Additionally, both the New Zealand and the
Australian National Spiritual Assemblies have taken an
important step to empower women by establishing Offices for
the Advancement of Women to liaise with government and nongovernmental organizations concerned with the rights, status,
and well-being of women. Australia has also appointed a
national committee for the advancement of women, the terms of
reference for which "focus on the need to develop the skills of
women so that they are more actively engaged in teaching the

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[Baha'i Faith] and the need to promote greater understanding
and support of the equality of men and women within the
community." 38 It plans to develop systematic training programs
and will establish regional groups to assess particular needs and
carry out various activities.
A large women's conference for European Baha'i women
was held in 1989 in the Netherlands, followed some two years
later by another women's conference in Barcelona. From these
two events a number of significant developments have occurred.
The first is the establishment in 1992 of the European Task
Force for Women, which has taken the lead in promoting small
conferences for women throughout Europe on the themes of
encouragement, transformation, and service. In a statement of its
vision for women, the task force, in collaboration with the
Continental Board of Counsellors in Europe, an appointed arm
of the Baha'i administration, urged the European Baha'i women
to "become a source of inspiration for all who are in their
company" by becoming, among other things, distinguished
examples of Baha'i life and leaders in all fields of service in the
Baha'i community, confident teachers of the Baha'i Faith,
nourishers of growth and development in the Baha'i community,
a force for change in society, and establishers of universal peace.
To achieve this vision in practical terms, the task force's goal is
to train a number of women from each country in the continent,
who will then return home and train others to conduct discussion
groups at the local level. In this way, the Baha'i women
throughout the entire continent will be united in their focus on
the issue. To encourage the development of the next generation,
they are also sponsoring young women's weekends where girls
come together to study the Baha'i teachings regarding women,
to learn about the lives of Baha'i heroines, to talk about issues of
concern to them, and to socialize with other Baha'i girls their
own age.
On an international level, different Baha'i professional associations have focused on the issue of equality in their activities.

38. Australian Baha YBulletin, July 1994, 1.

For example, in 1993-94 the Baha'i Justice Society chose to
highlight the advancement of women as a particular principle of
justice and encouraged members to initiate projects, write
papers, and attend conferences which would particularly further
the cause of women's advancement. The information highway
has also facilitated an international exchange of ideas among
women and men on the issue of equality, and in the spring of
1994, a Baha'i women's discussion group was formed at the
instigation of a number of women who wished to have a special
forum on the Internet.
Baha'i women have founded international organizations to
study women's issues, to establish cooperative and collaborative
relationships, and to promote an exchange of ideas, scholars,
and research. Research on the status of women in society is one
of the topics proposed for study by the Baha'i Chair at Indore
University in India. At the Baha'i Vocational Institute for Rural
Women, Indore, research work on women's issues has been
carried out side by side with the running of the institute. Baha'i
women in Japan have begun publishing a scholarly periodical
entitled Fujin Journal, for and about women in support of their
efforts to promote the advancement of their sex. In Singapore,
the Baha'i Women's Committee collaborated with the Singapore
Council of Women's Organizations to produce a comprehensive
survey of the women's movement, released in 1993 and entitled
Voices and Choices: The Women s Movement in Singapore. One
of the two most prominently featured women in the publication
is Shirin Fozdar, a Baha'i who founded the Singapore Council of
Women in 1952, was a spokesperson for the Singapore Women's
Committee in the 1950s and 1960s, and is regarded as a
pioneering proponent of women's rights in Asia.
Women as Leaders and Administrators
The encouragement of women was a topic of consultation at
the 1993 Baha'i International Convention, where delegates
reiterated the importance of women's leadership roles within the
Baha'i community and urged that this issue be addressed. Subsequently, an evening session of the Counsellors' conference
following the Convention focused on women and involved

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members of the senior elected and appointed institutions that
serve the Faith throughout the world.
Such events are a strong indication that within the Baha'i
community's administrative order, action is being taken with
regard to women's development as administrators. A further
indication of the encouragement of women in this area is the fact
that, at the specific direction of the institutions of the Faith, more
and more women are assuming greater roles in the Baha'i
administrative system. This is, in large part, due to the particular
encouragement of the Universal House of Justice. In 1975, for
example, the Universal House of Justice called upon eighty
National Spiritual Assemblies to organize Baha'i activities for
women "which will stimulate and promote the full and equal
participation of women in all aspects of Baha'i community life,
so that through their accomplishments the friends will
demonstrate the distinction of the Cause of God in this field of
human endeavour." 39 The degree to which this guidance has
been put into practice to this point varies according to the
development of the social milieu in which the Baha'i
community is operating, but nevertheless strides are being made.
In Australia, for example, the Australian National Women's
Committee stated in its annual report for 1993-94 that
throughout the country female membership on Local Spiritual
Assemblies was 48.5 percent nationally, and 20 percent of the
chairpersons' roles are occupied by women. 40 Similar figures
exist for most developed countries, but in many developing
countries the percentages are much lower, and these demand
attention. Overall, while the percentage of women serving as
national administrators in Baha'i communities around the world
is respectable, with some 28 percent female participation on
National Spiritual Assemblies, 41 there is a strong impetus,
originating from the Universal House of Justice, for the
principle of equality to imbue life in the Baha'i community so

39. From a letter written by the Universal House of Justice to all National
Spiritual Assemblies, dated 15 May 1975; in Women, 403.
40. See the Australian Baha'i Bulletin, June 1994.
41. Figure for 1992-93, compiled 13 October 1993 by the Statistics Department, Baha'i World Centre.

thoroughly that more capable women will be trained and then
recognized for their capacity to serve on elected and appointed
bodies.
Baha'is at the United Nations
One of the great developments with regard to the advancement
of women is increasing collaboration between Baha'i
communities and other agencies. Perhaps the longest-standing
and certainly one of the most productive such associations has
been with the United Nations. In 1945 Baha'i representatives
were present at the historic San Francisco conference which
gave birth to the United Nations, and the Baha'i International
Community was first registered as an international non-governmental organization in 1948. In the years since, the Baha'is have
been granted consultative status with the United Nations
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) and with the United
Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and have been active in
working through the UN system to improve the status of
women. The Baha'i International Community has contributed
to the work of the UN Commission on the Status of Women, has
cooperated with other NGOs working for the advancement of
women, and has made numerous statements on various aspects
of equality to United Nations bodies. The Baha'i International
Community has been especially effective in raising the issue of
the importance of the girl-child at the level of the United
Nations-one of the first agencies to do so in this international
forum.
During the United Nations Decade for Women, 1975-1985,
the Baha'i International Community developed a solid
reputation for its work promoting the advancement of women.
Officially accredited Baha'i representatives participated in the
first, mid-decade, and end-of-decade conferences in Mexico
City, Copenhagen, and Nairobi, and Baha'is were also active in
planning parallel activities for NGOs at these meetings, having
established ongoing working relationships with major likeminded organizations such as UNICEF, UNIFEM, UNDP (the
United Nations Development Program), and UNFPA (the United
Nations Fund for Population Activities).
The Baha'i International Community has also forged some
unique links among different kinds of organizations in its work.

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It currently serves as convenor of Advocates for African Food
Security: Lessening the Burden for Women, a coalition of representatives of NGOs, UN agencies, and intergovernmental
organizations. Seeking to highlight concerns of African women
farmers, the main producers of food for domestic use in Africa,
the coalition is unusual for its unique combination of members.
To assist in coordinating the proliferating number of activities
for women around the globe and to foster future developments
in international forums, the Baha'i International Community's
Office for the Advancement of Women officially opened on
26 May 1993, in New York City. Its establishment had been
announced on 10 December 1992, in a letter from the Universal
House of Justice, which identified the agency's primary role as
providing "a visible instrument for the practical application of
one of the cardinal principles of the Cause of Baha'u'llah.."
Designed to "promote the principles of the Faith through its
interaction with international entities concerned with matters

Display at the opening of the Office for the Advancement of
Women in New York City, 26May 1993,features outstanding
Baha'i women, including Laura Dreyfos-Barney.

affecting the rights, status and well-being of women," the office
also works within the Baha'i community throughout the world,
identifying "programs and projects in which the involvement of
the community can encourage efforts towards the realization of
the equality of men and women. " 42
Looking towards the 1995 Fourth World Conference on
Women in Beijing, the director of the Baha'i International
Community's Office for the Advancement of Women serves as
the chairperson of the NGO Committee on the Status of Women
in New York. In this capacity, the director is also a member of
the global NGO Facilitating Committee which is organizing the
NGO Forum on Women '95. Baha'i representatives have been
active in the NGO preparatory conferences leading up to
Beijing, including the Asia/Pacific Symposium of Non-Governmental Organizations on Women in Development, held in
Manila in November 1993, and the NGO Forums that were held
at the time of the Regional United Nations Preparatory
Conferences for the Fourth World Conference on Women.
Official delegations of Baha'is represented the Baha'i International Community at the five regional UN conferences.
During the International Year of the Family, 1994, Baha'i
communities have been active around the world, promoting the
family and particularly stressing the importance of the role of
the mother in the education of the next generation. A Baha'i
delegation of twenty-three from some thirteen countries
attended the international conference in Malta in December, and
both individual Baha'is and the Baha'i International Community
were awarded "testimonials" by the United Nations in appreciation of their work in speaking out and working on issues relating
to the family and the United Nations' year in honor of it. In
promoting the "new culture of partnership" identified by the
conference as one of its foci, the Baha'i International
Community sponsored a workshop entitled "Breaking the
Equality Barrier: Emerging Roles of Men and Women in the
Family." Aside from participating in such major events, Baha'i
communities all around the world have held hundreds of events

42. The Universal House of Justice, from a letter to all National Spiritual
Assemblies, 10 December 1992.

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in honor of the Year of the Family, many of them in collaboration with other like-minded organizations. The ability of the
global Baha'i community to focus unitedly on such issues is one
of the unique advantages of its administrative structure and a
result of the undivided vision of its community.

Challenges Facing the Baha'i Community
Regarding the Issue of Equality
Although the Baha'i community can rightly point to its longstanding commitment to the issue of equality, dating from the
time of Baha'u'llah, a number of challenges must be met if it is
to continue to be in the vanguard of promoting this issue at all
levels in human society. At the local level, there is a need for
more programs aimed at promoting the equality of women,
especially in developing countries, to put into practical terms the
paradigm outlined in the Baha'i sacred writings. Projects such
as those described above are exciting, but the n~mber of such
efforts needs to increase greatly. In concert with the necessary
increase in the number of projects and their venues is a need for
further development of qualitative assessment methods to
evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of work accomplished.
Fortunately, the Baha'i community has the tools to continue
improving its skills in these areas, with Baha'i Local Spiritual
Assemblies in almost eighteen thousand localities around
the world forming a broadly based grassroots system of developmental support and united in their commitment to this central
principle of their Faith.
The "Traditional Media as Change Agent" project has shown
how the Baha'i community can actively address one of the main
concerns resulting from development projects aimed at raising
the status of women-the need to address male labor patterns.
This is particularly important in communities where women
have undergone training to become more self-sufficient and now
have skills to work and contribute to the maintenance of the
home. Once women become trained to pursue incomegenerating work, of what real benefit will this be to them if, in
addition to this new work, they are still solely responsible for the
work at home that has traditionally been their lot? Thus,

involving men in the practical and active encouragement of
women as they begin to assume their new roles in society is key
to effecting real change.
In the "developed'' world, the paradigm shift to equality of
the sexes may not be as dramatically evident as in other parts of
the planet, but the changes, while perhaps more subtle, are
crucial to any significant permanent improvement in the status
of women. How are husbands and fathers in Baha'i families
actively supporting the advancement of women? How are they
addressing the issue of labor patterns in homes where women
are making attempts to "enter the great arena of laws and
politics"? Are Baha'i women encouraged to adopt leadership
roles? Because principle is something that must be internalized
before it can truly be lived, and internalization requires
conscious knowledge, volition to change, and ultimately action,
an ongoing discussion and promotion of the issue of equality
and the encouragement of women is crucial in Baha'i
communities all over the world.
In order to ground discussions in a unifying framework and to
develop an appreciation of the concept of "equality" at a level
beyond the superficial, the Baha'i community must advance
further in its concentrated study and understanding of the
materials available on the subject. It must learn to use the sacred
writings as the measure of behavior, since those writings are
divine in nature and regarded as authoritative by all who have
embraced the Baha'i Faith. While secular theories and stances
may be useful to consider, the Baha'i teachings are the balance
in which Baha'is measure "the sayings and doings of men." As
Baha'u'llah cautions in the Kitab-i-Aqdas, His Most Holy Book:

Weigh not the Book of God with such standards and sciences
as are current amongst you, for the Book itself is the unerring
Balance established amongst men. In this most perfect
Balance whatsoever the peoples and kindreds of the earth
possess must be weighed, while the measure of its weight
should be tested according to its own standard, did ye but
know it. 43

43. Baha'u'lh1h, The Kitab-i-Aqdas (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust,
1993), K 99.

FULL pARTNERSHIP

In order to "weigh" this important principle and conduct constructive, focused discussion on it, development of consultative
skills is necessary. Equality is a topic that carries much
explosive emotional weight in today's society, and combative
confrontational exchanges have been the norm at many levels.
Indeed, media in many parts of the world thrive on depicting
"the battle of the sexes." In Baha'i consultation, however,
discussants learn how to be both "frank" and "loving," a difficult
but rewarding combination of qualities that can ultimately lead
to new levels of understanding and thus greater progress for the
human family.
Finally, both women and men must adopt a new understanding of the concept of service, so important in the new paradigm
of human behavior presented in the Baha'i writings. Women,
who historically have been the "servants" of society through its
development and who now often reject that role, must begin to
see the value of service and the station of servitude. The
example of Bahiyyih Khanum plays an important part in such
rethinking, and the example of Tahirih adds the quality of
audacity which needs to be developed in concert with the
humility of servitude-a delicate and challenging balance!
Likewise, men, who have in many societies traditionally taken
the role of master or superior, must also begin to rethink the
station of servitude, looking at the example of' Abdu'l-Baha and
learning not to exploit women's desire to serve, but rather to
encourage her audacity-also a challenging role!

