Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Universal House of Justice, The Baha'i World: Volume 24 (1995-1996), Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1997, bahai-library.com.
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THE BAHA f WORLD

1995-96

152 OF THE BAHA'i ERA
AN
INTERNATIONAL RECORD

BAHA'i WORLD CENTRE
HAIFA
--------------------------------------------------------------------~

© 1997 World Centre Publications

Order department: 46 High Street
K.idlington
Oxford OX5 2DN
England

Photo credits: cover-Velda Metelmann; p. 111-Brenton Edwards;
pp. 126, 127, 133-courtesy One Country; p. 141-courtesy The American
Baha'i; p. 149, bottom-Velda Metelmann; p. 154--Shahla Piff;
p. 163-courtesy One Count1y. Other photos provided by the Audio-Visual
Department of the Baha'i World Centre.

ISBN 0-85398-990-7 (Hardcover)
ISBN 0-85398-991-5 (Softcover)

A Cataloguing-in-Publication number
is available from the British Library.

THR _,
BAHXI
WORLD
1995o96

Printed and bound in Great Britain by
B iddles Ltd., Guildford and King's Lynn
CoNTENTS
Introduction to the volume 1
Introduction to the Baha'i Community 3

WRITINGS AND MESSAGES
Baha'i Sacred Writings 19
From the Universal House of Justice 27

EVENTS 1995-96
Conference of Baha'i Counsellors 37
Five New National Spiritual Assemblies 43
Mount Carmel Projects: Progress 1995-96 55
The Year in Review 65
The Baha'i International Community: Activities 1995-96 125
Update: The Situation of the Baha'is in Iran 139
Equality, Development, and Peace: Baha'is and
the United Nations Fourth World Conference
on Women and NGO Forum 145
UN 50: Baha'is Commemorate the Fiftieth Anniversary
of the United Nations 159
The Baha'i Faith in the Eyes of the World 171

ESSAYS, STATEMENTS, AND PROFILES
Covenant and the Foundations of Civil Society,
by Wendy M Heller 185
World Watch, by Ann Boyles 223
Statements by the Baha'i International Community:
Turning Point for All Nations 241
The Role of Religion in Promoting
the Advancement of Women 285
The Realization of Economic, Social,
and Cultural Rights 289
Human Rights Education 295
Profile:
Association for the Coherent Development
of the Amazon (ADCAM) 301

INFORMATION AND RESOURCES
Obituaries 309
Statistics 317
Directory 321
Selected New Publications 327
A Basic Baha'i Reading List 331
Glossary 335

Index 341
NTRODUCTION

I n 1995-96, two world-embracing events-the Fourth World
Conference on Women, held in China, and the United Nations'
fiftieth anniversary-engaged the particular attention of the Baha'i
international community, and The Baha'i World 1995-96 features
major articles about Baha'i participation in both. Other milestones
within the Baha'i community are also noted: the formation of five
new National Spiritual Assemblies and the gathering of members
of the Continental Boards of Counsellors from around the world to
deliberate with other senior officers of the Baha'i Faith about the
growth and consolidation of the Baha'i community.
The wide-ranging work of the Baha'i International Community,
a United Nations-accredited nongovernmental organization which
represents the collective voice of national Baha'i communities
throughout the world, is also highlighted here, as are activities
undertaken by Baha'is in their local and national communities. A
survey of the media coverage of the Baha'i Faith, as well as updates
on the situation of the persecuted Baha'i community of Iran and the
progress of the construction projects on Mount Carmel at the Baha'i
World Centre are also included.
Aside from reporting on significant events in which the Baha'i
community is involved, The Baha'i World offers selections from
the Faith's sacred writings, this year focusing on remedies to
pressing social problems, and highlights from major communications of the Universal House of Justice.
In the "Statements and Essays" portion of the volume, the
reader will fmd major documents prepared by Baha'i International Community agencies during the year, including Turning
Point for All Nations, which was widely disseminated during the
United Nations' fiftieth anniversary, and the statement made at
the Fourth World Conference on Women. A major philosophical
essay by Wendy M. Heller on the religious foundations of civil
society can also be found here, as well as "World Watch," an
article reflecting on contemporary social concerns from a Baha'i
perspective. Rounding out this section is a profile of a social and
economic development project undertaken by Baha'is in Brazil.
Finally, the volume contains a collection of "Information and
Resources" for those who wish to obtain statistics on the Baha'i
world community, locate various agencies in the directory
provided, learn about new publications, have a basic reading list
of Baha'i books, or use the glossary to become more familiar
with specific Baha'i terminology. Brief memorial sketches of
noted Baha'is from around the world are also located here. Those
wishing to read a general discussion of the Baha'i Faith and its
worldwide community can consult the "Introduction to the Baha'i
Community" at the beginning of the volume.
The Baha'i World volumes have been published at varying
intervals since 1925, offering an authoritative account of the
activities and achievements of the international Baha'i community. In 1992, the series was revamped to appear on an annual
basis, to include many more color photographs, and to be more
accessible to the general reading public. Each volume covers the
period from Ri<;lvan-an annual twelve-day festival in the Baha'i
Faith that commences on 21 April-to Ri<;lvan and seeks to provide a representative survey of the international undertakings, the
achievements, and the perspective of this worldwide community.

JNTRODUCTI9N
TO THEBAHA'I
OMMUNITY

A young man of high caste in Bangladesh volunteers to live
amongst the Poschima people, who are of a much lower
caste, in the course of his efforts to promote the beliefs of a Faith
that teaches the oneness of humankind. In Tasiilaq, Greenland, a
small group gathering to study and enjoy fellowship welcomes
two determined people who fly in to the remote settlement by
helicopter. A princess from Western Samoa travels to Fiji in
order to offer tribal chiefs and elders a document outlining a
process of development that respects the dignity of all peoples.
One hundred and sixty-five people come together in Recife,
Brazil, and, in an atmosphere of reverence, mark the launching
of the Portuguese translation of a holy book. A young Mongolian woman who has never before left her province walks 70
kilometers in the snow, then travels by truck, and finally catches
a plane to Ulaan Baatar, where she participates in the election of
her religion's national administrative body. In Salt Lake City,
Utah, in the United States, organizers of "Color Me Human
Week" devote their energies to the theme of "raising the first

generation free of prejudice"; their efforts attract the hearts of
Inany people with a parade, music, performances of dance
workshops, and seminars on the elimination of racism. After two
weeks of training in basic health care, a woman in Zambia returns
to her village and shares what she has learned with her neighbors.
A group of youth travels from Alberta to the Northwest Territories
in Canada and offers performances depicting positive social
values in various community centers. These people, though they
have in all probability never met one another, share a united view
of the world and its future, as well as their own role in shaping
that future. They are members of the Baha'i international community.
The Baha'i international community, comprising members
of the Baha'i Faith from all over the globe, now numbers some
five million souls. They represent 2,112 ethnic and tribal groups
and live in over 121,000 localities in 190 independent countries
and 45 dependent territories or overseas departments. What was
once regarded by some as an obscure, tiny sect is now reported
by the Encyclopedia Britannica to be the second-most widely
spread independent religion in the world, after Christianity. Its
membership cuts across all boundaries of class and race, governing itself through the establishment of local and national
elected bodies lmown as Spiritual Assemblies. Its international
center and the seat of its world-governing council, lmown as the
Universal House of Justice, are located in the Holy Land, in Haifa,
Israel.
From what source do the members of the Baha'i Faith draw
their spiritual strength and their organizational structure? What
are the tenets of faith that can so attract and unify such a diverse
group of people? How do they see the future? This brief introduction to the Baha'i community, its history, its spiritual teachings,
its aims, and its objectives, provides information in response to
these questions.
Origins
In 1844 in Persia, a young siyyid (descendant of the Prophet
Mul}.ammad) named Mirza 'Ali-Mul}.ammad declared Himself to
be the Promised Qa'im awaited by Shi'ih Muslims. He adopted

THE BAHA'I COMMUNITY

the title "the Bab," which means "the Gate," and His teachings
quickly attracted a large following. Alarmed by the growing
numbers of "Babis," as His followers were known, the Muslim
clergy allied themselves with ministers of the Shah in an effort to
destroy the infant Faith. Several thousand Babis were persecuted,
tortured, and killed over the next number of years, but the growth
of this new religion continued, even after the Bab Himself was
imprisoned and subsequently publicly executed by a firing squad
in July 1850. The horrific treatment of the Babis at the hands of
the secular and religious authorities was recorded by a number of
Western diplomats, scholars, and travelers, who expressed their
admiration for the character and fortitude of the victims of the
persecution.
The Babi Faith sprang from Islam in the same manner that
Christianity sprang from Judaism or Buddhism from Hinduism. It
was apparent from early in the Bah's ministry that the religion
established by Him represented not merely a sect or a movement
within Islam but possessed the character of an independent Faith.
Furthermore, one of the main tenets of Babi belief was the Bab' s
statement that He had been sent by God to prepare the way for One
greater than Himself, who would inaugurate an era of peace and
righteousness throughout the world, representing the culmination
of all the religious dispensations of the past.
Mirza I:Iusayn-'Ali, known to history as Baha'u'llah, was one
of the leading adherents of the Babi Faith who was arrested and
imprisoned during the tumultuous years of the Bah's brief ministry. He was spared from execution but was banished from Persia
to Baghdad, thence to Constantinople, Adrianople, and finally to
the penal colony of Acre in Palestine. Thus, the Persian government, which had secured the support of the rulers of the rival
Ottoman empire in suppressing the new movement, expected that
His sphere of influence would be severely limited. During His
imprisonment Mirza I:Iusayn- 'Ali had received the first divine
intimations that He was the Promised One of whom the Bab had
spoken. He adopted the title Baha'u'llah, which means "the
Glory of God," and publicly declared His mission on the eve of
His exile from Baghdad, in April1863.

Baha'u'llah was still nominally a prisoner when He passed
away some forty years later in Acre, in November 1892, although
the authorities had gradually loosened their restrictions as they
became acquainted with Him and the nature of His teachings.
During the long years of His exile and imprisonment, Baha'u'llah
revealed the equivalent of over 100 volumes of writings, consisting of the laws and ordinances of His dispensation, letters to
the kings and rulers of the East and the West, mystical teachings,
and other divinely inspired writings.
In His will and testament, Baha'u'llah appointed His eldest
son, 'Abbas Effendi, who adopted the title 'Abdu'l-Baha (the
Servant of Baha), as His successor and sole authoritative interpreter of His teachings. 'Abdu'l-Baha had shared the long years
of exile and imprisonment of His Father, being freed only after a
new regime was installed by the "Young Turk" movement in
1908. Shortly thereafter, at an advanced age, He embarked on an
arduous journey to Europe and America where, from 1911 to
1913, He proclaimed Baha'u'llah's message of universal brotherhood and peace to large audiences, consolidated fledgling Baha'i
communities, and warned of the potential catastrophe looming on
Europe's darkening horizon. By the time World War I erupted
in 1914, 'Abdu'l-Baha had returned to His home in Haifa, just
across the bay from Acre in Palestine, and devoted Himself to
caring for the people of that city, fending off famine by feeding
them from stores of grain He had safeguarded for just such an
eventuality. 'Abdu'l-Baha's humanitarian services and promotion of intercultural harmony were recognized by the British
government, which, at the end of the war, conferred upon Him a
knighthood, a title He acknowledged, although He declined to
use it. He passed away in 1921 and is buried on Mount Carmel in
a vault near where the remains of the Bab were interred by Him
some years before.
Among the significant legacies bequeathed to history by
'Abdu'l-Baha was a series of letters, called the Tablets of the
Divine Plan, addressed to the Baha'is of North America during
the years of World War I. These fourteen letters directed the
recipients to scatter to countries on all continents and share with

THE BAHA.'f COMMUNITY

their populations the teachings of Baha'u'llah-a mandate that
led to the global expansion of the Baha'i community.
Another legacy of' Abdu' 1-Baha was His Will and Testament,
which Baha'is regard as the charter of the administrative order
conceived by Baha'u'lhih. In this document, 'Abdu'l-Baha appointed His eldest grandson, Sho ghi Effendi, to succeed Him
after His passing as Guardian of the Baha'i Faith and authorized
interpreter of its teachings.
During the period of his Guardianship, from 1921 to 1957,
Shoghi Effendi concentrated his attention on four main areas: the
development of the Baha'i World Centre in the environs ofHaifa,
Israel; the translation and interpretation of the Baha'i sacred
writings; the rise and consolidation of the institutions of the administrative order of the Baha'i Faith; and the implementation
of 'Abdu'l-Baha's plan for the propagation of the Baha'i Faith
around the world.
At the Baha'i World Centre, Shoghi Effendi effected the construction of a superstructure for the mausoleum containing the
remains of the Bab, which had been brought from Persia to the
Holy Land and been interred by 'Abdu'l-Baha in a tomb on Mount
Carmel in a spot designated by Baha'u'llah. Shoghi Effendi
beautified and expanded the simple native stone structure, which
is today a site of pilgrimage for Baha'is from all over the world.
He enhanced the Baha'i properties, particularly the site of
Baha'u'llah's grave at Bahji, with gardens of striking beauty, and
he also initiated the construction of the International Baha'i
Archives building to house and preserve artifacts from the early
days of the Baha'i Faith. The International Archives building was
the first structure built on the arc-shaped path on the site
designated as the world administrative center of the Baha'i community. It was completed in 1957.
In concert with the actions he took to develop the Baha'i
World Centre and lay the foundations, literally and figuratively,
for the further course of that development, Shoghi Effendi was
also instrumental in interpreting the writings of Baha'u'llah and
'Abdu'l-Baha and translating them from the original Persian and
Arabic into English. The Guardian had served as secretary for a

number of years to 'Abdu'l-Baha and at the time of the latter's
passing was a student at Oxford University. His mastery of
Persian, Arabic, and English, coupled with the authority
conferred upon him by 'Abdu'l-Baha as the appointed interpreter
of those writings, made him uniquely qualified to undertake their
translation. He also translated a history of the Babi Faith,
authored a history of the first century of the Baha'i Faith, called
God Passes By, and wrote thousands of letters to communities
and individuals around the world, elucidating passages from the
writings, and thus giving direction and impetus to Baha'i activities.
Development of the Administrative Order
Shoghi Effendi's work in developing the Baha'i administrative
order is one of the most dramatic legacies of his years as
Guardian. The first step in this development was to encourage the
organized, planned expansion of Baha'i communities in places
where local and national Baha'i councils, known as Spiritual
Assemblies, would eventually be established. The Guardian
effected this global expansion of Baha'i communities through a
series of international plans that ran for varying numbers of
years and during which twelve National Spiritual Assemblies
were founded.
At the time of Shoghi Effendi's sudden passing in 1957, the
Baha'i community was in the middle of a global plan of expansion and consolidation called "The Ten Year Crusade."
During this period, which concluded in 1963-the centenary of
Baha'u'llah's declaration of His mission in the Garden of
Riqvan in Baghdad-the goal was to open 132 new countries
and major territories to the Faith and expand existing communities in 120 countries and territories previously opened to the
Faith. These ambitious targets were actually exceeded by the end
of the plan, in spite of the difficulties posed by the Guardian's
death.
'Abdu'l-Baha, in His Will and Testament, had authorized the
continuation of the Guardianship through the appointment by
the Guardian of a successor from among his own sons, should

THE BAHA:f COMMUNITY

he have them, or other direct descendants of Baha'u'llah. Such
a designation was dependent upon the decision of Shoghi
Effendi whether an individual could be named who met the demanding spiritual qualifications specified by Baha'u'llah and
'Abdu'l-Baha. Shoghi Effendi had no children and died without
designating such a Guardian to follow him. He had, however,
taken steps toward the election of the Universal House of Justice,
the supreme governing body of the Baha'i Faith which was to
function, with him, as one of the two authorized successors provided for in the writings ofBaha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha. He
had also appointed a number of individual Baha'is to an auxiliary institution of the Guardianship called "Hands of the Cause
of God." These individuals had been charged with the duty of
protecting the unity of the faith and collaborating with the
National Spiritual Assemblies around the world to ensure that
the goals of the Ten Year Crusade were won. Upon the passing
of Shoghi Effendi, these persons gathered together to guide the
Baha'i community to the completion of the plan initiated by
the Guardian and towards the first election of the Universal House
of Justice, which took place in April 1963.
Conceived by Baha'u'llah Himself, the institution of the
Universal House of Justice is established on principles laid
down in the Baha'i sacred writings. Its election, by the members
of the 56 National Spiritual Assemblies that existed in April
1963, clearly demonstrated the principle of unity so central to the
Baha'i Faith, with the nine elected members coming from four
continents and representing a variety of religious and ethnic backgrounds.
Basing itself on the authority conferred on it by the Founder of the Faith, the Universal House of Justice has stood as
the acknowledged central authority in the worldwide Baha'i
community since 1963. During the last 32 years, the Universal
House of Justice has launched six global plans for the advancement of the Faith. From a worldwide population of
408,000 in 1963, the Baha'i community has grown to approximately five million members; the number of National and

Regional Spiritual Assemblies has grown from 56 to 174; and the
number of Local Spiritual Assemblies has increased from 3,5 55
to over 17,000. Baha'is live in some 235 countries and territories
around the planet.
Spiritual and Moral Teachings and Baha'i Community Life
The force that unites this widely diverse body of people is a unity
of vision gained from belief in Baha'u'llah as a Manifestation of
God, in the social and administrative structures He established,
and in the spiritual and moral teachings He propagated. Central
to these spiritual teachings is the concept that there is only one
God and that the major religions of the world have been established by Messengers or Manifestations of this one Divine Reality:
Abraham, Krishna, Moses, Buddha, Zoroaster, Jesus, and Mu)fammad, who have been sent by the Creator progressively throughout
history to deliver a divine message commensurate with humanity's
stage of development. The spiritual essence of all the major religions, in the Baha'i view, is the same: that humanity has been
created to know and to worship God. Only the religions' social
teachings change through the process of this progressive revelation. The Baha'i perspective is optimistic, seeing the cumulative
benefits of progressively revealed religions as fundamental to an
"ever-advancing civilization." What divides various religious communities, Baha'is believe, comes not from God but from humanity
and its accretions to the essential religious teachings brought by
each divine Messenger.
In this new stage of humanity's development, the time has
come for the recognition of the unity of the human race, for
the establishment of the equality of women and men, for the
elimination of the extremes of wealth and poverty, and for the
realization of the age-old promise of universal peace. Likening
the development of the human race to that of a child, the Baha'i
writings say that we have passed through the stages analogous
to infancy and childhood and are now enduring a tumultuous
adolescence, on the threshold of maturity. Baha'u'llah taught
that humanity is destined to come of age, but the course it takes
to achieve that goal is entirely in its own hands.
To promote the development of a society in which Baha'i

THE BAHA'I COMMUNITY

ideals can be fully realized, Baha'u'llah established laws and
moral teachings that Baha'is are called upon to follow. Central to
these is daily obligatory prayer. Study and meditation upon the
Baha'i sacred writings is also enjoined upon believers each
morning and evening. Baha'is between the ages of 15 and 70,~
with the exception of women who are pregnant or menstruating,
as well as nursing mothers and the sick, observe a nineteen-day,
dawn-to-dusk fast each year. Baha'u'llah referred to prayer and
fasting as the "twin pillars" of faith, an indication of their importance and the benefits to be gained from them. He also raised
work to the level of worship. The main repository ofBaha'u'llah's
laws is a volume entitled the l(itab-i-Aqdas, or the Most Holy
Book.
There are no dietary restrictions in the Baha'i Faith, but the
consumption of alcohol and the use of narcotic and hallucinogenic drugs are forbidden, as they affect the mind and interfere
with spiritual growth. Baha'u'llah counselled Baha'is to be
honest and trustworthy, to render service to humanity with an
abundance of deeds rather than mere words, to be chaste in their
relationships with others, and to avoid gossip and backbiting. He
forbade lying, stealing, adultery, sodomy, and promiscuity. The
importance of the family is central to Baha'i community life, as
is the moral and spiritual education of children.
Baha'is often gather together in their communities to study
the sacred writings of their faith and to pray, but a central feature
in Baha'i community life is a meeting called "the Nineteen Day
Feast," at which all members join in worship, consult about
community affairs, and socialize. For the time being, pending
the further development of Baha'i communities, these meetings
often occur in rented facilities, people's homes, or, in some locations, in the local Baha'i center. The Baha'i writings call for the
erection in each community of a beautifully designed House of
Worship, set in exquisite gardens and functioning as a spiritual
center of activity. A variety of social and humanitarian institutions are also to be established around it. A Baha'i House of
Worship presently exists on each continent, and sites have been
purchased around the world for construction of many more in the

future. They are open to people of all faiths--or those professing
no particular faith-for prayer and meditation. Services are nondenominational. There are no sermons, only readings and prayers
from the Baha'i writings and scriptures of other world faiths and
music by an a capella choir. This preserves for worshippers the
sacredness of the experience of hearing and meditating upon
the Holy Word without the interference of man-made concepts.
Aims, Objectives, and Activities
As the Universal House of Justice stated in a message addressed to
the peoples of the world, written in October 1985 on the eve of the
United Nations International Year of Peace, "Acceptance of the
oneness of mankind is the first fundamental prerequisite for reorganization and administration of the world as one country, the
home ofhumankind." The ultimate aim of the Baha'i Faith is the
establishment of unity among all the peoples of the world, and it
is because of its orientation towards unity on an international
scale that the Baha'i community has been active at the United
Nations since that organization's inception. Today the Baha'i
International Community, an extremely active nongovernmental
organization (NGO) which represents the collective voice of the
national Baha'i communities around the world, enjoys consultative status with the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).
It is particularly involved in addressing human rights issues, the
needs of women and children, and environmental concerns, as well as
pursuing sound sustainable development policies. To coordinate
its international efforts in these areas, the Baha'i International Community's United Nations Office and Office of Public Information,
as well as Offices of the Environment and for the Advancement
of Women, collaborate with National Spiritual Assemblies around
the world in various projects and representations at international
gatherings.
The activities of the Baha'i International Community at the
United Nations have earned it a reputation as one of the most
effective religious NGOs in the UN system. Its national and
international representatives have taken active roles in major
international events such as the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in
June 1992, the United Nations World Conference on Human
Rights in Vienna in June 1993, the World Summit for Social

THE BAf-IA'f COMMUNITY

Development in Copenhagen in March 1995, and the Fourth
World Conference on Women in Beijing in September 1995.
Beyond the scope of the United Nations, Baha'is look towards
a day when a new international order will be established, a commonwealth to which all the nations of the world will belong. As
Shoghi Effendi wrote in 1936,

The unity of the hutnan race, as envisaged by Baha'u'lhih,
implies the establishment of a world cmnmonwealth in which
all nations, races, creeds and classes are closely and permanently united, and in which the autonomy of its state members
and the personal freedom and initiative of the individuals that
compose them are definitely and completely safeguarded. This
commonwealth must, as far as we can visualize it, consist of
a world legislature, whose members will, as the trustees of
the whole of tnankind, ... enact such laws as shall be required to
regulate the life, satisfy the needs and adjust the relationships
of all races and peoples. A world executive, backed by an international Force, will carry out the decisions arrived at, and
apply the laws enacted by, this world legislature, and will
safeguard the organic unity of the whole commonwealth. A
world tribunal will adjudicate and deliver its cmnpulsory and
final verdict in all and any disputes that may arise between the
various eletnents constituting this universal systetn.

Shoghi Effendi went on to describe the tremendous benefits
to humanity resulting from such a world order:

The enormous energy dissipated and wasted on war, whether
econmnic or political, will be consecrated to such ends as will
extend the range of human inventions and technical developtnent, to the increase of the productivity of tnankind, to the
extermination of disease, to the extension of scientific research,
to the raising of the standard of physical health, to the sharpening and refinement of the human brain, to the exploitation
of the unused and unsuspected resources of the planet, to the
prolongation of human life, and to the furtherance of any other
agency that can stitnulate the intellectual, the tnoral, and spiritual
life of the entire hutnan race. 1

1. Shoghi Effendi, The World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah: Selected Letters, 2d rev.
ed. (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1974), pp. 203-04.

----------- ~----------

To make its aims and objectives widely known and to
promote its perspective on various issues, the Baha'i International Community has been active not only in collaborating with
like-minded organizations in and out of the United Nations
but has also been engaged in public relations efforts designed
to bring spiritual and social principles of the Faith to the attention
of the generality of humankind. Information about the Baha'i
Faith became much more widely disseminated than it had been as
international news media reported the persecution of the Baha'is
of Iran which came in the wake of the 1979 Iranian revolution.
More than 200 members of the Faith were executed for their
belief, considered as heresy by the regime, and thousands more
were imprisoned, fired from their jobs, or had their homes
confiscated or their pensions cut off as a result of government
orders. Baha'is around the world responded in unity to the
situation in Iran~the land in which their religion was born~by
petitioning their governments to take action against this treatment; and it is, to some degree, as a result of these efforts that the
persecutions were not more extreme. Executions have ceased,
although Iran's Baha'is are still denied fundamental rights and
freedoms.
The Baha'i community has also taken a proactive approach in
promulgating its views. The statement on peace issued by the
Universal House of Justice in 1985, entitled The Promise of World
Peace, sparked a worldwide campaign of presentations and
public education projects that lasted throughout the International
Year of Peace and beyond and encompassed government figures
and leaders of thought, as well as the general population. To mark
the centenary ofBaha'u'llah's passing in 1992, the Baha'i International Community's Office of Public Information published
Baha 'u 'llah, a statement about the Faith's Founder, detailing His
life, His teachings, and His mission. Events of the year itself,
notably the commemoration in the Holy Land in May 1992 of
the centenary of the passing ofBaha'u'llah, involving some 3,000
participants from all over the world, and the Baha'i World Congress held in New York City in November 1992, which attracted
some 27,000 Baha'is from around the globe, caused much
publicity for the Faith. In January 1995, the Office of Public

THE BAI-IA'f COMMUNITY

Information released another major statement on social development,
entitled The Prosperity of Humankind. Widely disseminated at
the World Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen in
March 1995, the statement promises to lead to further engagement of the Baha'i community with leaders of thought in this
field. Most recently, a statement entitled Turning Point for All
Nations was released to contribute to the discussions on the future
of the United Nations that marked the organization's fiftieth
anniversary. 2
Aside from large-scale public relations activities and the publication of statements on different themes, the Baha'i community
has been continually engaged in a series of international teaching
plans, and it has seen rapid expansion in different parts of the
world, most notably in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet
Union, where national Baha'i communities have been established
in recent years following the collapse of long-standing political
barriers. Czechoslovakia, Romania, and the former USSR were
the first, in 1991; Albania, Azerbaijan, the Baltic States, Central
Asia, Hungary, Poland, and Russia, Georgia, and Armenia, as
well as the Ukraine, Belarus, and Moldova, followed in 1992. In
1994 five National Assemblies, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, were established where the
single community of Central Asia had existed before. Slovenia
and Croatia also elected their first Regional Spiritual Assembly, and
National Spiritual Assemblies came into existence in Cambodia
and Mongolia. Five National Assemblies were formed in 1995
as well-Armenia, Georgia, and Belarus each formed its own
National Assembly, as did Eritrea and Sicily.
The existence and growth of the Baha'i community offers
irrefutable evidence that humanity, in all its diversity, can learn
to live and work together in harmony. While Baha'is are not
unaware of the turmoil in the world surrounding them, their view
is succinctly depicted in the following words, taken from The
Prosperity of Humankind:

2. See pp. 241-83 for the full text of this statement.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

A world is passing away and a new one is struggling to be
born. The habits, attitudes, and institutions that have accutnulated over the centuries are being subjected to tests that are as
necessary to hutnan developtnent as they are inescapable.
What is required of the peoples of the world is a tneasure of
faith and resolve to tnatch the enormous energies with which
the Creator of all things has endowed this spiritual springtitne
of the race.

The source of this faith and resolve is the message of hope
offered to humanity by the teachings of Baha'u'llah. It is a
message that deserves the thoughtful consideration of all those
who yearn for peace and justice in the world.

ITINGS
AND
ESSAGES
Writings ofBaha'u'lhih

T he All-Knowing Physician hath His fmger on the pulse of
mankind. He perceiveth the disease, and prescribeth, in His
unerring wisdom, the remedy. Every age hath its own problem,
and every soul its particular aspiration. The remedy the world
needeth in its present-day afflictions can never be the same as that
which a subsequent age may require. Be anxiously concerned with
the needs of the age ye live in, and center your deliberations on its
exigencies and requirements.
We can well perceive how the whole human race is encompassed
with great, with incalculable afflictions. We see it languishing on
its bed of siclmess, sore-tried and disillusioned. They that are intoxicated by self-conceit have interposed themselves between it and the
Divine and infallible Physician. Witness how they have entangled
all men, themselves included, in the mesh of their devices. They can
neither discover the cause of the disease, nor have they any
lmowledge of the remedy. They have conceived the straight to be
crooked, and have imagined their friend an enemy.

Incline your ears to the sweet melody of this Prisoner. Arise,
and lift up your voices, that haply they that are fast asleep may
be awakened. Say: 0 ye who are as dead! The Hand of Divine
bounty proffereth unto you the Water of Life. Hasten and drink
your fill. Whoso hath been re-born in this Day, shall never die;
whoso remaineth dead, shall never live.

0 ye members of Assemblies in that land [England] and in
other countries! Take ye counsel together, and let your concern be
only for that which profiteth mankind and bettereth the condition
thereof; ifye be of them that scan heedfully. Regard the world as
the human body which, though at its creation whole and perfect,
hath been afflicted, through various causes, with grave disorders
and maladies. Not for one day did it gain ease, nay, its siclmess
waxed more severe, as it fell under the treatment of ignorant
physicians, who gave full rein to their personal desires, and have
erred grievously. And if at one time, through the care of an able
physician, a member of that body was healed, the rest remained
afflicted as before. Thus informeth you the All-Knowing, the
All-Wise. We behold it, in this day, at the mercy of rulers, so
drunk with pride that they cannot discern clearly their own best
advantage, much less recognize a Revelation so bewildering and
challenging as this .
. . .That which God hath ordained as the sovereign remedy and
mightiest instrument for the healing of the world is the union of
all its peoples in one universal Cause, one common Faith. This
can in no wise be achieved except through the power of a skilled,
an all-powerful, and inspired Physician.

The Great Being saith: 0 ye children of men! The fundamental
purpose animating the Faith of God and His Religion is to
safeguard the interests and promote the unity of the human race,
and to foster the spirit of love and fellowship amongst men.
Suffer it not to become a source of dissension and discord, of hate
and enmity. This is the straight Path, the fixed and immovable
foundation. Whatsoever is raised on this foundation, the changes

BAHA'I SACRED WRITINGS

and chances of the world can never impair its strength, nor will
the revolution of countless centuries undermine its structure. Our
hope is that the world's religious leaders and the rulers thereof
will unitedly arise for the reformation of this age and the rehabilitation of its fortunes. Let them, after meditating on its needs,
take counsel together and, through anxious and full deliberation,
administer to a diseased and sorely-afflicted world the remedy it
requireth ... It is incumbent upon them who are in authority to
exercise moderation in all things. Whatsoever passeth beyond the
limits of moderation will cease to exert a beneficial influence.
Consider for instance such things as liberty, civilization and the
like. However much men of understanding may favorably regard
them, they will, if carried to excess, exercise a pernicious influence upon men ... Please God, the peoples of the world may be
led, as the result of the high endeavors exerted by their rulers and
the wise and learned amongst men, to recognize their best
interests. How long will humanity persist in its waywardness?
How long will injustice continue? How long is chaos and confusion to reign amongst men? How long will discord agitate the
face of society? ... The winds of despair are, alas, blowing from
every direction, and the strife that divideth and afflicteth the human
race is daily increasing. The signs of impending convulsions and
chaos can now be discerned, inasmuch as the prevailing order
appeareth to be lamentably defective. I beseech God, exalted be
His glory, that He may graciously awaken the peoples of the
earth, may grant that the end of their conduct may be profitable
unto them, and aid them to accomplish that which beseemeth their
station.

. . .The heaven of statesmanship is made luminous and resplendent by the brightness of the light of these blessed words which
hath dawned from the dayspring of the Will of God: It behoveth
every ruler to weigh his own being every day in the balance of
equity and justice and then to judge between men and counsel
them to do that which would direct their steps unto the path of
wisdom and understanding. This is the cornerstone of statesmanship and the essence thereof. From these words every enlightened

man of wisdom will readily perceive that which will foster such
aims as the welfare, security and protection of mankind and the
safety of human lives. Were men of insight to quaff their fill
from the ocean of inner meanings which lie enshrined in these
words and become acquainted therewith, they would bear witness
to the sublimity and the excellence of this utterance. If this lowly
one were to set forth that which he perceiveth, all would testify
unto God's consummate wisdom. The secrets of statesmanship and
that of which the people are in need lie enfolded within these
words. This lowly servant earnestly entreateth the One true Godexalted be His glory-to illumine the eyes of the people of the
world with the splendor of the light of wisdom that they, one and
all, may recognize that which is indispensable in this day.
That one indeed is a man who, today, dedicateth himself to
the service of the entire human race. The Great Being saith: Blessed
and happy is he that ariseth to promote the best interests of the
peoples and kindreds of the earth. In another passage He hath
proclaimed: It is not for him to pride himself who loveth his own
country, but rather for him who loveth the whole world. The earth
is but one country, and mankind its citizens.

The purpose of religion as revealed from the heaven of God's
holy Will is to establish unity and concord amongst the peoples
of the world; make it not the cause of dissension and strife. The
religion of God and His divine law are the most potent instruments and the surest of all means for the dawning of the light of
unity amongst men. The progress of the world, the development
of nations, the tranquillity of peoples, and the peace of all who
dwell on earth are among the principles and ordinances of God.
Religion bestoweth upon man the most precious of all gifts,
offereth the cup of prosperity, imparteth eternal life, and showereth imperishable benefits upon mankind. It behoveth the chiefs
and rulers of the world, and in particular the Trustees of God's
House of Justice, to endeavor to the utmost of their power to
safeguard its position, promote its interests and exalt its station
in the eyes of the world. In like manner it is incumbent upon
them to enquire into the conditions of their subjects and to

BAHA:f SACRED WRITINGS

acquaint themselves with the affairs and activities of the divers
communities in their dominions. We call upon the manifestations
of the power of God-the sovereigns and rulers on earth-to
bestir themselves and do all in their power that haply they may
banish discord from this world and illumine it with the light of
concord.
It is incumbent upon everyone to firmly adhere to and observe
that which hath streamed forth from Our Most Exalted Pen. God,
the True One, beareth Me witness, and every atom in existence is
moved to testify that such means as lead to the elevation, the
advancement, the education, the protection and the regeneration
of the peoples of the earth have been clearly set forth by Us and
are revealed in the Holy Books and Tablets by the Pen of Glory.