Conclusion
The Baha'i view of human history and of humanity's progress
is, as has already been noted, essentially optimistic, with its
perspective of "an ever-advancing civilization."44 For this
reason, Baha'is see their community life as a workshop rather
than as a perfect model; they make efforts according to the
teachings of their Faith and have confidence that in the future
others will build upon the lessons learned from these early
activities.

44. Baha'u'lUth, Gleanings from the Writings of Baha 'u 'llah, 2nd rev. ed.
(Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1976), 215.

Baha'is possess more than an inspired vision of the future;
their Prophet-Founder Baha'u'llah has given them the practical,
universal tools with which to build a new world order. Whether
in Bombay or Moscow or Caracas, or any other community in
which Baha'is reside and the Baha'i administrative order has
taken root, the vision remains constant, as do the means to shape
it into reality.
Baha'is believe that human society is advancing now, as it
has always advanced, through the influence of the Prophets or
Manifestations of God, who appear at various stages in our
development. They educate us and train us both spiritually and
socially, leading us to the next level of our development. This is
what Baha'u'llah has done, what Mul}ammad and Jesus have
done, and what Krishna and the Buddha and Abraham and
Moses have done. The religions are not in conflict with each
other; on the contrary, they build upon each other to help
humanity move forward. This concept is known to Baha'is as
"progressive revelation."
At this stage, the Manifestation of God, Baha'u'llah, has
decreed that women and men must at last be treated equally. It
is not merely a good idea; it is a prerequisite for human growth
and development-and perhaps even survival. When this
fundamental spiritual principle is fully acted out on the world
stage, the effects on humanity as a whole will be far-reaching
and glorious. 'Abdu'l-Baha described it thus: "When all
mankind shall receive the same opportunity of education and the
equality of men and women be realized, the foundations of war
will be utterly destroyed."45 Baha'is around the world all hold
this common vision of humanity's future, no matter how
imperfect their current efforts. In this "ever-advancing civilization," women and men are "two helpmates, two intimate friends,
who should be concerned about the welfare of each other. " 46
With this ideal before their eyes, Baha'i men and women can
learn the new steps necessary for them to move forward hand in
hand, in a divinely choreographed dance of harmony. They can

45. The Promulgation ofUniversalPeace, 174-175; Women, 376.
46. Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu '1-Baha, 122; Women, 379.

I

FULL pARTNERSHIP

strengthen the wings of the bird of humanity and experience its
glory as it takes flight.
This is the vision for which Tahirih died-and for which
Bahiyyih K.hanum lived. This is the vision that has led the
Baha'is into remote villages in Africa, India, Australasia, and all
over the globe, to promote dialogue, understanding, and unified
action. This is the vision that led them to Mexico City in 1975,
to Copenhagen in 1980, and to Nairobi in 1985. It will lead them
to Beijing in 1995, and beyond that towards a future society
where the objectives identified by the Fourth World Conference
on Women, of equality, peace, justice, inclusiveness, and full
participation of all, will be not merely words but a way of life
for the entire human race.

The following statement is based on a
submission by the Baha '{ Community of
Canada to the Royal Commission on
Aboriginal Peoples in November 1993.

A Baha'i Perspective
on Issues of Concern to the
~ORLD)S

P ~BORIGINAL
EOPLES

T he suffering of human beings during the twentieth
century has nowhere been more acutely felt than in the
lives, families, and communities of the world's aboriginal
or indigenous peoples. To right the wrongs experienced by
aboriginal peoples is a daunting challenge. The experience
of the Baha'i international community, however, provides a
measure of hope that humanity can find solutions to the difficulties that have brought such intense suffering and can embark on
a process of healing and social development. The solidarity of
all the world's peoples will be both a consequence of that
process and its most crucial enabling factor.
Generating the will to engage in this process of healing
requires a fundamental change in our understanding of human
society. Such a change begins with an appreciation of spiritual
principles, including the fundamental truth of our age that
humanity is one. Such an appreciation engenders a shift in
consciousn~ss that helps us identify other key features of the
transformational process necessary if we are to reconstitute

society to extend and deepen justice and increase social unity.
Issues deserving attention in this transformational process
include self-determination and local community governance, the
nature of social and economic development, the significance of
healing, the equality of women and men, the central place of the
family, the need for rapid evolution of legislation so that
diversity of culture and unity of all peoples become the
touchstones of human progress and civilization, and the crucial
role of education.

Spiritual Principles
The Baha'i community has had over one hundred years of
experience applying spiritual principles to challenges of
community development. During a period of rapid increase in
numbers the world over, the Baha'i community has seen a particularly keen response among indigenous peoples; it is in no
small part because of their adherence to the message of the
Baha'i Faith that recent demographic surveys indicate it to be
the second most widely spread religion on the planet. While
Baha'is live in virtually every country and count members
from almost every background imaginable, a disproportionate
number of the Faith's approximately five million followers are
indigenous peoples.
That fact provides ample evidence of the appeal that
universal spiritual principles hold for aboriginal peoples. The
appeal begins with the Baha'i conception of human nature as
transcendent and moral standards as the primary laws through
which society can advance. It includes a vision of social and
economic development that sees human society itself as spiritual
and progressive. Throughout all centuries and all cultures
human civilization has drawn breath from the divine impulse
periodically manifested in the words and actions of prophets
and spiritual leaders and reflected both in nature and in human
talents and capacities. The sacred is universal and not restricted
to one particular culture or tradition, nor to one time period. Far
from being empty ideals, spiritual principles are essential
foundation stones of healthy communities, and when they are
not respected, social breakdown ensues.

_ABORIGINAL pEOPLES

When social programs or legislation lack a basis in explicitly
articulated principles, they also lack vision and coherence, and
the motivation and collective resolve to accomplish desired
objectives falter. "Concrete" or "direct" solutions often amount
to superficial programs that may provide jobs for social workers,
teachers, or civil servants but produce few lasting results in the
attitudes and practices of a people. Only by addressing the
spiritual conditions of communities can profound and lasting
social change occur.
It is significant that when aboriginal cultures approach the
discussion of social problems, leaders and members of the
community refer frequently to the Creator and to the human
spirit. Yet social, economic, and political theories and practices
of the West during the past two to three hundred years have been
driven by an excessive and socially corrosive materialism that
has, in tum, driven approaches to governance and economic and
social development. Failure to appreciate the implications of the
gap between these two approaches to social reality explains
much of the injustice and misunderstanding between aboriginal
peoples and the peoples of dominant cultures.
Ingenuity and free inquiry, industrial productivity, and
material success have made many positive contributions to
human civilization. There is, however, no greater barrier to
progress in achieving social justice and the well-being of
aboriginal peoples than an ideology of materialism that lacks
consistent and viable moral principles. Baha'is are convinced
that to effect genuine changes in attitudes and policy and to
devise enduring solutions, it is timely to adopt an orientation and
approach fundamentally different from the methods generated
by the failed assumptions of secularism and materialism.
The sense of superiority inherent in any culture of
materialism lies at the heart of the unhappy relationship between
aboriginal peoples and the rest of society. Fundamental to
genuine spirituality is the recognition of the equality of all
human beings, that all are created by the same God, that all have
rights before God. Material wealth or might, secular rank or
status, do not guarantee moral worth. Only on the basis of a
universal spiritual orientation can we begin to re-establish the

sense of self-worth, dignity, and nobility that materialism
and secularism have eroded. Only with the mutual respect
engendered by spiritual values of human nobility and compassion can relationships be healed. Only through such values
can injustice and disrespect, prejudice and discrimination, denial
and neglect be eliminated.
Aboriginal peoples have been among the most intensely
affected victims of the dominant social forces operating in
ignorance, or in systematic neglect, of spiritual principles
pivotal to human happiness and the common weal. The social
catastrophe that has resulted from several centuries of social
experimentation with secular approaches to the governance and
conduct of human affairs, including communism and industrial
capitalism, gives the surest evidence of the futility of pursuing
political and economic plans that are merely the latest version of
that same philosophy of social change. Those methods have
been pragmatic, not principled; short-term, not visionary. They
have been and are still reactive, pushed this way and that by
special interests because society has not tried to identify its
general interests as an organic whole.
A new set of assumptions and orientations in which the
sacred or spiritual replaces the secular as the basis for social,
economic, and political action can, Baha'is assert, genuinely
penetrate and heal society. The generation of policies and
legislation that put in place processes of social transformation
can only come out of a recognition of the real nature of the
human being and human society.
The survival among many aboriginal peoples of an evident
religious inclination and transcendent aspiration must be
supported and encouraged at official as well as informal levels
in whatever programs and policies are developed by nations
and international bodies. The existence in many aboriginal
communities of strong systems of religious belief and practice
represent important resources for social development that must
not be overlooked as this century nears its close.

The Oneness ofHumanity
Baha'is understand many of the complex problems of society to
be inevitable features of an historical process that Baha'u'lhih

_N30RIGINAL pEOPLES

foresaw would come to dominate the twentieth century. His
vision of the eventual integration of humankind and the
emergence of a global society in which unity in diversity would
be the principal characteristic has been confirmed by the events
of this century-accelerating as we near its close. Many of our
most acute problems can be resolved if we become conscious of
this historical process and respond in ways that take proper
account of the oneness of humanity-the principle of social
organization for the age now dawning in human history. Failure
to understand and make the necessary adjustments in how
human affairs are administered on this planet only intensifies the
degree of suffering that reaches into the communities of
virtually every country and region on earth.
Baha'is view the current phase of rapidly changing world
conditions in a hopeful way, aware of the anguish created by
current chaotic social dislocations but seeing them as part of a
long-term process of adjustment, the pain of which can best be
alleviated if we become conscious of its nature and direction.
The current period of human history is one of those axial periods
understood best perhaps in the phrase "the coming of age of
humanity." The period of relative isolation of various peoples of
the world has ended. We have now collectively entered a new
world where boundaries, if they exist at all any more, are no
longer impenetrable. The interdependence of humanity with all
its diversity of cultures, nations, and peoples will continue to
increase. Exclusive sovereignties are no longer possible.
The culmination of this process will be some form of an
integrated world economy and political structure in which all of
us will feel as much a part of world society as we feel a part of
our own community. This is not a hope or a wish. It is a reality
apparent in current trends. If we understand this process and act
consciously, we will be in a much better position than if we
remain unaware of its implications. In that regard, it is
important to understand nationalism as a stage of history on the
way to a more mature set of human relations on this planet.
Nationalism and its cultural variants may be viewed as features
important to humanity's adolescence but far less important to its
maturity than an overriding consciousness of its essential
oneness.

The present wave of nationalism is the culmination of a
process born in the nineteenth century. It aggressively asserts
the dominance and frequently the uniformity of the nation-state,
and it also gives rise to immoderate, often extreme, ethnic and
cultural affirmation. It checks the necessary development of
local government and blocks the establishment of international
institutions and practices.
Baha'is see the principle of the oneness of humanity as the
pivotal social, economic, and political tenet of our age.
However, it is a principle of unity in diversity, where unity is
seen to be essential if the diversity of all peoples and cultures is
to flourish in place of the dominance of any particular one. In
this conception, the enhancement of diversity is itself a direct
measure of unity, and genuine unity is promoted as differences-whether of culture, race, temperament, education, or
other categories-are recognized and embraced. Unity does not
result from conformism or uniformity-both, it is useful to note,
consequences of materialism and nationalism.
If the future of the human race is to witness an increase in
justi~e, humankind will have to establish institutions of
governance that respect this principle of unity in diversity and
that honor and protect cultural diversity. Such institutions will
need to come under the umbrella of a federal system operating at
the level of the entire planet in ways that protect cultures,
guarantee sufficient levels of autonomy and independence for
different peoples, and enhance unity and harmony among all
sectors of society.
Achieving a federal system of this kind must also take into
account the rapidity and unpredictability of the historical and
social processes currently at work so that newly conceived
social and political arrangements are as flexible as possible. If
properly understood, just as unity and diversity presuppose
each other, unity and flexibility are also mutually sustaining
prerequisites.
What is striking in the Baha'i experience around the world is
that aboriginal peoples have a keen desire to encounter and enter
into just and equitable relationships with other peoples. In the
Baha'i emphasis on unity in diversity, aboriginal peoples find an

_ABORIGINAL pEOPLES

ideal that matches their own aspirations. Their drive towards
self-determination and self-reliance reflects their desire to enter
directly into relationships with other peoples without the filter of
a dominant culture or government that makes their participation
in the global village indirect and secondary.
Unity among the aboriginal peoples and unity with all other
peoples of the planet are both vital if justice and social wellbeing are to be assured. The extent to which new governmental
arrangements and structures increase unity at all levels is the
surest measure of their viability and usefulness over the longer
term. Unity must be considered at the outset of deliberations
and planning; it is the only foundation on which problems can be
solved.

Self-Determination and the Local Community
Perhaps the most powerful motivation behind the interest in selfdetermination is the desire of aboriginal peoples-indeed of all
peoples-to have greater local control over their lives and
communities, the lack of which is often more dramatic for
aboriginal peoples than for society generally. The kind of
society Baha'is see emerging from contemporary social upheaval is one in which local government will have a far greater
role than it does today. That all members should have a say in
how they are governed is a principle that today surely very few
would deny, and the most effective level at which such
widespread participation can be realized is local, not national. A
sense of local community, local control, and local development
is absolutely vital, and the level of government closest to day-today life must have at its disposal an adequate share of the
material resources that the earth provides.
The extent to which Baha'is value the importance of local
levels of governance is seen in the historical development of
the administration of the Baha'i community. Rather than
establishing international and national administrative levels at
the outset of its growth as a global community under the
leadership of the head of the Baha'i Faith at the time, Shoghi
Effendi, Baha'is adopted as early as the 1920s the strategy of
first concentrating on the development of strong local executive

bodies, adding national administrative agencies when enough
local institutions were established. In 1963 these agencies were
strong enough to support the ftrst election of an international
executive, in a democratic process that embraced all adult
Baha'is throughout the world.
While the right to self-determination of all peoples is most
effectively carried forward at the local level, such local
development-and the enhancement of the autonomy enjoyed
by distinctive, diverse cultures implied by that developmentrequires a more global context if parochial and narrow
hegemonies are to be avoided. International and worldwide
institutions of governance, both legislative and executive, must
be established to insure harmonious and cooperative relationships among all the nations and all the distinct cultures and
peoples of the world.
Laws and constitutions can be developed based on universal
spiritual principles to which all peoples can assent. Thus, a
global framework can be established while the actual form
and processes by which local governments operate remain a
challenge of interpretation and application of universal
principles, of concrete decisions based on conditions and cultural predilections particular to distinct localities and peoples.
The actual process of making local, community decisions and
of organizing and developing a community is one of the most
important aspects of self-government. To promote widespread
participation and to overcom.e factionalism and divisiveness, the
Baha'i community uses a process called "consultation." Applied
in the Baha'i community over many decades and in many
cultures and settings, the consultative process guides the manner
in which community-wide discussion is pursued and the way in
which decision-making bodies resolve disputes and plan
strategies of community development.
This principle is central to the functioning of the Baha'i
community. Baha'u'llah declared that, together, consultation
and compassion form the "law" of the age of humanity's
maturity. Among the principles that guide Baha'i consultation
are the following:
• The prohibition of factionalism or partisanship;

_MORIGINAL pEOPLES

• The provision of opportunities for all to participate in the
consultative process that leads to decision-making;
• The encouragement of all to speak freely according to their
own consciences;
• The responsibility for all participating to exercise courtesy
and moderation in the expression of their views;
• The moral obligation to be detached from one's own contribution so that the group or collective itself can come to own
that contribution;
• The primacy of the interests of the group or community
over individual interests, even though individual freedom
of expression is absolutely safeguarded;
• A clear distinction between this broad form of consultation
and the deliberations of a democratically elected body or
governing council that takes the responsibility for
decisions;
• The requirement that, once a decision is taken, both the
majority favoring it and those originally opposed respect,
support, and carry out the decision in unity. Such
unanimous and community-wide support ensures decisions
are not subverted and sabotaged. Only through such
support can a decision be properly evaluated and changed if
genuine deficiencies in the decision itself are detected;
• The obligation of all decision-making bodies to evaluate
continually their work and pursue ongoing consultation
with the wider community to assess and, if necessary, revise
their decisions; and
• The value of unity. Other essential values-such as
freedom of expression, honesty and courage in stating
one's own views, moderation of expression, courtesy and
listening to different views-are critical to community
development and progress, but unity is the most important
value of all.
Most of the world's current political institutions were
conceived for the needs of an earlier and very different age.
Little wonder that throughout the world we see movements and
attempts to incorporate a less adversarial and more consultative
mode of governing. Whether these be supplementary systems of

ad hoc arrangements, parliamentary committees, commissions
and citizen consultations, they all bear witness to the desire to
overhaul in dramatic ways the relationship between governments and peoples and the manner in which civic life and
political deliberation proceeds. Baha'is are convinced that
governance and the administration of human affairs should be
carried on through the principle of consultation in which all
peoples have a say in how decisions affect them.

Economic Development
Economic questions, as much as social and political questions,
have a direct relationship to spiritual conditions and values
existing in the local community and in the wider society. It is
especially important to consider the matter of economic
development in the light of principles that are essential to the
well-being and advancement of a people.
The effects of material deprivation are most acutely felt at the
local level, and Baha'u'llah's admonition to eliminate existing
extremes of wealth and poverty is most readily appreciated
there. The social devastation to which current extremes
contribute is painfully visible throughout the world, within both
the poorer and the wealthier countries. Tragically, many
aboriginal communities are among those that most vividly
illustrate the consequences of the lack of justice and moderation
inherent in existing economic practices and patterns.
Economic development challenges entrepreneurs, workers,
farmers, local government councils, and labor representatives to
learn new ways to cooperate, using the opportunities and
resources particular to each local community and region,
without overlooking existing aboriginal interests and traditional
land-based skills. Paths of economic development are diverse,
depending on the nature of resources and opportunities available
to each locality and region. The resources of consultation
outlined above, complemented by the renewal of those
centuries-old virtues of honesty, trustworthiness, courage, and a
spirit of service to the community, must combine to create
locally tested economic ventures. At the same time it must

_N30RIGINAL pEOPLES

be emphasized that, just as with the development of local
governance, economic self-determination requires a global
economic framework that allows for local communities'
survival and economic productivity. An international economy
requires universally acceptable laws and a system in which both
communities and individuals are protected from being sacrificed
to popular concepts of increasing material efficiency and
consumption without limit or moderation.
Furthermore, as self-determination within a global and
national framework is an important feature of community
development, so too must the individual right to gainful
employment be accepted as universal. Viewing unemployment
as an unavoidable feature of an economic system amounts to an
unacceptable admission of human impotency. Employment is a
God-given right and responsibility. In Baha'u'lhih's words: "It
is enjoined upon every one of you to engage in some form of
occupation ....We have graciously exalted your engagement in
such work to the rank of worship unto God.... " Baha'u'llah also
identifies economic security as a God-given responsibility of
any society: "Know ye that the poor are the trust of God in your
midst .... Ye will most certainly be called upon to answer for His
trust. ... " Our governing institutions, acting on our behalf, must
redirect social and economic resources in order to ensure that no
peoples are deprived of either employment opportunities or
basic living needs.
Finally, since international forces play such a considerable
and increasing role in the economy, it is surely time to be far
bolder and more creative in the development of new arrangements of governance at the international level. The international
economy, environmental resources, and land-base on which all
economic activity ultimately depends call for much stronger
institutions of international governance with levels of
sovereignty appropriate to a new global society and economy.
The voices of all peoples must be allowed some reasonable say
in the direction such agencies might take the world economy.
The aboriginal peoples, as distinctive cultures, might well take
the lead in identifying more publicly and on the international

stage those principles or objectives appropriate to a new
economy based on sustainable development. Such work needs
to complement efforts at self-government and economic
development if the latter are to have any chance of success.

The Need for Healing
Aboriginal leaders and spokespersons repeat frequently the
crucial importance of addressing the healing of families
and communities with resources dedicated to this stage in the
overall process of aboriginal development. Without such healing other developmental processes of governance, economic
development, and education will not succeed. Current social ills
rob aboriginal communities of the opportunities their youth
should have in order to grow and provide leadership, and
dedication to a process of healing is essential.
Among the several important issues that bear on the matter of
healing, our own experiences and convictions prompt us to
highlight the equality of women and men and the central place
of the family as two of the most pressing areas of concern. The
importance. of legal and political evolution to redress inadequacies and injustice of past laws is also essential.
The Equality of Women and Men
Whatever new arrangements and new directions are taken in the
world, the principle of the equality of women and men requires
explicit recognition. The moral authority of Baha'u'lh1h's
teachings on this point makes it clear that God makes no
distinction between the worth of the soul of a woman or a man.
Gender does not decide value in the spiritual world. As we
come out of an era of history in which emphasis on physical
strength or material considerations impeded women's full participation in society, the full emancipation of women remains a
significant challenge. All peoples, whatever their culture or
tradition, must give their unequivocal support for the principle
of the equality of women and men.
As women are welcomed into full partnership in all fields of
human endeavor, the moral and psychological climate will
change throughout all societies, facilitating the generation of

_N30RIGINAL pEOPLES

suitable social and political arrangements. All of us, men and
women alike, share the responsibility to act with courage,
fairness, and humility to make this principle a reality.
Not merely will society in a general way become healthier,
but the economy and political life of society will improve once
women gain their rightful place alongside men. Such issues as
the provision of social, economic, and political measures to
enhance the lives of children and the family, and measures for
safer, less violent communities, will become more central on our
various agendas. If we continue to neglect or marginalize the
principle of full and absolute equality of women and men,
mothers and children will continue to suffer disproportionately.
There is a direct relationship between the predominance of men
in positions of social, economic, and political leadership and the
lack of support given mothers during those critical years when
they give birth, nurse their children, and first educate the very
young. This inattention of fathers and of a patriarchal society
and lack of support for the best possible conditions for mothers,
children, and the family, have contributed to social disintegration. So, too, the absence of women in leadership roles
throughout all levels of society has prevented progress towards a
more peaceful and productive economy and civil life. Indeed,
the two conditions are directly linked.
The Family
A great deal more of society's financial resources and time on
the local, national, and international agenda must be given to
supporting the family, that fundamental building block of
society in which children are born, nurtured, and raised.
The health of the family forms the basis of the health of a
people, of a nation, and ultimately of the world itself, and to
prosper it must have greater support from all social institutions.
The family and society need education and laws that will
support parenting instead of allowing competition for the
resources of time and energy that should be devoted to it.
The family unit has been a cherished and prized element in
the community and social life of aboriginal peoples around
the world, and the more dominant cultures might wisely look to
the reverence and regard aboriginal peoples give to it.

The education and training of children occurs best through
united and healthy families. Children's rights are most
effectively protected if the family itself becomes much more
central in the programs of all levels of governments and in
whatever new institutions and arrangements are made over the
coming years in aboriginal governance and national and
international governance. The importance of this issue cannot
be overstated.
Affirmative Action
"If any discrimination is at all to be tolerated, it should be a discrimination not against, but rather in favor of the minority, be it
racial or otherwise." This is a Baha'i principle that the
community's administrative practice tries to uphold. Justice
demands such a principle, often translated as "affirmative
action." Without it, social change will be too slow and the
privileges of members of dominant and majority peoples will
continue to eclipse the rights of those from minority or
oppressed sectors of society.
Programs of affirmative action are temporary measures to
balance the ills that contemporary society and a history of
injustice have produced. If action is not taken, our economic
and social well-being will be among the first elements of society
to suffer and deteriorate, for tomorrow's economy, like that of
the past, benefits most if all its members are healthy, well
educated, and contributing to the wealth and productivity of all.
The Evolution of Law, Legislation,
and Political Structures
Baha'is believe that the material world is a reflection of the
spiritual world, and that laws and political structures must
evolve commensurate with the ever-evolving needs of the
human species. Genuine social transformation occurs through
changes in the spiritual conditions of society. However, this also
implies that social reality is in constant evolution. Thus, the
rapid evolution in our laws and administrative structures is as
necessary as the creation of new spiritual understandings and
conditions.
It is apparent that the entire world, including the aboriginal
peoples in many lands, is now at a new stage of maturity

_N30RIGINAL pEOPLES

requiring new forms of government and social and economic
participation that are universal and inclusive. Baha'is view
efforts to incorporate protection of fundamental and collective
human rights into the legal and constitutional frameworks of
different countries as major contributions to the progress of
human civilization.
The legitimacy of collective rights-that the well-being of an
entire community may at times require specific attention and
legal safeguards-must receive wider discussion and exposure
in public education programs. Whatever the merits of a liberal
philosophy, it has consistently overlooked the organic nature of
human society and the necessity, even for the ultimate wellbeing of the individual, to protect the rights and unity of the
entire community.
We believe, as Baha'is, that with sufficient consultation,
collective and individual rights are not contradictory but complementary. That they remain apart only means that people have
not talked together long enough or with enough humility,
moderation, courtesy, and courage. Society as a whole and
collective segments within it need protection as much as
individuals do. From the Baha'i perspective, theáunity of society
is the best measure of justice ~nd the surest indicator of how
effectively rights are enacted iti'-legislation. In this context, it
seems particularly critical to realize that the identification of
universal principles on which laws can be constructed will
promote a unity of law that allows for a diversity of interpretation and application of policies and decisions at the local level.
Furthermore, the process of developing legislation is itself an
important community-building process and one in which the
legitimate representatives of peoples, nations, and countries
must engage with unceasing energy and commitment. Such
detailed work requires the best that government and legal
experts can manage. All segments of society must then be
educated to support the rule of law and encourage the government at each level. Without such respect for law and support
for our leaders, even the wisest law, the most effective administrative practice, and the most inspired leadership cannot

bring well-being to a society. The world talks much about
having leaders listen to the people, but there is a great deal to
learn about encouraging and supporting leaders in their difficult
work.