We pray God-exalted be His glory-and cherish the hope
that He may graciously assist the manifestations of affluence and
power and the daysprings of sovereignty and glory, the kings of
the earth-may God aid them through His strengthening graceto establish the Lesser Peace. This, indeed, is the greatest means
for insuring the tranquillity of the nations. It is incumbent upon
the Sovereigns of the world-may God assist them-unitedly to
hold fast unto this Peace, which is the chief instrument for the
protection of all mankind. It is Our hope that they will arise to
achieve what will be conducive to the well-being of man. It is
their duty to convene an all-inclusive assembly, which either they
themselves or their ministers will attend, and to enforce whatever
measures are required to establish unity and concord amongst
men. They must put away the weapons of war, and tum to the
instruments of universal reconstruction. Should one king rise up
against another, all the other kings must arise to deter him. Arms
and armaments will, then, be no more needed beyond that which
is necessary to insure the internal security of their respective
countries. If they attain unto this all-surpassing blessing, the
people of each nation will pursue, with tranquillity and contentment, their own occupations, and the groanings and lamentations
of most men would be silenced. We beseech God to aid them to
do His will and pleasure. He, verily, is the Lord of the throne on

THE BAHA'I WORLD

high and of earth below, and the Lord of this world and of the
world to come. It would be preferable and more fitting that the
highly-honored kings themselves should attend such an assembly,
and proclaim their edicts. Any king who will arise and carry out
this task, he, verily will, in the sight of God, become the cynosure
of all kings. Happy is he, and great is his blessedness!

... The structure of world stability and order hath been reared
upon, and will continue to be sustained by, the twin pillars of
reward and punishment. And in another connection He hath
uttered the following in the eloquent tongue: 1 Justice hath a
mighty force at its command. It is none other than reward and
punishment for the deeds of men. By the power of this force the
tabernacle of order is established throughout the world, causing
the wicked to restrain their natures for fear of punishment.
... Take heed, 0 concourse of the rulers of the world! There is
no force on earth that can equal in its conquering power the force
of justice and wisdom. I, verily, affirm that there is not, and hath
never been, a host more mighty than that of justice and wisdom.
Blessed is the king who marcheth with the ensign of wisdom
unfurled before him, and the battalions of justice massed in his
rear. He verily is the ornament that adorneth the brow of peace
and the countenance of security. There can be no doubt whatever
that if the day-star of justice, which the clouds of tyranny have
obscured, were to shed its light upon men, the face of the earth
would be completely transformed .

. . .Among the things which are conducive to unity and concord
and will cause the whole earth to be regarded as one country is
that the divers languages be reduced to one language and in like
manner the scripts used in the world be confmed to a single
script. It is incumbent upon all nations to appoint some men of
understanding and erudition to convene a gathering and through
joint consultation choose one language from among the varied

1. Arabic.

BAHA'I SACRED WRITINGS

existing languages, or create a new one, to be taught to. the children
in all the schools of the world.
The day is approaching when all the peoples of the world will
have adopted one universal language and one common script.
When this is achieved, to whatsoever city a man may journey, it
shall be as if he was entering his own home. These things are
obligatory and absolutely essential. It is incumbent upon every
man of insight and understanding to strive to translate that which
hath been written into reality and action.

FROM THE
UNIVERSAL
HOUSE oF
JUSTICE

T he Universal House of Justice, the international governing
council of the Baha'i world community, was ordained by
Baha'u'llah as that body charged "to ensure the continuity of that
divinely-appointed authority which flows from the Source of the
Faith, to safeguard the unity of its followers, and to maintain
the integrity and flexibility of its teachings." 1 Thus explicitly
empowered through the writings of the Baha'i Faith, the Universal
House of Justice seeks continually to raise Baha'i community
members' vision about their contributions to shaping society,
while giving full recognition to the obstacles and challenges
inherent in current world events. Significant communications of
the Universal House of Justice between Ri<;lvan 1995 and Ri<;lvan
1996, which largely focus on both the expansion of the community
and various aspects of its development, are highlighted here.

1. The Constitution of the Universal House of Justice (Haifa: Baha'i World
Centre, 1972), p. 4.

Ridvan Message (152 B.E.)
Each year between 21 April and 2 May, during the twelve-day
commemoration ofBaha'u'llah's public declaration of His mission
in the Garden ofRi<;lvan in Baghdad, the Universal House of Justice
addresses a letter to the Baha'is of the world, outlining the achievements of the past year and looking ahead to the activities of the
coming year. The 1995 Ri<;lvan message (152 B.E.) focuses largely
on the growing recognition of the Baha'i Faith, its role in
assisting the progress of humanity, and various aspects of its
community's affairs.
The letter begins by noting "the despair besetting leaders of
nations and peoples in their search for solutions to pressing social
problems" and by seeing in their "desperation" "a world-wide cry
for the Teachings of Baha'u'llah." In the face of the "tnelancholy
outlook evident at the World Summit for Social Development" in
Copenhagen in March 1995, for example, the Baha'i International
Community's considerable presence there and its many follow-up
activities undertaken after the gathering evidenced "the further
advance of our world community in influencing the processes
towards the Lesser Peace. " 2
Indeed, while the international conferences called by the ·United
Nations may not appear to have accomplished much, Baha'is see
in them "a gradual movement towards the ultimate fulfillment of
the will of Baha'u'llah that the rulers of nations meet to consult
and decide on the outstanding issues in an increasingly global
society." In fact, the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, Shoghi Effendi,
described how the parallel processes leading to the political union
of nations and to the uniting of people in one common faith would
eventually draw closer together towards the end of this century,
and the Universal House of Justice sees in current events evidence of the approaching fulfillment of this vision. Baha'is, then,
have offered strong support to the recent series of United Nations
conferences and summits.
· Another indication of the wider recognition of the Baha'i Faith
noted by the Universal House of Justice is the increasing number

2. For fmiher details conceming Baha'i pmiicipation in the World Summit
for Social Development, see The Balui 'i World 1994-95, pp. 37--46.

THE UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE

of visits to the Baha'i World Centre by dignitaries, high-ranking
government officials, and media representatives, underscoring "a
trend towards a greater familiarity of the governments of the nations
with the evolving center of a World Faith." Such recognition also
highlights the necessity for the speedy completion of the current
construction projects on Mount Carmel. Baha'is understand the act
of erecting these buildings as synchronizing, in the words of Shoghi
Effendi, with "two no less significant developments-the establishment of the Lesser Peace and the _evolution of Baha'i national and
local institutions."
Against the backdrop of despair in the wider society, developments in the Baha'i community are, in contrast, "encouraging."
Aside from "heartening" advances in external affairs activities and
an increase in the community's efforts to share the message of
Baha'u'llah, a number of stimulating factors concerning the internal
functioning of Baha'i communities around the world are highlighted. These include evolution in the work of the International
and Continental Counsellors, appointed high-ranking officers of
the Faith, and their auxiliaries around the globe; the emphasis on
the education of children in the Baha'i community; the "vigor of
the youth"; and the "gathering strength" of Spiritual Assemblies at
both the national and local levels. These institutions, says the
Universal House of Justice, "foster a climate of unified action" in
the Baha'i community by engaging in complementary collaborative activities with individuals. By establishing such a climate, they
will be able to work together "to combat the ravages of a rampant
moral decadence" evident in society.
The vitality of the Baha'i community is also reflected in the
formation, at Ri<;lvan 1995, of five new National Spiritual Assemblies: Armenia, Georgia, Belarus, Sicily, and Eritrea. At the same
time, four previously existing Assemblies, in Bophuthatswana,
Ciskei, South Africa, and Transkei, tnerged into one under the
jurisdiction of the National Spiritual Assembly of South Africa,
reflecting the recent political reunion of the region. At Ri<;lvan
1995, then, the total number of National Spiritual Assemblies
throughout the world stood at 174.
Towards the close of the letter, again drawing the Baha'i
community's attention to "humanity's current plight," the Universal

House of Justice reiterates the importance of the efforts of
individual Baha'is, reinforced by their institutions, to bring the
healing message of Baha'u'llah to the peoples of the world.
Indeed, the House of Justice states that "at this extraordinary
moment in the history of the planet, nothing whatever is of more
critical importance than inviting people of every sort and every
gift to the banquet table of the Lord of Hosts," and cites 'Abdu'l-
Baha' s reference to the current century as a time that will leave
"traces which shall last forever."
Judgement by the Supreme Court of India
The theme of widening recognition of the Baha'i Faith can be seen
again in a letter of 5 May 1995, in which the Universal House of
Justice infonns National Spiritual Assemblies around the world of
a judgement by the Supreme Court of India that refers to the
teachings of the Baha'i Faith as a means for solving religious
disputes. The case ruled on by the Court involved strife between
Hindus and Muslims occasioned by the razing of a mosque in
Ayodhya, the site where Hindus believe the god Ratna was hom
thousands of years ago. The mosque's destruction ignited widespread violence and attacks on property.
The Universal House of Justice cites this reference to the
Baha'i Faith as evidence of its emergence from obscurity and
further notes that "Reports have been received that receptive
members of governments are now using the ... Teachings and
principles of the Faith in directing the affairs of their countries."
The House of Justice also pays tribute to the "sacrifices of the
Baha'is in Iran and the solidarity of the Baha'i world in rallying
around its institutions" in support of the Iranian Baha'is. These
factors, it says, have led Baha'is in many parts of the world to
contact their governments on behalf of their fellow believers,
resulting in a greatly increased awareness of the Faith and its
teachings which, in tum, leads to references to the Faith such as
that made by India's Supreme Court.
Increase in the Number of Continental Counsellors
A letter to the Baha'is of the world written 29 October 1995 marks
a significant advance in one aspect of community development,
with the Universal House of Justice's announcement of the com-

THE UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE

mencement of a new five-year term of service for members of
the Continental Boards of Counsellors for the Protection and
Propagation of the Faith and the indication that the number of
appointees will be raised from 72 to 81. After giving the names of
the new Counsellors and thanking the 15 individuals retiring from
their duties, the Universal House of Justice states that an important
focus for the Counsellors during "the crucial period ahead" will be
"fostering the evolution of local and national Baha'i institutions
and ... helping the rank and file of the believers to increase their
devotion to Baha'u'llah, their ardor in teaching, and their ability to
draw on the tremendous power latent in the unified action of
Baha'i communities."
Messages at the Time of the Continental Boards
of Counsellors' Conference
The holding of a conference for members of the Continental
Boards of Counsellors from around the world in Haifa in
December 1995 occasioned several weighty messages from the
Universal House of Justice. The letter of greeting to the conference, dated 26 December 1995, refers to the role of the institution
of the Counsellors over the past 25 years and announces the
launch of a Four Year Plan, at Ri<;lvan 1996, for the expansion
and consolidation of the Baha'i world community. It also challenges the Counsellors to call forth "the wholehearted endeavors
of the followers of Baha'u'llah," to raise "the level of their
spiritual awareness," and to promote "the evolution of national
and local Baha'i communities."
In its letter specifically about the Four Year Plan, also dated 26
December 1996, the Universal House of Justice outlines its central
focus as a single major accomplishment: a significant advance
in the process of steady large-scale enrollments. To effect this,
it writes, will require "marked progress in the activity and
development of the individual believer, of the institutions, and of
the local community." Discussing the responsibilities of the
individual in teaching the Faith to others and of local institutions in
coordinating such efforts, the House of Justice stresses that "those
who enter the Faith must be integrated into vibrant local communities, characterized by tolerance and love and guided by a strong
sense of purpose and collective will, environments in which the

capacities of all components-men, women, youth and childrenare developed and their powers multiplied in unified action."
The letter deals with a number of different aspects of the Four
Year Plan, including the planning process itself, as each national
community formulates its own plan within the global guidelines set by the House of Justice; the focus of the work of the
Continental Counsellors in assisting national communities to formulate their plans and pursue their goals; and necessary elements
for effective plans. The House of Justice spends some time on the
development of "institutes," wh~ch it defmes as "organizational
structures dedicated to systematic training," the purpose of which
is "to endow ever-growing contingents of believers with the
spiritual insights, the knowledge, and the skills needed to carry out
the many tasks of accelerated expansion and consolidation" of the
community. "Institutes should be regarded as centers of learning,"
it notes, which are designed to assist in the large-scale development of human resources in the Baha'i community. The House
of Justice concludes, "It is our hope that significant progress in
this direction will constitute one of the distinguishing features of
the Four Year Plan."
Another section of this letter is devoted to development at the
local level, about which the House of Justice says, "The community must become imbued with a sense of mission and the
Assembly grow in awareness of its role as a channel of God's
grace not only for the Baha'is but for the entire village, town or
city in which it serves." To this end, in local communities where
the participation of women is lagging, "determined steps" must be
taken to rectify this situation; proper annual elections of Local
Spiritual Assemblies and enhancement of their functioning must
be achieved (later in the message the House of Justice announces
that as of Ri~van 1996 all Spiritual Assemblies around the world
must be elected on the First Day of Ri~van); priority should be
given to the regular holding of Baha'i children's classes; youth
should be given attention. All of these factors combine to defme a
first stage in the process of community developtnent, beyond
which the community can further progress.
The functioning of members of the Auxiliary Boards of the
Continental Boards of Counsellors receives considerable attention

THE UNIVERSALHOUSE OF JUSTICE

in the 26 December letter, focusing on their work locally to assist
the growth and development of communities and on their role in
the evolution of institutes.
At the conclusion of the Continental Counsellors' Conference,
the Universal House of Justice released a letter to the Baha'is of
the world, informing them of the launch of the Four Year Plan at
Ri<;lvan 1996, referring to the deliberations of the Counsellors at
their conference, and reiterating the Four Year Plan's one key
goal: a significant advance in the process of large-scale enrollments of new believers. The House of Justice also summarizes the
requisites necessary for progress "in the activity and development
of the individual believer, of the institutions, and of the local
community":

The first calls for a vitality of the faith of each believer that is
expressed through personal initiative and constancy in teaching
the Cause to others, and through conscientious, individual
effort to provide energy and resources to upbuild the cotnlnunity, to uphold the authority of its institutions, and to support
local and regional plans and teaching projects. The second
requires that local and national Baha'i institutions evolve
1nore rapidly into a proper exercise of their responsibilities as
channels of guidance, planners of the teaching work, developers of human resources, builders of com1nunities, and loving
shepherds of the 1nultitudes. The third, the flourishing of the
community especially at the local level, de1nands a significant
enhancement in patterns of behavior by which the collective
expression of the virtues of the individual1ne1nbers and the
functioning of the Spiritual Asse1nbly is 1nanifest in the unity
and fellowship of the community and the dyna1nis1n of its
activity and growth.

The House of Justice then elaborates the "new dimensions" of
the work of the Continental Counsellors, including developments in their mode of functioning, the planning process, human
resource development, Local Spiritual Assembly functioning, and
further development of local Baha'i communities.
In concluding this message, the House of Justice states that "An
auspicious beginning for the new Plan will largely depend on the
results of the current one, which will end in just a few months" and
continues, "There are divine deadlines to be met. Our work is

--------------------------~

intended not only to increase 'the size and consolidate the foundations of our community, but more particularly to exert a positive
influence on the affairs of the entire human race. At so crucial a
moment in world affairs, we must not fail in our duty to take
timely action on the goals set before us in the Three Year Plan."
Persian Edition of the Kitab-i-Aqdas
On 28 December 1995, the Universal House of Justice announced
to all National Spiritual Assemblies the publication of a Persian
edition ofBaha'u'llah's Book of Laws, the Kitab-i-Aqdas or Most
Holy Book, in January 1996. The text of the K.itab-i-Aqdas itself
remains in the original Arabic and other sacred writings in the
volume are in their original language, either Persian or Arabic. The
introduction, notes, and other supplementary material from the
English edition are published here in Persian.
New National Spiritual Assemblies, Ri<Jvan 1996
A letter written on 15 February 1996 to all National Spiritual
Assemblies announced the formation of two new National
Spiritual Assemblies at Ri<;lvan 1996: Sao Tome and Principe, and
Moldova. Further to this, "the Regional Spiritual Assembly of the
Ukraine and Moldova with its seat in Kiev will become the
National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the Ukraine." In
conclusion, the Universal House of Justice states, "We are
delighted by these further evidences of the extension of the institutions of Baha'u'llah' s Administrative Order as the conclusion of
the Three Year Plan approaches."
Conclusion
The letters written by the Universal House of Justice between
Ri<;lvan 1995 and Ri<;lvan 1996 indicate both the increasing international recognition accorded to the Baha'i community for its
teachings and activities and the importance of strengthening the
Baha'i community for the growth it must sustain as it extends its
interaction with wider society. Such complementary concerns
reflect the gathering strength of an emerging global religion.

E
VENTS
1995-96
- - - ------------------
This article reports on the appointment of
the Continental Boards of Counsellors for
their new jive-year term and on the
Counsellors' Conference held
26-31 December 1995.

Conference of

BAHA'i
CouNSELLORS

0 n 26 December 199 5, a conference of the Continental
Boards of Counsellors was convened at the Seat of the Universal House of Justice, in the presence of the three remaining
Hands of the Cause-Amatu'l-Baha Rul}Jyyih Khanum, 'Ali-
Akbar Furutan, and 'Ali-Mul)_ammad Varqa-the members of
the Universal House of Justice, and the Counsellor members of
the International Teaching Centre.
Although a Counsellors' Conference had been held at the
Baha'i World Centre immediately following the Seventh International Baha'i Convention in 1993, 1 this year's conference was
significantly different in that it was called at the beginning of
the Counsellors' five-year term of service and was intended to
be an opportunity for these high-ranking officers of the Faith
to prepare themselves for the challenges of their duties by deliberating on the tasks and opportunities of the years immediately

1. See The Baha'i World 1993-94, pp. 59-66.

ahead. A Counsellors' Conference of this type had not been held
since that of27 December 1985 through 2 January 1986. 2
In its 29 October 1995 letter to the Baha'is of the world announcing the Counsellors' appointments, the Universal House of
Justice indicated that the Counsellors were being called upon to
direct their attention and energies throughout their five-year term
to two tasks: fostering the evolution of local and national Baha'i
institutions and helping the rank and file of the believers to
increase their devotion to Baha'u'llah, their ardor in teaching
others about the Baha'i Faith, and their ability to draw on the
tremendous power latent in the unified action of Baha'i communities.
The gathering itself was marked by an atmosphere of consecration and humility on the part of the participants, and it was
characterized by joy and reverence, singing, and the sharing of
their diversity of experience.
As with the Baha'i community itself, a microcosm of the
human race could be seen in the diversity of the group. The
newly appointed members of the Continental Boards of Counsellors represent more than ever the variety of humanity. With
these appointments, the House of Justice increased the number
of Continental Counsellors from 72 to 81 and enriched their
numbers through the inclusion of additional Baha'is who are
natives of the countries they are serving--countries such as Papua
New Guinea, Finland, Niger, Colombia, the Philippines, Hong
K.ong, Germany, Cameroon, Mexico, Ethiopia and Romania. It
is also significant that 36 percent of the Continental Counsellors
are women.
The various capacities and experiences of the individual
members of that group were collectively directed towards the
achievement of one common aim: to consider issues of implementation of the Four Year Plan, to commence at Riqvan 1996.
The essential features of the new plan were presented to the
Counsellors by the Universal House of Justice in its message to
the gathering, dated 26 December 1995 (see article pp. 31-33).
With this document in hand, all contributed to the consideration

2. See The Baha'i World, vol. 19, 1983-1986, p. 505.

COUNSELLORS

Members of the Continental Boards ofCounsellorsfrom around the world
gather on the steps of the Seat of the Universal House ofJustice with the
Hands of the Cause of God, members of the Universal House ofJustice, and
Counsellor members of the International Teaching Centre during the
Counsellors' Conference in Haifa, December I 995.

of the challenges and opportunities confronting the worldwide
Baha.' i community during the coming years. It was of particular
note that such a focused and purposeful meeting of people from
all parts of the globe should be gathered, dedicated solely to the
betterment of humankind, and consulting in a spirit of unity and
service, at a time of unprecedented chaos and confusion in the
world.
Another distinguishing feature of the consultative sessions
was the strong emphasis on and encouragement of activity and
initiative at the grass roots. According to the Baha'i writings, it is
the individual who possesses the moral, intellectual, and spiritual
powers central to the advancement of civilization. The release of
these creative potentialities is as much a challenge in the governance of human affairs as is the promotion of a democratic
process of decision-making. The administrative order established
by Baha'u'llah requires the elected insti~tions to stimulate the
development and exercise of these powers, but it augments the

THE BAHA'I WORLD

provisions for this requirement through complementary institutions, one level of which is that of the Continental Boards
of Counsellors. Charged with counseling, encouraging, and
assisting both the individual members of the Baha'i community
and its elected bodies, their role is to assist in unlocking the
capacity for action of individuals, communities and other institutions. Their deliberations focused on ways and means of doing
so. Furthermore, the consultation, rather than following a format
of numerous presentations by a few members of senior institutions, was very much an exchange between the Continental
Counsellors themselves, who live and work in the communities
they serve, face the same social challenges as the rest of the
people in their region, and move in the same social milieu.
An emphasis was placed on collaborating with and benefiting
from the experiences of others: the conference included opportunities for smaller meetings, so that those with mutual interests
could consult on various topics. During four of the six conference
days, separate afternoon meetings were held for each of the
Continental Boards so that the Counsellors could consider in
more detail the application in their continent of the principles
discussed in the morning plenary sessions. Additionally, as the

Participants in the Counsellors' Conference visit the completed terraces
below the Shrine of the Bab, December 1995.

COUNSELLORS

26 December message encouraged the Counsellors to collaborate
across Continental Boards, one evening session was devoted
to consultation in special intercontinental interest groups- for
example, those with responsibilities in the circumpolar areas, those
from francophone countries, and those working in the Russian
Federation.
The 26 December 1995 message of the House of Justice
formed the basis of all the consultations. Its major foci include
developments in the mode of the functioning of the Continental
Boards of Counsellors; the process for the elaboration of the
Four Year Plan through the formulation of derivative plans and
strategies at the national, regional, and local levels, involving
consultation between members of institutions at all levels; the
development of human resources to meet the needs of a rapidly
expanding community through formally conducted programs of
training; effective approaches to the raising up and consolidation
of Local Spiritual Assemblies; and further means for the development of local Baha'i communities.
Through its message the Universal House of Justice placed in
the hands of the Continental Counsellors a major responsibility
in the creation and implementation of the next stage of the
development of the worldwide Baha'i community; following the
conference, the Counsellors began the process of consulting with
National Spiritual Assemblies about how to apply the guidance
contained in the message to the special conditions and circumstances of each region.
The final session of the conference was an especially moving
occasion. The members of the Universal House of Justice entered
the meeting in file, which roused the participants to their feet. A
tablet of 'Abdu'l-Baha was read, 3 followed by the message dated
31 December 1995 to the Baha'is of the world prepared by the
House of Justice, which was being electronically transmitted to
National Spiritual Assemblies around the world at that same
time. Those gathered were profoundly affected by the spirit of
the occasion, some of them spontaneously breaking into a

3. Se lections from the Writings of 'Abdu 'l-Baha (Haifa: Baha'i World
Centre, 1982), #204.

devotional song. The meeting ended with the reading of the same
tablet of 'Abdu'l-Baha, in the original Persian. Then all of those
in attendance traveled to the Shrine ofBaha'u'llah at Bahji, where
they prayed together for the success of the Four Year Plan and
of their efforts in what was described in the closing session as
perhaps the most important four years of their lives.
The closing evening was distinguished by a banquet for all
attendees, held in their honor by Hand of the Cause Amatu'l-
Baha Rul}.iyyih Khanum at the House of 'Abdu'l-Baha, where
she resides.
After the conference concluded, each of the five Boards of
Counsellors took the opportunity to hold a meeting while their
members were together in the Holy Land, further deliberating
on the application of the guidance imparted in the 26 and 31
December messages to conditions in their regions .
In the ensuing weeks, the energizing effect the conference
had on the Counsellors became clear as report after report was
made of their meetings with the Auxiliary Board members in
their areas. Participants in such meetings learned about the conference, studied the 26 and 31 December messages from the
House of Justice, consulted on assisting communities to achieve
the remaining goals of the Three Year Plan, attained greater clarity of vision regarding their role in the years ahead, and became
more resolved to arise to carry out the tasks demanded by this
critical period of history. Meetings of this nature were held in
places as diverse as Reunion, Kenya, Zimbabwe, the United
States, Canada, the Philippines, India, the Mariana Islands, Hong
Kong, Turkey, France, and Italy.

This article describes the formation
in Apri/1995 offive new National
Spiritual Assemblies.

FIVE NEW
NATIONAL SPIRITUAL
AssEMBLIES

J ust 75 years after 'Abdu'l-Baha's references in His Will and
Testament to the establishment of "secondary Houses of
Justice" (currently called National Spiritual Assemblies), these
institutions have been formed in nearly three-quarters of the
countries and territories of the world. 1 At RiQ.van 1995, three
republics of the former Soviet Union whose Baha'i communities
had been administered by Regional Spiritual Assemblies formed
their own National Spiritual Assemblies: Armenia, with its seat
in Yerevan; Georgia with its seat in Tbilisi; and Belarus, with its
seat in Minsk. At the same time, the independent political status
gained by Eritrea called for a National Spiritual Assembly there,
with its seat in Asmara, and the development of the Baha'i Faith
in Sicily led to the decision to form aN ational Assembly there

1. For an explanation of the nature and purpose of the institution of the
National Spiritual Assembly and a brief history of its development, see
The Baha'i World 1994-95, pp. 26-28.

with its seat in Palermo. This brought the number of these
national Baha'i institutions worldwide to 174. 2
TheN ational Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Georgia
The National Spiritual Assembly of Georgia was formed at
Riqvan 1995, but the history of the Georgian Baha'i community
reaches back to the time of Baha'u'llah. There were enough
Baha'is in Georgia and neighboring regions during the period of
His ministry (1853- 1892) to warrant formation of the National
Spiritual Assembly of the Caucasus in 1925.
In 1928, the Baha'is in the Caucasus began facing serious
difficulties practicing their Faith. Meetings were disrupted by
communist authorities; attendees were arrested and held for ques-
.tioning; documents and books were confiscated; mail censored. A
long and careful examination by the authorities revealed that the
Baha'is were riot guilty of any subversive, anti-Soviet, or political
activity, but Baha'i meetings were nevertheless allowed only with
special police permission.
Ultimately, after the election of Baha'i local councils in the
Caucasus republics in April 1928, the government abrogated
their constitutions and- after protracted negotiations- imposed
a constitution which dissolved all Baha'i committees, decreed
that Russian translations of minutes from all Baha'i meetings
must be submitted to the authorities, and required that Baha'i
children under 18 years of age not be instructed in their religion.
Another government order decreed that all synagogues, churches,
and other places of worship were state property.
In accordance with the laws of their Faith, the Baha'is did
not engage in any political activity or agitation; rather, they appealed to the legally constituted local and national authorities for

2. At Ri9van 1994, there were 172 National Spiritual Assemblies, so
although five new Assemblies were formed, the increase appears to be
only two. This is accounted for by the fact that at Riqvan 1995, the Baha'i
communities of Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, South Africa, and Transkei were
merged into one community under the jurisdiction of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of South Africa, to reflect the political
reunion of that region.

NEW NATIONAL SPIRITUAL _ASSEMBLIES

restitution of their rights. By 1938, however, the Baha'i community of the Caucasus was reduced to remnants and remained in that
condition for some 50 years.
The sweeping reforms launched in the Soviet Union in the late
1980s opened up opportunities for Baha'i communities in that part
of the world to be revived and developed. The Universal House of
Justice appointed the National Spiritual Assembly of Germany to
coordinate efforts to foster the growth of the Baha'i community
in Georgia and to provide guidance and encouragement as the
community developed. A Two Year Teaching Plan, focusing on
the entire region of the former Soviet Union, was launched by the
Universal House of Justice at Ri~van 1990. At Ri~van 1991 the
Baha'i community in the Republic of Georgia came under the
jurisdiction of the Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the USSR,
which was later renamed the Regional Spiritual Assembly of the
Baha'is of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Baltic
States and Georgia when the USSR was officially dissolved and
the states adopted new names. By Ri~van 1992 the Faith had
grown to the point that four new National/Regional Assemblies
were established for the territory of the former USSR and the
existing Assembly was renamed the Regional Spiritual Assembly of
Russia, Georgia and Armenia.
At Ri~van 1992, the Baha'i community in Georgia was still
small : one group and several isolated individuals. Baha'i literature in Georgian included Love of God, The Promise of World
Peace, and some introductory material. Traveling teachers began
to visit Georgia in the summer of 1992, and despite the challenges of an unstable political situation, a still suspicious KGB,
and shortages of electricity, gas, food, and water, they sought out
the Baha'is and offered support and encouragement.
A joyous event occurred when the Local Spiritual Assembly
of Tbilisi, the capital city of Georgia, was reestablished at
Ri~van 1993. With the assistance of Baha'is from other parts of
the world, a house was purchased to serve as a local Baha'i center. By October 1993, there were also Baha'is in the city of
, Gouri, not far from Tbilisi, and a Baha'i center had been rented
there. Traveling teachers began to regularly visit Georgia from

THE BAHA'I WORLD

Ri<;lvan 1994 and shared Baha'i teachings with people from
all strata of society. Among the prominent figures with whom
official contacts were made were the prime minister and mayors
and deputy mayors of a number of cities.
By June 1994 there were 45 new believers in Georgia, a number of whom traveled to Panchgani, India, to participate in an
extensive Baha'i study course. The number of Local Spiritual
Assemblies had increased to seven, six of which were formed in
one week. Members of these Assemblies came from Muslim,
Armenian, and Georgian backgrounds, and many of them were
highly educated. Five short-term pioneers from the region, particularly Tadjikistan, joined pioneers from England, the Philippines,
and Canada to settle in different parts of Georgia. Two national
conferences were held in Tbilisi that summer. As of January
1995 there were 12 Local Spiritual Assemblies in Georgia, and
the Universal House of Justice announced that the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Georgia would form at Ri<;lvan
1995.
Hand of the Cause of God Amatu'l-Baha Rul).iyyih Khanum
represented the Universal House of Justice at the first National
Convention of the Baha'is of Georgia, held 23- 24 April in
Tbilisi. Almost 300 Baha'is, of whom 200 were from 14 different Georgian localities, came together in a beautiful valley
surrounded by the snow-capped mountains of the Caucasus to
celebrate the birth of this new institution. An Auxiliary Board
member participating in the Convention reported that "all the

The first
National
Spiritual
Assembly
of the
Baha'is
of Georgia.

NEW NATIONAL SPIRITUAL ASSEMBLIES

Baha'is, whether rich or poor, from any metropolis in the world
or a tiny village in Georgia were together in a spirit of unity."
During her visit, Amatu'l-Baha Rul}.iyyih Khanum was able to
meet with the Vice Prime Minister, the Minister for Human
Rights, the Minister for Environment, other government officials,
and His Holiness Ilia II, Patriarch of the Georgian Orthodox
Church. After the Convention, Moscow Television contacted the
Baha'is, interviewed the chairman of the new National Assembly,
and broadcast the piece in Russia and in Georgia three times.
During the year following the Convention, the Baha'i community of Georgia organized its first Youth Camp, helped put together
the first Baha'i Youth Convention of Georgia and Armenia, and
held three Trans-Caucasian Baha'i Academy courses on topics
such as prayer and meditation, Baha'i history, consultation, and
administration. The Georgian community had grown sufficiently to
establish 35 Local Spiritual Assemblies.
The National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Armenia
The history of the development of the Baha'i Faith in Armenia
closely parallels that of Georgia, with believers residing there
during Baha'u'llah's lifetime and both regions being under the
jurisdiction of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Caucasus
from 1925 to 1938. Baha'is in Armenia suffered the same persecution and prohibitions under the communist regime as did the
Baha'is in Georgia. When political and social change swept the
Soviet Union in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Armenia, like
Georgia, came under the Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the

The first National
Spiritual Assembly
of the Bahil 'is
ofArmenia, with
Counsellor Abbas
Katirai and a
representative of the
former Regional
Spiritual Assembly
ofRussia, Georgia
and Armenia.

USSR, later renamed the Regional Spiritual Assembly of the
Commonwealth of Independent States, the Baltic States and
Georgia. At Riq van 1992 a Regional Spiritual Assembly was
established for Russia, Georgia and Armenia.
By November 1992 two pioneers, an 80-year-old woman from
Brazil and an 18-year-old Russian girl, had settled in Armenia,
joining 20 Armenian Baha'is, and a Baha'i center had been acquired in Yerevan. Despite the difficult conditions of war in
Armenia, including lack of heat, electricity, food, and water,
Local Spiritual Assemblies were elected in Aparvan, Yerevan,
Abavyan, and Dilizhan by March 1994.
The first National Teaching Conference of Armenia was held
in May 1994, during which 140 adults and twenty youth gathered in Yerevan to become better acquainted, consult about their
future, and enjoy their first experience working together on this
scale. In November, the Baha'i community of Yerevan was legally
registered, and a Baha'i center was purchased in Oktemberyan.
By January 1995, there were approximately 200 Baha'is in
Armenia and ten Local Spiritual Assemblies. Despite continuing
conflict in the region, the first National Convention was held in
April1995, attended by Abbas Katirai of the Continental Board of
Counsellors in Asia who represented the Universal House of
Justice.
The National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Belarus
In 1978, Helmut Winkelbach, a Baha'i from Germany, saw an
ad for an electrician's job in Russia, undertook training for three
months, and took a train to what was then called the Belorussian
Soviet Socialist Republic. He was the first Baha'i to settle in this
territory and fulfill a goal of the Ten Year Plan, 3 and thus he was
named a Knight ofBaha'u'llah.

3. In 1953 the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, Shoghi Effendi, launched a
ten-year teaching plan to bring the Baha'i Faith to the main unopened territories of the world and to consolidate communities in territories where
there were already Baha'is, among other goals. During this period the
number of National Spiritual Assemblies increased from 12 to 47. Those
who arose at that time or later to open territories named as goals of the
Ten Year Plan were named Knights ofBaha'u'llah.