Education
As important as legislation and government are, the most
important way in which the relationships among aboriginal
peoples and the rest of society can be transformed is through
education. Since education prpreeminentovides the means
through which identity and self-esteem can be secured and
protected and by which healing and justice can be promoted, it is
incumbent on society to concentrate its resources and attention
on this issue which, in very broad terms, includes processes and
populations outside as well as inside current education systems.
Greater investment in education is needed, both in aboriginal
communities and in the schools attended by children and young
people from all other segments of society, with the principle of
unity in diversity serving as a core concept in school curricula
and educational programs, whether those programs focus on
race unity, morality and religion, history, or literature. In this
way, unity in diversity will become central in the consciousness
of young people.
It is noteworthy that the Baha'i community of Iran, now
numbering some 350,000, endured more than a century of
persecution and human rights abuses while reaching literacy
levels of 90 percent in three generations (compared to 40 percent
for the rest of Iranian society). That community produced many
of Iran's most educated leaders in technical, social, and professional fields, an achievement due to the underlying emphasis on
unity. This reliance on universal principles also allowed the
Iranian Baha'i community to achieve the success it did before it
was once again set upon in 1979 by those segments of Iranian
society intent on returning the country to an age of ignorance
and darkness. Throughout the world, more than a thousand
Baha'i social and economic development projects demonstrate

_N30RIGINAL pEOPLES

again and again the practicality and power of unity as a preeminently important social value.
Much reflection and consultation focusing on unity as a core
theme and on spiritual and moral values as principal elements in
educational programs is required to generate specific recommendations. However, it may be worthwhile to consider an
example of how the principle of unity can generate new ideas.
Education in human suffering and sacrifice is not limited to
any one culture on this planet. A fuller relationship between
members of different cultures and communities that have
survived tragedy on a wide scale can help them understand and
transcend their own particular histories. Indeed, as all the
cultures of the world become unified the shared burden of
history's many tragedies and injustices may well fall into a
pattern of mutual understanding and finally allow for the kind of
redemption that permits genuine healing.
Whatever creative programs are devised, they would do well
to pay heed to the principle of oneness and unity in which all
cultures are respected and none are considered superior. We
should set aside a mindset that seems determined to combat
every existing evil of society instead of building curricula and
programs with an emphasis on positive goals. For instance, let
there be programs on race unity instead of anti-racism, on
personal and social development instead of drug abuse
prevention, on universal spiritual and religious teachings instead
of expelling religious education from the schools because of a
few extremist or fundamentalist elements. Too often the current
approach isolates social problems and then turns to the school
to redress them, one by one, instead of conceiving of school
programs with a focus on themes of unity and integration,
inclusion, health, and development. We must create curricula in
which subject matter is not cut up and parcelled out but built on
an educational approach that seeks out relationships between
people, subject areas, and different sectors of life; that seeks
unity in diversity; and that instills a value of service to the
broader good of society as the point around which young people
develop their identities.

Whatever educational programs are conceived, it must be
explicitly acknowledged in any proposed solutions that
knowledge is essential in order to motivate the necessary
development of will and resolve required for action. If longstanding social patterns are to change, people's knowledge
needs to be increased, for only through understanding is human
will and energy set in motion. If they do nothing to increase
knowledge, laws and new structures of government will
accomplish little.

Conclusion
A great deal of work must be done to right wrongs, to create
justice, and to educate a new generation. Baha'is know that
instant solutions are not possible. The Baha'i community is
itself still small, albeit rapidly growing. But it is committed to
working towards the creation of justice and unity, healing and
well-being. Baha'is firmly believe that, in the course of time
and in conditions of prosperity and well-being, the aboriginal
peoples of our planet will make even greater contributions to the
happiness, the progress, and the spiritual illumination of the
entire human family than they have already made through their
suffering and sacrifice. That belief in the capacity and character
of the aboriginal peoples lies enshrined in the sacred writings of
the Baha'i Faith. 'Abdu'l-Baha, eldest son ofBaha'u'llah, called
attention to the importance of the aboriginal peoples when He
wrote to the Americas from Palestine during World War I:

You must attach great importance to the Indians, the
original inhabitants of America. For these souls may be
likened unto the ancient inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula .... When the Mu1;mmmadan Light shone forth in their
midst, they became so enkindled that they shed illumination
upon the world. Likewise, should these Indians be educated
and properly guided, there can be no doubt that through the
Divine teachings they will become so enlightened that the
whole earth will be illumined.

The following statement was submitted by the
Baha'i International Community to the
first session of the United Nations
Commission on Sustainable Development,
New York, 14-25 June 1993.

WoRLD
CITIZENSHIP:
A Global Ethic for. Sustainable Development

In the spirit of Agenda 21, as ((a dynamic programme" destined
to ((evolve over time in the light of changing needs and circumstances, "1 the Baha'i International Community offers the
following proposal: To inspire the peoples of the world to
champion sustainable development, the education programs and
public awareness campaigns called for in Agenda 21 should
foster the concept of WORLD CITIZENSHIP.

The Vision of World Citizenship

T he greatest challenge facing the world community as it
mobilizes to implement Agenda 21 is to release the
enormous financial, technical, human, and moral resources
required for sustainable development. These resources will be
freed up only as the peoples of the world develop a profound
sense of responsibility for the fate of the planet and for the wellbeing of the entire human family.
This sense of responsibility can only emerge from the
acceptance of the oneness of humanity and will only be
sustained by a unifying vision of a peaceful, prosperous world

1. Agenda 21, chapter 1.6.

society. Without such a global ethic, people will be unable to
become active, constructive participants in the worldwide
process of sustainable development. 2
While Agenda 21 provides an indispensable framework of
scientific knowledge and technical know-how for the implementation of sustainable development, it does not inspire personal
commitment t~ a global ethic. This is not to say that ethics and
values were ignored during the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) process. The call for
unifying values was heard throughout this process from Heads
of State to UN officials to representatives of non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) and individual citizens. In particular, the
concepts of "our common humanity," "world citizenship" and
"unity in diversity" were invoked to serve as the ethical undergirding for Agenda 21 and the Rio Declaration. 3
The world community has, thus, already come to a basic
accord on the need for a global ethic to vitalize Agenda 21. We
suggest that the term world citizenship be adopted to encompass
the constellation of principles, values, attitudes, and behaviors
that the peoples of the world must embrace if sustainable
development is to be realized.

2. One of the most often-repeated themes of Agenda 21 is the vital importance of "broad public participation in decision-making"; "commitment and
genuine involvement of all social groups"; "real social partnership"; and
"new levels of cooperation among States, key sectors of societies and people."
3. The call for a global ethic was raised often during the UNCED process, with
particular intensity at the Earth Summit and Global Forum, from Heads of
State to UN officials to NGO representatives; through official UNCED
documents, NGO treaties, workshops, books, and artistic presentations. The
following are just a few examples:
• speeches to the Earth Summit by the President of Brazil; the President of
France; the Prime Minister of Ireland; the Prime Minister of Japan; the President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands; the President of the United
Mexican States; the Crown Prince of the Kingdom of Morocco; the Prime
Minister of the Kingdom of the Netherlands; the Prime Minister of Turkey; the
Prime Minister of Tuvalu; the Secretary of State of the Holy See; and the Secretary-General ofUNCED;

WORLD CITIZENSHIP

World citizenship begins with an acceptance of the oneness
of the human family and the interconnectedness of the nations
of "the earth, our home."4 While it encourages a sane and
legitimate patriotism, it also insists upon a wider loyalty, a love
of humanity as a whole. It does not, however, imply
abandonment of legitimate loyalties, the suppression of cultural
diversity, the abolition of national autonomy, nor the imposition
of uniformity. Its hallmark is "unity in diversity." World
citizenship encompasses the principles of .social and economic
justice, both within and between nations; non-adversarial
decision making at all levels of society; equality of the sexes;
racial, ethnic, national, and religious harmony; and the
willingness to sacrifice for the common good. Other facets of
world citizenship-all of which promote human honor and
dignity, understanding, amity, cooperation, trustworthiness,

• NGO Treaties prepared at the Global Forum including The Youth Treaty; The
Earth Charter; The Rio de Janeiro Declaration; The Peoples Earth Declaration; The Treaty on Environmental Education for Sustainable Societies and
Global Responsibility; and The Treaty ofEthical Commitments;
• Global Forum activities, including the Evening Series in the Park, reflecting
"the cultural diversity of the Human Family"; and the Peace Monument,
whose inscription reads, "The earth is but one country, and mankind its
citizens";
• Statements and publications by governments, UN Agencies and NGOs to the
various Preparatory Committee sessions and other UNCED-related events
including The Universal Code ofEnvironmental Conduct (NGO/Media Symposium, October 1990); In Our Hands: Women and Children First (Report of
the UNCED/UNICEF/UNFPA Symposium, May 1991); The Earth Charter
(US Citizens Network on UNCED, July 1991); One Earth Community (The
Working Group ofReligious Communities on UNCED, August 1991); Caring
for the Earth (IUCN/UNEPIWWF, October 1991); An Earth Charter (International Coordinating Committee on Religion and the Earth, 1991); Agenda Ya
Wananchi (Roots of the Future, December 1991); An Environmental Ethic or
Earth Charter (UNEP-UK National Committee, February 1992); Principles
on General Rights and Obligations (General Assembly document, A/
CONF.151/PC/WG.IIIIL.28, 9 March 1992); Earth Charter, Japan (Peoples
Forum, Japan, 1992); Earth Repair Charter (Earth Repair Foundation, 1992);
and Our Country, The Planet (Sir Shridath Ramphal, 1992).
4. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, Preamble.

compassion and a desire to serve--can be deduced from
those already mentioned. A few of these principles 5 have
been articulated in Agenda 21-most, however, are noticeably lacking. Moreover, no overall conceptual framework
is provided under which they can be harmonized and
promulgated.
Fostering world citizenship is a practical strategy for
promoting sustainable development. So long as disunity,
antagonism, and provincialism characterize the social,
political, and economic relations within and among the family
of nations, a global, sustainable pattern of development can not
be established. 6 Over a century ago Baha'u'lhih warned, "The
well-being of mankind, its peace and security, are unattainable
unless and until its unity is firmly established." Only upon a
foundation of genuine unity, harmony, and understanding
among the diverse peoples and nations of the world, can a
sustainable global society be erected.
We, therefore, recommend that world citizenship be taught
in every school and that the oneness of humanity-the
principle underlying world citizenship-be constantly asserted
in every nation.
The concept of world citizenship is not new to the world
community. It is both implicit and explicit in a host of UN
documents, charters, and agreements, including the opening
words of the UN Charter itself: "We the peoples of the United
Nations ... " It is already being promoted around the world
across all cultures by diverse NGOs, academics, citizens'
groups, entertainers, educational programs, artists, and media.
These efforts are significant but need to be greatly increased.
A carefully planned and orchestrated, long-term campaign to
foster world citizenship, involving all sectors of societylocal, national, and international-needs to be put into place.
It must be pursued with all the vigor, moral courage, and

5. For example, see Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, principles 5, 8, 20, 25; and Agenda 21, chapters 1, 2, 3, 23,24 and 36.
6. See Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, principle 25.

WORLD CITIZENSHIP

conviction that the United Nations, its member states and all
willing partners can muster.

The Promotion of World Citizenship
The following proposal for a campaign to promote world
citizenship7 fits naturally into the framework for reorienting
education, public awareness, and training toward sustainable
development, which is presented in chapter 36 of Agenda 21.
Education
Education-formal, non-formal, and informal-is indisputably
the most effective way to shape values, attitudes, behaviors and
skills that will equip the peoples of the world to act in the longterm interests of the planet and humanity as a whole. 8 The
United Nations, governments, and educational agencies should
seek to make the principle of world citizenship part of the
standard education of every child.
The details of educational programs and activities incorporating this principle will vary a great deal within and among
nations. However, if world citizenship is to be understood as a
universal principle, all programs must have certain aspects in
common. Based on the principle of the oneness of the human
race, they should cultivate tolerance and brotherhood, nurturing
an appreciation for the richness and importance of the world's
diverse cultural, religious, and social systems and strengthening

7. Within the context of the principle of world citizenship, this program
should be "carried out by the various actors according to the different situations, capacities and priorities of the countries and regions" (Agenda 21,
chapter 1.6.).
8. Agenda 21, chapter 36.3. affirms that "Education ... should be recognized
as a process by which human beings and societies can reach their fullest
potential. Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and
improving the capacity of the people to address environment and development issues .... Both formal and non-formal education are indispensable to
changing people's attitudes ... It is also critical for achieving environmental
and ethical awareness, values and attitudes, skills and behaviour consistent
with sustainable development and for effective public participation in decision-making. To be effective ... education ... should deal with the dynamics of
both the physical/biological and socio-economic environment and human
(which may include spiritual) development."

those traditions that contribute to a sustainable, world civilization. They should teach the principle of "unity in diversity" as
the key to strength and wealth both for nations and for the world
community. They should foster an ethic of service to the
common good and convey an understanding of both the rights
and the responsibilities of world citizenship. These programs
and activities should build on the country's positive efforts and
highlight its tangible successes, including models of racial,
religious, national, and ethnic unity. They should emphasize the
importance of the UN in promoting global cooperation and
understanding; its universal goals, objectives and programs; its
immediate relevance to the peoples and nations of the world;
and the role that it must increasingly assume in our evercontracting world.
Before undertaking a campaign to promote world citizenship,
a common understanding of the concept will need to be
developed and agreed upon. The Commission on Sustainable
Development might set up a special committee or working
group to begin developing guidelines for world citizenship and
proposals for incorporating this principle into existing formal
and non-formal educational programs. Alternatively, the
Commission might seek the assistance of the High Level
Advisory Board on Sustainable Development or the Inter-
Agency Committee on Sustainable Development. The UN
Secretariat might even choose to set up a World Citizenship
Unit, similar to the erstwhile Peace Studies Unit, to develop
these guidelines and coordinate the system-wide implementation
of world citizenship education. Whatever path is chosen, this
task must be given high priority.
World citizenship could be incorporated easily into all of the
activities suggested in chapter 36.5. of Agenda 21 for reorienting
education toward sustainable development. A few examples
illustrate:
• National advisory bodies/round tables (36.5.c) should facilitate the incorporation of world citizenship into educational
programs within the country.

WORLD CITIZENSHIP

• Pre-service and in-service training programs for all
teachers, administrators, educational planners, and nonformal educators (36.5.d) should include the principle of
world citizenship in their programs.
• Educational materials on sustainable development produced
by UN agencies should encourage world citizenship
(36.5.g), as should educational materials about the United
Nations.
• Agenda 21 calls for "the development of an international
network" to support global efforts to educate for sustainable
development (36.5.k). This network could both encourage
UN agencies and member NGOs to create materials based
on the guidelines for world citizenship, and provide the
means for sharing them.
• Governments and educational authorities have already been
called upon to "eliminate gender stereotyping in curricula"
as a means to promote sustainable development (36.5.m).
We would recommend that, in the spirit of world citizenship, stereotyping based on religion, culture, race, class,
nationality, and ethnicity also be eliminated.