NEW NATIONAL SPIRITUAL _ASSEMBLIES

Mr. Winkelbach remained in what is now called Belarus for
two years and then returned in 1986 with his wife, Olga, a native
Belarus sian. Their teaching efforts and the arrival of one more
pioneer produced a group of eight believers by Riqvan 1991. By
September that year a Local Assembly had been formed in Minsk.
Other enrollments occurred after a group of 20 enthusiastic traveling teachers came through from the United Kingdom and
several groups of Baha'is from the United States visited. By the
end of the Two Year Plan jurisdiction over the area was transferred from the National Spiritual Assembly of Germany to the
new Regional Spiritual Assembly of the Ukraine, Bielarus 4 and
Moldova.
The members of this fledgling community were greatly inspired
when 164 Baha'is from 16 countries attended an International Youth Conference they organized in Brest in August 1993.
Another international event they put together was a women's
conference in Brest in April 1994, which was attended by 250
people from Belarus, Russia, other countries in Europe, Canada,
Panama, and the United States, 200 of whom were not Baha'is.
Sessions were held on psychology and pedagogy; economics and
law; culture, literature, and art; and ecology and health. Papers
were delivered on issues such as the role of women in protecting
the environment and on spiritual and moral development, and the
women from North America came prepared to share technical
information on health care, cooperative marketing and food distribution. The event was supported by the United Nations Office
in Belarus and the Soros Foundation.
The Baha'is of Belarus organized a particularly successful
teaching project, called "Neman 94," along the banks of the
Neman River during the summer of 1994. In September an exhibition on the history of the Baha'i Faith was displayed in
Bobruysk. The following month, a children's education institute was held with participants from Moscow, Kiev, and Belarus.
By the end of 1994, there were approximately 130 Baha'is in 11
cities of Belarus.

4. At that time, this was the spelling of what is now Belarus.

The first election of the National Spiritual Assembly of the
Baha'is of Belarus took place at Riqvan 1995. On this historic
occasion, Counsellor member of the International Teaching Centre
Hartmut Grossmann represented the Universal House of Justice.
In a message to the Baha'i World Centre, the Convention participants wrote: "We feel blessed to be one of the five new pillars of
the Universal House of Justice which were elected this Ri<;lvan."
Just two months later, representatives from all the Local Assemblies, a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors in
Europe, and the Auxiliary Board member for the area met for a
"Unity of Vision" conference to form goals and plans of action
for the community of Belarus.

t l '#.l.IIUGIIQUIH
The first National
~
Spiritual Assembly
of the Bahti 'is of
Belarus, with
Hartmut Grossmann,
a Counsellor member
of the International
Teaching Centre, and
Counsellor Larissa
Tsutskova.

The National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Eritrea
Eritrea, a country which proclaimed its sovereignty on 24 May
1993, was for centuries part of ancient Ethiopia. After being
colonized by the Italians at the close of the nineteenth century,
it became a protectorate of the United Kingdom when British
forces conquered the area in 1941. In the aftermath of the Second
World War, Sabri Elias, who had introduced the Faith to Ethiopia
in 1934, returned to share Baha'u'llah's teachings with a new
generation of Ethiopians (see obituary, pp. 312- 13). They helped
to spread the Baha'i Faith to Eritrea, where the first Local Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Asmara (the capital) was
established in the early 1950s.
By the late 1950s, Asmara had one of the strongest Baha'i
communities in the world; in 1958 the Local Spiritual Assembly

NEW NATIONAL SPIRITUAL ASSEMBLIES

was officially recognized as a religious body through registration
with the Federal High Court and the Supreme Court of Eritrea;
by the early 1960s large numbers of people in the Kunama region
of Eritrea began embracing the Faith. However, the civil war
which began in 1963 and raged for 30 years disrupted this process.
Still, the Baha'i community survived, operating under the jurisdiction of the Regional Spiritual Assembly ofNorth East Africa
from 1956 to 1975 and thereafter under the National Spiritual
Assembly of Ethiopia. In October 1992, the Baha'i Teaching and
Administrative Committee in Eritrea was formed, and during its
first year it arranged three teaching trips and appointed task
forces to begin promoting the equality of men and women
and addressing the need for Baha'i material in the local language
of Tigrigna.

The first National
Spiritual Assembly
of the Baha'is
of Eritrea.

In Asmara at Riqvan 1995, in the presence of Counsellor
Hushang Ahdieh, representing the Universal House of Justice,
and 60 observers from around the nation, including several of the
original pioneers, the delegates to the first National Convention
of Eritrea elected the country's National Spiritual Assembly. Dr.
Ahdieh reported that "this historic and joyous occasion was celebrated amidst expressions of profound gratitude and exhilaration,
and was characterized by a spirit of love and unity, of high
resolve and determination to expedite the long-awaited day when
the Cause of God would cover this long-suffering, receptive
nation."

The National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Sicily
In the series of letters 'Abdu'l-Baha wrote to the North American Baha'is during the First World War (known as Tablets of
the Divine Plan), He named Sicily as one of the regions which
should receive the Baha'i teachings after the war. However, it
was not until 1953 that six Americans were able to settle in Sicily and introduce the Baha'i Faith there. For this achievement,
Carol, Florence, Gerrold, Stanley and Susan Bagley and Emma
Rice were named Knights ofBaha'u'llah.
Four years of work by the pioneers, Hand of the Cause of God
Dr. U go Giachery, the newly declared Sicilian believers, and the
Italo-Swiss National Spiritual Assembly (which had been given
the development of the Sicilian community as a goal) resulted in
the formation of the first Local Spiritual Assembly of Palermo at
RiQ.van 1958. This city was later chosen by the Universal House
of Justice to be the site of the first Oceanic Baha'i Conference,
held in August 1968 to consult about the development of the
Faith in the Mediterranean region. More than 2,300 Baha'is took
part.
By the end of February 1995, the Baha'i community of Sicily
had grown to comprise 31 localities, and eight Local Spiritual
Assemblies had been formed. The stage was set for the first Spiritual _Assembly of the Baha'is of Sicily to be formed. 5
On 22- 25 April 1995, 350 "strongly united" followers of
Baha'u'llah, including supporters from nine countries, gathered
together in the presence of the Hand of the Cause of God 'Ali-

5. Generally the jurisdiction of Baha'i National Spiritual Assemblies is defined
by political borders; however, there are exceptions, dictated by compelling
circumstances. In some instances geographical or cultural characteristics
necessitate the formation of a National Assembly in an outlying region or territory of a given country, the better to promote the well-being and efficient
functioning of the Baha'i community. For example, Alaska and Hawaii
have their own National Spiritual Assemblies and are not under the jurisdiction of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United
States, which directs and coordinates Baha'i activities in the 48 continental states, but the three National Assemblies collaborate in a manner that
preserves the unity of their relations in dealing with the federal authorities.

NEW NATIONAL SPIRITUAL ASSEMBLIES

The first National
Spiritual Assembly
of the Bahil 'is of
Sicily, with
Hand of the Cause
of God Dr. 'Ali-
Muhammad Varqa.

Mul).ammad V arqa, who represented the Universal House of Justice, Counsellor Sohrab Y oussefian, members of the National
Spiritual Assembly of Italy, and the Knights of Baha'u'llah who
first brought the Faith to their land. Dr. Varqa reported: "In an
atmosphere of joy, emotion, enthusiasm and delight, dominated
by profound love for Baha'u'llah,.the Sicilian Convention was
held in Terrasini in the vicinity of Palermo."
By September of that year, the new Assembly was able to
report a range of activities in Sicily, including teaching projects,
television interviews, presentation of Baha'i literature to civil
authorities and schools, a regional youth conference, a women's
conference, and vibrant Naw-Ruz celebrations attended by nearly
the entire community.
The Process Continues
As the Baha'i communities of Georgia, Armenia, Belarus, Eritrea,
and Sicily prepared for their first National Conventions, the
Universal House of Justice announced that at Riqvan 1996 new
National Spiritual Assemblies would be formed in Sao Tome and
Principe and in Moldova. Baha'is around the world rejoiced at
this further evidence that people of every background are finding
truth in Baha'u'llah's teachings and are successfully building the
administrative order He envisioned.

View of the Shrine of the Bab and the terrace immediately below,
October 1995.
MOUNT
CARMEL
PROJECTS:
Progress 1995- 96

T he momentous building projects on Mount Cannel continued
to gather momentum between Ri<;ivan 1995 and Ri<;ivan 1996.
One of the most significant achievements of this period was the
fulfillment of a major goal of the Three Year Plan- initiation of all
seven phases of construction of the buildings on the Arc and the
terraces above and below the Shrine of the Bab. At the conclusion
of this fruitful time, the Universal House of Justice wrote to the
Baha'is of the world that "The magnificent progress of the projects
on Mount Carmel is pre-eminent among the measurable achievements of this period. Indeed, despite numerous difficulties, the
stage of accomplishment anticipated in our message announcing
the Three Year Plan is entirely evident."
There was intense activity throughout the year on the building
of the Centre for the Study of the Texts. The concreting operation
on this building reached a record pour of 1,000 cubic meters in a
single month, enabling the structure to rise speedily. Its entrance
portico was cast and bases prepared for eight Ionic marble
columns to stand in a semi-circle in the facade of the building.
With the major part of the structure complete, a contract was
THE BAHA'f WORLD

The almost completed
structure of the Centre for
the Study of the Texts
is defined by its semicircular entrance portico.

Installation of drywall
partitions and air conditioning ducts inside the
Centre for the Study of the
Texts in February 1996
signalled the beginning
of interior finishing work.

signed with a Canadian company for the erection of gypsum
drywall partitions, precast gypsum moulded ceilings and suspended tiled ceilings. Soon defined spaces within the building
took shape as drywall partitions went up. Installation of the
mechanical services also commenced. In late November 1995 a
special meeting was arranged in Italy for the inspection and
approval of the marble columns, during which all the contractors
involved met with the project manager to chalk out various
strategies for the installation of the marble before the entire
consignment of marble columns arrived on site in April 1996. In
the meantime, masonry work inside the north patio of the Centre
for the Study of the Texts began with the arrival of Turkish
masons and the delivery of 800 square meters of local stone.
Work commenced on the installation of the roof on the fourstory underground extension to the existing International Baha'i
Archives building. By the end of the year it was waterproofed,
and concrete screed and polystyrene panels were applied to
protect the waterproofing and drainage gravel, preparing the roof
for the addition of topsoil. The most important component of the
MOUNT CARMEL pROJECTS

Archives extension is a strong room which will house the sacred
texts and relics of the Baha'i Faith. The walls of this structure
within a structure were waterproofed externally as well as internally
for double reinforcement. A massive vault door has been put in
place to provide security.
A sixty-meter-long, ten-meter-wide, five-meter-high tunnel was
constructed to provide access from Crusader Road to the parking
building, an ancillary structure between the Centre for the Study
of the Texts and the Archives extension. Because of its dimensions, the roof of this tunnel was cast in fifteen sections, each
four meters apart. A special steel form was prepared in the shape
of the roof to assist in the concreting operations.
Steady progress was made on the construction of the International Teaching Centre, a large and complex building situated in
close proximity to the Seat of the Universal House of Justice.
While construction work progressed on two levels of the building,
a ramp which had earlier been constructed to provide access for
construction materials to the site was removed. The ramp had
occupied almost 25 percent of the building areas and its removal

By March 1996 the
structure ofthe
International Teaching
Centre had reached its
second level.

Project manager Fariborz
Sahba inspects columns in
the marble factory in
Italy, November 1995.
Also pictured are Mr.
Hedayat of the National
Spiritual Assembly ofItaly
and Mr. Hoffmann,
General Manager of
Henraux s.p.a.

- - - - - - - - - - -- - -- ~~ ~ ~ ~ -~~ -

THE BAHA:f WORLD

enabled the extension of the foundations of the Teaching Centre
right up to the retaining wall. About 10,000 cubic meters of earth
were excavated and relocated, which also allowed the installation
of the remaining three rows of rock anchors in the micropile
retaining wall to provide complete support. Thirty-nine micropiles,
varying in length from five to seven meters, were poured, bringing
the loads of the sloping foundations of the building to a greater
depth, and thereby enhancing the stability of these foundations.
More than 45 years ago Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the
Baha'i Faith, wrote to the Baha'is in the East sharing 'Abdu'l-
Baha's vision of a monumental pathway leading from the foot of
Mount Carmel to the Shrine of the Bab and reaching beyond to
the crest of the mountain. The preliminary outline of nine terraces
as an approach to the
Shrine from the central
avenue of the former
German Templer Colony was completed by
the Guardian himself
in pursuance of this
vision. As he wrote,
"This beautiful and
'""""'""""__,..,. majestic path which extends from the Shrine
of the Bab to the City
of Haifa in line with
the greatest avenue of
that blessed city, which
is adorned with trees
and verdant plants and
illumined with bright
lights, which is the object of admiration of
the people of this
. region and a source of
joy and pride to the
Aerial photograph showing dramatic progress authorities of this land,
on the Arc and Terraces Projects, March 1996. will subsequently be

MOUNT CARMEL pROJECTS

converted, as foreshadowed by the Center of the Covenant, into
the Highway of the Kings and Rulers of the World." 1 The
completion of seven terraces below the Shrine of the Bab and the
decision of the Universal House of Justice to open five of them to
pilgrims and Baha'i visitors from Ri<;ivan of 153 B.E. (April
1996) has been a major step towards the realization of 'Abdu'l-
Baha's and Shoghi Effendi's vision of these terraces.
As part of the adornment of the ceremonial approach to the
Shrine of the Bab, ornamental statuary, diverse colorful plants
within brick edgings and planter urns, and paths covered with
crushed ocher-colored roof tiles were prepared. Bronze railings
and light fittings were also placed by the sides of the Duranta
repens hedges planted on both sides of the central stairway. The
informal areas to the east and west of terraces nine to five were
developed with beautiful rockery plantings, cacti, succulents and
other drought-tolerant plants.
In an interview with an architectural magazine, architect
Fariborz Sahba explained: "The goal of the design of these
terraces is to create the most appropriate setting for the Shrine of
the Bah, one of the holiest places of pilgrimage for Baha'is. They
are meant to prepare the Baha'i pilgrims, as they walk through
these terraces towards the Shrine for pilgrimage, for the spiritual
encounter ahead of them. The terraces are primarily being built,
then, to heighten the spiritual experience of the Baha'i pilgrim to
the Shrine of the Bab. For this reason they must not only be
beautiful gardens and landscape, but must create an atmosphere
of reverence and peace, conducive to meditation." One element
in the creation of such an atmosphere is the use of water as a
main concept of the landscape: It flows from the top of the
mountain to the bottom in a continuous cascade along the sides
of the central stairway. Several beautiful fountains, carefully
designed to provide crystal clear water, with a gentle sound to
mask the noise of the city, will assist pilgrims to concentrate on
their meditation. The irrigation system on the lower terraces
became operational, enabling visitors to enjoy the visual beauty

1. From a letter dated Naw-Rliz 108 (March 1952) addressed to the Baha'is
in the East by Shoghi Effendi, translated from the Persian.

of the fountains bubbling with water and running down the stone
runnels along the sides of the stairs.
Work on the steep slopes of the terraces above the Shrine of
the Bab was also pursued at a brisk pace. The structure of four of
these terraces- numbers fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, and eighteen- was completed, and mechanical, electrical, plumbing and
irrigation services were put in place. Soon after, spreading of
topsoil and planting on their central slopes began.
Concomitantly, the construction of the uppermost terrace, the
nineteenth, commenced. This terrace, at the crest of Mount
Carmel, is designed with two levels ofbalconies. 'Abdu'l-Baha
envisioned that "A person standing on the summit of Mount
Carmel . .. will look upon the most sublime and majestic spectacle

Bird's eye view of the
bridge over 'Abbas Street,
which provides continuity
between terraces four
and jive below the Shrine
of the Bab.

of the whole world ... " 2 These balconies will provide a visitor
with a spectacular view of the Shrine of the Bab, and beyond it
down to the harbor and across Haifa Bay towards the Shrine of
Baha'u'llah. A tunnel under the terrace's first level will connect it
to the Louis Promenade on Panorama Street, built by the Municipality of Haifa. This will enable visitors strolling on the promenade
to enter the terrace with ease without crossing the road, which sees
plenty of vehicular traffic. During the year the structure of the balconies of terrace nineteen was completed; work on the pedestrian
tunnel was also finished and a 300-meter-long promenade on the
side of terrace nineteen was built.

2. 'Abdu'l-Baha, quoted in Star of the West, Volume XXIV, p. 302.

MOUNT CARMEL pROJECTS

Terrace nineteen at the crest ofMount Carmel provides access from
Panorama Street and the Louis Promenade to the upper terraces and has over
700 square meters offloor space. This photo was taken in March 1996.

One of the most challenging and critical stages of the Terraces
Project was initiated in February of 1996 when a contract was
formalized with a well-known Haifa contractor for the lowering
of Hatzionut Avenue and the construction of a pedestrian tunnel
and retaining walls for the bridge that will span the street, linking
the terrace of the Shrine of the Bab to the footpath on the Arc and
the upper terraces. A joint announcement by the Baha'i World
Centre and the Haifa Municipality was carried in three major
newspapers informing the general public of the nature of work to
be undertaken and changes in the traffic arrangement in the
entire section adjoining the Baha'i properties on this street. Of
the three principal stages of work on the roadway, one was
accomplished by Riqvan 1996. During the first stage, work was
undertaken on the north side close to the terrace of the Shrine. A
temporary sewage line was constructed; the north pedestrian
sidewalk was reduced to 1.5 meters; and street lamp posts, traffic
lights and bus stops were relocated. When this was completed,
the traffic was restored to the north side and work began on the
excavation of the south side.

As the projects on Mount Carmel have advanced, the interest
they have generated among the citizens of Haifa has also become
more intense. This resulted in an invitation from Haifa's
Chamber of Commerce and Industry to the Baha'i World Centre
to participate in "Haifa 2000," an exhibition designed to display
unique projects in the city, depicting its development and
changing business climate. The organizers offered the Baha'i
World Centre, free of cost, the best and most central location to
display models of its projects. Held 19- 27 June 1995, the
exhibition attracted an estimated 250,000 visitors, including
those attending two international conferences occurring in the
city at the same time. Visiting dignitaries included Israel's then
Foreign Minister Shimon Perez and dignitaries from the United
Kingdom, who came with a large delegation of businessmen.
Other visitors included well-known Israeli businessmen, economists, investors, and residents of Haifa. The event garnered wide
media coverage. Afterwards, the Chamber of Commerce and
Industry expressed its appreciation to the Baha'is, saying that the
success of the exhibition "would not have been possible without
your participation and the presentation of your impressive
projects ... "
An exciting development related to the Mount Carmel Projects
but initiated by the government of Israel was the commencement
of the first stage of work on the restoration of the German
Templer Colony. Nestling at the foot of Mount Carmel, · the
Templer houses flank Ben Gurion Avenue from Haifa harbor
to the junction of Hagefen Street, where the entrance plaza to
terrace number one is located. In the section immediately conjoining the entrance plaza, work began on the implementation of
the German Colony's main axis, the design of which had been
previously selected from an array of competitors.
The media maintained their interest in the projects and
continued to report about them throughout the year. In its July
1995 issue, a prestigious Israeli architectural magazine, Architecture of Israel, published a fourteen-page article on the Mount
Carmel Projects in Hebrew and English, with beautiful color
photographs. Dedicated to the work of architect Fariborz Sahba
and focusing on his design of the Baha'i House of Worship in

MOUNT CARMEL pROJECTS

Members of
the Universal
House of
Justice visit the
Mount Carmel
Projects in
December
1995.

India as well as the terraces of the Shrine of the Bab, the article
also provided information about the history of the Baha'i Faith.
While the beauty of the terraces of the Shrine of the Bab-called
"the hanging gardens" by the Israeli media- has often been
extolled, this article highlighted the contribution of the Terraces
Project to the environment of Haifa, saying: "The eternal shine
of the dome of the Baha'i Shrine is one of the best known
features of Haifa. In the past few years the construction of the
'Hanging Gardens' has begun- a garden strip of 400-meter
width, its foot in the German Colony in lower down-town, and its
head at the Panorama Towers on Carmel. With the completion of
this project in about four years, these gardens will not only be
one of Haifa's significant urban projects but also the most
protected 'green lung' in the country."
To the worldwide Baha'i community the projects on Mount
Carmel are much more than "significant urban projects." Their
realization constitutes "part of a process clearly perceived by
Shoghi Effendi as synchronizing with two no less significant
developments : the establishment of the Lesser Peace and the
evolution of Baha'i national and local institutions.'' 3 It is this
understanding which impels the pursuance "with deliberate speed
[of] the gigantic building projects on God's Holy Mountain."4 But
the speedy pursuit of these "gigantic building projects" would

3. The Universal House of Justice, Riqvan 150 B.E. (April 1993).
4. Ibid.

not have been possible without the tremendous material sacrifices of the followers of Baha'u'lhih in every land. In response
to the summons to sacrifice issued by the Universal House of
Justice, the Baha'is of the world "stepped forward and made
sacrificial offerings for the furtherance of this vast undertaking
so highly extolled by the beloved Guardian," 5 and the goal
of raising 74 million dollars during the Three Year Plan was
achieved.

5. The Universal House of Justice, in a letter dated 20 June 1995, transmitted
electronically to all National Spiritual Assemblies.

v,THE
1EARrN
REVIEW

The Three Year Plan

R i<;lvan 1996 saw the conclusion of the worldwide Baha'i community's Three Year Plan for the expansion and consolidation
of the Baha'i Faith around the globe and the inauguration of a
Four Year Plan, which will conclude at Ri<;lvan 2000. The process
of expansion and consolidation has been pursued through a series
of international plans, which took their original impetus from the
Faith's sacred writings, particularly 'Abdu'l-Baha's Tablets of
the Divine Plan, and from the directives of Shoghi Effendi. Since
its establishment in 1963, the Universal House of Justice has
launched a series of such initiatives, through the course of which
national Baha'i communities have assumed increasing responsibility for formulating and II?-Onitoring plans of their own. Systematic
advances in numerical strength and the increasing maturity of
its worldwide institutions have been two great benefits of this
approach.
The Three Year Plan, which ran from April 1993 to April
1996, brought many notable achievements which are highlighted

throughout The Baha'i World volumes covering this period. The
"qualitatively enriched community" which emerged from this
period could take pride, for example, in the progress made on the
Mount Carmel Projects at the Baha'i World Centre in Haifanot only in the visible progress in construction and beautification
of the site but in the unity of purpose attained by Baha'is all over
the world, who contributed generously to ensure the Projects'
steady progress.
In the realm of expansion, twelve new National Spiritual
Assemblies were formed over the three years; thousands of
international traveling teachers and pioneers arose; systematic
approaches were made to collective teaching endeavors, and
long-term teaching projects were set in motion in a number of
countries. The International Teaching Centre encouraged the
development of human resources around the globe and increased
access to the Baha'i sacred writings of Baha'is in many localities
through its promotion of the core literature program, which has
made large quantities of a few essential titles available inexpensively in a wide range of languages.
Indigenous Baha'is assumed more responsibility for teaching
and consolidating their peoples; even in troubled areas of the
globe, such as Angola, Cambodia, Liberia, and Sierra Leone,
Baha'i activities carried on; newly established Baha'i communities in the countries of the former Eastern Bloc distinguished
themselves by their aptitude in administrating the affairs of the
Faith; and Baha'i communities on islands around the world were
very active. Contributions of Baha'i youth, both to the Faith itself
and to the general development of society, were another feature
of this plan.
Over the three years of the plan, Baha'i communities became
more deeply involved with social and economic development,
particularly education, as, in one case, Baha'is took on the
management of seven schools in an area; in Africa, Baha'i communities in exile because of political unrest continued to
work on projects that would make them self-sufficient. Other
particular areas of focus included the advancement of women
and pilot literacy projects.

YEAR IN REVIEW

The public face of the Baha'i community became better
known, too, as external affairs activities multiplied around the
world. Increasing numbers of public officials invited the Baha'is
to participate in activities and discussions related to the concerns
of the day, and initiatives were taken by Baha'i communities to
influence government action. Hand of the Cause Amatu'l-Baha
Rul).iyyih Khanum participated in events such as the Summit on
the Alliance between Religions and Conservation, sponsored by
the World Conference on Religion and Peace, and the Fourth
International Dialogue on the Transition to a Global Society at
the University of Maryland in the US. The establishment of
academic programs, the use of the arts, and the Baha'i International Community's participation in United Nations conferences
in Copenhagen and Beijing and its contributions to the UN 50
celebrations were other high points of external affairs activities
during the three years.
With regard to the enrichment of the spiritual lives of Baha'is
around the world, the Three Year Plan saw, notably, the release
of the first Persian-language edition of the Kitab-i-Aqdas, the
Most Holy Book ofBaha'u'llah, which contains Arabic text with
supplementary material translated into Persian from the English
edition. The English edition, published in 1992 and accompanied
by an extensive body of annotations based on the guidance of
'Abdu'l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi, serves as the basis for translations into other languages. As much of the original translation of
the text into English, as well as the supplementary material, was
rendered by Shoghi Effendi, the appointed interpreter of the
Baha'i writings, it provides a unique guide for other translations.
In addition, the law of I:Iuququ'llah gained growing support
around the world, as Baha'is everywhere recognized this significant law for the benefit of humankind. Dr. 'Ali-Mul).ammad
Varqa, Trustee of the I:Iuququ'llah, took up residence in the Holy
land, joining the only other two living Hands of the Cause
of God, Amatu'l-Baha Rul).iyyih Khanum and Mr. 'Ali-Akbar
Furutan.
With the stage set for further advances during the Four Year
Plan which will carry it to the end of the century and millennium,

the Baha'i community stands poised to greatly expand its
membership and address the needs of this turbulent age of
transition for humankind.
The Year in Review
The year beginning at Ri<;lvan 1995 and ending at Ri<;lvan 1996
was characterized by the intense efforts of Baha'is around
the world to fulfill the goals they had set for themselves for
the Three Year Plan. Through systematic, energetic, creative
activity, the Baha'i community grew to a new level of capacity
and unity of purpose. An increase in the assumption of responsibility by indigenous Baha'is for the functioning of their own
communities, outstanding contributions on the part of the youth,
the initiating by Baha'is at the grass roots of much-needed development projects, greater involvement in the efforts of society at
large to address various issues, and the steady development of
Baha'i communities and administrative institutions- these were
some of the hallmarks of this past year.
The survey of Baha'i activity which follows does not attempt
to be comprehensive. It is intended rather to provide a general
sense of the myriad efforts of Baha'is from hundreds of national
communities and thousands of localities to contribute to the
advancement of the Faith's aims. Baha'i participation in some
specific events has been reported in detail in separate articles:
observances of the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations, the
Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, the various
activities of the Baha'i International Community, and the Conference of the Continental Boards of Counsellors.
Material is arranged in the survey within the following
categories: Hands of the Cause, prominent people, children,
youth, women, cultural events and indigenous Baha'is, race unity,
peace, interfaith activities, environment, social and economic
development, involvement in the life of society, recognition,
landmark occasions, sharing the message of Baha'u'llah, institutes, scholarship, and the arts.
Hands ofthe Cause
Each of the surviving three Hands of the Cause of God plays a
critical role in Baha'i community life, encouraging and inspiring

YEAR IN REVIEW

Baha'is through their visits and the books they have written.
While in residence in Haifa, they meet with the stream of Baha'i
pilgrims to the holy places of the Baha'i Faith. Among their
important duties is advising the Universal House of Justice and
serving as members of the International Teaching Centre.
Highlights of activities in which they engaged this year are
detailed below.
The Hand of the Cause Amatu'l-Baha Rul).iyyih Khanum led
the four official representatives of the Baha'i Faith at the Summit
on the Alliance between Religions and Conservation held in the
United Kingdom from 29 April to 4 May 1995. The Summit was
convened in Windsor Castle, under the patronage of His Royal
Highness Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh, and attracted
many prominent representatives of nine religions (see pp. 132-
33 for further details).
From 29 June to 2 July, Rul).iyyih Khanum was present, as the
honored guest, at the Regional Baha'i Teaching Conference held
in Tirana, Albania. About three hundred Baha'is attended the
event from 18 different countries, many of them leaving directly
from the conference to travel and share Baha'u'llah's message
with people in the region. While Rul).iyyih Khanum was in
Albania, she received a courtesy call from the President's
daughter and granted a number of interviews to radio, television,
and newspaper reporters.
From 14 to 17 October, she was featured as the keynote
speaker at the Fourth International Dialogue on the Transition to
a Global Society, held at the University of Maryland at College
Park (see pp. 102- 03).
Additional activities included her address on 22 May to a
committee meeting of the House of Lords in the United Kingdom, called by Lord Clinton-Davis; her participation in a Baha'i
conference held in Fiuggi, Italy, in July, at which time she also
addressed the opening session of a summer school for youth that
followed the conference; and a 31 October interview broadcast
on the Persian Service of Voice of America.
In Azerbaijan, the National Spiritual Assembly reached an
agreement with the Education Ministry for use of the book
Mothers, Fathers and Children, written by Hand of the Cause

'Ali-Akbar Furutan, as a textbook for moral education in schools
and colleges. The book has now been published in eight
languages and is widely available as an assistance in the raising
of children. This year, as ever, Baha'is who visited the Baha'i
holy places in Israel came away with special memories of Mr.
Furutan, whose unflagging resolve to join their evening gatherings and shower upon them his love and vast experience has
won the hearts of thousands over the course of many years.
Hand of the Cause of God Dr. 'Ali-Mul;l,ammad Varqa served
as the representative of the Universal House of Justice at the
flrst National Convention of the Baha'is of Sicily, held in
Palermo from 21 to 25 April 1995 (see pp. 52- 53). He also
attended the National Convention of Italy, offering encouragement and support to that community. Dr. Varqa, who is the
Trustee of I:Iuququ'llah, took up residence in the Holy Land this
year, joining Amatu'l-Baha Rul).iyyih Khanum and Mr. Furutan
in bringing inspiration to pilgrims and visitors and to those
serving at the Baha'i World Centre.
Prominent People
This year the Baha'i World Centre saw a steady succession of
visits from various ambassadors, embassy officials, and other
notable people. On 5 January 1996, Lord Clinton-Davis, a crossbencher in the House of Lords in the United Kingdom, came,
accompanied by Lady Clinton-Davis and Eric Mark, Head of the
Parliamentary Commission. Visiting ambassadors included Sven
Erik Svedman ofNorway, on 11 May 1995; Paulino Romero of
Panama, on 2 June; Martin Indyk of the United States, on 11
July; Wojciech Adamiecki of the Republic of Poland, on 13
February 1996; and Arto Tanner of Finland, on 8 April. Officials
were received from the Israeli embassy in New Delhi, India; and
from the embassies in Israel of China, Poland, and the Republic
of Korea. Other visitors included Andrew Joseph, Representative to the United Nations of the Director-General of the World
Health Organization, on 17 May 1995; Professor Yehuda Haiut,
president of Haifa University in Israel, along with about nineteen other professors and administrators from the university, the
Mayor of Haifa, and other municipal staff members, on 29

YEAR IN RE VIEW

November; the Mayor of Haifa again on 26 January 1996, with
40 trustees of the Haifa Foundation; and on 12 April, Nichiko
Niwano, president ofRissho Kosei-Kai in Japan and president of
the World Conference on Religion and Peace, along with Mrs.
Yoshie Niwano and a delegation from Rissho Kosei-Kai.
Several Baha'i communities had the honor of hosting
government officials this year. President Amata Kabua of the
Marshall Islands visited the Baha' i House of Worship in Apia,
Western Samoa, on 3 December 1995 . President Kabua met with
several members of the National Spiritual Assembly of Samoa,
attended the Sunday service, and gave a speech in which he
described his association with the Baha'i Faith and its members.
President Teburoro Tito of Kiribati attended a reception held in
his honor by the Baha'is of the Mariana Islands during his visit to
Guam on 14 January 1996. The reception included a luncheon
and an address to the gathering by President Tito. Also in the
Marianas, the First Lady of
Saipan, the Honorable Grace
Tenorio, was one of about 150

......
~'!~
people to attend the Naw-Ruz
.·"!~
party held on that island .
•••
..
•••.. •••
•••
•••••
•a RillS
m• .-'-n•_'!.
Baha'is have also continued
their efforts to make contact
with governmental leaders and
heads of state, in order to offer
to them the unique solutions to
world problems contained in
the teachings of their Faith. A
representative of the National
Spiritual Assembly of the United Kingdom participated in
the Commonwealth Day Observance at Westminster Abbey in
Visit of Senator Nick Bolkus, Austral- the presence of Her Majesty
ian Federal Minister for Immigration
and Ethnic Affairs, to the Baha'i Queen Elizabeth II, held on 11
House of Worship in Sydney, 26 March 1996. The words of
November 1995. Baha'u'llah were included in