Public Awareness
People need to think of themselves as world citizen.s and
understand their personal responsibility to promote sustainable
development. 9 Campaigns to raise public awareness of the
challenges of world citizenship must make use of the full range
of media and the arts, including television, video, film, radio,
electronic networks, books, magazines, posters, flyers, theater,
and music. These campaigns should enlist the advertising and
entertainment industries, the media-both traditional and nontraditional-the entire UN system, all member states, NGOs,
and popular personalities. They should reach out to the home,
the work place, public areas, and schools. The guidelines for

9. Agenda 21, chapter 36.9 calls attention to the importance of promoting
"broad public awareness as an essential part of a global education effort to
strengthen attitudes, values and actions which are compatible with sustainable development."

world citizenship called for above should be appropriate for
use by such public awareness campaigns and should serve as
basic reference for all media programming.
World citizenship could be included in the activities
presented in chapter 36.10. of Agenda 21 for increasing public
awareness and sensitivity about sustainable development. The
following examples illustrate:
• National and international advisory boards (36.10.a) could
encourage the various media to adopt the guidelines for
world citizenship. The media have done much to raise
public awareness of global interdependence and the enormous challenges facing the world community. They have
also highlighted the seemingly insurmountable differences
that divide us.
The media have a responsibility to help people understand that diversity need not be a source of conflict; rather,
diversity can and must now serve as a resource for sustainable development. They can do so by focusing on the
constructive, unifying, and cooperative undertakings that
prove humanity's capacity to work together to meet the
enormous challenges facing it.
• In promoting "a cooperative relationship with the media"
(36.10.e), the United Nations must boldly define its own
identity and the promise it holds for the world community.
The United Nations was established on high ideals and
with a vision of a peaceful, progressive world. By providing a framework for communication and cooperation, and
by initiating innumerable, constructive projects, it has
added significantly to the understanding, hope and goodwill
in the world. Yet its accomplishments are little known to
the generality of mankind.
Using the concept of world citizenship as an integrating
theme, the United Nations should publicize its ideals,
activities, and goals, so that people come to understand the
unique and vital role the UN plays in the world and,
therefore, in their lives. Similarly, the UN should promote
world citizenship in all its public activities, including

WORLD CITIZENSHIP

celebrations of the fiftieth anniversary of the United
Nations and tours of UN headquarters. Every UN document that deals with sustainable development should also
include this principle-beginning with the preamble of the
proposed Earth Charter. World citizenship must become
the single most important point of ethical reference in all
UN activities.
• The services of the advertising industry (36.10.e) should be
enlisted to promote world citizenship. Campaigns could be
organized around such themes as:
• We the Peoples of the United Nations: Celebrating
Unity in Diversity
• One Planet, One People
• In All Our Diversity, We Are One Family
• Our Common Future: Unity in Diversity
• Contests should be held and awards presented for promoting world citizenship (36.10.e).
• While heightening public awareness "regarding the impacts
of violence in society" (36.1 0.1), the media can generate
commitment to world citizenship by highlighting examples
of constructive, unifying undertakings that show the power
of unity and common vision.

Each country should be encouraged to earmark resources for
promoting world citizenship. Consideration should also be
given to including among the proposed "indicators of
sustainable development" (40.6.) the promotion of this
principle. Countries could, for example, be encouraged to report
efforts to foster tolerance and appreciation of other cultures,
equality of the sexes, and the concept of one human family
through curricula, entertainment, and the media.

The Challenge Of World Citizenship
In conclusion, world citizenship is a concept as challenging and
dynamic as the opportunities facing the world community. We,
the peoples and nations of the world, would be wise to embrace
courageously its underlying principles and be guided by them in

all aspects of our lives-from our personal and community
relations to our national and international affairs; from our
schools, work places, and media to our legal, social, and
political institutions. We, therefore, urge the Commission to
encourage the entire UN system to incorporate the principle of
world citizenship into the full range of its programs and
activities.
The Baha'i International Community, which for over a
century has been fostering world citizenship, would be pleased
to assist the Commission, governments, NGOs, and others to
further develop the concepts contained in this document; to
provide practical models of racial, religious, national, and
ethnic unity for sustainable development; and to take part in
consultations on this crucial issue. As a global community
encompassing the diversity of humanity and sharing a common
vision, the Baha'i International Community will continue to
promote sustainable development by encouraging people to see
themselves as citizens of one world, the builders of a just and
prosperous world civilization.

The following statement by the Baha'i
International Community was first
distributed at the World NGO Forum
launching the United Nations
International Year of the Family,
Malta, November 1993.

THEFAMILY
IN~
~wORLD
CoMMUNITY

L ike the world as a whole, the family is in transition. In every
culture, families are disintegrating, fragmenting under
pressure of economic and political upheavals and weakening in
the face of moral and spiritual confusion.

The conditions surrounding the family surround the nation.
The happenings in the family are the happenings in the life of
the nation. 1

Baha'is see these disturbances as signs of humanity's struggle
toward a new age in its collective development, an age of
maturity. The family, as the most basic unit of society, must in
this process be remolded and revitalized according to the same
principles that are reshaping civilization as a whole.
The central principle for this new day is the oneness of
humanity. "The well-being of mankind, its peace and security,"

1. All quotations are from the Baha'i writings.

Baha'u'lh\h, the Founder of the Baha'i Faith, asserted over a
century ago, "are unattainable unless and until its unity is
firmly established." Acceptance of the interrelatedness and
interdependence of all people implies the renewal of every
social institution on the planet, including the family.

Unity in the Family
If love and agreement are manifest in a single family, that
family will advance, become illumined and spiritual.

The Baha'i approach to family unity combines elements of
traditional wisdom with progressive principles and practical
tools. Adherence to these teachings offers a bulwark against the
forces of disintegration and a framework for the creation of
strong, healthy, unified families.
The foundation and precondition for a Baha'i family is the
loving relationship of husband and wife. Marriage, a divine
creation, is intended to unite a couple "both physically and
spiritually, that they may ever improve the spiritual life of each
other." A man and woman, having freely chosen one another and
having obtained the consent of their parents, marry, according to
Baha'i law, in the presence of witnesses designated by the
elected governing council of the comniunity, the Local Spiritual
Assembly. With the words "We will all, verily, abide by the will
of God," recited by both bride and groom, the two commit
themselves to God and, thereby, to one another.
One purpose of marriage is the creation of a new generation
who will love God and serve humanity. The task of the family
is, therefore, to establish a loving, respectful and harmonious
relationship among parents and children.
Harmony and cooperation in the family, as in the world, are
maintained in the balance of rights and responsibilities. All
family .members "have duties and responsibilities towards one
another and to the family as a whole," which "vary from
member to member because of their natural relationships."
Children, for instance, have the duty to obey their parents.
They also have the corresponding right to be cared for, educated

-----------------

and protected. Mothers, as bearers and first educators of
children, are primarily, but not exclusively, responsible for their
spiritual education and the creation of a loving, nurturing home.
Fathers bear primary, but again not exclusive, responsibility for
the financial well-being of the family and for the formal
education of the children.
The personal moral standards promoted by the Baha'i
teachings condemn many of the agents that contribute to the
break-up of families. Alcohol is forbidden to Baha'is, as are
mind-altering drugs. No form of violence or abuse within the
family is ever to be tolerated. According to the Baha'i sacred
writings:

The integrity of the family bond must be constantly
considered, and the rights of the individual members must
not be transgressed.

Although strongly discouraged by Baha'u'llah, divorce is
permitted on the grounds of antipathy between husband and
wife. It may be granted only after a year of waiting during
which a couple lives separately and makes every attempt to
reconcile their differences. Protected against hasty decisions
and rash emotions, many couples are able to rebuild their
marriages during this year of reflection. If, however, reconciliation proves impossible, the couple may divorce.

The Equality of the Sexes
The principle of the equality of men and women is transforming
relationships within Baha'i marriages. Because they are equal
partners, a status embodied in their identical wedding vows,
neither husband nor wife may dominate. Decision-making is to
be shared.
Always,

the atmosphere within a family as within the community as a
whole should express ... not arbitrary power, but the spirit of
frank and loving consultation.

The Baha'i principles of consultation are tools for discussing
openly, honestly and tactfully any problem which arises within
the family. The goal is to allow "the truth to be revealed" in a
way which will solve the problem to the benefit of all. When
used by a couple or a family, consultation is a powerful means
for maintaining unity.
Recognition of equality and the use of consultation allow a
husband and wife flexibility to meet the demands of a rapidly
changing world. Although men and women have complementary capacities and functions in certain areas, roles are not
rigidly defined and may be adjusted, when necessary, to meet
the needs of each family member and the family as a whole.
While women are encouraged to pursue their careers, it is in a
manner that does not conflict with their role as mothers. And
fathers are not exempt from household duties and child-rearing.
When relations within the family are conducted with due
regard for justice, it will be an important factor in bringing about
peace in the world. When women are denied equality and
respect in the family, men and boys develop harmful attitudes
and habits which they carry into the workplace, into political
life, and ultimately into international relations. As more and
more children grow up in families where the rights of all
members are respected and problems are solved with the benefit
of consultation, prospects for peace in the world improve.

Education and the Family
Although the child receives formal education at school, it is at
home that character is developed and moral and spiritual
attitudes are formed. Therefore, "all the virtues must be taught
the family." Patience, loyalty, trustworthiness, justice, honestysuch virtues as these constitute the building blocks of character.
The virtues named by all sacred traditions as the common
elements of spirituality are the reflection of the divinity in each
person.
While nurturing the highest qualities and values in each
member of the family, parents must also provide for the integrated development of all their children's capacities-spiritual,
moral, intellectual, emotional, and physical. Therefore, girls

and boys are to be formally educated according to the same
basic curriculum. Should limited resources force a choice,
daughters, as the potential trainers of the next generation, are to
be granted a "prior right to education over sons."

The F amity and the Community
The Baha'i Faith has over 17,000 organized local communities
in more than 200 independent countries and territories. These
communities act in some ways like extended families.
Baha'is come from all nations, ethnic groups, cultures, professions and classes. Although the Baha'i wedding ceremonies
vary widely from culture to culture, the marriage laws and vows
are universal and apply whether the partners are Baha'is or not.
Baha'is around the world are finding that the principles and laws
which give a distinctive shape to Baha'i family life are conducive to love and unity.

Conclusion
As the foregoing principles are gradually put into practice
around the world, families are being created which are able to
play a part in building a unified world society. For the link
between the family, the nation, and a world civilization destined
to come in time is inescapable:

Compare the nations of the world to the members of a family.
A family is a nation in miniature. Simply enlarge the circle
of the household and you have the nation. Enlarge the circle
of nations and you have all humanity.

The following statements were submitted
by the Baha'i International
Community to the United Nations
World Conference on Human Rights,
Vienna, Austria, 14-25 June 1993.

AGENDA
ITEM9
General debate on the progress made in the field of human
rights since the adoption of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights and on the identification of obstacles to further
progress in this area, and ways in which they can be overcome.

The community of nations has come a long way in the forty-five
years since the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights as a common standard for all people and nations.
Clearly, however, it has a long way to go before the commitments inherent in the Declaration and related instruments are
translated into a universal respect for human rights. Acutely
aware that many obstacles hinder us from converting resolution
into realization, the Baha'i International Community would like
to address three obstacles that we believe particularly need close
attention.
It is perhaps a truism to say that the exercise of unfettered
national sovereignty is a major obstacle to the safeguarding of
the human rights of all peoples, but the point deserves to be
made at the outset of any discussion on the subject. Despite the
establishment of international standards for human rights, many
nations cling to the view that respect for those rights should be
granted or withheld at the discretion of national governments.
This attitude ignores the operation of forces that are drawing the
world together and paving the way for the establishment of a
new order based on the recognition that what happens to one
member of the human family happens to us all.
A second obstacle is the lack of adequate mechanisms to
enforce adherence to the prov1s1ons of the conventions.

International human rights standards are not legally binding on
all governments, and compliance, even by those states that have
ratified specific conventions, is voluntary. An urgent priority
of the international community, therefore, is to press for the
universal ratification of the existing covenants and conventions.
Alongside this process of ratification must go the strengthening
of the role of the various committees established to monitor
implementation, such as the Human Rights Committee and the
Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. In
addition, international criminal jurisdiction for crimes against
humanity and for flagrant violations of internationally
recognized human rights should also be invested in a permanent
body.
The third obstacle to humanity's progress in this important
field of development is the general lack of awareness of human
rights, particularly among those entrusted with administering
justice at the local level. The discussion of human rights needs
to be moved from the area of legal and political policy-making
to the local community, where the lives of individuals will be
touched and lasting changes can be made. Educating those who
administer justice about the basic human rights set forth in the
Declaration is just the beginning. All citizens need not only to
learn about their own rights but to develop respect for the rights
of humanity in general.
It $eems to us self-evident that the mobilization of effort
I

needed to overcome all three of the obstacles discussed in the
foregoing must come from a recognition that humanity
constitutes a single people. In the view of the Baha'i International Community the organic oneness of humanity is a
fundamental social and spiritual truth of our age. Indeed, the
conviction that we are all citizens of one earth, together with a
commitment to the well-being and happiness of all mankind, is
the foundation for the realization of the ideals expressed in
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. "The earth,"
Baha'u'llah said over a century ago, "is but one country, and
mankind its citizens."

AGENDA
ITEM 10

Consideration of the relationship between development,
democracy and the universal enjoyment of all human rights,
keeping in view the interrelationship and indivisibility of economic, social, cultural, civil, and political rights.