THE BAHA'I WORLD

the service for the first time and were broadcast around the world
by the BBC World Service. As in previous years, the National
Assembly's representative was introduced to the Queen and His
Royal Highness Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh.
On 21 April 1995, a Baha'i group, including a number of
youth, met with the President of Romania, the Minister of Youth
and Recreation, the Representative of Religions in the Parliament, the Representative of Minority Rights in Romania, the
officials of the Students' Union Against Racial Prejudice, and
other prominent government officials. Baha'i teachings on the
unity of humankind were offered to the President.
A meeting was held with President Nelson Mandela of South
Africa this year in order to present him with a statement
on overcoming racial prejudice. A Baha'i delegation also visited
President Bakili Muluzi of Malawi, on 3 August 1995. The
Baha'is briefly informed the President about the history and
principles of their Faith, and presented him with a copy of The
Promise of World Peace and other Baha'i books. The President
responded by expressing his happiness that the Baha'is are
helping the government's program for alleviating poverty in
rural areas, and he encouraged them to work on literacy and
primary health care programs.
On the evening of2 May 1995, members of the Baha'i School
Management Team of the Marshall Islands, together with
members of the Schools Project Board and others, paid a
courtesy visit to President Amata Kabua and the First Lady
at their residence. The purpose of the visit was for the team
members, who were all non-Marshallese, to greet the Head
of State of the country, to express their appreciation for his
continued support and guidance, and to update him on the
progress of the Schools Project (see The Baha'i World 1994- 95,
p. 128).
On 31 January 1996, the nine members of the Spiritual
Assembly of Puerto Rico met with Governor Pedro Rosello in
his office. Members of the Assembly offered the services of
the Assembly and of the community to the government, while
emphasizing the non-political character of the Baha'i Faith. The
Baha'is of Namibia presented information on the Baha'i Faith,

yEAR IN REVIEW

including the statement Baha 'u 'llah, to a number of regional
governors, council members, senior ministry officials and tribal
chiefs. Additionally, on 25 April 1995, the First Lady, Mrs.
Kovambo Nujoma, visited the home of a Baha'i for tea and to
receive the statement Baha 'u 'llah and other literature on the
Baha'i Faith.
A Baha'i was asked to perform a song during the official celebrations held to mark the anniversary of the birth of President
Theodora Obiang Nguema Mbasogo of Equatorial Guinea. After
the song, the .youth personally gave to the President copies
of Call to the Nations, The Promise of World Peace, a book
of Baha'i prayers in vernacular languages, and a book on
consultation.
Her Highness Princess To' oa Tosi Malietoa, daughter of the
Head of State of Western Samoa, paid a visit to Fiji in August.
Some 600 people received her during her stay, including eight
high chiefs and the elders of their tribes, to whom she presented
copies of The Prosperity of Humankind. In addition, she talked
about the Baha'i Faith with prominent women and leading
members of the government. Her Highness's tour was organized
as part of the Ocean of Light Project.
Children
In the Baha'i Faith, deeds of service and sacrifice belong to all
alike, regardless of age. Children, too, are summoned to serve
others, to share Baha'u'llah's message, and to work for the
betterment of humanity. Baha'is believe that it is through good
character and a sincere desire to serve humankind that the
benefits of intellectual development can be revealed. For this
reason, community efforts to train and educate Baha'i children
begin with moral classes.
The Baha'i community of Niamey, Niger, takes advantage of
the power of universal participation to bring Baha'i teachings to its
young people. "Almost every Baha'i in town," according to one
account, "is either a parent, a transporter, a teacher, a student, or
a host to a Baha'i class." Monthly study sessions are also held for
the teachers during which a variety of teaching strategies are
presented. The Baha'i community ofYigo in the Mariana Islands
hosts regular Baha'i children's classes for almost 50 children