For Baha'is, the most fundamental of human rights is the right
of each individual to investigate reality for himself or herself,
and to benefit from the results of this exploration. That such a
right exists is to us self-evident from the fact that the human
consciousness is endowed with the intellectual, moral, spiritual,
and aesthetic capacities needed to undertake such an effort.
Most of the world's people would no doubt express in
religious terms their agreement with this postulate. Throughout
human history the conviction that each person has not only the
right but the responsibility to "know and worship God," by
whatever terminology they may have described this ultimate
reality, has been inculcated by the world's great religions,
arguably the most important force in the civilizing of human
nature.
The central issue, however, is not a theological one. The
historical record is relevant here because the religious forms are
the ones through which the greater part of humanity have so far
principally exercised the right to investigate reality. However
hedged about that investigation no doubt was, because of the
intellectual and social limitations of earlier ages, the right itself
represents no new and untested hypothesis, but has lain at the
foundation of what we call culture.
In exercising this right and responsibility, each individual
will call, to varying degrees, on the range of capacities that characterize human nature. The development and exertion of
physical well-being, experimentation with aesthetic and intellectual capacities, and the struggle to cultivate moral and spiritual

THE BAHA:f WORLD

insight are, therefore, aspects of the practice of this inalienable
feature of human life. Any or all of these capacities are engaged
as human consciousness begins to explore the inner and external
worlds that provide its frame of reference and constitute its field
of activity.
In undertaking this search, a search that is for all practical
purposes synonymous with the living of a life that can be said to
be truly human, every individual needs the assurance that the
exercise of the faculties referred to will enjoy access to whatever
benefits, protections, and opportunities can reasonably be
provided by the society in which he or she lives. These benefits
include, as our draft agenda reminds us, not only civil and
political rights, but also rights in the area of economic, social,
and cultural life.
The session's agenda also points out, however, that this
system of rights is one and indivisible. Without economic
rights, the exercise of civil or social rights is severely attenuated.
Without cultural rights, an indi~idual or community will have
the greatest difficulty in exercising political or economic rights
to a degree that meets the essential requirements of their
respective situations.
Since humanity is so diverse, true development can best be
assessed by people themselves, acting individually and as
communities, in terms of the overall improvement in their
quality of life. So long as such determinations do not infringe
on the rights of others, the United Nations human rights system
has a clear obligation to foster a climate of opinion and to
elaborate a system of controls that will make this possible.
In contributing to the discussion of this subject, the Baha'i
International Community feels an obligation to share with this
important session of the World Conference on Human Rights its
conviction that the entire range of human rights under discussion
derives its integrity from the right of every human being on earth
to explore reality to the fullest extent of the resources available
to such an effort. It is, we believe, this irreducible principle that
gives the appeal for human rights both its integrity and
imperative.

AGENDA
ITEM 11
Consideration of contemporary trends in and new challenges
to the full realization of all human rights of women and men,
including those ofpersons belonging to vulnerable groups.

The Baha'i International Community welcomes the opportunity
to speak to agenda item 11 at this historic World Conference.
We hope that comprehensive consideration of the human rights
of women will continue at all future gatherings for the
advancement of human rights, and we support the resolution
adopted by the Commission on the Status of Women at its 1993
session urging that women's rights and concerns be considered
under all substantive items of the provisional agenda for the
World Conference on Human Rights.
The persistence and growth of violence directed against
women, both personal and institutional, is largely attributable to
the traditional exclusion of women from processes of
development and decision-making. A profound adjustment in
humanity's collective outlook is needed, guided by the consideration of universal values and spiritual principles. Legislation is
needed which lends practical expression to the equality of the
sexes by dealing with the particular injustices which women
face.
Domestic violence is a fact of life for many women
throughout the world, regardless of race, class, or educational
background. In many societies traditional beliefs that women
are a burden make them easy targets of anger. In other situations,
men's frustration is vented on women and children when
economies shrink and collapse. In all parts of the world,
violence against women persists because it goes unpunished.
Beliefs and practices that contribute to the oppression of
women must be reexamined in the light of justice. When
properly understood, the principle of the fundamental equality
of men and women will eventually transform all social relations,
allowing each person to develop his or her unique gifts and

talents. The utilization of everyone's strengths will foster the
maturation of society. As the principle of equality gains
acceptance, the challenge of transmitting it to the next
generation must be undertaken by parents, schools, governments
andNGOs.
The family is the basic unit of society: all of its members
should be educated according to spiritual principles. The rights
of all need to be safeguarded and children trained to respect
themselves and others. According to the Baha'i writings, "The
integrity of the family bond must be constantly considered, and
the rights of the individual members must not be transgressed."
Education in spiritual values is necessary not only to protect
women but, indeed, to foster respect for all people, so that
human honor and dignity may be preserved and a global ethos
may evolve in which all human rights are upheld. The Baha'i
International Community is convinced that nothing short of an
infusion of spiritual values can effect the transformation of
individuals and institutions that will ensure respect for the
human rights of all people.
The Baha'i community, through local and national administrative councils in more than 165 countries, is working in a
variety of ways to change the status and perception of women.
One noteworthy example is a collaboration between UNIFEM
and Baha'i communities in Bolivia, Cameroon, and Malaysia
aimed at improving the status of rural women by using
traditional media, such as music and dance, to stimulate
village-wide discussion of women's roles. Our community's
experiences and the teachings ofBaha'u'llah make us confident
that our world is destined to move beyond the present condition
to one in which all members of the human family enjoy equally
the full realization of their human rights.

INFORMATION
REsOURcEs
OBITUARIES

Houshmand Anvari -Gertrude Blum
See pp. 147-150. On 5 June 1993 in the Solomon
Islands. Born Gertrude Gewertz on
9 December 1909 in New York City,
Stanley T. Bagley she accepted the Baha'i Faith at the
On 15 April 1993 in the United age of 19. Mrs. Blum and her
States. Born in Bertrand, Missouri, husband, Alvin, were named Knights
USA on 2 February 1912, Stanley of Baha'u'llah for being the first
Bagley accepted the Baha'i Faith in Baha'is to settle in the Solomons in
1935. For nearly six decades he and 1954. Mrs. Blum's services to the
his wife, Florence, devotedly spread community and the Baha'i Faith
the teachings and served on various were recognized when she was
administrative bodies in Belgium, awarded the Member of the British
France, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Empire (MBE) medal by Elizabeth
the United States. Mr. Bagley was II, Queen of England, in 1989.
named a Knight of Baha'u'llah for She was a member of the National
his services opening Sicily to the Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of
Faith. Australia and New Zealand, the first
Regional Spiritual Assembly of the
South Pacific, and the first National
Shamam Bakhshandegi Assembly of the South West Pacific
See pp. 147-150. Ocean.

THE BAHA'i WORLD

Virginia Breaks remained steadfast despite hardship,
On 8 December 1993 in the Western including two years' incarceration
Caroline Islands. Virginia Breaks for his beliefs in the late 1950s. In
was born 9 November 1906 in the course of his work as a teacher of
Crawfordsville, Indiana, USA, and the blind and visually-impaired, he
wrote fifty-one textbooks.
enrolled in the Baha'i Faith in 1947.
She pioneered to Chuuk, Eastern
Caroline Islands, in 1953, a service Dorothy F erraby
for which she was named a Knight of On 22 March 1994 in England. Born
Baha'u'llah. Her master's degree in in London in 1904, Dorothy
public health statistics from the Uni- (Cansdale) Ferraby's services to the
versity of California at Berkeley Baha'i Faith extended over more
made it possible for her to move to than fifty years, including memthe Caroline Islands by securing a bership on the National Spiritual
job as a vital statistician and medical Assembly of the British Isles and the
records librarian. She remained in first Auxiliary Board in Europe. She
the Caroline Islands for forty years, played a vital role in the Africa
serving as an Auxiliary Board campaign launched by Shoghi
member for twenty. Effendi, served the Baha'i World
Centre with her husband, Hand of the
Leonard Chiposi _Cause of God John Ferraby, during
the period 1957-1963, and in 1968
On 10 October 1993 in Zimbabwe.
began seventeen years of service as a
Mr. Chiposi, born in Salisbury (now
member of the Continental Board of
Harare), Zimbabwe on 8 September
1928, declared his Faith in 1956, Counsellors in Europe.
becoming one of the earliest indigenous believers in that country. He Marzieh Gail
served on the National Spiritual On 16 October 1993 in the United
Assembly of South Central Africa, States. Child of the first marwhich formed in 1964, and then riage between Persian and American
on the National Spiritual Assembly Baha'is, Marzieh Gail was the
of Zimbabwe from 1970 to 1993. daughter of Persian diplomat and
scholar Ali-Kuli Khan and American
VukEchtner Florence Breed. She graduated
On 20 January 1994 in Czechoslova- ''With Great Distinction" and Phi
kia. Vuk Echtner, born 10 July 1905 Beta Kappa from Stanford Univerin southern Bohemia, was one of the sity and earned her master's degree
first to embrace the Baha'i Faith in from the University of California at
Czechoslovakia. He served the Berkeley. She was the first woman
Cause for half a century, translating to work on the staff of a Tehran
Baha'i literature into Czech and pro- newspaper. Mrs. Gail is best known
claiming the Faith in conjunction for translating original Baha'i
with his work as an Esperantist. He writings from Persian and Arabic

OBITUARIES

into English and authoring several Edythe MacArthur
books on the Baha'i Faith and his- In April 1994 in Canada. Born in
torical subjects. She also spent ten
Lavenham, Manitoba, Canada, on
years in Europe with her husband,
15 May 1906, Edythe MacArthur
Harold, helping to form Local
enrolled as a Baha'i in 1944. She was
Spiritual Assemblies and serving
named a Knight of Baha'u'llah in
on the National Spiritual Assembly
1953 for introducing the Faith to
of Austria.
Canada's Queen Charlotte Islands.
In 1954, she pioneered to South
Emily General Africa, where she served on the first
In November 1993 in Canada. Local Spiritual Assembly of Cape
Emily General was a distinguished Town, and then she returned to
leader, historian, and teacher of the Canada, where her services include
Six Nations people. She embraced helping to form five Local Assemthe Baha'i Faith in 1961. A member blies and teaching the Faith in
of the Turtle Clan of the Mohawks, numerous new localities.
she taught the history of the
Six Nations to students from all Olavo Novaes
over Canada and the United States.
In March 1994 in Brazil. One of the
The Emily C. General School was
first native Brazilians to arise to
named in her honor by the people of
. fulfill international pioneering goals,
her Reserve. Mrs. General's strong
Mr. Novaes settled in Colombia in
commitment to the Faith contribthe early 1960s and was elected
uted greatly to the respect with
to the National Spiritual Assembly
which its message was received
of that country. He later pioneered to
among Native C_anadians.
the upper Amazon region where
he spread the Baha'i teachings until
F ereydoun Khazrai his death at the age of 69.
On 14 February 1994 in France.
Mr. Khazrai was born into a Baha'i Johannes Palu
family on 20 March 1914 in
On 26 June 1993 in Estonia. Born in
Sabzevar, Iran. He received a
Moisakiila, Estonia, on 27 May
technical education in Belgium and
1913, Mr. Palu was exiled to Siberia
worked in business in Italy before for fifteen years by the commeeting the Guardian of the Baha'i munist regime. Active Esperantists,
Faith during his pilgrimage to Mr. Palu and his wife Raia became
the Holy Land. He subsequently the first Estonians to accept the Faith
pioneered to Romania where he met in that region in 1968. Mr. Palu transhis wife, Arecla, and served for lated Baha 'u 'llah and the New Era
thirteen years. He was named a from Esperanto into Estonian, and in
Knight of Baha'u'llah for his 1990 he was elected to the first
services to this country. Spiritual Assembly of Tallinn.

THE BAHA'i WORLD
RiazRazavi National Spiritual Assembly of
See pp. 147-150. Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay
and Uruguay, the National Spiritual
Assembly of Colombia, and the
Mr. Saliyanto National Spiritual Assembly of
On 14 November 1993 in Indo- Bolivia.
nesia. Mr. Saliyanto was born
10 December 1941 in a small village
in East Java. After accepting the Vivian Wesson
Baha'i Faith in 1961, he began more On 12 January 1994 in the United
than thirty years of service which States. Born 12 March 1895 in
included travelling to remote villages Texarkana, Texas, USA, she acto inspire and encourage fellow cepted the Baha'i Faith in 1921. Mrs.
Baha'is, serving on the National Wesson was named a Knight of
Spiritual Assembly from 1967 to Baha'u'llah for bringing the Faith to
1974, and participating in a number French Togo land (now Togo) in
of international Baha'i conferences. 1954. Unable to stay in that country,
she settled in Liberia where she
started a literacy school and helped
May Martha Seepe
establish a Baha'i Center and the first
In August 1993 in South Africa. Local Spiritual Assembly. She also
Mrs. Seepe, who declared her Faith helped to establish Baha'i adminisin 1955, was the first member of trative bodies in Sierra Leone
South Africa's Coloured community between 1977 and 1982.
to become a Baha'i. Speaking
English, Afrikaans, Sesotho, Zulu,
and Xhosa, May travelled with her
Valerie Wilson
husband, Max, to seven countries of On 1 October 1993 in the United
southern Africa and throughout her States. Valerie Wilson was born
own country to teach the Baha'i 7 September 1919 in the United
Faith. She served on the Local States and became one of the first
Spiritual Assembly of Johannesburg African-American professional therfor more than thirty years until her apists. She placed her skills at the
death at the age of75. service of the people of Monrovia,
Liberia, where she settled in answer
to a call by the Guardian. A graduate
Ellen Catherine Sims of the School of Physiotherapy of
On 24 August 1993 in Paraguay. Children's Hospital in Los Angeles,
Born Ellen Lincoln in Hurley, she introduced physiotherapy to
Wisconsin, USA, on 14 March 1906, the Monrovia Hospital, treated
Mrs. Sims embraced the Faith in numerous patients, and organized
1938, a few months before her nutrition classes for women. She
husband, Stuart, enrolled. Her fifty- served on the Regional National
five years of service to the Cause Spiritual Assembly for North and
included pioneering to Paraguay, West Africa and helped to establish
Colombia, and Bolivia. She was a the National Spiritual Assembly of
member and officer of the Regional Liberia.

STATISTICS
General Statistics

Worldwide Baha'i population More than 5 million
Countries/dependent territories where 188 countries/
Baha'i Faith is established 45 territories
Continental Counsellors 72
Auxiliary Board members serving
throughout the world
National/Regional Spiritual Assemblies 165
Local Spiritual Assemblies 17,974
Localities where Baha'is reside 116,421

Tribes, races and ethnic groups
2,112
represented in the Baha'i community
Languages into which Baha'u'llah's
writings have been translated
Baha'i Publishing Trusts 30

All statistics as ofMay 1993

Geographic distribution of Local Spiritual Assemblies
by continent

~Africa 5523

Americas 4881 Europe 832

Australasia 908

Growth in the number of localities where Baha'is reside 1

120000

100000

80000

nOOOO

40000

20000

0 ....•••• 1111
1Q~4 lQAo 1Qfi5 1970 1Q7fi lQRO l QRfi lQQO

1. Between 1986 and 1988, a numerical decrease of 6,100 localities occurred
in India alone due to revised civil areas of jurisdiction; similar changes took
place in other countries.

STATISTICS

Growth in the number of National and
Regional Spiritual Assemblies

Social and Economic Development 2
Baha'i radio stations 6
Academic: 178
Baha'i schools
Tutorial: 488
Baha'i literacy programs 186

Baha'i conservation/
environment projects
Baha'i agricultural projects 21

Baha'i health projects 56
Baha'i women and youth projects 52
Other Baha'i development projects 311

Total number of Baha'i social and
1,350
economic development projects in 1992

2. The figures for social and economic development are as of April 1992, the
end of the Six Year Plan.

Geographic distribution of social and economic
development projects by continent

Europe 30

DIRECTORY

Associacion de Estudios Baha'is Association for Baha'i Studies,
Casilla 3731 Central, South and East Mrica
Santiago 1 P.O. Box 47562
Chile Nairobi
Kenya
Association for Baha'i Studies1
34 Copernicus Street Association for Baha'i Studies,
Ottawa, Ontario KIN 7K4 English-Speaking Europe
Canada 27 Rutland Gate
London SW7 IPD
Association for Baha'i Studies, United Kingdom
Australia
c/o The National Spiritual Assembly Association for Baha'i Studies,
of the Baha'is of Australia Spain
P.O. Box285 C/Pep Ventura 57
Mona Vale 1 C 00810 Pere de Ribes
New South Wales 2103 Barcelona
Australia Spain

1. For further information on other Associations for Baha'i Studies around the
world, contact this office.

Association for Baha'i Studies, Baha'i International Community
West Africa Haifa Offices:
P.O. Box 2029 • Secretariat
Lagos • Office of Public Information
Nigeria P.O. Box 155
31-00 1 Haifa
Association Medicale Baha'ie Israel
45 rue Pergolese
F-75116 Paris Baha'i International Community
France New York Offices
• United Nations Office
Bahaa Esperanto-Ligo (BEL) • Office for the Advancement of
P.O. Box 500133 Women
D-60391 Frankfurt • Office of the Environment
Germany • Office of the Administrator-
General
Baha'i Association for the Arts
866 United Nations Plaza
Dintel20
Suite 120
7333 MC Apeldoorn
New York, NY 10017
Netherlands
USA
Baha'i Business and Economic
Baha'i International Community
Association
Geneva Office:
P.O.Box40
• United Nations Office
Shawnigan Lake
Route des Morillons 15
British Columbia VOR 2WO
CH-1218 Grand-Saconnex
Canada
Geneva
Baha'i Business and Professional Switzerland
Association
Baha'i International Community
P.O. Box 737
Paris Office:
Willoughby
• Office ofPublic Information
New South Wales 2068
45 rue Pergolese
Australia
F-75116 Paris
Baha'i Health Agency France
c/o the National Spiritual
Baha'i International Health
Assembly of the Baha'is of the
Agency
United Kingdom
P.O. Box 510
27 Rutland Gate
Westmount, Quebec H3Z 2T6
London SW7 1PD
Canada
United Kingdom

DIRECTORY

Baha'i Justice Society Hong Kong Baha'i Professional
400 Renaissance Center Society
34th Floor c/o Hankow Centre 11/F
Detroit, MI 48243 Middle Road
USA TST, Kowloon
Hong Kong
Baha'i Medical Association of
Canada International Association of Baha'i
Box 143, RR#2 Publishers and Distributors
Dugald, Manitoba ROE OKO Riouwstraat 27
Canada 2585 GR The Hague
Netherlands
Baha'i Office of the Environment
for Taiwan Landegg Academy
149-13 Hsin Sheng CH-9405 Wienacht/AR
South Road Section 1 Switzerland
Taipei 10626
Taiwan ROC Mottahedeh Development
Services
Comite de I' Association Europeen 866 United Nations Plaza
Francophone pour les Etudes Suite 119
Baha'ies New York, NY 10017-1811
c/o The National Spiritual Assembly USA
of the Baha'is of Switzerland
Dufourstrasse 13 World Community Foundation
CH-3005Bem 315 West 70th St.
Switzerland Suite 9B
New York, NY 10023
European Baha'i Business Forum USA
Secretariat
35 avenue Jean-Jaures
73000 Chambery
France Baha'i Publishing Trusts

European Baha'i Youth Council ARGENTINA
53 Ravenscroft Avenue Editorial Baha'i Indolatinoamericana
Wembley Otamendi 215
Middlesex HA9 9TE 1405 Buenos Aires, C.F.
United Kingdom Argentina

Health for Humanity AUSTRALIA
467 Jackson Street Baha'i Publications Australia
Glencoe, IL 60022 P.O. Box285
USA Mona Vale NSW 2103
Australia

BELGIUM ITALY
Maison d'Editions Baha'ies Casa Editrice Baha'i
205 rue du Trone Via Filippo Turati, 9
B-1 050 Brussels I-00040 Ariccia (Rome)
Belgium Italy

BRAZIL JAPAN
Editora Baha'i Brasil Baha'i Publishing Trust
Rua Conego Eugenio Leite, 350 7-2-13 Shinjuku
05414 Sao Paulo Shinjuku-ku
SP- Brazil Tokyo 160
Japan
COTE D 'IVOIRE
Maison d'Editions Baha'ies KENYA
08 B.P. 879 Baha'i Publishing Agency
Abidjan 08 P.O. Box 47562
Cote d 'Ivoire Nairobi
Kenya
FIJI ISLANDS
Baha'i Publishing Trust KOREA
P.O. Box 2007 Baha'i Publishing Trust
Government Buildings C.P.O. Box 991
Suva Seoul 100-609
Fiji Islands Korea

GERMANY LEBANON2
Baha'i-Verlag
Eppsteiner Strasse MALAYSIA
89 D-65719 Hofheim Baha'i Publishing Trust
Germany 4 Lorong Titiwangsa 5
Setapak
HONG KONG 53200 Kuala Lumpur
Baha'i Publishing Trust Malaysia
C-6, 11th Floor, Hankow Centre
Tsim Sha Tsui NETHERLANDS
Kowloon Stichting Baha'i Literatuur
Hong Kong Riouwstraat 27
2585 GR The Hague
INDIA Netherlands
Baha'i Publishing Trust
P.O. Box 19 NIGERIA
New Delhi 110 001 Baha'i Publishing Trust
India P.O. Box 2029
Lagos
Nigeria

2. Address communications to Baha'i World Centre, P.O. Box 155,
31-001, Haifa, Israel.
DIRECTORY

NORWAY SPAIN
Baha'i Forlag Editorial Baha'i de Espana
Drammensveien 110 A Castellet 17 ES-08222 Terrassa
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PORTUGAL UNITED KINGDOM
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England
ROMANIA
Casa de Editura ~i Tipografia UNITED STATES
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Unity Baha'i Publishing Trust
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Selected NEW
PUBLICATIONS
The Arc of Ascent: The Purpose of Physical Reality II
JohnS. Hatcher. Oxford: George Ronald, 1994. 386 pp.
In a sequel to The Purpose ofPhysical Reality: The Kingdom ofNames,
Professor of English Literature John S. Hatcher employs philosophy,
theology, psychology, history, and literature to demonstrate how the
social order revealed in Baha'i scripture provides the workshop by
which the collective social advancement of civilization will work in
concert with the individual's attempt to fulfill his or her inherent
purpose .

.Asiyih Khanum, The Most Exalted Leaf entitled N avvab
Baharieh Ma' ani. Oxford: George Ronald, 1993. 96 pp.
This biographical essay about the wife of Baha'u'llah and mother of
'Abdu'l-Baha sheds light on one of the central female figures in the
history of the Baha'i Faith, who shared her Husband's long years of
exiles and privations.

The Bab: The Herald of the Day of Days
H. M. Balyuzi. Oxford: George Ronald, 1994. 272 pp.
Reprinted in honor of the I 50th anniversary of the Declaration of the
Bah.

The Challenge ofBaha'u'lhih
Gary L. Matthews. Oxford: George Ronald, 1993. 284 pp.
The author explores a number of avenues of inquiry into the claim of
Baha'u'lhih that He is the Messenger of God for this age and that His
teachings hold the key to a peaceful world.

The Chinese Religion and the Baha'i Faith
Phyllis Ghim Lian Chew. Oxford: George Ronald, 1993. 244 pp.
A study of the development of the Chinese Religion and its roots in
Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, comparing its spiritual and
social teachings with those of the Baha'i Faith.

Distinctive Aspects of Baha'i Education: Proceedings of the 3rd
Symposium on Baha'i Education
Edited by Hooshang Nikjoo and Stephen Vickers. London: Baha'i
Publishing Trust, 1993. 196 pp.
This collection of papers by educationalists, teachers, and parents from
Europe and North America explores the importance of spiritual
principles in the development of moral character and the release of
human potential. -

Fires in Many Hearts
Doris McKay, with Paul Vreeland. Manotick, Ontario: Nine Pines
Publishing, 1993. 338 pp.
An intimate glimpse into the life of a dedicated Baha'i t~acher and the
development of the Baha'i Faith in America, this autobiography traces
the services of Doris McKay and her husband, Willard, which began in
1925.

Friendship and Love: Jewels from the Words of 'Abdu'l-Baha
'Abdu'l-Baha. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1994. 48 pp. each.
Quotations from 'Abdu'l-Baha on each topic are accompanied by
photographs.

From Vision to Victory: Thirty Years of the Universal House of
Justice .
Eunice Braun. Oxford: George Ronald, 1993. 148 pp.
Eunice Braun traces thirty years of Baha'i development throughout the
world since the first election in 1963 of the Universal House of Justice.

N]W pUBLICATIONS

Hidden Bounties: Memories of Pioneering on the Magdalen
Archipelago
Larry Rowdon. Manotick, Ontario: Nine Pines Publishing, 1994.
142 pp. Introduction by Roger White.
The story of a Canadian couple and their daughter who resettled in the
Magdalen Islands from 1954 to 1969 to share the Baha'i Faith with the
people of that archipelago.

Light After Death: A Comparison of the Near Death Experience
and the Teachings of the Baha'i Faith on Life After Death
Alan Bryson. India: Sterling Publishers Private, Ltd., 1993. 84 pp.

Mirror of the Divine: Art in the Baha'i World Community
Ludwig Tuman. Oxford: George Ronald, 1993. 336 pp.
This book considers the purpose of art and the ways in which the arts
contribute to the well-being of humanity.

Olya's Story: A Survivor's Dramatic Account of the Persecution
of the Bah a 'is in Revolutionary Iran
Olya Roohizadegan. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1993. 236 pp.
A detailed eyewitness account of the situation of members of the Baha'i
community in Iran following the Islamic Revolution in 1979 which
chronicles the experiences of one woman who was arrested and
imprisoned for her belief.

On the Shoulders of Giants
Craig Loehle. Oxford: George Ronald, 1994. 202 pp.
Drawing on the works of both Baha'u'llah and Sir Isaac Newton and
using his background in mathematical ecology, Dr. Craig Loehle
explores how a genuine partnership between religion and science can
illuminate humanity's approaches to issues such as racism, the
environment, and human development .

The Psychology of Spirituality
Hossain B. Danesh. Manotick, Ontario: Nine Pines Publishing, 1994.
272 pp.
Psychiatrist Hossain Danesh examines modem psychology through the
lens provided by his understanding of the Baha'i spiritual teachings.

THE BAHA'i WORLD

The Quest
Gail Radley, with illustrations by Margaret Bremner. Manotick,
Ontario: Nine Pines Publishing, 1993. 64 pp.
A storybook for children ages 10 to 16 that describes the journey of the
fictional character Lona as she traverses the seven valleys described in
Baha'u'lhih's mystical work by that name.

Racial Unity: An Imperative for Social Progress, second edition
Richard W. Thomas. Ottawa: Association for Baha'i Studies, 1993.
Preface by John H. Stanfield II. 202 pp.
A professor in the Department of History and the Urban Affairs
Program at Michigan State University, Richard Thomas has integrated
materials from his areas of research interest, the black urban
community, race relations, and interracial cooperation, into a cogent
examination of race relations as a central issue in developing an understanding of American history and social structure.

Robe of Light: The Persian Years of the Supreme Prophet
Baha'u'lhih, 1817-1853
DavidS. Ruhe. Oxford: George Ronald, 1993. 230 pp.
The first volume of Dr. David Ruhe's study of the life of Baha'u'llah
deals with the years stretching from His birth to His banishment to Iraq,
including the period when He was incarcerated in the underground
prison in Tehran and became aware of His station as the Manifestation
of God for this age.