of various religious backgrounds. Parents of children who are not
Baha'is often observe the classes. Two communal preschools
managed by Baha'is in Managua, Nicaragua, received approval
from the Ministry of Education to teach the Baha'i Faith in classes
through use of prayers, songs, celebrations of Baha'i Holy Days,
and various texts.
In Panama, Oscar
Torres Wilde, a Baha'i,
conducted a seminar
on moral leadership at
the Faculty of Education of the University
of Panama which attracted the participation
~~~~~~~~~===a of various professors
Participants in a Baha 'i teacher-training course and students. A moral
held on 18 May 1995 in Myanmar. education seminar took
place from 9 to 11 June
1995 in Bangkok, Thailand, attended by Baha'is from various
ASEAN countries. Quito, in the northern sierras of Ecuador, was
the scene for a workshop on moral leadership, which took place
on 15 and 16 July 1995. The executive body of the Solomon
Islands radio station has approved the use of The Virtues Guide
for the content of a radio program sponsored by the Baha'i
community.
In India, the Inspector General of Prisons expressed to the
National Spiritual Assembly her desire that the Baha'is take
charge of training trainers for a moral education program that
would reach more than 8,000 inmates in four prisons. In addition, the Baha'is were requested to provide audiovisual materials
and books, as well as to make monthly visits to speak about
spiritual matters to a general meeting of prisoners.
The Baha'is of Venezuela have developed classroom material
for moral education in primary and secondary schools, which,
in September 1995, were adopted by a regional school board.
Principles of moral education were offered by Baha'is to school
teachers in Costa Rica, Macau, Taiwan, Peru, and Russia (Chita).
In January 1996, Universidad Nur, a large private university in

YEAR IN REVIEW

Bolivia, celebrated its tenth anniversary with a program held in
Santa Cruz. The inspiration for Nur comes from the Baha'i Faith.
The first Baha'i primary school of Madagascar was inaugurated
on 29 May 1995 in Beravina Lovasoa, under the patronage of
Mrs. Therese Zafy, the First Lady. The National Minister of Education and a number of
other dignitaries also
attended the ceremony.
In Tuvalu, a Baha'i
kindergarten which is
registered by the government opened this
year in the National
Baha'i Center. In February 1996, the Local
Spiritual Assembly of Universidad Nur in Santa Cruz, Bolivia,
Kwun Tong, in Hong celebrated its tenth anniversary this year.
Kong, held its first children's moral education class, in an estate
facility. Before approving the Baha'i classes, representatives of
the estate observed how the Baha'is conducted a similar class
and reviewed the proposed curriculum.
In Finland, the Baha'i Child Education Committee organized
a Nordic Conference on Child Education, which was held in
Marieharnn from 13 to 16 April 1996. The theme was "Civic
Education for an Emerging Global Society", and attendees came
from Finland, Norway and Sweden. The Malawi Government's
Ministry of Education and UNICEF invited Mrs. Nahid
Mazloum, a Baha'i of Malawi, to be the interim chairperson of
the Sensitization Sub-Committee for launching a program of
Malawi's Education for All. The launching day, 6 September
1995, was attended by the State President and the First Lady, as
well as other dignitaries. The Malawi Broadcasting Corporation
aired the opening prayer, offered by a Baha'i child and then subsequently sung by a group of Baha'i children.
On 21 and 22 November 1995 the Baha'i community of
Mongolia, representing the Baha'i International Community,
took part in a meeting in Ulaan Baatar of nongovernmental organizations whose aim was to promote the Convention on the

Rights of the Child. The event was organized by the Mongolian
Development Center, an agency based on Baha'i principles.
Youth
From the earliest days of the Baha'i Faith's history, youth have
played a special role in its promotion. Today's youth continue to
contribute significantly by traveling, offering periods of fulltime service, and engaging in special projects.
Many Baha'i communities, in their efforts to foster positive
action on the part of their youth, have established traveling
performance groups known as Baha'i youth workshops (see The
Baha'i World 1994- 95, pp. 172- 77).
In July, the Pillars of Peace Youth Group from Alberta,
Canada, attended the Arctic Knights Conference in Yellowknife,
Northwest Territories, Canada, and performed on several occasions: at the conference, at a downtown mall, at an alcohol and
drug detoxification center, on the Hay River Reserve and in
Kakisa, a native community. Their downtown performance was
covered by CBC television and radio (the national media) and by
the local newspaper, resulting in the group's being the lead story
on the prime time news hour. At the native gathering held in
Kakisa the youth were officially welcomed by the grand chief
and invited to stay and participate in the council, which enabled
them to perform and attend workshops.
Baha'i Youth in Motion, a workshop in Ethiopia, carried out a
well-received performance in July in the area of Nure, followed
by a banquet lunch held at the local Baha'i center. As a result,
the coordinator of the American Peace Corps requested that the
show be staged for his staff of 30 at the Teachers' College. The
youth agreed and ultimately performed for more than 300
people, including teachers and students at the college. The youth
also performed in the town of Awas sa, where over one thousand
people came to see the workshop in action, including members
of the media.
Other youth workshops which were active this year include
the Y akutsk Dance Workshop in Y akutia, Russia; Awake in the
Netherlands; the Maui Youth Workshop in Maui, Hawaii;
Panacea, composed of youth serving atthe Baha'i World Centre,

which traveled and performed for two weeks in Hungary; the
Letters of the Living Project, which performed in Wallsend in the
United Kingdom; the Youth for One World workshop from New
Zealand, which traveled to Japan; the Dizzy Dance Theatre in
Australia; and the Anchorage Baha'i Youth Workshop in Alaska.
In addition to the efforts of youth workshops, youth engaged
in a number of special endeavors to share the message of
Baha'u'llah with the people of various areas. In the Sparks of
Peace project, Baha'i youth from all over the Caribbean went to
Barbados for a two-week institute to study the Baha'i teachings,
and then split into five teams and spent two weeks teaching the
Baha'i Faith in Barbados, Tobago, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Antigua, and Jamaica. A "youth movement" initiated in
Orissa, India, resulted in the election of five new Local Spiritual
Assemblies through an ambitious campaign covering 42 villages
and cities in thirteen days. A youth group formed in the Czech
Republic, engaging in such activities as regular visits to a home
for the elderly, street teaching, and planning Holy Day observances. Anthems of Unity, their youth workshop, began offering
performances. In Trinidad, two special teams were formed which
focused on teaching the Faith and visiting Baha'i communities to
stimulate and encourage them.
The Youth for One World
BaM 'i youth workshop
from New Zealand
performing on 9 August
1995 in the park in
Nagasaki, Japan, which
marks the place where
an atomic bomb was
dropped exactly fifty
years before.

The Baha'i youth of Zaire organized two days of reflection on
23 and 24 July 1995 on the theme of "Supporting Our Youth."
The event took place in the Regional Baha'i Center of Lubumbashi and was attended by over 200 people from various denominations and nongovernmental organizations, as well as the local

THE BAHA'I WORLD

Mauritian Baha'i
youth visiting the
President of the Republic
and presenting to him
a proposed contribution
to a charter for the
youth ofMauritius,
July 1995.

authorities. Three young people traveled through Portugal to
share the Baha'i Faith, visiting Maia, Viana do Castelo, and
Braga. The youth in Wa, Ghana, have formed an environmental
group to help neighbors clean their surroundings free of charge
and a football club as a way of teaching the Faith. Young
Baha'is have been active in Seoul and Taejon, South Korea. A
peace club and a dance workshop have been organized in each
city and include the participation of both Baha'i youth and those
of other religions.
Members of the European Baha'i Youth Council and youth
from the American Baha'i community participated in "Youth
'95: Alliance for Progressive Global Change," a conference held
in San Francisco, in the United States, from 17 to 20 June 1995.
The event's chief organizers were Project Global 2000 and the
World Federalist Association. It was also cosponsored by 52
international and national organizations and United Nations
agencies, including the European Baha'i Youth Council itself.
Participants explored possible United Nations reform initiatives
in light of the recommendations contained in the report of the
Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood.
The Youth Council also sponsored a workshop on "Global Consciousness and the Baha'i Faith," presenting the Baha'i view of
the individual's relationship to society and the world.
Eighty-one young Baha'is from six localities attended the
Youth Music and Art Festival held on Majuro, in the Marshall
Islands, from 25 to 30 December 1995. The enthusiasm and
energy from the festival carried over to the National Deepening

YEAR IN REVIEW

Conference, also organized by the Youth Committee, which took
place from 1 to 3 January 1996 on Majuro and which was also
attended by the 81 youth.
The first Baha: i Youth Camp was held in Georgia from 6 to 10
July 1995 "amidst luscious greenery, the environment being most
suitable for meditation, prayer and contemplation." Fifty youth
from all over Georgia attended the event. Baha'i youth conferences
were held in Bolivia, England, Germany, India, Madagascar, Malaysia, the Mariana Islands, and South Africa.
In addition to youth gatherings with diverse activities, Baha'i
communities often hold special study institutes for youth. The
Baha'i community of Argentina held a course entitled "Future
Society" as one means of educating the youth. Some 25 facilitators traveled throughout the country during the year to hold
classes. The aim is to transform the youth through the knowledge
of Baha'i texts and the promotion of learning. Youth study
institutes were also held in Australia and Ireland.
Women
A particular emphasis is placed in the Baha'i writings on the
special contributions women will make to the peace process.
This fact and the principle of the equality of men and women
necessitate that systematic efforts be made both to assist women
to reach their potential and to build families which assist this
process.
Baha'i women and men took part in a workshop in Colombo,
Sri Lanka, on 30 September 1995 with a theme of "Health,

Singaporean Baha'i
youth Jordan Melic
presenting France 's
UN ambassador with
a copy of A World in
Our Hands, which was
commissioned by the
UN and which he
coedited.

THE BAHA.'f WORLD

Harmony, and Human Rights of Women," sponsored by the
United Nations Development Program. The participants of the
Fifth Swiss Congress of Women, held from 19 to 21 January
1996, passed a resolution based on the Baha'i submission which
calls upon the Swiss government to include education for peace
in the normal school curriculum, giving due consideration to the
question of human rights and violence-free conflict resolution.
Six members of the Union Luxembourgeoise des Femmes
Baha'ies attended and presented a written statement to a public
hearing on the status of women held by the Parliament of
Luxembourg on 29 January and 2 February 1996. At the International Women's Conference held in Belarus from 24 to 26
November 1995, the Baha'i model of consultation was hailed as
an effective tool for conflict resolution. The Baha'i Office for
the Advancement of Women of the Eastern Caroline Islands was
represented at an in-country workshop on counseling and interpersonal communication skills which was held on Yap from 11
to 15 December 1995. Swedish Baha'i women were active and
noticeable participants in the Women's Day ceremonies on 8
March 1996 in their country. Then from 19 to 21 April 1996
the Baha'is of Orebro, Sweden, participated in an exhibition
focusing on the role of women in enterprises, held by the
Women-Vision organization. A twenty-minute video entitled
Waves of One Sea was produced by Token Productions on the
women, and particularly Baha'is, from all over the continent of
Africa who had gathered in Dakar, Senegal, in November 1994,
for the 5th Preparatory Conference for the United Nations Fourth
World Conference on Women. The film was broadcast during
the Beijing conference on 7 September 1995 by the 25 national
affiliate broadcasters of WETV, a global access television
network based in Canada.
Baha'i communities are increasingly organizing events aimed
at encouraging, educating, and empowering women. The Olinga
Institute in Kerala, India, reported that its fifth course specially
designed to promote the empowerment of women was held from
24 to 26 November 1995. Participants included many families.
The Baha'i women ofikot Oko Ibon, Nigeria, seoured a piece
of land to farm, using the proceeds to support women's activities

YEAR IN REVIEW

in the state. The women also conducted an institute on the Baha'i
Faith and family life.
In Kenya, the ninth annual National Women's Conference
was held from 10 to 13 August 1995 in Nakuru. The theme of the
conference was "Women and Peace." Women of the Bulgarian
Baha'i community held the first National Women's Seminar this
year, organized by the European Task Force for Women. The
theme of the seminar was "Encouragement." In the Baltic States,
a seminar was held incorporating the three themes of "Encouragement, Transformation, and Service." The event was attended
by five representatives of the three Baltic State Baha'i communities, who gathered in Kaunas on 5 and 6 August 1995. Baha'i
women in the Czech Republic held a seminar on 18 and 19
November designed to encourage Baha'i women to arise and use
their talents to serve the Baha'i Faith.
The European Task Force for Women sponsored a training
course to assist Baha'i women in "Becoming Ensigns of Peace."
Held in Acuto, Italy, the course attracted 73 women from 26
countries.
The Minister of Social Affairs and Promotion of Women in
Chad, Mrs. Achta Selgue, approached the Baha'i community of
N'Djamena this year to ask for help with organization of a
program for Pan-African Women's Day. Consequently, the
Baha'i community hosted a public meeting for prayer and
meditation and participated in a round table discussion about the
status of women and eradication of poverty.
In honor of International Women's Day this year, the Baha'i
women of the Central African Republic offered an exhibition of

This tapestry, designed and
~. ,.,.
assembled by Vickie Hu
Poirier, a renowned
American Baha'i artist,
was displayed for the first
time at the Fourth World
Conference on Women in
Beijing Baha 'f women
from around the world
contributed to the piece.

sewing, soap-making and other handicrafts, as well as a display
of books on women, and made a presentation on women in the
Baha'i world community during activities sponsored by the
Organization of Women of Central Africa.
In Malawi, the Local Spiritual Assembly of Lilongwe
sponsored a reception in celebration of International Women's
Day on 8 March 1996. Participants included various people of
prominence in Malawian society, including Mrs. F. Malewezi,
the wife of the Vice-President.
In Gabon, a public conference on equality of rights of women
and men was held in Libreville on 7 March, organized by the
Local Spiritual Assembly to observe International Women's
Day. Radio Africa No. 1, which is broadcast in all francophone
countries of Africa, covered the event. Then on 8 March, a
Baha'i speaker kicked off a seminar organized by the Ministry of
Women's Status in recognition of International Women's Day.
The President of the Republic was in attendance, as well as the
Minister of National Education, the wife of the Prime Minister
and other personalities, the media and an audience of nearly
300 women from all over the country. The Baha'i address was
covered by a television channel and by l 'Union, the national
daily newspaper.
In Bariloche, Argentina, five distinguished women were honored by the Baha'i community on 8 March to commemorate
International Women's Day. The women were also interviewed
for a program on a popular radio station. The National Spiritual
Assembly of India's Office for the Advancement of Women, in
collaboration with the All India Women's Conference, observed
International Women's Day by holding a conference at the
National Baha'i Center on 15 March. The theme chosen was
"Women and Men: Partnership for a Healthy Planet."
Various Baha'i communities have arranged other types of
events to promote the advancement of women and their participation in the peace process. In Nepal, David Walker has won
acclaim for his work with women who are illiterate. Reports
indicate that as Regional Director of PACT, a USAID organization, he has been instrumental in bringing literacy to 150,000

YEAR IN REVIEW

women a year in Nepal. His efforts were the subject of a documentary video, part of the Visionaries program by the Public
Broadcasting System in the United States. Mr. Walker credits the
Baha'i Faith as the source of his inspiration for this work.
On Rarotonga, in the Cook Islands, the Baha'is held a public
meeting on 9 October 1995 on the topic of the equality of women
and men. More than thirty people attended the event, including a
number of the island's prominent women.
A conference entitled "Active Role of Women in the New
World Order," held in Adana, Turkey, on 7 April1996, attracted
550 participants, including members of the Union of Adana
Women's Associations, and on 9 April a live program was aired
on local television in which Baha'i views were discussed.
L' Association baha'ie de Femmes in France hosted on 20
January the symposium "Women- A Constructive Complementarity," held in Clemenceau Hall, at the Palais du Luxembourg,
the seat of the French Senate.
Baha'i women's committees all over the world have given
special attention to family life, believing that the condition of
women in society and family functioning powerfully affect each
other. In Ethiopia, the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs
invited the participation of the Baha'is in a two-day national
workshop on the situation of displaced/dislocated families and
street children, on 29 and 30 June 1995.
Chile hosted two events regarding women and family this
year. On 3 and 4 June 1995 a conference in Labranza attracted
participants from both north and south. On 30 September and 1
October the Local Spiritual Assembly of Puerto Montt hosted a
meeting with the assistance of the Committee for Women and the
Family for the South and the Baha'is of Bollilco, Loncopulle,
Osomo, Temuco, and Valdivia.
Reports were received of two fora held in Malaysia on the
subject of the family. The Office for the Advancement of
Women organized a public forum on laws pertaining to the
family, held 17 June 1995, in which the Minister of National
Unity and Social Development participated. In Ipoh, the Local
Spiritual Assembly sponsored a National Forum on Family on 1

THE BAHA.'f WORLD

October. The Baha'is of Sri Lanka also related news of two such
events in their community this year. On 31 December a regional
family conference was held in Colombo, and another was held in
Adams Peak Estate on 7 January 1996.
The National Baha'i Women's Committee of Albania held
a conference from 27 to 29 October 1995 on the theme of
"Man, Woman, Family, Society: In Search of a New Paradigm."
Special efforts were made to include both women and men in
this conference, and keynote talks and workshops were offered
by Albanian professionals and Baha'i speakers from Europe.
Albanian State Television filmed part of the opening evening
session, brief segments of which were shown on prime time news.
The special concern within Baha'i communities for eradicating
violence within families spurred seminars and conferences across
the globe over the past year. On 5 November 1995 a symposium on creating a violence-free society was held by the Baha'i
community of Yokohama, Japan. During the event the need was
cited to create unity-based families rather than families based on
power and pleasure.
In Antigua, in the East Leeward Islands, a symposium was
held from 24 to 26 May 1995 to consult on strategies for
eradicating family violence. Representatives from eleven Caribbean nations, the United Nations Children's Emergency Fund
(UNICEF), and the Caribbean Community Secretariat gathered
for this event, which was cosponsored by the Baha'is of the East
Leeward Islands, the United Nations Development Fund for
Women (UNIFEM), and UNICEF.
On 15 April 1996 a seminar was held in Nuku'alofa, Tonga,
on the "Violence-Free Family," attended by the Honorable Prince
Ma'atu and his wife the Honorable Alaileula, who is the granddaughter of the Malietoa, the Head of State of Western Samoa;
the speaker of the Legislative Assembly; the High Commissioner of Tonga to the United Kingdom; and the Head of the
United States Peace Corps. Drs. Moojan and Wendi Momen,
Baha'is from the United Kingdom, spoke about the causes of
violence in the family and creating peaceful families. The
seminar was also noteworthy in that it was the first time the issue
of family violence had been addressed in that manner in Tonga.

YEAR IN REVIEW

In Gaborone, Botswana, .a conference was arranged by the
Baha'i National Women and Child Education Committee which
was entitled "Creating a Violence-Free Family," to follow up on
issues raised during the United Nations Year of the Family. The
formal program was followed by music, folk dancing, and a short
dramatic presentation by the Gaborone Baha'i youth.
The tragedies befalling families in war-tom areas of the world
inevitably affect their most vulnerable membe~s in especially
brutal ways, as is apparent in the former Yugoslavia. The National Spiritual Assembly of the United States has participated
in efforts to bring the issues of concern to women to the attention
of those implementing the Dayton Accords. Because of these
efforts, Katharine Cosby and Firuz Kazemzadeh of the United
States Baha'i community were invited by First Lady Hillary
Rodham Clinton to a coffee reception at the White House on 29
January 1996 in recognition of ongoing humanitarian assistance to the people of Bosnia. The work of integrating women's
concerns and issues more fully into the Bosnian peace process
continues.
Cultural Events and Indigenous Bah a'is
Members of the Baha'i community of Canada participated in the
first Sacred Assembly held between aboriginal and non-aboriginal peoples from 6 to 9 December 1995 in Hull, Quebec. The
Baha'i presence in the Assembly received media coverage in the
form of three interviews for the official video, a television and
a radio interview, and the airing by the Inuit Broadcasting
Corporation of the Pow-Wow Eskimo Drum performance given
by a Baha'i, his presentation about the Faith, and an interview in
the Inuktitut language.
On 24 and 25 November 1995, the Baha'is of Malaysia held a
cultural festival in the Kapit Division, which included performances of Iban cultural dances, the reciting of "pantun" (poems),
and field events for women and children.
The Baha'i community of Coronado, Costa Rica, organized a
celebration of the Day of the Cultures which was attended by
about 1,500 people, including many school children. The highlight of the event was a performance by a group of Guaymi
Baha'is who had traveled from their homes in the hills near the

Panamanian border to the program's site near the city of San
Jose.
Approximately one thousand Inuit people from Greenland,
Canada, Chokotka (Russia) and Alaska converged on Nome,
Alaska, from 24 to 30 July 1995 in order to participate in the
Inuit Circumpolar Conference. The Nome Baha'i community
contributed significantly towards the success of the event.
The Pacific Horizons International Conference, held in
Auckland, New Zealand, from 10 to 13 January 1996, attracted
over 1,500 Baha'is from 26 countries. The conference program
was a blend of workshops, keynote speeches, and entertainment,
with a focus on issues that affect indigenous people.
Patricia Locke, who is
a Baha'i from the United
States, is the first Native
American woman to win
a MacArthur Fellowship.
Mrs. Locke served as the
chair of the Indigenous
Women's Caucus at the
Fourth World Conference
on Women in Beijing and
is the executor of an
international institute dealing with Native American
language issues. She has
helped seventeen American Indian nations establish postsecondary institutions on their reservations and has assisted
Indian nations in enacting language, culture, and educational
policies within the area of their jurisdictions.
Race Unity
In the United States and Canada, a great many significant
gatherings were convened in various communities in honor of
Race Unity Day, reflecting those Baha'is' continuing response to
the special appeals addressed to them by 'Abdu'l-Baha and
Shoghi Effendi for their "ceaseless exertions" in addressing this
"most vital and challenging issue." The following are some
representative examples.

YEAR IN REVIEW

Memorable moments from
the Pacific Horizons
Conference in New
Zealand, January 1996:
facing page, a Maori
performance; this page,
from top, a Samoan
group; the children's
presentation;
a performance by
Tongan visitors.

The Baha'is in Salt Lake City, Utah, organized a "Color Me
Human" conference in late June/early July 1995 whose theme
was "raising the first generation free of prejudice." The event
was extremely successful, was attended by members of a number
of Baha'i Youth Workshops, and included the participation of
about eighty Baha'i youth in a local parade. The mayor of Salt
Lake City proclaimed "Color Me Human" week, and the conference concluded with an outdoor festival.
A number of Baha'i communities in Indiana participated in
and hosted celebrations of Race Unity Day. The Bloomington
Baha'is organized festivities in a park which included a presentation by a representative of Indiana University. In Fort Wayne, the
Baha'is took part in the Black Expo, at which the Indian Dawnbreakers Baha'i Youth Workshop performed and invited people
to the next day's Race Unity Day program. Observances were
also held in Gary and Indianapolis.
An observance of Race Unity Day in Peoria, Illinois, called
upon the expertise of Reginald Newkirk, a member of the
National Spiritual Assembly of Canada and a worker in the field
of human rights and race relations for more than two decades.
Mr. Newkirk spoke at a meeting on 10 June 1995 to students and
parents of the group Tomorrow's Scientists, Technicians and
Managers, at which the Central Illinois Baha'i Youth Workshop
also performed. The Mayor of Peoria declared 11 June "Race
Unity Day."
On 10 June the Baha'i community of Jackson-Madison
County, Tennessee, were joined by Baha'is from Henderson and
Decatur counties at the first-ever race unity gathering in the three
neighboring counties, held at Jackson's Highland Park. A city
councilman proclaimed "Race Unity Day" in Jackson.
From 22 to 25 February 1996, the Local Spiritual Assembly
of Charleston, South Carolina, sponsored a conference with the
theme of "Race Unity: A Prescription for the Healing of the
Nation," during which an array of speakers "diagnosed" the
problem of racial disunity and "prescribed" remedies from the
teachings ofBaha'u'llah.
Each year many Baha'i communities in the United States take
part in local events commemorating the life and work of Martin

- - - -- --- - -

YEAR IN REVIEW

Luther King Jr. In Torrance, California, Baha'is made an effort
to unite diverse groups in the city on 14 January 1996 in the
"Revitalize the Dream" event, dedicated to remembering and
recommitting to Dr. King's dream of racial harmony.
Hard work on 1996's Martin Luther King Day events in
Savannah, Georgia, earned the Baha'is an even greater role in the

Participants in a
conference on racial
unity organized by
the Baha'is
of Romania.

future. The Baha'i community was one of the celebration's major
sponsors, alongside various corporations, and Baha'is worked
behind the scenes on several of the weekend's events, including
the annual parade- billed as the nation's largest, as Atlanta's
parade was not held this year. In addition, a Baha'i was named to
the mayor's newly formed Human Relations Commission.
At the end of March 1996, the National Spiritual Assembly of
Canada presented its fourth annual Baha'i Race Unity Award to
Sylvia Hamilton, a noted filmmaker, human rights educator,
published author, and coeditor and contributor to the first-ever
collection on African-Canadian women's history.
Late April 1995 saw more than 30 students from schools
throughout the Cowichan Valley in British Columbia, Canada,
plus more than 70 students from the Maxwell International
Baha'i Secondary School, gather together for a conference
entitled "Healing the Wounds of Racism," held at the Maxwell
School in British Columbia.
For the fourth year in a row, many mayors across Canada
proclaimed "Unity in Diversity Week," a concept originally put
forward by the Baha'i community. Educational fora, multicultural suppers, pancake breakfasts and many arts evenings with

entertainment from representatives of different cultures were
held. The focus of Unity in Diversity Week is to celebrate
diversity as a source of strength and unity.
Efforts to promote race unity are not exclusive to American
and Canadian Baha'i communities. In Bermuda, the Baha'i
community organized a concert in Victoria Park, Hamilton, in
celebration of Race Unity Day. Subsequently, the House of
Assembly of Bermuda voted to send a letter of thanks and congratulations to the Baha'i community.
From 27 May to 3 June 1995, the Baha'i community of
Rockdale, Australia, in association with other concerned groups
in that country, hosted a week of prayer for reconciliation
between non-Aboriginal Australians and Aborigines and Torres
Strait Islanders. The Honorable George Thompsom of the New
South Wales Legislative Assembly, who was asked to give an
address, later spoke in Parliament about the program.
The Albury and Wodonga Baha'i communities of Australia
held their annual multicultural evening on 24 June 1995 to
commemorate National Refugee Week. Held at the W odonga
Civic Center, the event attracted 400 people of 30 different
nationalities. The Honorable Lou Liebermann, Federal Member
for Indi, opened the evening.
On 24 March 1996, the Council of Churches of Leiden, the
Netherlands, held an interreligious meeting on Anti-Racism Day
with the cooperation of the Baha'is of Leiden and Leiderdorp, a
Buddhist group, representatives of several Christian churches,
and a Muslim community. The motto of the event was "Unity in
Diversity." The program included a performance by the Baha'i
youth workshop Awake and the reading of a few Baha'i texts on
the theme.
On 19 August 1995 in Hawaii, as part of the activities for
Aloha Peace Week, which commemorates the end of World War
II, Joy DeGruy Leary offered insights into "Post-Traumatic
Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury" during
a seminar held on the university of Hawaii campus. More than
70 people attended the event. Mrs. Leary, a cultural diversity
consultant and a Baha'i, stated that world peace will only be

yEAR IN REVIEW

established after the long-standing prejudices that separate
people are abolished.
Peace
Innumerable presentations, big and small, are made on the subject of peace each year by Baha'i communities throughout the
world. The following are just a few of the efforts which have
taken place in the Baha'i world this year.
The Baha'is in the Congo played a leading role in the organization of the World Peace Day observance held on 19 September
1995 at the United Nations Information Center in that country.
The Baha'i speaker represented all the national religious communities at the event.
The Baha'is of Quetta, Pakistan, organized a peaGe walk on
17 September 1995, involving about 1,300 students from six
different boys' schools. The walk ended at the Baha'i Center in
Quetta, where 2,000 gas balloons were released.
The Local Spiritual Assembly of Athens, Greece, decided to
create a poster in commemoration of the United Nations International Day of Peace. The text was quoted from 'Abdu'l-Baha,
" ... let us try ... peace, and if the results of peace are bad, then we
can choose ... to go back to the old state of war!" As the Baha'is
put up the posters during September they met with many positive
responses. The quotation was published in Athens News on 19
September 1995.
More than one hundred people attended a celebration of International Peace Day on 17 September 1995 at the Baha'i House of
Worship in Panama City, Panama. The celebration included a
devotional program and presentations on peace.
The Local Spiritual Assembly of Puerto de la Cruz in the
Canary Islands organized a series of activities for World Day of
Prayer for Peace on 24 September. The theme for the effort,
which was supported by the municipality and a number of civic
organizations, was "United for Peace."
The Fourth Festival for International Understanding, organized by Baha'is, was held in Altenkirchen, Germany, on 21
May 1995, with the motto "World Peace through World Unity,"
under the patronage of the Minister of State for the Interior and

Sport in Rhineland-Palatinate. The event was also attended by
the district council president, the mayor and some 450 guests.
This year on World Environment Day, soil from sixteen additional countries was deposited into the Peace Monument in
Brazil. 1 The countries which contributed soil this year were the
Bahamas, Bermuda, Guinea, Jordan, the Democratic People's
Republic of Korea, Latvia, Malaysia, New Caledonia, Peru,
Romania, the Philippines, the Slovak Republic, Trinidad and
Tobago, Turkey, Ukraine, and Vanuatu, bringing to 84 the total
number of nations and territories contributing thus far. This
year's ceremonies were attended by approximately 200 people,
including diplomats from Switzerland, Latvia, and Romania, and
the Secretary of the Environment for the state of Rio de Janeiro.

The Peace Pavilion,
Dartmouth, Nova
Scotia, Canada,
dedicated on
24 June 1995.

On 16 June 1995 in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada, the
foreign ministers attending the conference of the "Group of
Seven" richest industrial nations (Canada, France, Germany,
Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States) being
held in Halifax officially unveiled the World Peace Pavilion. On
24 June, more than 500 people came to the pavilion to celebrate
peace and to participate in its local dedication. The idea of the
World Peace Pavilion was conceived in 1989 by a group called
Metro Youth for Global Unity, whose members were from
various cultural and religious backgrounds, including the Baha'i

1. See also The Baha'i World 1992-93, pp. 185- 87, The Baha'i World
1993-94, p. 135, and The Baha'i World 1994- 95, p. 147.

Faith. The words of Baha'u'lhih, "Let your vision be worldembracing," are inscribed in the concrete of the monument in
letters 25 centimeters high, extending across fourteen meters. For
the inauguration, Dartmouth's mayor, a federal member of
Parliament, and the Premier of Nova Scotia all gave short talks
applauding both the spirit of the project and the initiative of the
youth who had begun it.
Interfaith Activities
On 13 August 1995, an "Interfaith Gathering for Peace with
Justice" was held at Kakaako Waterfront Park in Honolulu,
Hawaii, officially kicking off the Aloha Peace Week. A peace
offering was made on behalf of the Hawaiian Baha'i community
in the form of conch shell blowing, and the Hawaiian Institute of
the Baha'i Faith offered sacred Hawaiian chants and sang the
words ofBaha'u'llah which begin "Blessed is the spot."
Each year one of the major churches in the Bhunya region of
Swaziland holds a unity night vigil, the purpose of which is for
the different churches to gain a better understanding of each
other's beliefs and activities. The Baha'is have been invited to
participate each year; this year they were able to introduce an
audience of about 450 to the Faith and to offer Baha'i songs.
On 5 November 1995, Baha'is ofDrogheda, Ireland, were the
only non-Christian group represented at a special ecumenical
service held to commemorate the 700th anniversary of the arrival
of Augustinian friars in the area. The President of the Republic of
Ireland, Mary Robinson, was in attendance at the ceremony,
during which a verse from Baha'i writings was read. The Baha'i
Faith was one of the four faiths featured in a symposium
organized by the Faculty of Catholic Theology of Burgos, in
Spain, for the study of leading monotheistic religions, attended
by the Archbishop of Burgos.
Other interfaith activities in which Baha'is participated this
year included the following: on 30 July 1995, Baha'is in the Cook
Islands participated in and sang three songs for a national prayer
service organized by the Religious Advisory Committee and
attended by over 1,000 people, including the Prime Minister and
Deputy Prime Minister; Baha'is participated in an interreligious

gathering held on 6 August in the gardens of the United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization's offices in
Paris, France, offering writings ofBaha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha
during the service; and from 19 to 22 October in Geneva, Switzerland, Baha'is offered their perspective during a program
featuring round table discussion about teaching tolerance in
schools.
Baha'is have taken a central role in interfaith efforts initiated
since the bombing of the federal building in Oklahoma City,
Oklahoma, in the United States. A Baha'i was elected chairman
of Interfaith Disaster Recovery of Greater Oklahoma City, and
the new organization's mission statement begins with the words
of Baha'u'llah "So powerful is the light of unity that it can
illuminate the whole earth." The mission statement has been
distributed to all churches and synagogues in the area, as well as
to governmental and other agencies involved in cleanup and
recovery.
The Baha'is of Angola are now represented on a Council of
the National Institute of Religious Affairs in Angola, which has
the task of coordinating the activities of the various religious
organizations in the country. The Baha'i representative has also
been invited to participate in a Commission for Humanitarian ·
Assistance.
World Religion Day observances sponsored by Baha'i communities in Singapore, Tanzania, and Sri Lanka each involved
the participation of leaders of various religions.
Environment
David Chittleborough was the representative of the Baha'i International Community at the Earth Charter Workshop, held at the
Peace Palace in The Hague from 29 to 31 May 1995. The intent
of the Earth Charter is to set out the moral imperatives of sustainable development as well as norms and standards for state
and interstate behavior. Former Prime Minister of the Netherlands, R. Lubbers, chaired and addressed the opening session of
the workshop, as did the heads of the two partners for the Earth
Charter Initiative, Mikhail Gorbachev as President of Green
Cross International and Maurice Strong as Chairman of the Earth

YEAR IN REVIEW

Council. During the workshop, several interventions were made
giving the Baha'i perspective on global environmental problems.
At the end of the workshop, Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands
invited a group of about ten members to a reception and lunch
which she and Prince Claus held in Noordeinde Palace. At that
event, Dr. Chittleborough was introduced to the Queen as the
representative of the Baha'i International Community.
The Baha'i community of Brazil, through its Office of the
Environment and Development (EMAD), participated in ECO
APLICADA 95, the Third Latin American Encounter of Environmental Educators, from 12 to 15 October in Rio de Janeiro.
Parallel to the encounter, the Second International Show of
Ecological Video Tapes took place. The video of the Baha'i
environmental art education project "Tomorrow Belongs to the
Children" received two prizes.
The Baha'i International Community was invited to send a
representative to participate in the "Revelation and the Environment" symposium sponsored by the Ecumenical Patriarch of the
Eastern Orthodox Church and held from 20 to 27 September on a
cruise ship based in Piraus, the main port for Athens, Greece.
William Hatcher, as the Baha'i representative, presented a paper.
From 21 to 26 April1995, an exhibition of children's art from
3 8 different countries around the world was held at the Singapore
Science Center. Entitled "Our Fragile Environment," the
exhibition consisted of 220 pieces of artwork mounted onto
specially designed and individually decorated canvas panels.
The event was jointly organized by the Baha'i Office of the
Environment for Singapore and its counterpart in Taiwan, where
the exhibition was first shown.
The Baha'i Office of the Environment for Taiwan, with the
assistance of the Nantou and Tsaotun Baha'i communities, and
the sponsorship of the Jong Hsin New Village Provincial
Library, held a showing of the Second Annual International
Children's Art Exhibition "Animals and Me" from 17 to 22
October.
From 27 January to 4 February 1996, the Baha'i community
of Macau organized an exhibition resulting from an international

art contest for children to promote environmental awareness.
Four schools then invited Baha'is to conduct workshops for their
students which used games and activities to help teach the
children to preserve the environment.
The Baha'is of
India marked 1995
World Environment
Day with a special
conference in the
'I~~~= village of Sondhwa,
11ii1 organized with the
assistance of local
women's groups and
of volunteers from
"""'----- - - --= .,._~=~~;;;...,_--= twenty villages in
Activity associated with the International the Dhar and Jhabua
Children's Art Exhibition "Animals and Me, "held districts and under
in Macau in early 1996. the auspices of the
Baha'i Vocational Institute for Rural Women in Madhya Pradesh.
About 200 women and men gathered for this conference, which
was the first of its kind to be held in the area.
Three students from PRODES, a social development program, organized a seminar held in Santa Ana, El Salvador, on 10
November 1995. The event was entitled "Working for Our
Future and the Environment," and presenters offered comments
on "Approaches to the Environmental Crisis," "Reconceptualizing the Environmental Problem," and "Alternative Solutions- A
Moral Perspective."
Social and Economic Development
From 5 to 16 June 1995, ten Baha'is in Vanuatu took part in the
Literacy Awareness Workshop in Tanna, sponsored by the
National Community Development Trust. Following the participation of three Baha'is in a literacy training workshop at the
beginning of 1995, an agreement was made between the Baha'i
community and the Literacy Association of Vanuatu for the
funding of a three-year literacy project. The Baha'is are to offer
trainers and trainees.

The National Spiritual Assembly of Guinea is operating a
Baha'i Village Schools project, consisting of three phases:
establishing schools in four villages during a period of three
years; literacy training
for the women of the
same villages; and a
social and economic
development project
with a special emphasis on women. As of
1995, seven commu-
~ities were. involv~d )
m the proJect, w1th
rJ
three villages in phase
one, three in phase two, Children's environmental activity,
Macau, 23 July 1995.
and one in phase three.
The Baha'i community of Pakistan reported that it held its
first national conference on social and economic development on
26 December 1995 in Rawalpindi. Projects included a tree
planting, free medical or eye camps, and academic tutoring.
In Uganda, the Local Spiritual Assembly of Nabyoto initiated a number of social and economic development activities,
including working with other concerned parties to begin adult
literacy classes. The Baha'is ofDalkeith Estate, Sri Lanka, began
conducting a class in English and one for literacy which has a
focus on women. The Baha'is of Guyana are involved in several
initiatives, including the development of a pilot literacy project
targeting preadolescent youth.
On 5 August 1995, ten members of the Radio Baha'i Institute
in the Philippines completed a course on broadcasting, which
featured hands-on training in programming, production, and
broadcasting. One of the goals of Radio Baha'i is the upliftrnent
of the social, economic and cultural life of the people. The sixth
seminar for Baha'i radio stations was held in Vinto, Bolivia,
from 3 to 13 February 1996, with radio personnel from the five
Latin American stations- Panama, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and
Chile- as well as Radio Baha'i in the United States.

The third North American Baha'i Conference on Social and
Economic Development took place in Orlando, Florida, United
States, from 21 to 26 December 1995. The conference had as its
theme "Paths to Peace: Global Prosperity through the Advancement of Women, Human Rights, and Moral Development," and
was attended by about 800 people from 28 countries. Guests of
honor at the event were the Honorable Luiz Gushiken, member
of the Brazilian Chamber of Deputies, and David Hofman and
David Ruhe, former members of the Universal House of Justice.
Eight National Assemblies sent representatives.
The emphasis in the Baha'i Faith on service to humanity finds
expression in a number of ways in community life. One such
expression is the contribution to the health of various segments
of society. The organization Health for Humanity joined with the
University of Tirana in Albania to hold the first International
Medical/Surgical Conference of Tirana, on 30 and 31 May and 1
June 1995. The event attracted more than four hundred Albanian
physicians and 34 visitors from Switzerland, Holland, Spain, the
United States, Canada, England, France, and Germany. Twenty
Albanians and 16 visiting professors made 38 presentations in
surgery, internal medicine, obstetrics/gynecology, and pediatrics . The national television aired a summary of the scientific
proceedings and some interviews four times a day throughout
the country. 1995 was also the first year of Health for
Humanity's project to improve eye care in Albania, with a goal
of reducing vision loss and blindness in that country.

Family greenhouse
project sponsored by the
..,.......~, Mongolian Development
Center, an agency based
on Baha 'i principles.
The project aims at
encouragingfamilies to
grow vegetables, thus
improving the nutrition of
children.

Village representatives
in Vientiane, Laos,
purchase cement
rings for two water-wells
destroyed by floods,
October 1995.

The Baha'is of Cote d'Ivoire are taking part in a nationwide
effort to eliminate river blindness. Local Baha'i communities participated this year in distributing the medicine used to combat the
disease.
In February 1996, the Baha'i Health Agency of South Africa,
with the assistance of that of the United Kingdom, carried out a
health care project in Polini in which 60 people were served by a
doctor and nurses. The doctor, who is a Baha'i, also addressed
the women in the village about child care, hygiene and primary
health care and gave a presentation to the students of two schools
on primary health c'are. This same health agency assisted the
community of Zingqayi in conducting a feasibility study and
submitting to the authorities a request for a supply of water to the
area.
The continuing problem of polio was highlighted in a health
project in Uganda, jointly funded by the Baha'i community and
the Canadian Public Health Authority. The objectives of the campaign were to increase immunization coverage against the six
"killer diseases" and to improve general health through health
education in the community. As a result of the campaign, immunization coverage has been shown to have doubled or tripled in
more than half the communities where health workers have been
trained, new immunization centers have been established, at least
80 percent of the communities have cleaned their water sources,
some have collected funds and repaired their boreholes and
others are building protected springs, and there are an increased
number of pit latrines in many villages.

THE BAHA'i WORLD

In Kenya's Primary Health Care Course, held from 13 to 25
July 1995 at the Menu Baha'i Teaching Institute in Bungoma, 24
women and men were trained as primary health workers for their
home communities. A Baha'i development committee held
a seminar for community health agents from 22 to 31 May in
Kaboke Nundu, Zaire, with participants from Fizi, Mwenga and
Uvira. Trainers were provided by the committee and by a nearby
hospital.
Mrs. Lyowa of Zambia undertook a similar, two-week
training course in March 1995 to become a Baha'i community
health educator. Upon returning home, she cleaned up the family
compound, dug a rubbish pit, and held a workshop for the people
in her compound and for the teachers in the neighboring high
school. She and Jeddah Bradley, a Baha'i youth from Australia
serving in the area, arranged to teach the importance of primary
health care and education for children through a four-day program which resulted in the formation of a women's club, called
Twikatane (Come Together United). Many of the club members
then took steps to improve sanitation in their homes and around
their compounds. Mrs. Lyowa and Miss Bradley, joined by five
other Baha'is, scrubbed and disinfected the women's ward of the
Mporokoso District Hospital, and the Local Spiritual Assembly
of Mporokoso agreed to adopt a part of the hospital grounds for
flower gardens. Mrs. Lyowa and two other Baha'i community
health educators joined another Baha'i in much-needed volunteer work in the hospital's pediatrics clinic, through which they
noticed that the clothes for the patients were being washed by
their relatives and put on the ground to dry. This fact was
brought to the attention of the Local Assembly, which consequently had a clothesline built outside the ward. In August, a
refresher course was held for the Baha'i health educators, after
which there was a special ceremony to unveil on the hospital
grounds a plaque declaring that part of the hospital grounds had
been adopted by the Baha'is of Mporokoso. This prompted a
representative of the secondary school to say that the school
would also adopt some of the hospital grounds and would go into
competition with the Baha'is in making the area beautiful. These
many improvements in the lives of the people of Mporokoso are

YEAR IN REVIEW

the result of the effort to offer just a short period of training to
one woman.
Involvement in the Life of Society
In obedience to the behest of Baha'u'llah to "be anxiously
concerned with the needs of the age ye live in, and center your
deliberations on its exigencies and requirements," Baha'is the