The Vision of Shoghi Effendi: Proceedings of the Association for
Baha'i Studies 9th Annual Conference
Association for Baha'i Studies. Ottawa: Association for Baha'i
Studies, 1993. 234 pp.
This volume contains reminiscences about the Guardian of the Baha'i
Faith and essays on various aspects of his ministry.

A BasicBAHA'f

READING List

The following list has been prepared to provide a sampling of works
conveying the spiritual truths, social principles, and history of the
Baha'i Faith. It is by no means exhaustive. For a more complete
record of Baha'i literature, see Bibliography of English-language
Works on the Babi and Baha'i Faiths, 1844-1985, compiled by
William P Collins (Oxford: George Ronald, 1990).

SELECTED WRITINGS OF BAHA'U'LLAII
The Kitab-i-Aqdas
"The Most Holy Book," Baha'u'llah's charter for a new world
civilization. Written in Arabic in 1873, the volume's first
authorized English translation was released in 1993.
The Kitab-i-iqan
"The Book of Certitude" was written prior to Baha'u'llah's
declaration of His mission as an explanation of progressive
revelation and a proof of the station of the Bab.
The Hidden Words
Written in the form of a compilation of moral aphorisms, these
brief verses distill the spiritual guidance of all the divine
revelations of the past.

Tablets of Baha'u'lhih revealed after the Kitab-i-Aqdas
A compilation of tablets revealed between 1873 and 1892 which
enunciate important principles of Baha'u'lhih's revelation,
reaffirm truths He previously proclaimed, elaborate on some of
His laws, reveal further prophecies, and establish subsidiary
ordinances to supplement the provisions of the Kitab-i-Aqdas.
Gleanings from the Writings ofBaha'u'llah
A selection of Baha'u'llah's sacred writings translated and
compiled by the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith to convey the spirit
ofBaha'u'llah's life and teachings.

WRITINGS OF THE BAB
Selections from the Writings of the Bab
The first compilation of the Bab's writings to be translated into
English.

SELECTED WRITINGS OF 'ABDU'L-BAHA
Paris Talks
Addresses given by 'Abdu'l-Baha to a wide variety of audiences
in Paris in 1911-1912, explaining the basic principles of the
Baha'i Faith.
The Secret of Divine Civilization
A message addressed to the rulers and people of Persia in 1875
illuminating the causes of the fall and rise of civilization and
elucidating the spiritual character of true civilization.
Selections from the Writings of' Abdu'l-Baha
A compilation of selected letters from 'Abdu'l-Baha's extensive
correspondence on a wide variety of topics, including the
purpose of life, the nature of love, and the development of
character.
Some Answered Questions
A translation of 'Abdu'l-Baha's answers to a series of questions
posed to Him during interviews with Laura Clifford Barney
between 1904 and 1906. The topics covered include the
influence of the Prophets in the evolution of humanity, the Baha'i
perspective on Christian doctrine, and the powers and conditions
of the Manifestations of God.

BAHA.'I READING LIST
SELECTED WRITINGS OF SHOGHI EFFENDI
God Passes By
A detailed history of the first one hundred years of the Baha'i
Faith.
The Promised Day Is Come
A commentary on Baha'u'llah's letters to the kings and rulers of
the world.
World Order of Baha'u'lhih
An exposition on the relation between the Baha'i community and
the entire process of social evolution under the dispensation of
Baha'u'llah, in the form of a series of letters from the Guardian
of the Baha'i Faith to the Baha'is of the West between 1929 and
1936.

INTRODUCTORY WORKS
Baha'u'llah
Baha'i International Community, Office of Public Information, 1991.
A brief statement detailing Baha'u'llah's life and work issued on
the occasion of the centenary of His passing.
Baha'u'llah and the New Era
John Esslemont. 5th rev. papered. Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust,
1990.
The first comprehensive account of the Baha'i Faith, written in
1923 and updated for subsequent editions.
The Baha'i Faith: The Emerging Global Religion
WilliamS. Hatcher and J. Douglas Martin. San Francisco: Harper &
Row, Publishers, 1985.
Textbook providing an overview of Baha'i history, teachings,
administrative structures, and community life.
All Things Made New
John Ferraby. 2nd rev. ed. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1987.
A comprehensive outline of the Baha'i Faith.

Most of the books listed above have been printed by various Baha'i
Publishing Trusts and are available in book shops, libraries, or from the
Trusts. Please see the Directory for addresses.

GLOSSARY

'Abdu'l-Baha: (1844-1921) Son of Baha'u'llah, designated His
successor and authorized interpreter of His writings. Named
'Abbas after His grandfather, 'Abdu'l-Baha was known to the
general public as 'Abbas Effendi. Baha'u'llah gave Him such titles
as "the Most Great Branch,'' "the Mystery of God," and "the
Master." After Baha'u'llah's passing, He chose the name 'Abdu'l-
Baha, meaning "Servant ofBaha'u'llah."

Administrative Order: The system of administration as conceived
by Baha'u'llah, formally established by 'Abdu'l-Baha, and
realized during the Guardianship of Shoghi Effendi. It consists, on
the one hand, of a series of elected councils, universal, national and
local, in which are invested legislative, executive, and judicial
powers over the Baha'i community, and, on the other hand, of
eminent and devoted Baha'is appointed for the specific purpose of
propagation and protection of the Faith under the guidance of the
Head of that Faith, the Universal House of Justice.

Amatu'l-Baha RuJ.liyyih Khanum: Mary Sutherland Maxwell, an
eminent North American Baha'i who became the wife of Shoghi
Effendi Rabbani, Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, in 1937, after

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which she became known as R{il?.iyyih K.hanum Rabbani.
(Amatu'l-Baha is a title meaning "Handmaiden of Baha'u'llah.")
She served as the Guardian's secretary during his lifetime and was
appointed a Hand of the Cause of God in 1952. She is the most
prominent dignitary of the Baha'i community.

Arc: An arc cut into Mount Carmel in Haifa, Israel; along this
pathway the international administrative buildings of the Baha'i
Faith are being built.

Auxiliary Boards: An institution created by Shoghi Effendi in 1954
to assist the Hands of the Cause of God. When the institution of
the Continental Boards of Counsellors was established in 1968 by
the Universal House of Justice, the Auxiliary Boards were placed
under its direction.

Bah, the: The title, meaning "Gate," assumed by Siyyid 'Ali-
Mul;lammad, the Prophet-Founder of the Babi Faith and the
Forerunner of Baha'u'llah. Born 20 October 1819, the Bah
proclaimed Himself to be the - Promised One of Islam and
announced that His mission was to alert the people to the imminent
advent of "Him Whom God shall make manifest," namely,
Baha'u'llah. Because of these claims, the Bah was executed by
order ofNa~iri'd-DinShah on 9 July 1850.

Baha'i Era: The period of the Baha'i calendar beginning with the
Declaration of the Bah on 23 May 1844, and expected to last until
the next appearance of a Manifestation (Prophet) of God after the
expiration of at least one thousand years.

Baha'i International Community: A name used generally in
reference to the worldwide Baha'i community and officially in that
community's external relations. In the latter context, the Baha'i
International Community is an association of the National Spiritual
Assemblies throughout the world and functions as an international
non-governmental organization. Its offices include its Secretariat
at the Baha'i World Centre, a United Nations Office in New York
with a branch in Geneva, an Office of Public Information, an
Office of the Environment, and an Office for the Advancement of
Women.

GLOSSARY

Baha'i World Centre: The spiritual and administrative center of the
Baha'i Faith, located in the twin cities of Acre and Haifa, in Israel.

Baha'u'lhih: Title assumed by Mirza J:Iusayn- 'Ali, Founder of the
Baha'i Faith. Born on 12 November 1817, He declared His
mission as the Promised One of all Ages in April 1863 and passed
away in Acre, Palestine, on 29 May 1892 after forty years of
imprisonment, banishment, and house arrest. Baha'u'llah's
writings are considered by Baha'is to be direct revelation from
God.

Continental Boards of Counsellors: An institution created in 1968
by the Universal House of Justice to extend into the future the work
of the institution the Hands of the Cause of God, particularly its
appointed functions of protection and propagation. With the
passing of Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, there
was no way for additional Hands of the Cause to be appointed.
The duties of the Counsellors include directing the Auxiliary
Boards in their respective areas, advising and collaborating with
National Spiritual Assemblies, and keeping the Universal House of
Justice informed concerning the conditions of the Faith in their
areas. Counsellors are appointed for terms of five years.

Convention: A gathering called at a regional, national, or international level for consultation on matters affecting the welfare of the
Baha'i community and for the purpose, respectively, of electing
delegates to a National Convention, electing the members of a
National Spiritual Assembly, or electing the members of the
Universal House of Justice.

German Templer Colony: Group of houses with red-tiled roofs at
the foot of Mount Carmel that once housed members of the Society
of the Temple, founded in Germany in the mid-1800s. Templers
foregathered in Haifa in 1863 to await the second coming of Christ.

Hands of the Cause of God: Individuals appointed first by
Baha'u'llah, and others named later by Shoghi Effendi, who were
charged with the specific duties of protecting and propagating the
Faith. With the passing of Shoghi Effendi there is no further
possibility for appointing Hands of the Cause; hence, in order to
extend into the future the important functions of propagation and
protection, the Universal House of Justice in 1968 created

THE BAHA'i WORLD

Continental Boards of Counsellors and in 1973 established the
International Teaching Centre which coordinates their work.

Holy Days: Eleven days commemorating significant Baha'i anniversaries, on nine of which work is suspended.

~uququ'lhih: Arabic for "the Right of God." As instituted in the
Kitab-i-Aqdas, payment to "the Authority in the Cause to whom all
must tum" (at present, the Universal House of Justice) of 19
percent of what remains to one's personal income after one's
essential expenses have been covered. Funds generated by the
payment of I:Iuququ'llah are used for the promotion of the Faith
and for the welfare of society.

International Teaching Centre: An institution established in 1973
by the Universal House of Justice to bring to fruition the work of
the Hands of the Cause of God in the Holy Land and to provide for
its extension into the future. The duties of the International
Teaching Centre include coordinating, stimulating, and directing
the activities of the Continental Boards of Counsellors and acting
as liaison between them and the Universal House of Justice. The
membership of the Teaching Centre comprises all the surviving
Hands of the Cause and also nine Counsellors appointed by the
Universal House of Justice. The seat of the International Teaching
Centre is located at the Baha'i World Centre in Haifa, Israel.

Knight of Baha'u'lhih: Title initially given by Shoghi Effendi to
those Baha'is who arose to open new territories to the Faith during
the first year of the Ten Year Crusade (1953-1963) and
subsequently applied to those who first reached those remaining
unopened territories at a later date.

Local Spiritual Assembly: The local administrative body in the
Baha'i Faith, ordained in the Kitab-i-Aqdas. The nine members
are directly elected by secret ballot each year at Ri<;ivan from
among the adult believers in a community.

Monument Gardens: Beautifully landscaped gardens at the heart of
the Arc on Mount Carmel where befitting monuments have been
erected over the graves of the daughter, wife, and youngest son of
Baha'u'llah, and also the wife of 'Abdu'l-Baha.

GLOSSARY

Mount Carmel: The mountain spoken of by Isaiah as the "mountain
of the Lord." Site of the Baha'i World Centre including several
Baha'i holy places, the most important of which are the Shrine of
the Bah and the Monument Gardens.

National Spiritual Assembly: The national administrative body in
the Baha'i Faith, ordained in the Baha'i sacred writings, with
authority over all activities and affairs of the Baha'i Faith
throughout its area. Among its duties are to stimulate, unify, and
coordinate the manifold activities of Local Spiritual Assemblies
and of individual Baha'is within its jurisdiction. The members of
National Spiritual Assemblies throughout the world constitute the
electoral college for the Universal House of Justice. At Ric;ivan
1993, there were 165 National or Regional Spiritual Assemblies.
See also Regional Spiritual Assembly.

Nineteen Day Feast: The principal gathering in each local Baha'i
community, every Baha'i month, for the threefold purpose of
worship, consultation, and fellowship.

Regional Spiritual Assembly: An institution identical in function to
the National Spiritual Assembly but including a number of
countries or regions in its jurisdiction, often established as a
precursor to the formation of a National Spiritual Assembly in each
of the countries it encompasses.

Ri"van: Arabic for "Paradise." The twelve-day festival (from 21
April through 2 May) commemorating Baha'u'llah's declaration of
His mission to His companions in 1863 in the Garden of Ric;ivan in
Baghdad.

Shoghi Effendi Rabbani: (1897-1957) The Guardian of the Baha'i
Faith after the passing of 'Abdu'l-Baha in 1921, designated in His
Will and Testament as His successor in interpreting the Baha'i
writings and as Head of the Faith.

Shrine of Baha'u'llah: The resting place of Baha'u'llah's mortal
remains, located near the city of Acre, Israel. The Shrine is the
holiest spot on earth to Baha'is and a place of pilgrimage.

Shrine of the Bab: The resting place of the Bah's mortal remains,
located on Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel, and a sacred site to
Baha'is.

Tablet: Divinely revealed scripture. In Baha'i scripture, the term is
used to denote writings revealed by Baha'u'llah, the Bab, and
'Abdu'l-Baha.

Universal House of Justice: Head of the Baha'i Faith after the
passing of Shoghi Effendi, supreme administrative body ordained
by Baqa'u'llah in the Kitab-i-Aqdas. The Universal House of
Justice ' is elected every five years by the members of the National
Spiritual Assemblies who gather at an International Convention.
The House of Justice was elected for the first time in 1963 and
occupied its permanent Seat on Mount Carmel in 1983.

Adapted from A Basic Baha'i Dictionary, Wendi Mornen, ed. (Oxford: George
Ronald, 1989).