world over are stepping up the tempo of their contributions to
dialogue on the issues confronting humanity today.
The Baha'is in the Eastern Caroline Islands presented a paper
at the recent Federated States of Micronesia Economic Summit
held in Pohnpei. The paper, which was entitled "The Purpose
of Development and the Decision-Making Process," included
concepts from the Baha'i statements Turning Point for All
Nations (see pp. 241 - 83) and The Prosperity o.f Humankind (see
The Baha'i World 1994- 95, pp. 273- 96) and was the only paper
offered by a nongovernmental organization.
Jaime Duhart- a Baha'i and a member of the board of
Universidad Bolivariana of Chile- toured a number of Latin
American countries this year including Peru, the Dominican
Republic, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and
Cuba. In each country he presented The Prosperity o.f Humankind to nongovernmental organizations, university staff, and
other interested groups. His efforts were covered by local media
in many of the places he visited.
As a follow up to the Copenhagen Social Summit, the Baha'is
of Botswana hosted a seminar on human prosperity at the
University of Botswana, in Gaborone, on 26 September 1995.
The Cook Islands Baha'i community of Te Au 0 Tonga,
working with its National Spiritual Assembly, presented The
Prosperity o.f Humankind to 150 people, beginning with the
Queen's Representative, the Prime Minister and the Deputy
Prime Minister, various other ministers, and the country's Arikis
(chiefs). On 15 July 1995, a public meeting was held to introduce the statement, which was attended by Pa Ariki--one of the
traditional leaders- and the Minister of Health and Tourism.
Subsequently, a television program about The Prosperity o.f
Humankind was aired by the Baha'is, followed two weeks later .
by the screening of the same program translated into Maori.

Presentations and meetings on the theme of human prosperity
were also held in Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Venezuela,
Senegal, India, and Guyana. Swaziland hosted a meeting on the
subject as one of a series of monthly fora on various related
topics.

Presentation of f
The Prosperity of
Humankind
in August 1995 to
Her Excellency Dame
Nita Barrow,
Governor General
of Barbados,
by a member of the
National Spiritual
Assembly of
Barbados.

On behalf of the Baha'i International Community, Guilda
Navidi-Walker and Arthur Dahl attended a conference in Bucharest, Romania, called by President Ion Iliescu, entitled the
Workshop Worldwatch Conference on Sustainable Development
and International Co-operation, and held on 22 and 23 March
1996. Dr. Dahl presented Baha'i views on the spiritual dimension of sustainable development, which were eagerly received by
participants.
The Fourth International Dialogue on the Transition to a
Global Society was convened at the University of Maryland
at College Park, from 14 to 17 October 1995. The conference
was organized by the Baha'i Chair for World Peace and the
university's Department of History on behalf of the Center
for International Development and Conflict Management, and
Landegg Academy, and held under the auspices of the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO). The theme this year was "Divisive Barbarity or
Global Civilization: The Ethical Dimensions of Science, Art,
Religion and Politics," and the objectives of the dialogue were to
find answers to the challenge of building a global civilization

yEAR IN REVIEW

and to inspire action by leaders in all realms of society to realize
the proposed solutions. The keynote speaker was the Hand of the
Cause Amatu'l-Baha Rul).iyyih Khanum, who was followed by
five other speakers: His Excellency Amine Gemayal, former
President of Lebanon; Her Royal Highness Princess Rahma bint
El Hassan of Jordan; Ervin Laszlo, President of the Club of
Budapest and International Adviser to the Dialogue; Dr. Bertrand
Schneider, Secretary-General of the Club of Rome; and His
Excellency Dr. Karan Singh, head of the Auroville Foundati9n in
India and former Ambassador of India to the United States. The
final speaker of the session was His Excellency Amata Kabua,
President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, who delivered
a special address. Also in attendance were Ambassador Paul-
Marc Henry, Ambassador-at-Large of France; Lily Boeykens,
former President of the International Council of Women, and
currently the Commissioner of Belgium to the United Nations
Commission on the Status of Women; Ambassador Tahseen
Basheer, Director of the National Center for Middle Eastern
Studies, Cairo, Egypt; Edy Kaufman, from the Center for
International Development and Conflict Management at the
University of Maryland at College Park; and Eberhard Zeidler, a
prominent North American architect.
The Landegg Academy held a forum on global governance in
Germany's Haus der Demokratie on 20 September 1995. Some
40 nongovernmental organizations delivered statements in the
presence of more than 200 participants, calling for a variety of
measures to reform and restructure the international order and
the UN.
The "First European Baha'i Conference on Law and International Order" was held in the Netherlands this year at the de
Poort Conference Center. Presentations addressed such subjects
as the Kitab-i-Aqdas; international law and the new world order;
the ethical aspects of crime and punishment; and the coming of
world peace. One evening the gathering was visited by two
prominent jurists, one working at the State Council and the other
at the International War Crimes Tribunal for former Yugoslavia,
both of whom offered presentations.

France's Association medicale baha'ie sponsored a dialogue
on the ethics related to medically assisted procreation on 25
November 1995 in Nice. The meeting entitled "Embryo: Who
Are You?" benefited from the contributions of a Justice of the
Supreme Court and Vice-President of the National French
Committee of Ethics, and the Director of the Center of Bioethics
at the Catholic University of Lyon.
A National Consultative Workshop on Adolescent Health and
Youth Development Programs was held on 11 March 1996 in
Quezon City, in the Philippines. A representative of the Baha'i
community actively participated in group discussions and
workshops.
Many Baha'i communities this year put special efforts into
observing the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations and
presenting the statement Turning Point for all Nations to government officials, hoping to win wider appreciation for the need to
strengthen the United Nations and improve its capacity to
coordinate the responses of nations to the challenges facing
humanity (see pp. 159-70).
The National Spiritual Assembly of the Russian Federation
sponsored a reception to commemorate UN 50, highlighting the
Turning Point document. Programs were also held in both Bamenda
and Limbe, Cameroon, on 24 October, accompanied by presentations of Turning Point for All Nations and radio coverage of
the events in English, French and a number of vernacular languages.
In April 1996, the Mayor of Velika Gorica, Slovenia, was
given a translation of Turning Point for All Nations and other
Baha'i literature. Inspired by the contents, the mayor asked the
Baha'is how to make Velika Gorica a "Model City" in order to
promote the idea of world peace, harmony and justice. He also
suggested that a series of seminars could be held on world and
local governance according to the Baha'i teachings.
The United Nations-sponsored Human Rights pay was also
observed by many Baha'i communities. The National Spiritual
Assembly of Greece hosted a reception in its honor on 7
December 1995 in Athens. The reception was held under the

auspices of the United Nations Information Center in Athens, the
main United Nations Office in Greece. The National Assembly
of Romania also held such a reception, on 12 December 1995, in
the Diplomat Club of Bucharest. Among others, the event was
attended by their Excellencies the Ambassadors of Austria,
France, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, and the
United Nations. Other prominent guests included some twenty
members of the Romanian Chamber of Deputies and over 40
senators. The Baha'is of Luxembourg observed Human Rights
Day by hosting a reception for prominent people who had
assisted Baha'is in Iran by defending the community. Baha'is
were interviewed on Tele Cartagena and on Onda Cera as a result
of the Human Rights Day celebration held in Spain, on 12
December 1995, and a long report about the event was aired on
Radio Voz. The observance took place at the Regional Baha'i
Center in Murcia, and involved the participation of eight
different representatives of various organizations in a roundtable discussion about human rights .
A seminar was held
for directors of homes for
the elderly, at the Blanco
Cervantes Hospital in San
Jose, Costa Rica, and
was cosponsored by the
Baha'i community and
the National Crusade for
the Protection of the
Elderly. Some 125 directors of such facilities
from every part of the
country attended, and several asked to have the
program repeated in their
communities. The Representative in Greece of the UN High
A public meeting on Commissioner for Refugees, Janvier de Riedmatten, speaking at a UN Human Rights Day
the topic of tolerance was reception held by the National Spiritual
held in Mons, Belgium, Assembly of Greece, December 1995.

at the City Hall on 11 December 1995. It was organized by the
Baha'i community.
The European Baha'i Business Forum (EBBF) participated in
the third annual conference on "Moral and Ethical Principles in a
Social Market Economy" from 20 to 22 October 1995 in Sofia,
Bulgaria. The event was cosponsored by EBBF, the Bulgarian
Association of the Club of Rome, the Institute for Sustainable Development, the College of Management, Trade and
Marketing, the Sofia Commodity Exchange, and the National
Spiritual Assembly of Bulgaria. Sixteen papers were presented,
including four by members of EBBF.
Several national Baha'i communities had the opportunity this
year to contribute to the constitutional processes in their
countries. The National Spiritual Assembly of the Gambia sent a
representative to public hearings held by the Constitutional
Review Committee which took place in the Parliament building
and contributed Baha'i viewpoints on national unity, the equality
of men and women, and the use of consultation in governance.
The National Assembly of Eritrea submitted its views to the
Constitutional Commission in that country. In the Mariana
Islands, the Third Constitutional Convention in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands provided that National
Assembly with an opportunity to hold a luncheon for the
convention delegates during which Baha'i principles of governance were offered.
In the Netherlands, the newly established Commission for
Equal Treatment, which has been given the role of an independent legal consultant able to pass verdicts on disputes
submitted to it or refer them to courts of law, has one Baha'i
member out of a total of 24. The Commission is designed to
combat all forms of injustice, and will make recommendations to
the government and advise judges about how to ensure fair
treatment of all people.
The Baha'i community of Brazil published a document in
1995 addressed to the "new governors and legislators of Brazil."
The statement deals with such essential matters as education and
the rural population; the advancement of women; leadership and

morality; and the prosperity of humanity. In July 1995 the Baha'i
community of Brazil was invited to send a representative to
be a member of the Human Rights and Citizenship Special
Commission.
The Baha'i community of the Canary Islands was one of only
a small number of nongovernmental organizations invited to
participate in the Tri-Continental Conference of the parliamentary commissioners from Africa, the Americas, and Europe,
organized by the parliamentary deputies of the Canary Islands
and inaugurated by the King and Queen of Spain. The commissioners consulted on their role in the defence of human rights.
The Baha'is were able to offer many of the commissioners
a document on world citizenship, which was relevant to
discussions on the movement of people fleeing poverty and the
xenophobia they often face in other countries.
In France, many prominent individuals gathered on 2 May
1995 at the Baha'i National Center for the presentation of the
National Order of Merit to Christine Samandari-Hakim, a Baha'i
of that community. Dr. Samandari-Hakim was elevated by the
French Government to the rank of Knight in the National Order
of Merit in recognition of her humanitarian activities and her
contribution to the promotion of human rights in general.
Recognition
Although the Baha'i Faith is now represented in virtually every
country in the world, the process of obtaining various forms of
official recognition continues. In the Cook Islands this year, for
the first time Baha'is were invited to take part in the religious
ceremony for the opening and closing of Constitution Week (30
July and 6 August 1995). The Baha'i community of Vanuatu
succeeded in obtaining on 11 December a certificate of registration under the Religious Bodies Act of 1995. The Faith was also
registered in Tonga this year under the Government Incorporated
Societies Act, Section 7. In Hong Kong, government authorities
have approved the Baha'i community's application to license the
Baha'i Hall as a place of public worship; thus, Baha'i marriages
conducted there can be legally recognized. The government of
St. Eustatius in the Netherlands Antilles has issued a letter to that

Baha'i community recognizing the Faith as a religion, the
Spiritual Assembly of St. Eustatius as the administrative body of
the Faith for the Baha'i community on Statia, and the National
Spiritual Assembly of the West Leeward Islands as its regional
administrative body. On the local level, the Baha'i communities
of Tallinn, Estonia, and Asmara, Eritrea both succeeded in
registering with their national governments.
Landmark Occasions
Occasionally in Baha'i communities, certain landmark events
occur which offer a glimp·se of the potency of principles and
teachings of the Baha'i Faith. One such event occurred in
Burundi, in early 1996. It was reported at that time that the Local
Spiritual Assembly of Rohero had been reformed and was
actively taking up its duties, Rohero being the zone which
includes what is known as downtown Bujumbura. The Assembly
elected was made up of two people from the Hutu tribe, three
from the Tutsi tribe, three Canadians and one Iranian and, as the
report also stated, it, "unlike the rest of the country, meets in
absolute harmony."
During RiQ.van 1995, the National Convention of Sierra
Leone took place, in the face of dangerous civil upheaval, some
of the delegates traveling through the most dangerous areas to
reach the Convention. The first Local Spiritual Assembly of the
Baha'is of Gibraltar was elected that same Ridvan.
On 26 November, 150 people, including members of the
media, gathered for a Day of the Covenant celebration held at
the University of Liberia's auditorium. The Director of the
Catholic radio station (ELCM), Amelia Wreh, was present, as
well as a representative from the national radio station (ELBC).
Also present were representative journalists from the electronic
press media and the New Patriot Journal. The keynote address
focused on the significance of the Covenant in the Baha'i Faith,
and special prayers for peace in Liberia were read.
The first National Baha'i Winter School of Estonia was held
in December in Pamu. Its attendees came from Sweden, Finland,
Latvia and Russia, as well as Estonia. The first National Baha'i
Summer School was held in Perm, Russia, from 11 to 15 August

YEAR IN REVIEW

attracting the participation of 75 Baha'is from 12 cities in this
landmark occasion.
The National Baha'i Center of Bulgaria had its official
opening in Sofia on 30 September 1995. It was reported that well
over 200 Baha'is from virtually every region of Zimbabwe
congregated at the newly built Baha'i National Center to witness
its official opening on 21 October.
A handful of Baha'is joyfully gathered in Tasiilaq, Greenland,
from 10 to 12 July for a summer school. The event was characterized by study of the Baha'i Faith, high spirits and laughter.
The Louis G. Gregory Baha'i Institute in South Carolina,
USA, saw the Ninth Annual Black Men's Gathering in July. Participants from Botswana, Canada, Kenya, Liberia, South Africa,
and the United States, engaged in study of the Baha'i Faith, consultation, prayer and song, in what was described as the largest
and one of the most potent of these annual events. This year's
gathering was also distinguished by the presence of a large
number of fathers and their young adult sons, adding a new
vitality to the occasion.
Tirana, Albania, saw the inauguration of a Baha'i Cultural
Center on 25 May, attended by the President of the Albanian
Parliament, Pjeter Arbnori, five deputies, a representative of
UNICEF, and the first secretary of the Italian Embassy.
The National Spiritual Assembly of Belize established an
Office of External Affairs to maintain relationships between the
Baha'i community and both governmental and nongovernmental
organizations.
In April 1996, Alice Buffet, the first native Norfolk Islander
to become a Baha'i, presented the National Spiritual Assembly
of Australia with the text of a translation into the Norfolk
language of the Short Obligatory Prayer which she had prepared.
Translation of some of the Baha'i writings into the Norfolk
language was one of Australia's goals for the Three Year Plan.
Sharing the Message of Bah a 'u 'llah
The primary motivation for Baha'is to teach others about their
Faith is their belief that its teachings represent the remedy
prescribed by God for the healing . and regeneration of human-

kind today. It is against the spirit of the Baha'i Faith either
to impose their religious beliefs on others or to offer material
inducements in an effort to "convert" them.
Baha'i communities often hold conferences, institutes and
seminars designed to increase the capacity of individuals and of
groups to teach. The Baha'i community of Lithuania held its first
such conference from 28 to 30 December, and it was attended
by people from Poland,
Russia, Scotland, Kaliningrad, Denmark and
Lithuania, in spite of
the many and long
delays on public transportation due to the
weather. Other such
gatherings were held
in Liberia, Malaysia,
Australia, Cambodia,
France, Tonga, India,
Sweden, Spain, Tur-
The Baha'i Cultural Center, Tirana, Albania. key, Botswana, and the
Faroe Islands.
The Baha'is of Australia participated in the annual Port
Adelaide Parade in South Australia on Saturday, 25 November
1995 with a float on the theme of unity in diversity. On 20 and
21 May, Baha'is of Oulu, Finland, participated in a conference
entitled "The Days of Spiritual Growth." The community of
Chinamora, Zimbabwe, set up a Baha'i stand for both days of the
Chinamora Agricultural Show, held on 13 and 14 July. The
Baha'is also had an opportunity to offer musical and dramatic
presentations and to say a few words about the Faith.
A special Tanzania/Zambia border conference was held from
9 to 11 June 1995 at Chiwezi village, with the principal aim of
introducing the Faith to all the villages around the area, especially to the members of the Sinai Church, a large number of
whom became Baha'is in recent months and hosted this event.
On 20 Au_pust, the first in a new series of programs dedicated
to the writings ofBaha'u'llah was broadcast on Radio Sodre, an

YEAR IN REVIEW

Uruguayan station that can be heard by people throughout the
country and in parts of Argentina and Brazil. The series is named
Imagine.
In Peru the staff of Radio Baha'i on Lake Titicaca was asked
by the Organization of Women in San Cristobal to proclaim the
message of Baha'u'llah in its town. As part of their effort, the
Baha'is performed two dramas about equal rights and opportunities for men and women.

Teams of Baha'i children on the islands of Tabiteuea and
Nonouti in Kiribati participated this year in a number of visits to
each other's communities for the purpose of sharing the message
ofBaha'u' llah with the people.
Baha'i students at Ouagadougou University in Burkina Faso
participated in an exhibition organized by an association of
students of the Science and Economy Faculty and held from 26
to 29 April 1995. A similar informational activity was organized
by students of the Faculty of Medicine.
Baha'is participated in Havana, Cuba's International Book
Fair, held from 7 to 13 February 1996. The exhibition takes place
biennially and is a major event in Central America, with more
than 30,000 people attending this year. This was the local
community of Havana's first opportunity to present the Baha'i
Faith to a broad cross-section of society, and the booth was one
of the most popular at the fair. About 100 titles were available at
the Baha'i stall.

The Baha'i community of Hungary participated in Budapest's
International Book and Video Fair this year. The Hungarian
Head of State, President Arpad Gonez, visited the Baha'i stand
and was presented with a copy of The Promise of World Peace
and some additional information. An exhibition of Baha'i
literature was also offered at the State Scientific Library in
Liberec, Czech Republic.
Organized campai~s of teaching took place all over the
world. Sierra Leone, Madagascar, South Africa, Uganda, and
Rodrigues Island (with the efforts of Baha'is from Mauritius and
the Seychelles) all reported teaching projects. The Light of Unity
Campaign in West Africa comprised two teaching groups: a
French-speaking drama and dance group, which visited Benin,
Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Niger and Togo; and an Englishspeaking musical and dance group, which visited Cameroon,
Ghana and Nigeria. The Enoch Olinga teaching project in the
Kumi and Soroti districts of Uganda was kicked off with a
special teaching conference. Another teaching project named
after the Hand of the Cause Enoch Olinga was operating in
Senegal this year. That effort includes literacy classes in several
communities, so that new Baha'is will be able to read the Baha'i
scriptures for themselves. Women have been the focus of several
activities. The Liberian Baha'i community engaged in a flurry of
activity in January 1996, sharing the message of Baha'u'llah in
Bamersville, Johnsonville, and Schefflin, and holding two study
classes in Momovia.
An unusual campaign of teaching was carried out in Zambia
from December 1995 to March 1996. Those who took part were
Baha'is who were refugees from Rwanda, and they contacted
people in the four main francophone compounds around the
town of Lusaka. Related initiatives include language classes in
the Lusaka Baha'i Center and ongoing courses for women.
·Projects undertaken in the Americas this year included the
Cabudare Project in Lara State, Venezuela; a special project in
Canada aimed at reaching the East Indian population in British
Columbia and Ontario, assisted by the participation of a member
of the National Assembly of India; and an ongoing teaching

project in Woodburn, Oregon, United States, which aims at
bringing the Baha'i Faith to migrant workers from Mexico.
In Paraguay, following the success of National Baha'i Week
in July 1995, which involved much radio and television coverage
and intensive teaching, the National Spiritual Assembly called
for a National Day of Teaching to take place on 17 September.
Baha'is in many communities responded by holding introductory
meetings in their homes and going out to visit interested people.
The community of Nicoll's Town on the island of Andros in
the Bahamas has submitted a series of articles which have been
printed in the local newspaper, the Chicharney Times. Topics
covered have included world order, happiness, love, the environment, and agriculture.
The Fazli Teaching Project was initiated in Andhra Pradesh,
India, and the Marian Jack VII Project traveled across Russia,
Siberia and Mongolia, with participants from Alaska, Canada,
Russia and the United States. This year the Baha'is of Uzbekistan
embarked on a special project to introduce the Faith to the people
of Karakalpakstan and to its officials and other prominent
people. An effort was made in Japan to acquaint members of
media organizations with the true nature of the Baha'i Faith
through an explanatory letter.
In Papua New Guinea a series of traditional teaching projects
has been undertaken, each relying on local expressions of
culture. Projects and campaigns to reach the indigenous peoples
of the Pacific inspired by or growing out of the Ocean of Light
Project carried forward efforts to introduce the Baha'i Faith to
traditional chiefs in the Cook Islands, New Caledonia, Fiji,
the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Tuvalu. The Holy Mariner
Project reached out to the Maori people of New Zealand; the
Heart of Australia Calling Project made strides in its efforts to
reach aboriginal people. Related events included a cultural
exchange visit by Maori Baha'is from New Zealand to the
Amooguna tribe of Napperby, Australia. New Zealand also saw
the Ephraim Te Paa Project in Mangere, Auckland, in which
Baha'is invited interested people to participate in weekly
activities.

A mixed group of
Uzbek, Tajik, Kazakh,
Turkmen, and Kyrgyz
Bahci 'is in Samarkand,
Uzbekistan,
prepares for an
activity to share
Bahci 'u 'llah 's
message with others,
June 1995.

In 1992 a group of Maori Baha'is from New Zealand traveled
across Canada on their return from the Second Baha'i World
Congress and visited Native American Baha'is, finding bonds of
commonality wherever they traveled. In 1994 a different group
of Maori Baha'is traveled from New Zealand to Canada, making
contacts with prominent Native American people, encouraging
isolated Baha'is, and visiting communities. In July 1995 Maori
Vision III began with the arrival in British Columbia of a Maori
Baha'i family from New Zealand, with the explicit purpose of
teaching the Baha'i Faith. A reciprocal trip of Native Canadian
Baha'is to New Zealand was planned.
Efforts to share Baha'u'llah's message with the people of the
former Yugoslavia have been made in Pula and Zagreb, Croatia;
Velika Gorica, Slovenia; Belgrade, Serbia; and in the former
Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia.
Turkish Baha'is from Germany and Turkey traveled to the
town ofKornrad in Moldova from 8 to 12 October 1995 to visit
the Baha'is there and to help with the teaching work among the
Gaugasian people- Moldovans of Turkish background.
In Iceland, a teaching campaign which began in October 1995
each week featured introductory meetings in several locations, a
study class, and a public meeting. A "home page" on the World
Wide Web was established with information about the Baha'i
Faith given in Icelandic and Faroese. The youth of the Faroe
Islands embarked on an effort to bring Baha'u'llah's message to
the people of T6rshavn and Toftir, while the Hackney Project

in England is resulting not only in declarations of faith in
Baha'u'llah but also in personal transformation. A successful
teaching project was carried out in Notteroy and Tonsberg,
Norway, from 8 to 10 March 1996, which introduced the Baha'i
Faith to students. 15 to 20 April was "Baha'i Week" in Linehammer, and the event evoked a very positive response from
the public. Activities included a midnight prayer gathering at
the top of the Olympic Park. Local and regional media covered the
events.
Communities all across the globe are encountering greater
receptivity to the message of Baha'u'llah. In Gujarat, India, 95
students of the Vallabh Uttam Buniyadi Girls High School, with
the consent of their parents, became Baha'is. In the Marshall
Islands, training has been provided for those wishing to teach
on the outer islands. As a result of the subsequent teaching
endeavors over 100 people enrolled as Baha'is and four new
Local Spiritual Assemblies were formed.
In Bangladesh, partly through the efforts of a youth volunteer,
all the inhabitants of 88 villages became Baha'is and Local
Spiritual Assemblies were elected. In Zambia, a chief and seven

Guests assembled
for presentations
on the Baha'i
Faith, as part
of a traditional
teaching project
in the Chimbu
province of the
highlands of
Papua New Guinea,
February 1996.

of his family members and visitors became Baha'is. Two new
Local Spiritual Assemblies were also elected in that area. In
Spain a number of Gypsies declared themselves to be Baha'is
this year. Because of teaching efforts associated with a summer

school in Gime, Cyprus, involving Baha'is from both the north
and the south of the island as well as from several other
countries, a sizeable group of people declared their belief in
Baha'u'llah. Remarkable and dramatic teaching successes have
been reported for Guinea-Bissau and Haiti.

A Baha 'i gathering
in Ulaan Baatar,
Mongolia,
summer 1995.

During August 1995, three youth from Portugal visited
Maputo, Mozambique, initiating workshops and activities for
introducing the Faith to the people, and then making themselves
available for discussions, resulting in a number of enrollments in
the Faith.
More than one hundred Baha'is gathered at Shin Hyub
Institute near Taejon in South Korea to participate in the summer
school held from 28 to 30 July 1995. After this event, a teaching
project dedicated to the Hand of the Cause Ral).matu'llah
Muhajir was launched, during which nine people declared their
faith in Baha'u'llah, and one new Local Spiritual Assembly was
formed.
Institutes
The absence of clergy in the Baha'i Faith places responsibility
on the shoulders of every Baha'i. As a result, each Baha'i
community needs many individuals who are knowledgeable
about the Faith and have the spiritual qualities and other skills
and capacities necessary to promote its functioning. It follows
that some sort of systematic training is needed to assist people to
fulfill their own potentialities. Such a system exists in the Baha'i
community in various forms, one of which is that of the institute.

An institute is not defmed by a venue or by paid staff; institutes
are simply organizational structures dedicated to systematic
training with the purpose of endowing ever-growing contingents
of Baha'is with the spiritual insights, the knowledge, and the
skills necessary to carry out the many tasks occupying the
community.
Through the prompting and guidance of the Universal House
of Justice, increasing numbers of communities are engaged in
this institute process. Due to the large numbers of people who
became Baha'is in Haiti in the summer of 1995, teams from the
Anis Zunuzi School held successful institutes in three of the
affected localities during November.
The National Deepening Institute of the Baha'i community of
Kazakhstan held its tenth course from 4 to 10 January 1996,
in Almaty. The program was the first which was especially
designed to train teachers of children's classes.
Institute courses and programs have also taken place in
communities as diverse as Tonga, Singapore, Myanmar, Colombia, Malaysia, the United States, the Solomon Islands, Togo,
Uzbekistan, New Zealand, Zimbabwe, Liberia, Brazil, Norway,
Niger, and India, among many others.
Scholarship
In Bangladesh, the Institute of Personal Law and Research, which
is recognized by the Supreme Court of Bangladesh, held its first
certificate course on Baha'i Personal Law in the first week of

Students attending
the Anis Zunuzi
School in
Port au Prince,
Haiti, 1995.

A group ofBahti 'is
consults on a new
Bahci 'i radio
program during
an institute held in
Monrovia, Liberia,
September 1995.

December 1995. Nineteen people participated, including an
assistant attorney general, a former assistant attorney general,
and eleven other advocates of the Supreme Court.
The inauguration of Lucknow University's Chair for Baha'i
Studies, endowed by the National Spiritual Assembly of India,
took place on 14 December 1995, in the auditorium of the
University. His Excellency the Governor of Uttar Pradesh and
Chancellor of the University formally inaugurated the Baha'i
Chair, which is situated in the Department of Western History.
Dorothy Nelson delivered the Second Annual Baha'i Lecture
at the University of Maryland at College Park on 15 May 1995.
The event was held under the auspices of the Baha'i Chair for
World Peace and the Center for International Development and
Conflict Management at the university. Her paper, "Alternative
Forms of Conflict Resolution: A Pathway to Peace," was well
received by an audience of over 200, including university
administrators, faculty and staff, and Baha'is from Washington
D.C., Virginia, and Maryland.
An interfaith symposium on religion and the environment,
organized by the Association for Baha'i Studies in Ghana, was
held on 26 July 1995, chaired by the Minister of Environment,
Science and Technology. Three speakers addressed the gathering
on the role of religion in the conservation of nature. This activity
was also the inaugural event of the Association.
The fourth annual conference of the Association for Baha'i
Studies in Japan took place in Yamaguchi in December 1995,
with the theme "Family, Community, and the World." Con-

The Ruhi Ins titute,
Colombia,
March, 1996.

ference activities included a display of works by Baha'i artists,
speakers on community development from Tonga, the premiere
performance of a play about Lady Blomfield, an early British
Baha'i, and the presentation of a suggested model for the future
Japanese House of Worship.
The annual conference of the Association of Baha'i Studies
for English-Speaking Europe was held on 14 October 1995 at the
London School of Economics and Political Science, with a theme
of "The Role of Morality and Ethics in Society." Workshops
were offered on ethics in business, the new morality, and morals
and education.
The annual conference of the Association for Baha'i Studies,
North America, was held for four days in San Francisco,
California, in mid-October 1995, with about 800 participants
from more than a dozen countries. The theme was "Anarchy into
Order: Uniting the Nations." The event featured a seminar for
leaders of community organizations outside the Baha'i Faith to
discuss with Baha'is various issues related to local community
challenges, and it included a number of guest presentations in
addition to presentations by Baha'is active in community work.
The plenary sessions featured the participation of three guest
speakers: Justice Frank Newman of the California Supreme
Court, who spoke on human rights; Ben Crow of Stanford
University, who spoke on global prosperity; and Betty Reardon
of Columbia University Teachers College, who spoke on the
advancement of women. On the last evening Amin Banani

offered the Hasan Balyuzi memorial lecture on the subject of
Tahirih. 2 A four-day children's program emphasizing virtues in
everyday life was held in the hotel.
Landegg Academy in Wienacht, Switzerland, this year began
to offer Master of Arts programs in ethics, conflict resolution,
Baha'i studies, and spiritual psychology. These programs are
oriented along the parameters of a new field of study designated
as "Applied Spirituality." Landegg's programs focus on training
scholars who are universal in perspective, scientific in approach,
ethical in conduct, and humble in attitude.
The National Spiritual Assembly of the United States
alinounced the establishment of a four-year study program
focusing on "Spiritual Foundations for a Global Society." The

UNim~... ~ Program for the
inauguration of the
Chair for Baha 'i Studies
at Lucknow University,
Lucknow, India,
14 December 1995.

program aims at imparting knowledge; developing reading,
writing, research, analytical, and teaching skills; strengthening
the desire to serve others; and fostering Baha'i identity.
Europe's first Irfan Colloquium in Persian was held in June
1995 at the Baha'i Permanent Teaching Institute in Acuto, Italy.
The word "irfan" in Persian indicates mystical, spiritual, or
theological knowledge. Irfan Colloquia, sponsored by the Haj
Mehdi Arjmand Memorial Fund, are devoted mainly to scriptural
studies and are conducted separately in English and Persian.
Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom,

2. Tahirih was one of the disciples of the Bab, called Letters of the Living,
and an outstanding heroine of Babi history. She is renowned for her
audacity and courage in championing of the rights of women.

YEAR IN REVIEW

was the venue from 8 to 10 December 1995 for the eighth Irfan
Colloquium and the semiannual meeting of the Religious Studies
Seminar of the Association for Baha'i Studies for English-
Speaking Europe, cosponsored by the Institute for Baha'i Studies,
Wilmette, United States. The ninth Irfan Colloquium was held at
the Baha'i National Center in the United States from 29 to 31
March 1996, with a theme of "anti-Baha'i polemic" and ways of
responding to it.
Arts
Baha'i individuals and communities continued to strive this year
for excellence in the realm of the arts. A representative sample of
efforts is provided below.
In South Africa, as part of the Johannesburg Art Biennial,
the Karen Mckerron Art Gallery invited the National Spiritual
Assembly to cosponsor an exhibition of art works by the winners
of the 1995 awards in honor of Baha'i artist Reginald Turvey and
of a small collection of Turvey's later works. Four works were
shown by each of the four merit award winners: Scott Bredin,
Belinda Chapman, Arik Reiss, and Hester Pullinger. This year's
bursary winner, Henk Serfontein, exhibited thirteen works.
Baha'is in T6rshavn, Faroe Islands, organized a multicultural
concert and art exhibition from 18 to 24 March 1996. Local radio
and a newspaper covered the event.
An exhibition of painting and sculptures by Baha'i artist Sima
Baher de Caballero opened at the National Library in Montevideo, Uruguay, with a ceremony which was attended by almost
one hundred people. The theme of the work was "Nature: The
Sublime Expression," and the invitation for the exhibition
featured Baha'u'llah's words "Nature is God's Will and is its
expression in and through the contingent world."
Syble Douglas, a Baha'i from Georgetown, Guyana, participated in November 1995 in the Guyanese Women Artists'
Exhibition at Casteleni House, showing some of her paintings.
She and her son, Allister Douglas, also mounted an exhibition of
paintings and textile art at the Hadfield Foundation Gallery in
Georgetown.
Radio Baha'i Ecuador sponsored "Nucanchic- Tono," the
15th Andean Music Festival, on 10 September 1995. The event

was attended by more than 3,000 people. On the evening of the
first day of the convention for the election of the Regional
Spiritual Assembly of the Baltic States, the Baha'is held a
Baroque concert in Tallinn, Estonia, with three themes which
were expressed through music and through the reading of the
words of Baha'u'llah in Estonian, Russian, and several other
languages. The themes were "Love and Harmony," "Compassion," and "Unity."

Youth who participated
in a performance of
a play about Lady
Blomfield, an early
Baha'i in England,
during a meeting of
the Association f or
BaM 'i Studies in
Japan.

The musical group Light in the Darkness toured Europe in
summer 1995, visiting Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, and Lithuania.
The Wilmette Choir performed in Paris, France, on 23 March
1996 as part of a tour of Europe. The Northern Ireland Baha'i
Choir was part of a six-thousand-voice World Choir singing with
the Irish National Symphony Orchestra to an audience of over
16,000 people at Landsdown Road Stadium in Dublin in the
presence of President Mary Robinson of the Republic of Ireland.
On 18 February 1996, a drama group sponsored by the Local
Spiritual Assembly of Kampemba, Zambia, gave a presentation
in the town's family center of a cultural play entitled "The White
Robe." It demonstrated the importance of spiritual qualities for
individuals and institutions.
About three hundred Baha'is made their way to Southport,
United Kingdom, for the two-day "Arts Awakening" gathering.
It included exhibitions, carnival displays, videos, slide shows, a
Persian tea garden, and a mural for the children to help paint. In
the Performance Cafe, people shared their poetry, dance, music,

yEAR IN REVIEW

songs and even jokes. The evening "Stage Light" performance
included songs from Gershwin, "West Side Story," "The Phantom of the Opera," and "Miss Saigon."
A workshop entitled "Finding Our Creativity" was held in the
National Baha'i Center in Santiago, Chile, this year. A three-day
drama and music program entitled "The Dawnbreakers" was
held in May 1995 in Sri Lanka, in which stories from Nabil 's
Narrative 3 were depicted through drama, poetry, songs, and
speech.
In January 1996, over 200 Baha'is from various countries
visited Reno, Nevada, in the United States, for a weekend of arts
and media activities, held in conjunction with the newly formed
media and arts association. Events included the multicultural
stage presentation "Global Village," in which eighteen differing
ethnic and religious groups performed and made presentations to
an audience of over 400. NBC television news ran a special
segment on the Saturday evening news featuring visual artists
and a theater piece. A Baha'i drama series titled To Catch a
Glimpse was also filmed in a Reno television studio before an
invited audience. The Local Spiritual Assembly of Reno was
subsequently invited to work on a state arts foundation to secure
a grant for a future exhibition of religious paintings.

3. Nabil 's Narrative is an early history of the Babi Faith.

B aha'is have been involved with the United Nations (UN)
since its inception. Baha'i representatives were present in San
Francisco fifty years ago when the UN Charter was signed, and
the first official observer to the United Nation~ was appointed in
1947. The Baha'i International Community was granted consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council
(ECOSOC) in 1970 and with the United Nations Children's Fund
(UNICEF) in 1976. Over the years, the Baha'i International Community has become known as an international nongovernmental
organization (NGO) actively engaged in efforts to promote the
advancement of women, human rights and responsibilities,
universal education, and sustainable, participatory approaches to
development. The Baha'i International Community represents more
than 5 million people in at least 235 countries and dependent
territories and has 174 national and regional affiliates around the
world. Its United Nations Office is based in New York with a
branch in Geneva, and there are representations to regional UN
agencies in Addis Ababa, Bangkok, Nairobi, Rome, Santiago, and

Vienna. Its Office of Public
Information, based at the Baha'i
World Centre and with a branch
in Paris, disseminates information about the Baha'i Faith
around the world and oversees
the production of an awardwinning quarterly newsletter, One
Country. The Baha'i International Community has in recent years
established an Office of the
Environment and an Office for
the Advancement of Women as
United Nations Under-Secretary part of its permanent United
General Gillian Sorensen, center, Nations Office.
receives the statement
Turning Point for All Nations from Through NGOs like the Baha'i
Bahti 'i International Community International Community, the
representatives Bani Dugal, left,people of the world contribute
and Techeste Ahderom, right. substantially to the programs and
projects carried out under UN auspices. Indeed, one of the great
accomplishments celebrated during the United Nations' fiftieth
anniversary year was the steadily increasing participation by civil
society in the work of the organization, as anticipated and provided
for in the opening words of the UN Charter: "We the peoples of the
United Nations."
High Points
The fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations (UN 50) provided
the Baha'i International Community and many of its national
affiliates an occasion for both celebration and reflection. 1 Reflection on the challenges ahead for the United Nations took a
variety of forms . The Baha'i International Community's United
Nations Office produced a major statement entitled Turning
Point for All Nations, which was published as a contribution

1. Celebrations around the world either sponsored or supported by Baha'i
communities and the Baha'i International Community United Nations
Office are covered in an article beginning on p. 159 of this volume.

BAHA.'f INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY

to the consultations about the future of the United Nations during
the observation of its fiftieth anniversary. The statement reflects
on past accomplishments- and shortcomings- of the UN and
recommends modifications in the current structure that could
equip the organization to meet the challenges that lie ahead.2
On the same theme, invited guests took part in a one-day
seminar entitled "Turning Point for All Nations" to reflect on
humanity's collective future. Sponsored by the Baha'i International Community's United Nations Office, the seminar touched
generally on the need for reform of the UN but focused on two
specific issues: peacekeeping and the need for an international
auxiliary language. The two dozen individuals from government

Seminar on Turning
Point for All Nations
held at the Baha'i
International
Community's offices
at the United Nations
in New York,
18 October 1995.

missions, UN agencies, academia, and nongovernmental organizations who attended the seminar generally agreed that any
restructuring of the United Nations would require both a longterm vision for the organization and a strong partnership between
governments and nongovernmental organizations. "We can't
restructure the United Nations without a vision of where we are
going," said Ruth Engo, Senior Liaison Officer with the office
of the Special Coordinator for Africa and the Least Developed
Countries in the Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development, who chaired the afternoon session.
The keynote address by President Amata Kabua of the
Marshall Islands set the tone for discussion by acknowledging
that the United Nations had entered a new era and by calling for a

2. Turning Point for All Nations is published in its entirety, pp. 241- 83.

THE BAHA'i WORLD

response at once pragmatic and principled. "The immutable law
of change and decay necessitates the need for the United Nations
to dispassionately examine its performance, revise its aims, and
reassess its structures in a genuine search for practical and long
lasting solutions," said President Kabua. "There is no choice.
The current political landscape is vastly different from that of
fifty years ago. There is now more than a threefold increase in
the number of nations with membership in the United Nations.
The rapidly increasing desire on the part of civil society and corporations to become more fully engaged in the change process
itself has added a prominent dimension to the nature of active
agencies in the field."
UN Under-Secretary General Gillian Sorensen, who oversaw
the United Nations' fiftieth anniversary commemorations, welcomed ideas for reform, assuring participants that new ideas
represented an "opportunity and not a threat" to the organization.
The morning session was chaired by John Biggar, first secretary
of the Permanent Mission of Ireland to the UN.
Three presentations laid the groundwork for the consultation.
First, Virginia Strauss, executive director of the Boston Research
Center for the 21st Century, gave an overview of current
proposals for UN restructuring. Her talk focused on the response
to the recent book, Our Global Neighborhood, the report of the
Commission on Global Governance. Next, Brian Lepard, an
assistant professor of law at the University of Nebraska, reviewed
the successes and failures of UN peacekeeping operations over
the last 50 years and pointed to the need for public support for
a UN force that can respond quickly and impartially to global
crises. Finally, Jeffery S. Gruber, a professor of linguistics at
the University of Quebec, explored how a universal auxiliary
language, promoted under UN auspices, could help address the
underlying sources of conflict, poverty, and miscommunication
that so challenge the international community today.
The concerns of women also emerged as an important theme
in the ensuing discussions. "In all the conflicts in the world
today, it is men who made the decision in the conflicts and
women who are the sufferers," said Misrak Elias, senior advisor,

BAHA.'f INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY

women's development program, UNICEF. "What would make
the force effective and useful is the degree to which women are
decision makers." Ms. Elias and others urged that any restructuring of the UN also address underlying issues of conflict. "When I
look at issues of peace and violence," Ms. Elias continued, "it is
clear to me that conflict among nations has to be closely related
to conflict in the country and conflict in the family."
Other participants stressed the practical importance of having
a standing force that can step in quickly when efforts to prevent
conflict fail. Participants agreed that NGOs have a special
responsibility to contribute to a long-term vision for the UN
which is based on efforts to eradicate the underlying sources of
conflict- whether poverty, human rights violations, or misunderstanding. It is anticipated that this event will be followed by
other seminars designed to provide a forum for discussions on
the key issues facing humanity at the end of the 20th century.
Human Rights
The protection of human rights, particularly those of Baha'is in
various parts of the world, is an important part of the work of the
Baha'i International Community's United Nations Offices in
New York and Geneva. 3 Protection, however, is only half the
work; the other half is the promotion of human rights, including
human rights education. Among the human rights issues with
which the Baha'i International Community is actively involved
are those of the child, of women, and of minorities, including
indigenous people; freedom of religion or belief; and the
elimination of racism, genocide, torture, and extreme poverty.
During 1995-96 representatives of the Baha'i International
Community attended and monitored annual sessions of the Sub-
Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection
of Minorities in Geneva and the UN Commission on Human
Rights in Geneva, presenting statements to these bodies on
human rights education; the rights of minorities; and economic,

3. Developments during the past year in the human rights situation of the
Baha'is in Iran are treated at length in a separate article on pp. 139-44 of
this volume.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

social, and cultural rights. The Baha'i International Community
also co signed joint statements on the rights of the child, freedom
of religion and belief, the girl child, human rights defenders, and
extreme poverty. During the 1995 session of the UN General
Assembly in New York, representatives attended sessions of the
General Assembly's Third Committee, which is charged with
overseeing human rights activities.
Public Information
The Baha'i International Community's Office of Public Information undertook a variety of initiatives during 1995- 96. One of
the most extensive projects was preparation of materials for an
authoritative site for the Baha'i International Community on the
Internet's World Wide Web, to be launched in the summer of
1996.
As a follow-up to the release of its statement The Prosperity
of Humankind in January 1995, the Office of Public Information
provided advice to various national Baha'i communities around
the world on issues connected to the statement, and the Paris
office conducted several seminars on the topic. A program was
also launched for the dissemination of a scholarly resource on
the Baha'i Faith by William P. Collins, entitled Bibliography of
English-Language Works on the Babi and Baha'i Faiths, 1844-
1985, to some 1,500 major libraries around the world.
In Haifa, the office facilitated 145 visits of some 2,200 dignitaries, media representatives, and other special visitors to the
Baha'i World Centre during the year. Elsewhere, the Office
coordinated public relations efforts connected to the Fourth
World Conference on Women in Beijing and conducted training
sessions on public relations in preparation for the Habitat II
conference on human settlements in Istanbul, Turkey. It also
arranged international coverage on the Baha'i Faith in various
media over the course of the year and disseminated public
information materials to Baha'i communities around the world.
The Paris office facilitated a series of public information
training seminars, exploring ways in which Baha'i communities
can address the needs of society, particularly in the communities
in which they live. These seminars occurred in the Czech

B AHA'f l NTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY

Republic, Albania, Canada, Greece, and Turkey. The largest one,
in Prague, was attended by representatives of 29 European
National Assemblies. The Paris office also collaborated with
numerous National Assemblies on other public relations projects,
was responsible for the French translation of materials, and made
a number of approaches to the French government concerning
the situation of the Baha'is in Iran and other human rights issues.
Representatives of the office assisted the Baha'i community of Greece in arranging commemorations of United Nations
Human Rights Day in Athens and in Bucharest, Romania, and
facilitated the participation of a Baha'i International Community
representative at the Workshop W orldwatch conference in
Bucharest in March 1996, held under the patronage of the
President of Romania, Mr. Ion Iliescu.
During 1995- 96, One Country, a quarterly newsletter
produced by the Baha'i International Community's Office of
Public Information, entered its seventh year of publication. Published in six languages- English, French, Chinese, Russian,
German, and Spanish- it was circulated to more than 30,000
people in some 170 countries in all of its editions. One Country
is distributed to individuals and organizations with a demonstrated interest in international affairs, sustainable development,
human rights, the advancement of women, and the creation of a
peaceful and just world.
This year One Country carried major news stories on the
Summit on the Alliance between Religions and Conservation,
the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, and
the Fourth International Dialogue on the Transition to a Global
Society. It also had feature stories on Baha'i-sponsored social
and economic development projects in Zambia, Bolivia, and
Kenya. The story on the Summit on Religions and Conservation
in the English edition was recognized with an APEX '95 Award
for Publications Excellence by Communications Concepts in the
newsletter writing category. The Religious Public Relations Council, an international association of religious communicators, also
recognized One Country with awards for editorial writing and
feature writing during the year.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

Environment, Development, and Global Prosperity
At Windsor Castle in the United Kingdom, a Baha'i delegation joined religious leaders representing nine major faiths at a
ground-breaking Summit on Religions and Conservation. The
representatives discussed among themselves and with key officials
from several major secular institutions how the world's religious
communities might become more involved in protecting and
preserving the earth's environment.
This auspicious gathering, held from 29 April to 4 May 1995,
was the second session of the Summit on the Alliance between
Religions and Conservation, sponsored by the World Wide Fund
for Nature (WWF), the Pilkington Foundation, and MOA International, a Japanese humanitarian foundation. The first session
was held three weeks earlier in Japan. 4 Prominent representatives from Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism, Judaism,
Islam, Sikhism, Taoism, and the Baha'i Faith were invited to
attend. By one count, the assembled leaders represented more
than two billion religious adherents- roughly one third of the
earth's population.
The Baha'i delegation was headed by Amatu'l-Baha Rul)iyyih
Khanum and included Kimiko Schwerin, International Counsellor,
and Lawrence Arturo, director of the Office of the Environment.
Arthur Dahl attended as a representative of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP).
Rul)iyyih Khanum's talk, which covered theology, history,
environment, the importance of involving children in the work
of conservation, and the need for a world parliament, opened the
way for substantial Baha'i contributions during the three days
of discussions between secular leaders and the various religious representatives. The discussions produced concrete results,
including a plan for religious communities to collaborate with
UNEP in monitoring changes in the local environment; and
agreements for meetings between religious leaders and key
directors of the World Bank, major industrialists, and global
broadcasters, both public and commercial.
The 1995 Summit was called primarily to assess the work

4. See The Baha'i World 1994-95, pp. 148-49, for a report of that meeting.

BAHA'I INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY

done since 1986 when the WWF convened what was perhaps the
first major international interfaith meeting on environmental
issues. At that gathering in Assisi, Italy, representatives from five
major religions- Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism,
and Islam- created the Network on Conservation and Religion.
In 1987 the Baha'i Faith joined the network; in 1988, the Sikhs
and Jains also became members; and at this meeting the Taoists
were welcomed into membership.
"The crucial point of why we held the Summit," explained
Martin Palmer, director of the International Consultancy on
Religion, Education and Culture (ICOREC), which organized the
Summit on behalf of the three sponsors, "is that some religionsand the Baha'is would stand as a notable example here, along
with the Buddhists and some Christian groups- have done a
tremendous amount of work in promoting conservation since
Assisi. They have been busy creating new offices, funding
projects, and producing material for their schools." A major goal
of the Summit was to stimulate other religions into action. The
final statements of the nine faiths including their action plans
were bound and distributed by the WWF.
The Office of the Environment was also heavily engaged in

Hand of the Cause of God Amatu '1-Baha Ruhiyyih Khimum, center, with
Buddhist representative Kushok Bakula, left, and Xie Zongxing of the Taoist
religion, at the Summit on the Alliance between Religions and Conservation.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

preparations for the United Nations Conference on Human
Settlements (Habitat II) scheduled for June 1996 in Istanbul. At
the international level, the Office participated in sessions of the
Preparatory Committee (PrepCom) for the UN conference, where
the draft agenda for Habitat II (the Statement of Principles and
Commitments and Global Plan of Action) was negotiated; at
the national level in Turkey, the Office supported the efforts
of the National Spiritual Assembly of Turkey to assist the UN
and the NGO organizing committee to prepare for the conference and NGO Forum in June.
Baha'i participation in the third and final session of the
PrepCom, which was held in New York City in February, was
marked by a new level of involvement. Although NGOs with
consultative status have for a long time been involved in shaping
UN programs, documents, and processes, their participation in
government meetings has often been strictly constrained, with
genuine interaction confined to caucuses and working groups. At
this PrepCom, however, as with the second PrepCom in Nairobi,
local authorities and NGOs were allowed to offer text from the
floor on each paragraph as governments negotiated the specific
language of the conference documents. This process was not
always smooth, but Dr. Wally N'Dow, the Secretary General of
the conference, did not allow the PrepCom to retreat from this
procedure even in the face of governmental opposition. The
Baha'i International Community distributed suggested changes
to the text of the draft Habitat Agenda along with Baha'i International Community publications The Prosperity ofHumankind and
World Citizenship: A Global Ethic for Sustainable Development.
At least 14 Baha'is took part, including representatives of
the European Baha'i Youth Council, Health for Humanity, and
the National Spiritual Assemblies of Brazil, Turkey, and the
United States. Baha'is actively participated in numerous caucuses
including those on family, human rights, Latin America, peace,
rights of the child, sustainable societies, urban-rural linkages, the
US citizens' network, values, and youth. Many of these caucuses adopted text suggested by Baha'is participating in their
deliberations.

BAHA:f INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY

Advancement of Women
The Office for the Advancement of Women was deeply involved
in the process leading up to and including the Fourth World
Conference on Women in Beijing and the parallel NGO Forum in
Huairou. Held in September 1995, twenty years after the United
Nations convened its first global conference on women in Mexico
City, the conference and the accompanying forum for nongovernmental organizations drew more than 500 Baha'i women and men
from around the world. 5
As part of the preparations for the Conference in Beijing, a
survey of the participation of women in Baha'i community lifethe third such survey in 20 years-was conducted by the Baha'i
International Community's Office for the Advancement of
Women. The survey found that the percentage of women in
positions of leadership in the Baha'i Faith compares favorably with
the percentage of women in positions of political leadership
worldwide. Women compose on average about 30 percent of the
elected membership of national-level Baha'i governing councils
and some 47 percent of the membership in special Baha'i appointed
positions for the sub-national and regional level. The average
percentage of women members in the world's parliaments is about
ten percent, according to the Inter-Parliamentary Union.
While these percentages fall short of an idealized 50 percent,
they reflect the earnest efforts of a highly diverse worldwide
community to live up to and put into practice a religious value
that often runs counter to traditions and culture. "The equality
of women and men is a cardinal principle for Baha'is," said
Rebequa Getahoun, one of the team that conducted the survey
for the Office for the Advancement of Women. "The fact that
women compose an average of 30 percent of our elected governing councils at the national level shows the degree to which
Baha'is-who use secret ballots when voting-have already
begun to overcome traditional prejudices."

5. See pp. 145-58 for a full report of these activities. The text of the Baha'i
International Community statement distributed to all delegates at the Conference is on pp. 285-87.

"Further," Ms. Getahoun continued, "the fact that appointed
positions do approach a 50/50 ratio shows that the community's
leadership is making an earnest effort to further combat the trends
in society at large." A report of the results of the survey appear in a
book, The Greatness Which Might Be Theirs: Reflections on the
Agenda and Plarform for Action for the United Nations Fourth
World Conference on Women: Equality, Development and Peace.
Published by the Office for the Advancement of Women, this
compilation of essays and Baha'i International Community statements offers a Baha'i perspective on nine of the twelve topics on
the agenda of the conference in Beijing. Distributed in Beijing in
English and Chinese, it is now available in both French and
Spanish as well.
Around the world, national Baha'i communities are promoting
the advancement of women as an effort to influence the processes
toward peace. Offices for the Advancement of Women have been
established in Australia, Canada, India, Malaysia, New Zealand,
Nigeria, and Puerto Rico. With support from the Baha'i International Community's Office for the Advancement of Women,
national Baha'i communities are strengthening relations with their
governments, UN agencies, and organizations of civil society by
advancing this principle.
Recently the crisis in the family has drawn the attention of
governments and NGOs alike. On this topic, 1995 saw the
release of a publication entitled The Violence-Free Family:
Building Block of a Peacefitl Civilization, the text of which is
based on the keynote address by H.B. Danesh, M.D., to the
Symposium on Strategies for Creating Violence-Free Families,
an event initiated in 1994 by the Baha'i International Community and cosponsored by UNICEF and UNIFEM. The book, an
Association for Baha'i Studies publication, was distributed
widely at the Fourth World Conference on Women, to all UN
missions in New York, and to all Baha'i National Assemblies.
Building on the success of last year's symposium in New
York, a number of spin-off seminars on Creating Violence-Free
Families have been held at the national and regional levels.
For example, the Baha'i community of Antigua, in collaboration

BAHA'I INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY

with UNIFEM, cosponsored a symposium in May 1995, at which
31 participants, including representatives of 11 Caribbean nations
and UNICEF, gathered to consult on strategies for eradicating
family violence. The Baha'i community reported heartening
results: "One participant shared afterwards that all her life she
has been angry, fighting injustice, and that she dreads meetings
about violence against women because they reactivate her anger.
At this meeting, she added, she realized for the first time that
love was a much more effective way to address the problem, and
that this is the first meeting on this subject that she is leaving
with a sense of hope."
One effort made in a number of communities to change family
dynamics has been the Traditional Media as Change Agent
project, which seeks to improve the status of women by changing
the attitudes and behavior of men. The project was undertaken in
Bolivia, Malaysia, and Cameroon, with funds from UNIFEM.
The first phase of the project was completed in 1993, and responsibility for the second phase of the project was transferred to
national communities. In Cameroon, part of the second phase
was a formal evaluation which found evidence in project villages
that men have begun assisting their wives with tasks usually
considered to be women's work, that women are becoming more
involved in community affairs, and that beliefs about male and
female attributes related to work and making decisions are
changing. Further, the United Nations Development Program
(UNDP) funded a mill for grinding grain to ease the burden of
work borne by women.
Because of its ongoing involvement in development in many
parts of Africa, the Baha'i International Community was one of a
select group ofNGOs invited to participate in the midterm review
of the United Nations New Agenda for the Development of Africa
in the 1990s to take place in September 1996. When asked to
submit a report on exemplary Baha'i development projects in
Africa, the Baha'i International Community selected two: the
Traditional Media as Change Agent project in Cameroon and the
Masethla Institute in Zambia, which operates the Banani Rural
Secondary School for Girls.

Meetings
Meetings and UN sessions monitored by the Baha'i International
Community during 1995-96 included the Commission on Sustainable Development in New York; the Commission on the Status
of Women in New York; the Substantive Session of the United
Nations Economic and Social Council; the meeting of the
UNICEF Executive Board in New York; and Planning Meetings
of the Second Biennial Session of the Youth Forum of the
United Nations System in New York and in Brussels.
Much of the work of NGOs in consultative status is carried
out through NGO committees which address specific issues.
During this last year, a Baha'i International Community representative chaired the New York NGO Committee on Human
Rights and another chaired the New York NGO Committee on
the Family.
Conclusion
The Baha'i International Community, working with National
Spiritual Assemblies around the world, undertook numerous and
varied activities during 1995-96, mainly focusing on women, the
environment, and human rights. Certain highlights, such as the
Fourth World Conference on Women, the celebration of the fiftieth
anniversary of the United Nations, the Summit on the Alliance
between Religions and Conservation, marked the year, but numerous other endeavors, enacted on a smaller scale in various parts
of the globe, also helped the Baha'i International Community
pursue its cherished goal of promoting the establishment of a
peaceful planetary civilization.

Update: The Situation of
THEBAHA~fs
rNlRAN

T he 300,000-member Iranian Baha'i community has suffered
severe persecutions since the ascendancy of the Islamic
Revolutionary Government in 1979. In the past seventeen years,
201 Baha'is have been killed or executed, fifteen are missing and
presumed dead, and hundreds have been imprisoned. Property
confiscations (totaling 150 in the city of Y azd last year alone),
dismissal from public sector employment, expulsion from institutions of higher learning, discriminatory treatment in the
judicial system, arbitrary arrests, and prohibition of all forms of
religious community life, including worship meetings, are some
of the difficulties experienced by this beleaguered community. In
recent years, more than one hundred Baha'is throughout the
country have been arrested, detained for periods ranging from 48
hours to six months, and then released, in an effort to create an
atmosphere of uncertainty and fear in the community. Numerous cases of torture and summary trials have been documented.
As of March 1996, eight Baha'is were in prison, three under
sentence of death. The situation of the Iranian Baha'i community
continued to receive the close attention of the United Nations
during 1995-96, particularly in reports issued by the Special
Representative on Iran and the Special Rapporteur on Religious
Intolerance, and the sentencing of another Baha'i to death on
the charge of "religious apostasy" prompted a number of governments around the world to further action. 1
The Case of Dhabil}u'lhih Mal}rami
In the winter of 1995-96, the Baha'i community learned that a
Baha'i in the city of Yazd in Iran, Mr. Dhabil).u'llah Mal).rami,
had been charged with religious apostasy, or abandoning the
Faith of Islam. The Baha'i community was permitted to hire
a lawyer to defend Mr. Mal).rami, a right that has only been
recently granted to Baha'is. While the defense did not succeed in
freeing Mr. Mal).rami and the death sentence was passed on him
on 2 January 1996, Iran's Supreme Court rejected the Revolutionary Court's decision on the grounds that it was incompetent
to hear the case. The case was then referred to the civil court in
Y azd, from which a verdict has still not been heard.
When the facts of the case involving Mr. Mal).rami became
known around the world, Baha'i communities took a variety of
actions. One result was the adoption by the European Parliament
of a resolution on human rights abuses in Iran, which made
reference to the suffering of the Baha'is in Iran and to Mr.
Mal).rami's case in particular. Baha'i communities in Australia,
Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, the United K.ingdom, and the
United States all received support from their governments.
Significant media coverage included short pieces in Le Monde
and Liberation in France, and Reuter and AFP (Agence France
Presse) publicized the story. The BBC World Service Persian
Service, the BBC World Service Arabic Service, and other arms
of the British Broadcasting Corporation also reported the story.

1. For a detailed account of these human rights violations, see "The Case of
the Baha'i Minority in Iran" by Douglas Martin, in The Baha'i World
1992-93, pp. 247-71. See also "Update: The Situation of the Baha'is in
Iran" in The Baha'i World 1993-94, pp. 139-45, and in The Baha'i World
1994-95,pp. 133-38.

BAHAJs IN IRAN

Other actions regarding the situation of Iran's Baha'is
Baha'i communities around the world also wished to make the
general situation of the Baha'is in Iran better known to their
elected representatives. In Uruguay, this resulted in three senators
urging a favorable vote supporting the human rights of Iran's
Baha'is, in which they stated, "A vote in this sense will not only
be in accordance with the country's tradition, but shall encourage
the members of this community to continue their benevolent work
within Uruguay and the rest of the world." The Great and General
Council of the Republic of San Marino unanimously approved a
proclamation condemning persecutions against the Baha'i community of Iran.
A special exhibit documenting responses by the United States
and other countries to the repression of the Baha'i community
in Iran was displayed in the U.S. House of Representatives in
Washington, D.C., in early May 1995. At a reception held to mark
the exhibit's opening, the American Baha'i community honored
Representatives Ben Gilman and Lee Hamilton. Together with
Representatives John Edward Porter and Tom Lantos, who sponsored the current exhibit, Messrs. Gilman and Hamilton have
been leading backers of a series of congressional resolutions
calling on the U.S. government to work to extend internationally
recognized human rights to the Baha'is in Iran.

The exhibit
"Defending
Religious
Liberty" in
the Cannon
Rotunda of the
U.S. House of
Representatives,
May 1995.

United Nations
Again this year, the Baha'i International Community was
successful in appealing for the assistance of the United Nations.
The 50th Session of the UN General Assembly's latest resolution
condemning the human rights situation in Iran once more makes
specific mention of the Baha'is. The Baha'i International Community also presented statements to both the 52nd Session of the
UN Commission on Human Rights and to the 47th Session of the
UN Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and
Protection of Minorities. Perhaps most notable, however, was the
release of two significant reports which mentioned the Iranian
Baha'i community in some detail.
Report of the Special Rapporteur on Religious Intolerance
The report of the new United Nations Special Rapporteur on
Religious Intolerance, Abdelfattah Amor of Tunisia, to the 52nd
Session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights
regarding religious intolerance in the Islamic Republic of Iran
devotes a section to the Baha'i situation, outlining aspects of
discrimination in the religious, sociocultural, educational, and
professional fields, in the field of justice, and in the security of
persons. Noting the banning of Baha'i administrative institutions
in Iran since 1983, the report concludes that "Since, by virtue of
its fundamental principles, the Baha'i faith [has] no clergy, the
very existence of the Baha'is as a viable religious community [is]
apparently being threatened in the absence of those institutions."
The Special Rapporteur makes a number of significant recommendations concerning the situation of the Baha'is in Iran. First,
he states: "Considering the religious principles of the Baha'i
community, the Special Rapporteur believes that there should not
be any controls that might, through prohibition, restrictions or discrimination, jeopardize the right to freedom of belief or the right
to manifest one's belief." The report continues:

For this reason, the Special Rapporteur recommends that the
ban on the Baha'i organization should be lifted to enable
it to organize itself freely through its adtninistrative institutions, which are vital in the absence of a clergy, and so that
it can engage fully in its religious activities. Likewise, all the

BAHA:fs IN IRAN

community and personal property that has been confiscated
should be returned and the places of worship that have been
destroyed should be reconstructed, if possible, or, at least,
should form the subject of cotnpensatory 1neasures in favor
of the Baha'i community. The Baha'is should also be free to
bury and honor their dead. Concerning freedom of tnovetnent, including departure from Iranian territory, the Special
Rapporteur believes that the question on religion should be
deleted from passport application forms and that this freedom
should not be obstructed in any way.

Further recommendations are that no discrimination should
bar Baha'is from study in universities or from employment in the
governmental or private sectors, that "the physical integrity of
any person should not be affected by the person's religion or
belief," and that death sentences passed on Baha'is should be
reviewed or set aside through amnesties or other appropriate
measures. To address problems faced by Baha'is and members of
other religious minorities in the judicial system, the report
recommends that judicial and administrative personnel should be
trained in human rights, "particularly with regard to tolerance
and non-discrimination based on religion or belief."
Report of the Special Representative on Iran
Maurice Danby Copithome of Canada, appointed as the new
United Nations Special Representative on Iran to replace Professor
Reynaldo Galindo-Pohl, also submitted a report to the 52nd Session
of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, an eightparagraph section of which focuses specifically on the Baha'is. This
section opens with an endorsement of Professor Amor' s recommendations concerning their situation.
Some specific instances of discrimination against Baha'is in
the judicial system are detailed, including a case in September
1995 where the family of a deceased person was not permitted
rights of succession because they are Baha'is and another case
in May 1995 when people found guilty of manslaughter were
exempted from paying "blood money" to the victims' families
because the deceased and other family members are Baha'is. Instead,
the defendants were ordered to pay money to a government fund.
Another case, where an individual was denied reinstatement to a

job from which he had been dismissed unless he renounced his
Faith in a "widely distributed newspaper," is cited by the Special
Representative as an example of discrimination in employment
against the Baha'i community. A crucial concern, as noted by
the Representative, is "the right of the Baha'i community to
maintain its administrative institutions." The Special Representative concludes that "Overall, while there appears to be some
improvement in the lot of the Baha'is in the Islamic Republic of
Iran, there continue to be grave breaches of human rights, which
in the Special Representative's view are only likely to disappear
with a significant change of attitude on the part of the Iranian
authorities."
Report of the UN Secretary General
The United Nations Secretary General's report on "The Rights
of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and
Linguistic Minorities," also submitted to the 52nd Session of the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights, comments in two
paragraphs about the situation of the Baha'is in Iran, reiterating
the request "that careful consideration be given to the legal
situation of Baha'is who [are] in prison, particularly those who
[have] been sentenced to death or accused of apostasy," and
demanding an end to the harassment and discrimination faced by
Baha'is.
Conclusion
During 1995-96, the plight of Iran's Baha'i community, and
specifically that of Mr. Dhabil)_u'llah Mal)_rami, was well documented through the reports of the Special Rapporteur on
Religious Intolerance and the Special Representative on Iran.
Governments, encouraged by many Baha'i communities, once
again voiced their opposition to the injustice suffered by this
religious community. While the situation of the Baha'is in Iran
remains that of an oppressed minority, the spotlight shone upon
them by the world's governments and media has not only
reminded people in all parts of the globe of their suffering, but
also appears to have constrained the level of their persecution.

QUALITY,
DEVELOPMENT,
AND PEACE:
Baha'is and the United Nations
Fourth World Conference on Women
and NGO Forum

nited by their belief that full and equal partnership between
women and men is necessary to bring about the peace that
humanity desires, some 500 Baha'is--ofboth sexes-made what
were in many cases long and difficult journeys to China in the
fall of 1995. Their goal was to contribute to two gatherings of
monumental proportions called by the United Nations to address
the existing inequalities which continue to prevent the realization
of full partnership. Representing a diverse worldwide community
with a 150-year commitment to promoting equality, 1 they came
from more than 50 countries and a wide range of occupations,
ages, and backgrounds, from a Russian reindeer herder to a
United States appellate court judge to a 16-year-old author from
Malaysia. They came to share, learn, celebrate, contribute, and
be of service, and to offer hope that true equality can be
achieved.

1. For an overview of this history, see The Baha '{ World 1993-94,
pp. 237-75.

It would have been easy for them to be daunted by the gravity
of the world situation they came to address. Just two weeks prior
to the opening of the Forum, a new study of the status of women
worldwide was released, and it showed that in no country are
women offered the same education and health opportunities as
men, women seriously lag behind men in economic and political
status, and violence against women is rampant. The study was
prepared by independent experts commissioned by the United
Nations Development Program to gather statistics on women for
international comparison. It found that more than 900 million
women are living in poverty; an estimated 1 million children,
mostly girls, are forced into prostitution annually; an estimated 1
in 6 women in several major Western countries is raped during
her lifetime; and women occupy only 14 percent of top managerial jobs in the world, 10 percent of national legislative seats,
and 6 percent of cabinet level positions. The report estimated the
annual value of the unpaid and underpaid work done by women
to be $11 trillion.
In the foreword to the report, United Nations Development
Program administrator James Gustave Speth wrote that the
report is "a major indictment of the continuing discrimination against women in most societies." He also asserted that
"investing in women's capabilities and empowering them to
exercise their choices is not only valuable in itself but is also
the surest way to contribute to economic growth and overall
development."
The Baha'i community shares the view that the status of
wo1nen is not a "women's issue" but is fundamentally linl(ed to
the well-being and progress of all people. As the Universal
House of Justice wrote in 1985 in a statement addressed to the
peoples of the world, "Only as women are welcomed into full
partnership in all fields of hu1nan endeavor will the moral and
psychological cli1nate be created in which inten1ational peace
can emerge." This was the central concept which Baha'is shared
at the Fourth World Conference on Wo1nen held in Beijing 4-15
Septe1nber 1995 and at the NGO (nongovernmental organization) Forum on Women which began several days earlier in
nearby Huairou.

EQUALITY, DEVELOPMENT, pEACE

The NGO Forum
The "sudden emergence of a university, full of highly intelligent,
intensely curious women learning all about everything," was
how one participant characterized the NGO Forum on Women '95,
held 30 August to 8 September 1995, with the theme "Equality,
Development and Peace." Despite press emphasis on the logistical problems associated with the site chosen for this companion
event to the UN conference for government leaders, Baha'i participants reported that the opportunities for exchange in Huairou
were unprecedented and the extraordinary capacity demonstrated
by the approximately 30,000 women and men who attended
testified to the progress underway and the potential for even
greater change.
The Forum opened with a ceremony on the theme of peace
which involved 5,000 performers, the release of 20,000 doves,
and the arrival of a peace torch which had begun its journey in
Africa. Then the representatives of more than 2,500 NGOs and
community-based organizations proceeded to share their ideas
and experiences with each other through some 5,000 workshops,
seminars, and other activities. The Forum marked the culmination
of two years of regional fora organized to help NGOs develop
recommendations for presentation to governments at the Fourth
World Conference.
Baha'i participation in the Forum also began years before the
actual event. The Director of the Baha'i International Community
Office for the Advancement of Women, Mary Power, chaired the
NGO Committee on the Status of Women in New York from
1991 to 1995 and served on the Global Forum Facilitating
Committee responsible for organizing the F on1m. Another
Baha'i, Giovanni Ballerio, chaired the NGO Forum Working
Group of the Committee on the Status of Women in Geneva. A
Baha'i International Community representative also acted as
Rapporteur for the Asia/Pacific NGO Working Group in Bangkok.
All over the world, Baha'i communities participated in the regional forums leading up to Huairou.
Once the Forum began, Baha'i participants put their energy
into three main areas: sponsoring workshops, maintaining a
special "Quiet Space" to meet participants' needs for a calm

environment in which to reflect and meditate, and volunteering
to help the entire event run smoothly.
Baha'is sponsored, coordinated, or organized more than 30
workshops at the Forum. The Baha'i International Community,
as an NGO, cosponsored "Community Reconstruction: A Consensual Framework for Global Peace and Security" with the
International Peace Research Association and the Association of
African Women on Research and Development. Participants
examined the components of a paradigm of global security,
exploring the practice of conflict resolution, the concept of consultation, and the processes of reconciliation and reconstruction
as vital aspects of community building and social reintegration.
The Baha'i International Community also offered a video presentation and discussion about the Traditional Media as Change
Agent project undertaken in Bolivia, Cameroon, and Malaysia
in cooperation with the United Nations Development Fund
for Women (UNIFEM) to help local communities use theater,
dance, songs, and storytelling to examine and change existing
attitudes about gender roles. A workshop presenting program
models that aim to address gender roles in the family was
also cosponsored by the Baha'i International Community with
UNICEF, the YMCA, and Save the Children, and another workshop called "The Right to Food" was convened by BIC and
presented by Advocates for African Food Security.
Among the topics addressed by other Baha'i agencies in their
workshops were consultation in the family; young women and a
violence-free society; the impact of development on indigenous
families; women, work, and family; and women and men in
partnership promoting equality. Some of these presentations
were made by Baha'i institutions, such as the National Spiritual
Assembly of the Baha'is of Greece, and others were made by
organizations founded by Baha'is, such as 1' Association medicale
baha'ie. In one case, a Baha'i agency, the Office for the Advancement of Women of the Baha'i Community of Malaysia,
was appointed as a South East Asian Focal Point for Family and
Young Women's Issues for the Forum, and in that capacity
presented several workshops.

EQUALITY, DEVELOPMENT, pEACE

Whenever Forum participants found the need for some time
away from the lively exchange of some 30,000 voices, they were
able to make use of"The Quiet Space." Facilitated by the Baha'i
International Community at the request of the NGO Forum
Office, the space was arranged with flowers and potted plants
placed amidst the chairs, a rug on the floor, and quiet music from
different parts of the world playing in the background. Hanging
in the tent was an 8' x 12' tapestry called "Threads of Unity"
created by artist Vickie Hu Poirier with contributions from more
than 60 Baha'is; the design included Baha'i quotations in a
variety of languages woven throughout. Many people came
regularly to "The Quiet Space" and often expressed their appreciation for having such a haven.
"The Quiet Space, "
facilitated by the
BaM 'i International Community
at the NGO Forum
in Huairou. See
p. 8lfora
photograph of the
tapestry "Threads
ofUnity" which
was displayed in
"The Quiet Space. "

Volunteers at
the Baha'i
International
Community
booth at the
NGOForum
on Women '95
in Huairou.

---- ----- - - - - - - - - - - -

Prior to the Forum itself, as Baha'is prepared themselves for
the event, it was suggested that those who would participate
might draw inspiration from the figure of Bahiyyih Khanum,
daughter of Baha'u'llah and an example to all women of how
leadership and strength can be combined with humility and
service to humanity. Thus when they arrived at the Forum, a
number of Baha'is found that a natural way of expressing Baha'i
principles and ideals was to use their talents in service to their
fellow attendees. One Baha'i acted as a facilitator of scores of
volunteers, helping to link them with needs throughout the
Forum. The volunteers also helped make possible distribution of
the daily NGO newspaper, managed the marketplace at which
women from all over the world sold their crafts, and assisted
with maintaining the atmosphere of "The Quiet Space."
Among the Baha'i participants at the Forum were approximately 50 youth. In addition to volunteering and participating in
activities throughout the Forum, the Baha'i Youth Workshop
from the United States-a diverse group of young people who
use the performing arts to promote the principles of racial and
sexual equality and the oneness of humanity-performed five
times during the Forum, including once at a youth arts night
before 500 people. They also presented "Partnership is the Key:
Young Women and Young Men as Agents of Change," a panel
discussion and question and answer period on developing
attitudes of partnership within the Baha'i Youth Workshop and
the potential of the Workshop as a social and educational development tool. At the Forum's closing ceremonies, before a crowd
of 15,000, the Workshop performed a dance portraying the need
for both sexes to work together to achieve equality and a rap on
the nobility and dignity of women. Members of the group were
enthusiastically approached for more information by people from
the Bougainvillaea Islands in the South Pacific who were trying
to find ways to stop gang violence; by others from Pakistan examining the role teenage boys play in the self-esteem of girls; and
by a woman living as a refugee in Kenya who uses the arts to
address the trauma of children in refugee camps.
The youth from Malaysia also played a significant role in the
Forum. They offered a workshop on the increasing burden of

EQUALITY, DEVELOPMENT, pEACE

poverty on young women, and the final speech of the youth presentation at the closing ceremonies was given by Malaysian
Baha'is Kim Siew Yen and Anyssa Ludher.
The torrential rains which regularly flooded some NGO tents
at the Forum and the difficulties associated with the relatively
late move of the Forum site from Beijing to Huairou did not in
the end prevent the women and men who attended from carrying
out the important work they had come to accomplish. "The tone
of the women present at the closing of the NGO Forum is one
of confidence and determination," wrote Dr. Elizabeth Bowen in
one of a series of reports sent electronically to fellow members of
Health for Humanity and through SatelLife to health care providers in Africa, Asia, Australia, and Canada. "The sense of
unity and appreciation of diversity among the women in their
quest for justice is impressive." The NGO Forum '95 provided
more evidence of the truth of 'Abdu'l-Baha's words, spoken in
1912: "The world in the past has been ruled by force ... But the
balance is already shifting; force is losing its dominance, and
mental alertness, intuition, and the spiritual qualities of love and
service, in which woman is strong, are gaining ascendancy.
Hence the new age will be ... an age in which the masculine and
feminine elements of civilization will be more evenly balanced."
The United Nations Conference
Halfway through the NGO Forum, the Fourth World Conference
on Women began at the Beijing International Conference Center.
Although this Conference was organized to give government
representatives an opportunity to forge a Platform for Action,
nongovernmental agencies continued to play vital roles in the
process. In fact, the Conference, held 4-15 September 1995, was
described by conference officials as the largest international
meeting ever convened under United Nations auspices, with
some 17,000 people registered, including 5,000 delegates from
189 states and the European Union, 4,000 NGO representatives,
and more than 3,200 members of the media. While continuing
their educational and networking activities in Huairou, NGOs also
contributed substantively to the conference in Beijing through
direct participation in the debate about the Platform for Action. In

a message to the conference, United Nations Secretary General
Boutros Boutros-Ghali called this a demonstration of "the new
partnership in international life which has been forged between
governmental and nongovernmental organizations" and of the
"new legitimacy of the organizations of civil society as actors on
the international scene."2
Seven Baha'i delegations were accredited to the conference: the
Baha'i International Community, the National Spiritual Assembly
of the Baha'is of the United States, the Baha'i community of the
Netherlands, the Baha'i community of Canada, 1' Association baha'ie
de Femmes (France), !'Association medicale baha'ie (France), and
the National Baha'i Office for the Advancement of Women
(Nigeria). In addition, two organizations founded by Baha'is sent
delegations: Health for Humanity and Women for International
Peace and Arbitration. Individual Baha'is were also selected to
serve on the delegations sent by their countries.
The conference was called by the United Nations to review
progress made toward implementation of the "Forward-looking
Strategies for the Advancement of Women" adopted at the Third
World Conference in Nairobi in 1985. By the end of the conference in Beijing it was determined that much remains to be
done, and the government representatives adopted a Declaration
and Platform for Action aimed at launching a global campaign to
bring women into full and equal participation in all spheres of
public and private life worldwide. The Platform addresses twelve
critical areas of concern: poverty, education, health, violence,
armed conflict, economic structures, power sharing and decisionmaking, mechanisms to promote the advancement of women,
human rights, the media, the environment, and the girl child.
Caucuses were held on each of these issues, as well as on the
common issues being faced by various regions of the world.

2. The role played by NGOs at international United Nations conferences
has continued to grow significantly during the last several years, as witnessed by their prominence at the World Summit for Social Development.
For a description of Baha'i International Community involvement at that
Summit, see The Baha'i World 1994-95, pp. 37-46.

EQUALITY, DEVELOPMENT, pEACE

Through participating in these caucuses, NGO representatives
were able to work collectively to develop language which could
be recommended to the governmental working groups for inclusion in the Platform for Action. Brenda Maxwell, one of the
delegates representing the Baha'i community of Canada, worked
long hours drafting a statement for the health caucus. Patricia
Locke, representing the National Spiritual Assembly of the
United States, was elected chair of the indigenous women's
caucus.
Two members of the Women for International Peace and Arbitration, an organization founded by Baha'is, played key roles
in the peace caucus, helping to draft a statement which was
delivered orally to the Conference. A portion of the statement
read: "Equality is one of the most important though less acknowledged prerequisites to peace. Therefore, women must participate
fully in all stages of peace processes and negotiations. From peace
education, preventive diplomacy, non-violent peace building and
peacekeeping to post-conflict peace building, women's skills and
experience as mediators and conciliators in all spheres of society
will make a qualitative difference in the effectiveness of these
activities."
The selection of the girl child as one of the twelve priority
areas of concern to be addressed in the Platfonn for Action was
particularly gratifying to the Baha'i International Community,
whose members had worked for years to draw attention to this
subject. As far back as the early 1970s, after the Baha'i Interna~
tional Community became accredited to the UN Economic and
Social Council (ECOSOC) and became an NGO observer at
meetings of the Commission on the Status of Women, it
submitted a statement to the Commission calling attention to the
importance of educating girls. In the early 1980s, a strong
statement was made to the UNICEF Executive Board supporting
the initiative taken by UNICEF's Women's Senior Programme
Advisor to advocate for the girl child, and the Baha'i International Community worked closely with UNICEF to promote
awareness of the needs of girl children. In Geneva, BIC representative Giovanni Ballerio worked with representatives of the

A diverse group of
participants at the
NGOForum on
Women '95, held in
conjunction with
the Fourth World
Conference on
Women in Beijing,
September 1995.

International Federation ofUniversity Women and other international NGOs to promote inclusion of this issue in the Beijing
Platform for Action. He also promoted the importance of the
issue at the Economic Commission for Europe Preparatory
Conference in Vienna in October 1994 and the fmal session of
the UN Preparatory Committee in New York in March 1995.
Continuing its work after the Beijing conference, the Baha'i
International Community gained representation on UNICEF's
NGO Working Group on the Girl Child.
In addition to participating in issue caucuses, the Baha'i International Community distributed a statement entitled "The Role
of Religion in Promoting the Advancement of Women" to all
delegations represented at the conference. The statement was
going to be presented orally at the Conference, as the Baha'i International Community had been one of approximately 50 NGOs
selected to speak, but at the last moment organizers requested that
a slot be relinquished to the Moscow Center for Gender Studies
which was represented for the first time at a world conference.
Given the importance of Eastern European women's gaining
recognition for the challenges they face, the Baha'i International
Community decided to offer its place on the program and
distribute its statement in print form only.
Applauding the fact that the Platform for Action addresses the
advancement of women from the standpoint of moral principle
and not just pragmatism, the Baha'i International Community
asserted in the statement that if the Platform is to receive the

EQUALITY, DEVELOPMENT, pEACE

worldwide support it requires for implementation, "the equality
of men and women needs to be understood as an essential aspect
of an even broader principle: the oneness of humanity. Properly
understood in the context of the oneness of humanity, equality of
the sexes must be embraced not only as a requirement of justice
but as a prerequisite for peace and prosperity. Nothing short of a
compelling vision of peace, and commitment to the values on
which it must be based, will have the power to motivate the
revolutionary changes in individual behavior, organizational
structures, and interpersonal dynamics called for by the Platform
for Action."
Specifically addressing the role of the religious community in
this process, the Baha'i International Community stated, "Because
religion is such a potentially powerful force for progress, religious
leaders and people of faith everywhere are urged to step forward
as lovers of humanity to promote those eternal unifying principles--or spiritual values-that can inspire in both individuals
and governments the will to implement the Agenda for Equality."
Speaking to the contributions which must equally be made by
both sexes, the statement said, "Men must use their influence,
particularly in the civil, political and religious institutions they
control, to promote the systematic inclusion of women, not out of
condescension or presumed self-sacrifice, but out of the belief
that the contributions of women are required for society to
progress. Women, for their part, must become educated and step
forward into all arenas of human activity, contributing their
particular qualities, skills and experience to the social, economic
and political equation."
Baha'i perspectives on equality were also shared with both
Conference and Forum participants through distribution of The
Greatness Which Might Be Theirs, a collection of Baha'i International Community statements and essays by Baha'is reflecting on
the Agenda and Platform for Action. The booldet' s title is drawn
from the words of 'Abdu'l-Baha: "As long as women are prevented from attaining their highest possibility, so long will men
be unable to achieve the greatness which might be theirs."
For the first time since the World Conferences on Women
began in 197 5, the United Nations invited youth to take an active

role. The Baha'i International Community was among a small
number of organizations selected by the UN to send representatives to youth consultations organized at the regional preparatory
conferences in Jakarta, Mar del Plata (Argentina), Dakar, and
Vienna. In Beijing, Ashley Avaregan was the only male on a
panel of NGO youth representatives making a presentation
called "International Youth NGOs: Actors in Implementation"
on Youth Day. As mentioned earlier, youth also played an
important role in the NGO Forutn.
Near the end of the conference, the Baha'i International
Community celebrated the achievements of the Fourth World
Conference on Women by hosting a reception for 300 old and new
friends from 30 different countries at the Great Wall Sheraton in
Beijing. Music, food, and conversation was shared with ambassadors, a princess, members of the Chinese community, government
ministers, presidents of NGOs, United Nations personnel and
others.
In her address to the fmal session of the Conference on 15
September, Gertrude Mongella, Secretary General of the Conference, exclaimed, "My dear sisters and brothers, we have made it!
We have managed to transcend historical and cultural complexities;
we have managed to transcend socioeconomic disparities and
diversities; we have kept aflame our common vision and goal of
equality, development and peace. In a number of areas, we have
significantly expanded the horizons of previous conferences."
Of course the goals agreed upon in Beijing will not become a
reality unless the conversation continues and inspires widespread
action. The Baha'i communities around the world worked to
maintain the momentum begun at the Conference and Forum.
In Canada, local communities had held "Beijing-connect" conferences at the same time as the World Conference, to inform
those who couldn't travel to Beijing about the Conference's
proceedings, and following the Conference, "Post-Beijing"
gatherings kept the issues alive. The gatherings included panel
discussions with various community leaders; an evening of song,
poetry, story-telling and video clips from the Beijing conference;
and a public discussion which kicked off a three-month series of
events focusing on issues faced by women. In Anchorage,

EQUALITY, DEVELOPMENT, pEACE

Alaska, the Baha'i Center filled up with people wanting to hear
from those who had attended the NGO Forum in Huairou. The
panel members, representing the Baha'i community and seven
community organizations, spoke about the history of UN
activities related to women, the documents produced in Beijing,
and the issues identified as priority areas of concern.
Some Beijing participants travelled beyond their home communities to present the results of the Conference. Dr. Hoda
Mahmoudi, a university professor from California, shared her
thoughts on Beijing with a number of audiences in Puerto Rico.
Before a group of lawyers and educators she spoke about "Why
Women are the K.ey to World Peace: The Baha'i View"; at the
Puerto Rican Bar Association she addressed the audience on
"The United Nations 50 Years Later: Are We Closer to World
Peace?"; and at University College, University of Puerto Rico,
she took part in a symposium entitled "Gender and Law: Toward
the Next Millennium."
Prominent people took part in post-Beijing events initiated by
Baha'i communities. The Prime Minister of Guyana, Sam Hinds,
provided opening remarks for the Post-Beijing Symposium on
Women cosponsored by UNICEF and the Baha'i community of
Guyana. Representatives from some 35 organizations attended and
speeches were given by members of UN agencies in the region.
The post-Beijing conference hosted by the Baha'i Women's
Group of Trinidad drew the country's First Lady, the Director of
the Women's Affairs Division of the Ministry of Community
Development, Culture and Women's Affairs, a UN representative
from the Economic Commission for Latin America and the
Caribbean, and the Secretary of the Network for the Advancement
of Women.
As these examples of follow-up activities suggest, the effects
of the deliberations and the connections made at Beijing will
continue to be felt for some time as women and men strive to
forge entirely new relationships based on equality. One metaphor
for the work ahead is that of weaving a tapestry: different kinds
of thread are needed to make the tapestry beautiful, and each
thread must support the others for a strong fabric to emerge. In
Beijing, this metaphor was used to demonstrate the qualities of

women through the "Weaving the World Together" project,
initiated in 1994 by Asia-Pacific women. They called on women
around the world to contribute to a banner, which in the end was
one kilometer long and reflected the talents of women from at
least 122 countries. On 7 September, 200 women carried 200
meters of the ribbon to the Great Wall of China and displayed it.
"Weaving means many elements are made into one strong piece,
so it represents the diversity, the strength, the dignity and the
unity of women," said Chartikavanij Sumalee from Thailand,
quoted in an article on the banner in World Women. The Baha'is
who contributed chose to view weaving as a metaphor for
harmony between women and men. The World Women article on
the project finished by noting that the portion created by Baha'is
used another metaphor for the work that must be done: "At the
end of the ribbon, a huge banner from the Baha'is of Southeast
Asia cried out the will of women all over the world: 'The world
of humanity has two wings: One is women and the other men.
Not until both wings are equally developed can the bird fly.'"

u
Baha is Commemorate the
Fiftieth Anniversary of
the United Nations

he people on the island of Tanna in the South Pacific
country of Vanuatu have long lived with a prophecy that
one day all the nations of the world would come to the "Laminu
nakamal," a traditional dancing area regarded by Tannese as
having great customary significance. Early in 1995, several of
the Baha'is on Tanna expressed their desire to commemorate the
50th anniversary of the United Nations, and eventually an offer
was made by the National Spiritual Assembly of Vanuatu to the
country's UN 50th Birthday Organizing Committee. Working
with the Pacific Operations Center (EPOC) of the Economic and
Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), the
Vanuatu Department of Foreign Affairs, and the Tafea Provincial
Council, the Baha'is began to put together a major event.
Baha'i Local Spiritual Assemblies from all over the island
cooked enough food for 1,000 people, traditional dancers practiced
their craft, speeches were written by representatives of EPOC,
the Department of Foreign Affairs and the National Spiritual
Assembly, and traditional chiefs from all over Tanna were invited

THE BAHA'I WORLD

to attend. The day before the gathering, which was scheduled
for 24 October, the Baha'i community cleared vegetation at the
celebration site, made a pole for the UN flag, and erected shelters for the invited guests. When the day arrived, spectators
began to gather under the shade of three enormous banyan trees
at the Laminu nakamal. The ceremony began when students
marched from their primary school around the celebration site
and to the Niko Letan Center, headquarters of the Tanna Island
Council of Chiefs. Speeches were interspersed with performances
of traditional dances, two of which had never before been
performed in public and one choreographed specially in honor of
the United Nations. When the UN flag was raised to the sound of
a traditional conch shell being blown, the Custom Chief of the
Laminu nakamal, pointing out that it was the first time the
people on Tanna had seen the flag, asserted that the prophecy
was fulfilled. Although events officially ended in the afternoon,
many guests remained until sunset simply to gaze at the flag.
The celebration on Vanuatu was one of many events sponsored by Baha'i communities around the world to commemorate
the anniversary, events that bear witness to the widespread and
deeply felt commitment among Baha'is to the ideals reflected in
the United Nations Charter. The optimism about the future of
international cooperation that Baha'is brought to their commemorations contrasted with the focus on the UN' s shortcomings
apparent in the steady stream of editorials that appeared when
the United Nations reached its 50th birthday. Commentators
varied in their levels of patience with the organization, some
advocating a complete overhaul of the UN bureaucracy and
reevaluation of the organization's aims, particularly citing its
nearly $3 billion debt, and others counselling greater support for
an institution attempting to achieve so much with relatively little
serious financial and moral support. But virtually all the editorials lamented the fact that the UN had not yet lived up to its
original aim of eliminating war, and expressed skepticism about
its ability to reform enough to meet this and other goals. The
Baha'i community also raised its voice to call for UN reform but
did so in the context of a belief in the deep significance of the UN' s
very formation and appreciation of its achievements thus far.

UN 50

Baha'is view the establishment of the United Nations as an
important sign of humanity's ever-increasing acceptance of its
global interdependence, so they approached the 50th anniversary
with the attitude that the UN' s accomplishments are extremely
significant given their uniqueness in the broad sweep of history.
At the same time, its shortcomings must also be addressed if
its great potential is to be realized. The Baha'i perspective is
informed by half a century of involvement with the UN; Baha'is
were present at the historic San Francisco conference which gave
birth to the institution, and since 1948 the Baha'i International
Community has been registered as a nongovernmental organization (NGO), now representing more than five million people
from a wide diversity of ethnic, economic, educational, and
cultural backgrounds. It secured consultative status, Category II,
with the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
in 1970, consultative status with the United Nations Children's
Fund (UNICEF) in 1976, and working relations with the World
Health Organization in 1989. It also works with other UN
agencies and programs, such as UNIFEM and UNEP and has
participated in major UN conferences focusing on paramount issues
of the day.
Support for the UN and practical sugges~ions for its reform
are expressed in a statement issued by the Baha'i International
Community on the occasion of the 50th anniversary. Turning Point
for All Nations 1 cites historical evidence for "the trend toward
ever-increasing interdependence and integration of humanity"
and describes the UN as "a unique institution standing as a noble
symbol for the collective interests of humanity as a whole." It
also acknowledges that the overall goals of the institution have
remained elusive, and it urges world leaders to convene a world
summit on global governance to examine how the international
political order can be restructured to meet the needs of society as
it is currently evolving. The statement suggests a number of
specific, immediate courses of action to strengthen the capacity
of the UN, but it also calls for a long-term view. "Judged in
isolation from the reality in which it operates," the statement

1. See pp. 241-83 for a complete reprint of this statement.

operates," the statement reads, "the United Nations will always
seem inefficient and ineffective. However, if it is viewed as one
element of a large process of development in systems of international order, the bright light of analysis would shift from the
UN's shortcomings and failures to shine on its victories and
accomplishments. With an evolutionary mindset, the early
experience of the United Nations offers us a rich source of
learnings about its future role within the international regime."
The release of the Turning Point document and its presentation to a wide variety of people throughout the year and beyond
was one element of the Baha'i community's efforts to assert the
significance of the United Nations and to stimulate discussion
about its reform. One of the points made in the statement is that
"with a focus on building institutions and creating a community
of nations, international bodies have historically remained distant
from the minds and hearts of the world's people" and "discussions about the future of the international order must involve and
excite the generality of humankind." Thus Baha'i activities on
the occasion of the 50th anniversary reached out to world leaders
and individual citizens alike.
International Events
In June 1995, a series of commemorative activities took place in
San Francisco, the site of the original meeting at which the UN
Charter was signed. The National Spiritual Assembly of the
United States was represented at a meeting addressed by United
States' President Bill Clinton, held at the San Francisco War
Memorial Opera House, the location of the original signing. On
25 June an interfaith service was held in Grace Cathedral and
attended by President Clinton, United Nations Secretary General
Dr. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Nobel Prize winner Archbishop
Desmond Tutu of South Africa, HRH Princess Margaret of
England, a number of UN ambassadors, and members of the
public. The Baha'i World Choir of Northern California sang a
selection of hymns, a Baha'i read a section from the Parliament
of the World's Religions' "Declaration Towards a Global Ethic,"
and another Baha'i chanted a prayer. Baha'is also attended the
United Nations Association's annual convention and a four-day

UN 50

conference called "We the People," held to discuss the present
and future role of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in the
UN system.
Other Baha'i contributions to the San Francisco celebrations
included a public meeting called "Baha'i Call to the Nations:
Forum on Global Governance" at which presentations were
made on the early years of the UN, the development of the
nation-state, and meeting the challenges facing the United
Nations; an exhibition entitled "A Vision of World Unity" at the
Baha'i Center; and a ceremony to honor youth who had demonstrated moral and ethical leadership within their communities.
The largest gathering of world leaders ever to take place
occurred inN ew York in October when the UN' s anniversary was
officially commemorated. The Baha'i International Community
provided a venue for discussion by hosting a seminar called "UN
Restructuring: Turning Point for All Nations." His Excellency the
President of the Marshall Islands Amata Kabua and Under-
Secretary General of the United Nations Gillian Martin Sorensen
were among the presenters at the day-long meeting. Also
attending were diplomats from Ireland, the Russian Federation,
the United Kingdom and the United States as well as senior staff
members of the UN Secretariat and representatives of NGOs.
Two papers presented by Baha'is were "The Creation of an International Force" and "Establishing a Commission to Explore the
Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language."
An element of the official anniversary celebration was a seminar on religious dialogue for spiritual leaders from around the
His Excellency the
President of the Marshall
Islands Amata Kabua
delivering the keynote
address to the "Turning
Point for All Nations"
seminar held at the
Baha'i International
Community's United
Nations Offices,
October 1995.

world. One of the invited speakers was the current holder of the
Baha'i Chair for World Peace at the University of Maryland,
College Park, Dr. Suheil Bushrui. Dr. Bushrui also read a Baha'i
prayer before an audience of 2,000 at the Cathedral of St. John
the Divine in New York City.
National and Local Events
The events organized by national and local Baha'i communities
to demonstrate support for the UN and to draw attention to
prospects for its improvement varied in scope, as communities
large and small found their own unique ways to relate to the
issues being faced by this international body. However, a
common element of many of these events was the distribution,
presentation, or discussion of Turning Pointfor All Nations.
Prior to the statement's release, an exhibit on its themes was
mounted at the Palais des Nations in Geneva. The exhibit opened
on 17 August in the presence of 37 diplomats from 29 countries,
three Sub-Commission Experts, staff of the UN Center for Human
Rights, representatives of NGOs, and high officials of the UN. It
was displayed for two weeks.
When Turning Point was released in the fall, it was presented
formally to Gillian Martin Sorensen, the official in charge of the
UN 50th Anniversary Secretariat. 2 On the same day, the statement was also presented to Farida Ayoub, Chief of the NGO
Liaison Unit of the United Nations. During the rest of the year,
the document was presented by national Baha'i delegations to
numerous officials, including the Prime Minister of Belize, the
President of Hungary, the Prime Minister and Speaker of the
National Assembly of Togo, and the Foreign Minister of
Swaziland. In Mauritius, Turning Point was presented to the
President of the Republic during a one-hour program attended
by more than 30 dignitaries, including the Ambassador of
Madagascar. The U.S. Baha'i community presented the statement to local and national political leaders.
The National Spiritual Assembly of Swaziland and the UN
office in that country cohosted a panel discussion on Turning

2. See also pp. 126-29.

UN 50

Point with participants from government ministries and NGOs,
during which they gave time for comments from audience members. Likewise in Togo, the statement was introduced to the
public during two meetings cosponsored by the National Spirihml
Assembly and the United Nations Development Program. The
first meeting was attended primarily by ministry officials, university professors, media representatives, and other leaders of
thought, and the second meeting was held in a high school for
students to explore the issues.
A United Nations building on the Green Line which has
separated the northern and southern regions of Cyprus since
197 4 was the venue for presentation of Turning Point to the UN
Special Representative of the Secretary General for Cyprus in
October. On the same occasion, copies of the document were
shared with the Chairman of the World Federation of UN Associations and local representatives of the Cyprus UNA. The
repetition of the words of Baha'u'llah, "The earth is but one
country, and mankind its citizens," by the UN representative was
especially poignant at this border, which has divided neighbors
and families for more than two decades.
Faculty members from Edith Cowan University, the University
of Western Australia, and Curtin University of Technology, all in
Western Australia, attended a dinner/reception sponsored by the
Baha'is of Wannaroo to celebrate the UN's 50th anniversary.
Following a keynote address, each of the guests received a copy
of The Prosperity of Humanldnd. 3 In Singapore, leaders of interreligious organizations and civic societies were among the 100
people who took part in a public forum on Turning Point in
October. In Tanzania, the readers of the daily newspaper Express
learned about the Baha'i perspective on the UN through an article
highlighting points made in the Baha'i International Community's
statement.
An exhibit of posters and materials showing "Achievements
of the UN at 50" greeted the 250 people who attended a function
in New Delhi, India, to mark the anniversary. The proposals
outlined in Turning Point were reviewed by a member of the

3. See The Baha'i World 1994-95, pp. 273-96 for the text of this statement.

Continental Board of Counsellors in Asia, Zena Sorabjee, after
an inaugural address by former Chief Justice of India, R. S.
Pathak and a keynote address by Dr. Hans von Sponeck,
Resident Coordinator, UN system in India. At the end of the
program, each guest was given a copy of the Baha'i International
Community's statement.

Dr. Hans von
Sponeck
UN Resident
Coordinator
for India,
receives
Turning Point
for All Nations
at a UN 50
commemoration in New
Delhi, India,
October 1995.

Awareness of Baha'i perspectives on issues facing the UN
was also spread through press coverage of anniversary events. A
celebration organized by the Baha'i Association for World Peace
at the University of the North-West in South Africa made headline news on Bophuthatswana Television, was one of the main
items on Mmabatho Television, and was covered in several major
newspapers. Photographs showed the 20 Baha'is and their 250
guests exchanging ideas on women and world peace, the rights of
children, and the future of the UN. The university's 60-member
choir filled the gathering with inspiring music. In Bangladesh,
three important newspapers published articles on a public meeting sponsored by the Local Spiritual Assembly of K.hulna to mark
the founding of the UN. Tents on the grounds of the Baha'i
Center were filled with 50 Baha'is and 200 guests who listened to
speeches and then enjoyed the performance of songs written by
Baha'i youth on the theme of unity and amity among the nations
and races of the earth.

UNSO

The presentation of World Citizenship Awards, a special
service at a Baha'i House of Worship, and an art exhibit were
some other types of events that marked the anniversary in various
locations. The Awards were established in Brazil by the National
Spiritual Assembly and were given to eight international agencies
and the two married couples who founded the School of the
Nations in Brasilia, where each month teachers work with students
on a theme related to spiritual and social virtues such as unity,
protection of the environment, and the value of work. The special
worship service was held at the Baha'i House of Worship in Apia,
Samoa; 250 people enjoyed the service and then moved to an
adjacent building for speeches by a member of the Continental
Board of Counsellors in Australasia and the Resident Coordinator
of the United Nations Office in Western Samoa. The art exhibit,
entitled "Vision of World Peace," was set up in the main entrance
of Estonia's Pedagogical University in Tallinn and featured the
work of Baha'is Nastia and Ksenia Stanishevski.
Baha'i commitment to the United Nations was recognized
when Baha'is were invited by others to take part in UN anniversary gatherings. For example, the Baha'i community of the
Netherlands was asked to send a representative to the country's
official celebration, held in the Knights' Hall in The Hague and
attended by Queen Beatrix. The secretary of the National Spiritual
Assembly of Costa Rica spoke at an ecumenical gathering organized by the Ministry of External Relations and attended by two

Baha'is in Tallinn,
Estonia, hosted an
art exhibit and
an international
prayer meeting in
commemoration of
the United Nations'
fiftieth anniversary,
October 1995.

former presidents of Costa Rica, current vice presidents, and
members of the diplomatic corps.
Baha'is also cosponsored Washington, D.C.'s largest UN 50
commemorative event and contributed two workshops: "Moral,
Ethical, and Spiritual Values and the UN" and "Religious NGOs
and the UN." This national gathering on the United States and
the UN, organized by the United Nations Association and
cosponsored by more than 100 organizations, was attended by
more than 400 people from 3 5 states.
Youth Involvement
Some Baha'i communities marked the anniversary with activities aimed to engage young people in the issues being faced by
the UN. The Baha'i community of Costa Rica sponsored an
essay contest, and winners participated in the 50th anniversary
celebrations in San Francisco. In India, the Baha'i District
Teaching Committee of K_annur organized a speech competition
on the theme "One World: My Concept" in which students from
seven of the district's twelve colleges took part. "The Baha'i
Faith and Education" was the theme of a Baha'i booth at a UN
50 exhibition held in Hong Kong in October.
Baha'is also contributed to a program organized by the
Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLAC) for the children attending schools sponsored by members of the Association
ofNGOs working with ECLAC. Ten students from Colegio Baha'i
Nur and the school's headmistress participated, and six Mapuche
Indians travelled 700 miles from their home in Labranza, Chile,
to the site of the event in Santiago to perform music and dance for
the children.
Two Baha'i youth dramatically demonstrated their understanding of UN issues and willingness to take action. Thirteen-year-old
Jordan Melic of Singapore worked on an article that was selected
for publication in A World in Our Hands, a book produced by
Peace Child International and Paintbrush Diplomacy for the 50th
anniversary. Then he applied and was chosen to be one of 24
editors of the volume, which includes pieces on the history of the
UN and views for its future written by young people between nine
and twenty. In June 1995, Jordan was the only editor to be flown

UN 50

to the United States for the official presentation of the book. In the
U.S., he gave a 30-minute talk at the World Trade Center in New
York to an audience of 200 distinguished guests, and he presented
A World in Our Hands to Dr. Boutros Boutros-Ghali at the Hearst
Theater in San Francisco, where the UN Charter had been signed
50 years earlier. After Jordan spoke the words, "The earth is but
one country, and mankind its citizens," Dr. Boutros-Ghali asked
him to inscribe them in his copy of the book.
Mariana Eghrari of Brazil, also thirteen, was invited by the
organization Peaceways to represent the children of her country at
the World Conference of Children in San Francisco, organized as
part of the 50th anniversary events. The 150 participating children
prepared a document called Keeping the Promise Report about
the main challenges facing the children of the world. Mariana was
among 15 of these children selected to travel to Geneva to present
the document to UN officials and to consult with them.
Taking Stock
In one International Herald Tribune editorial (27 June 1995)
about the UN at 50, some of the institution's accomplishments
are listed: "Agencies of the United Nations have eradicated
diseases (completely, in the case of smallpox), countered famine,
housed 30 million refugees, probably halved child mortality and
taught millions to read and write. Politically, the United Nations
has sped decolonization, provided a forum for poor but populous
new members and spotlighted, if selectively, human rights
offenders." The Baha'i International Community document
Turning Point for All Nations likewise notes the UN' s achievements: "As an international organization, the United Nations has
demonstrated humanity's capacity for united action in health,
agriculture, education, environmental protection, and the welfare
of children. It has affirmed our collective moral will to build a
better future, evinced in the widespread adoption of international
human rights Covenants. It has revealed the human race's deepseated compassion, evidenced by the devotion of financial and
human resources to the assistance of people in distress."
The Herald Tribune article, like many other editorials, goes
on to cite the UN's shortcomings, particularly its inability thus far

to prevent wars between and within member states. The Baha'i
International Community agrees that the UN has a long way to go
to fulfill its potential, but it remains confident that solutions to its
organizational and financial problems can be found if discussions
about its future take into account the broader, evolving international order and if they involve and excite the generality of
humanity. Viewed in historical context, this grand experiment to
"save succeeding generations from the scourge of war ... and
reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and
worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women
and of nations large and small, and to establish conditions under
which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties
and other sources of international law can be attained, and to
promote social progress and better standards of life in larger
freedom" has been a singular success, if only for what its
proponents have believed to be possible. The Baha'i community
commemorated the UN' s anniversary by doing its part to bring
these dreams closer to reality.

This article highlights print media
coverage of the Baha'i Faith
during 1995-96.

The Baha'i Faith in the

EYES OF THE
WORLD

I n surveying the attention afforded Baha'i communities and
events by the media this year, the steadily increasing tempo
and diversity of such coverage becomes instantly apparent. Not
only are more Baha'i institutions formalizing mechanisms for
offering material to the press, but to an increasing degree media
agencies in every part of the world are finding Baha'i initiatives
and approaches to social issues newsworthy and are reporting on
their developments, in English and in a wide variety of other
languages. The following survey touches on some of the highlights, as well as those activities which received the most coverage.
The Baha'is of Iran
A number of articles on the plight of the Baha'is of Iran were
published during the visits of Olya Roohizadegan to Austria, Belgium, and the United States. Mrs. Roohizadegan was imprisoned
by the Iranian authorities for being a Baha'i; her book, Olya 's
Story, details her experiences and those of her fellow Baha'i
prisoners. Among other articles on the Baha'is of Iran were those
printed in Bergens Tidende in Norway on 21 February 1996; in

Mid-Day in South Africa on 25 April1995; in three newspapers in
India on 2 March 1996; in four New Zealand newspapers in
February and March 1996; and in the Iran Times in the United
States on 16 and 23 February. The special exhibit on the response
of the United States government to the persecution of the Baha'is
of Iran, demonstrating its commitment to religious freedom, was
announced in Roll-Call, the Capitol Hill newspaper, on 1 May
1995, and in the Washington Post on 6 May 1995.
Several articles were written for Irish newspapers reporting
Baha'i activities commemorating the tenth anniversary of the
admission of 26 Iranian Baha'is as refugees by the government of
Ireland. On 21 March 1996, the Donegal Democrat carried an
item on a reception held at the Baha'i National Center for the men
and women of Ireland who aided the Iranian refugees, and Derry
People and Donegal News printed a similar item on 22 March. On
6 April, the Meath Chronicle covered one Iranian Baha'i man's
visit with the Baha'i couple in Slane who had helped him integrate
into Irish life years before. The Sligo Champion on 28 February
announced a segment of the Would You Believe program focusing
on a Baha'i couple's journey from persecution in Iran to becoming
a real part of the Sligo community.
Baha'i Community Life
A great deal of attention was accorded to Baha'i holy days by the
press worldwide. In American Samoa the Samoa Journal and
Advertiser ran a piece on 23 October 1995 on the birthday of the
Bab; in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, both the Daily Telegrams and the Andaman Herald on 19 October 1995 carried
front-page announcements of celebrations of the birth of the
Bab. On 11 November the Daily Telegrams printed a front-page
item on the observance for the birth of Baha'u'llah, and on 12
November the Andaman Herald published a longer piece providing some details ofBaha'u'llah's life. In the United States an
announcement in the Dallas Morning News of the observance of
the Declaration of the Bab was printed on 13 May; in the
Shetland Islands, United Kingdom, the Baha'i community
advertised the observance of the Martyrdom of the Bab in the
Shetland Times. The Shetland Times also carried an announcement about the birthday ofBaha'u'llah, on 10 November 1995.

In New Zealand as well two articles were printed about the
birthday of Baha'u'llah and the Baha'i community published
announcements about the Baha'i fast and about the Ri<;lvan
Festival. The Azores newspaper Correia dos A9ores printed
on 23 April1995 a description by the Sao Miguel Baha'i community of the history and significance of Ri<;lvan. The article
included a photograph of the Ri<;lvan Garden in the Holy Land.
Newspapers all over India reported on local communities'
observances of Baha'i holy days. The Baha'i celebration ofNaw-
Ruz-New Year-resulted in an article in the Washington Post
on 18 March 199 5, as well as in newspapers in New Zealand,
Scotland, Singapore, Malaysia, Canada, Hawaii, the U.S.A., and
Guyana.
The Marianas Observer, the Pacific Star, and the Pacific Daily
News in the Mariana Islands all published stories covering that
community's Eighteenth National Baha'i Convention. In Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines, on 2 June 1995 the Vincentian printed
a photograph of the newly elected National Spiritual Assembly.
The participation of a Manitoban Baha'i in the National Convention of Canada was reported on 10 May in the Opasquia Times.
The article also included information about the Baha'i electoral
process and historical facts about the Baha'i administration in
Canada. On 19 May, the Marshall Islands Journal reported on the
national convention in that country. The same journal on 23 June
carried a story on the visit to Majuro of three members of the
Continental Board of Counsellors in Australasia. On 12 May, the
Shetland Times reported that a member of the Shetland Baha'i
community would serve on the new committee appointed by the
National Spiritual Assembly of the United K.ingdom to direct the
affairs of the Baha'i community in Scotland.
The Kyrgyzstan Chronicle's 25 to 31 August 1995 issue
reported on the first national Baha'i conference and included the
Baha'i Faith among its list of religious organizations and institutions. More than 25 different articles appeared in an array of New
Zealand newspapers announcing or reporting on the Pacific
Horizons Conference, held in Auckland in January 1996 and
sponsored by the Baha'i community. At least twelve other articles
were printed which followed the efforts of Baha'is who came to

New Zealand to attend the conference to share their cultures, talents,
and the Baha'i message with the people of various areas ofNew
Zealand. The Pioneer and the Times of India on 15 December
1995 both published articles in English on the establishment of the
Chair for Baha'i Studies at Lucknow University, and articles on
the subject were carried by two Hindi newspapers.
Advancement of Women
In Macau, an activity in support of the Fourth World Conference
on Women in Beijing, in April1995, in which children expressed
their world citizenship by putting their handprints on a banner
which was subsequently sent to the conference, received coverage
from a number of Macau newspapers, including Huaqiao Baa,
Huaao Ribao, Daizhong Baa, Aomen Wenyu, Aomen Ribao,
Zheng Baa, Xiandai Aomen Ribao, and Hauao Ribao. The press
in Malaysia printed several reports mentioning or highlighting
Malaysian Baha'i women's involvement in the Fourth World
Conference on Women in Beijing. In addition, there were about
seven articles reporting on a post-Beijing seminar sponsored by
the Baha'i community in November 1995. The Guyana Chronicle
and the Stabroek News printed items on 16 August on the departure of two Guyanese Baha'is for the NGO forum at the Fourth
World Conference on Women in Beijing, and then on 16 and 19
October the Guyana Chronicle reported on the post-Beijing
symposium organized by the Baha'i community and opened by
Prime Minister Sam Hinds. In Hawaii, the Sun Press and the
Honolulu Star-Bulletin also carried items on local Baha'i women
who traveled to the Beijing conference. On 6 November the
Trinidad Guardian reported on the post-Beijing conference on
women hosted by the Baha'i community and attended by the
First Lady of Trinidad and Tobago. In Ontario, Canada, the London Free Press published an article which stated that the Baha'i
Faith "recognizes that women have untapped resources to offer
the world." Articles were printed in the Sunday Vanguard of
Nigeria on 12 November and 17 December written by a Baha'i
and commenting on the equality of women and men and the
importance of proper parenting. In Swaziland, an article describing a panel discussion on the equality of men and women

to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations,
organized by the UN system in that country, the National Assembly, and the Ministry of Education, was published on 12 October
in the Times ofSwaziland.
Action on Social Issues
The Honolulu Advertiser on 14 October 1995 reported the
Honolulu Baha'i community's celebration for United Nations
Day, and the Sun Press issue for 28 December 1995 to 3 January
1996 announced the community forum "Healing of Our Ohana,"
organized by the Baha'is of Wahiawa, Hawaii. Several American
newspapers noted Baha'i involvement in UN 50 activities in the
United States, including the San Francisco Chronicle, the San
Jose Mercury News, and the Washington Post. The New Paper of
Singapore reported on 12 August 1995 on 13-year-old Baha'i
Jordan Melic's presentation of A World in Our Hands to UN
Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali as part of activities to
mark the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations. On 20
October, the Baha'is of the Solomon Islands published an article
in the Solomon Star on UN 50.
On 31 January 1996 the Barbados Advocate published a
photograph and a brief description of members of the Barbadian
Baha'i community presenting Turning Point for All Nations to
that newspaper's editor. The Derry Journal in Northern Ireland
ran a commentary on 14 November on Turning Point for All
Nations, describing the portion dealing with the role of women as
"a very worthwhile contribution to that issue." The writer then
quoted and summarized that section of the document, ending by
asking, "Is there much in the foregoing with which the majority
of people in our culture could seriously disagree?"
Liberecky Den, a Czech newspaper, printed a report on 17
August 1995 describing a program observing the Year of
Tolerance, organized by the Baha'is of Liberec. More than
twelve articles were published in New Zealand newspapers,
reporting on Baha'i efforts to highlight issues of unity in
diversity, tolerance, and racial harmony. On 26 June 1995, the
Border Mail in Australia reported on the Baha'i community of
Albury-W odonga' s multicultural event in honor of Refugees

Week. The Baha'i community of Altenkirchen, Germany, held a
feast focusing on international understanding that spurred
articles in Rhein-Zeitung on 18 May and 24/25 May 1995, as
well as in Mitteilungsblatt fur den Bereich der Verbandsgemeinde Altenkirchen on 1 June 1995. An account was published
on 10 December in Athens News in Greece of the Baha'i
community's reception in celebration of United Nations Human
Rights Day. The Baha'is of the Gambia printed statements on
the United Nations and human rights in the Point on 29 May and
the Gambia Daily on 19 June, respectively.
The Cook Islands News for 14 July published an announcement and description of a Baha'i presentation on the theme of
the prosperity of humankind. The Guyana Chronicle published
articles on 10 and 19 May and the Stabroek News printed one on
19 May covering the Baha'i-sponsored symposium "Unity in
Diversity in the Quest for Global Prosperity," which was
attended by President Cheddi J agan. Once again on 29 March
and 3 April 1996, the Stabroek News and the Guyana Chronicle, respectively, carried items about the Baha'i community of
Georgetown's panel discussion on eradicating poverty. On 5
July, a piece was printed in the Gambia Daily announcing the
conference on "The Prosperity of Humankind" being organized
by the Baha'i community. An article was published on 3 July in
the Daily Observer in Gambia, announcing the impending visit
to that country from Ethiopia of Gila Michael Bahta, a member
of the Continental Board of Counsellors in Africa, who spoke at
the Gambia's "Post-World Summit on Social Development Conference." Another article was published by that newspaper on 11
July reporting on Mr. Bahta' s visit. The Sunday Vision in
Uganda on 23 April carried an article on the response of the
Ugandan Baha'i community to the United Nations World Summit
for Social Development.
The Baha'i community of Mauritius submitted a number of
statements to Le Mauricien throughout the year, some in English
and some in French, dealing with such topics as World Religion
Day, religious intolerance, drug abuse, and world peace. In
Kyrgyzstan, the Baha'i community published an extensive article

on world peace in the 25 to 31 October issue of the Kyrgyzstan
Chronicle.
The Marshall Islands Journal printed a report on 12 May
1995 on the progress achieved in the Marshall Islands School
Improvement Project for the seven public elementary schools in
Majuro, which is being managed by Baha'is. On 26 May, the
Saipan Tribune in the Mariana Islands reported on the luncheon
held by the Baha'i community during which suggestions were
offered to delegates of the Third Constitutional Convention. The
Solomon Star on 27 September published a photograph of the
recipients of the Blums Community Service Award, which is
presented by the Baha'i community of the Solomon Islands.
On 11 April1996, Bray People announced a public address
by a leading family and teenage counselor on "The Challenge of
Family Life and Education in the Nineties," sponsored by the
Baha'is of County Wicldow, Republic of Ireland. In Saint Vincent
and the Grenadines, the Vincentian printed articles on 26 May
and 2 June regarding a series of workshops on family development which covered such topics as violence-free families,
communication in families, and the development of morality in
children.
Over fifteen newspapers throughout India reported on the travels of John Huddleston, a Baha'i who spoke about the status of
women, the importance of religion in society, economics, and
globalization, among other topics. Several newspapers also have
highlighted the contributions Baha'is have been making to the discussion on communal harmony, while about seven articles were
published delineating Baha'i teachings on the equality of women
and men.
In the issue of the Malawi News for 5 to 11 August, it was
reported that a delegation of representatives of the Malawian
Baha'i community called on the President of that country, who
encouraged the Baha'is to assist the government with primary
education and health care. In the Gambia on 4 January 1996, the
Point printed a report on the visit of Abbas Bashir Elahi, a Baha'i
physician from the United States who visited the mayor, a
hospital, and a school of nursing and donated medical supplies

during his stay. On 7 March 1996, the Tonga Chronicle reported
on the Ocean of Light International Primary School, which
is administered by the Baha'i community. The news article was
accompanied by a large photograph of some of the children in
one of the classes. The Baha'is in Malaysia organized a blooddrive to encourage non-Muslims to donate blood during the
Muslim month of fasting, in order to offset a predicted shortage.
The initiative was reported in February 1996 by the Borneo Post
and the Daily Express in English, as well as the See Hua Daily
News, the Overseas Chinese Daily News, and the Asia Times in
Chinese. The Examiner published on 27 November 1995 a large
photograph of a group of Baha'i young women dressed in various national costumes as part of its coverage of the
community-service-based Martha Root Project in Launceton,
Australia.
In June 1995, the Slovak newspaper Sme printed the Baha'i
International Community's report that earth from that country
was deposited into the Peace Monument in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
The Straits Times in Singapore on 22 April 1995 reported on an
international children's art exhibition organized by the Baha'i
community in honor of Earth Day. "Animals and Me," another
international children's art exhibition which was sponsored by
the Extended Education Center of the Education Department and
the Spiritual Assembly of Macau, was the subject of an article
in the Macau newspaper Aomen Ribao on 28 January 1996.
On 23 July 1995, Shimin Ribao reported on children's activities
for environmental protection in Macau, organized by the Baha'i
youth group. The international children's art exhibition held in
Taiwan resulted in at least four articles in the China Post as well
as about five articles in Chinese newspapers. An article was
submitted by the Baha'i community of Y ekaterinburg, Russia, to
Klyuch Zemli detailing Baha'i teachings on the environment.
Sharing the Message of Baha'u'lhih
On 21 September 1995, the Baha'i youth workshop in Vienna,
Austria, received newspaper coverage of its open-air theater
presentation of Baha'i principles. An announcement was printed
in the Marshall Islands Journal of the Baha'i youth summer

school which was held in Rita from 19 to 30 June. Eight different
articles were published in various newspapers in Norway about
the performances of the Baha'i Youth Theater, which took to the
streets to raise awareness about racism, religion, and the value of
unity in diversity.
On 11 June 1995, Austrian Television (ORF) broadcast a
twenty-minute film about the Baha'i Faith as part of its regular
religious program Orientierung. In Liberia, the Baha'is had a
brief history ofBaha'u'llah's life published in the First National
Poll for 25 November to 2 December. An article on the Baha'i
Faith was submitted by the Baha'i community of Y ekaterinburg,
Russia, to Bratstvo Ver. At least seven newspapers in Norway
printed articles introducing the general public to the beliefs and
principles of the Baha'i Faith. In the United States, a number of
newspapers printed such articles, including the Chicago Sun-
Times, the Dallas Morning Star, and the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette.
Articles were printed on Baha'i book exhibitions in India in
Janamukha on 29 September, in Agnishikha on 29 September, in
Sambalashree on 2 October, and in the Sentinel on 19 October. A
21 October 1995 advertisement in the Times newspaper in Malta
announced the Eleventh Malta Book Fair, mentioning the Baha'i
Publishing Trusts among the participants.
On 15 July 1995 and 30 March 1996, the Waikato Times in
New Zealand published articles on the trips of Shane Te Ruki,
a Maori Baha'i, to various Native American communities in
Canada for the purpose of sharing his beliefs and his culture.
Eastern European press reports have taken note of the incursion
of religious groups into the various countries of the formerly
Communist area. The New Reporter in Albania on 1 December
1995 cited the Baha'i Faith as one group which has grown significantly since 1989.
The Baha'is of Sri Lanka maintained a steady stream of
announcements of community events in newspapers, as well as
the "Thought for the Day" published regularly in the cover of the
Daily News, featuring quotations from the Baha'i writings. In
Trinidad and Tobago, the Baha'i community also sponsored
regular articles in the Trinidad Guardian, covering such topics as

unity in diversity, the purpose of creation, and world peace.
Likewise, the Baha'i community of Swaziland published articles
in the Yebo Weekend Observer Magazine on life after death,
religion as the source of morality, family, youth, and preserving
marriages. In the Pas, Manitoba, Canada, the Baha'i community
submitted regular pieces to the Opasquia Times on a variety of
subjects, including the destiny of native peoples as portrayed by
'Abdu'l-Baha, the World Summit for Social Development in
Copenhagen, sustainable development, and the environment.
Interfaith Activities
On 23 March 1996, the Washington Post reported on an interreligious conference held at Howard University, including the
Baha'i contributions to the event. The Dallas Morning News
noted on 29 Aprill995 the participation of the Baha'is of Dallas
in the National Day of Prayer.
The Drogheda Independent's special supplement on the
celebration of the 700-year anniversary of the ministry of the
Augustinians in Drogheda, Ireland, reported the presence of a
representative of the Baha'i Faith and of a Baha'i reading during
the service, which was attended by President Mary Robinson.
The Limerick Leader on 29 January 1996 reported the observance by the local Baha'i community of World Religion Day
through the distribution to all schools in the Limerick area of an
information packet on the religions of the world.
Several newspapers in Singapore provided coverage of the
events associated with the Baha'i-organized observance of
World Religion Day in January 1996. Tamil Murasu published
two articles in the Tamil language; the Chinese newspaper
Lianhe Zhaobao printed two reports; and the Straits Times
carried four articles in English.
The Efforts of Individual Baha'is
The efforts, achievements, and experiences of individual Baha'is
caught the attention of media representatives in many places this
year. An exhibition on the life of August Forel-a Baha'i doctor,
entomologist, and social reformer-held in Bulgaria was
reported in the issue of Balkanite Dnes for 14 to 20 July 1995.

IN THE EYES OF THE WORLD

An extensive, two-part profile of Robert Abbott-a Baha'i and
the founder of the Chicago Defender-was printed in the 11 to
15 November and 18 to 22 November issues of the Tri-State
Defender. In Munster, Germany, on 21 September 1995, Westfiilische Nachrichten reported an exhibition of the art work of
Mark Tobey, citing the Baha'i Faith as the inspiration for his
work. The Kauai Times in Hawaii ran a front-page story on 4
June on Leonard Herbert, a Baha'i artist, and announced an
exhibition of his work. The Canadian magazine Eye on 3 August
profiled two Baha'i members of the band "Project 9," featuring
them on the cover and including positive references to their
statements about the Baha'i Faith. The March 1996 issue of
exclaim! featured a photograph on its cover of the band "Plains
of Fascination," and printed a page-long article on the artistic
vision and beliefs of the members, several of whom are Baha'is.
In Australia, the North West Telegraph on 30 August 1995
carried an interview with Sharghieh Moshirian, a Baha'i from Iran
who experienced imprisonment and torture at the hands of the
government, which was trying to induce her to recant her faith.
The Sunday Guardian in Trinidad on 6 August 1995 published a
profile of Hamid Farabi, detailing the persecution he endured as a
Baha'i in Iran and how he has succeeded in spite of it.
The retirement of Wilma Ellis from her position as Administrator General o~the Baha'i International Community's Offices in New
York and Geneva resulted in three newspaper articles in Bermuda:
the Bermuda Sun on 26 January 1996; the Bermuda Times on 26
January; and the Royal Gazette on 27 January. Bermuda is one of
the countries Dr. Ellis works with in her service as a member of
the Continental Board of Counsellors in the Americas.
An architect of Persian background who was born in Malaysia
spoke at a forum held in Malaysia on the Baha'i House of
Worship in India, for which he was the resident chief engineer.
Malaysia's Daily Express ran a profile on him on 14 March
1996, while Yazhou Shibao, the Overseas Chinese Daily, and
Shihua Ribao all reported on the forum.
The Guardian in Tanzania on 20 and 27 January 1996 printed
extensive features on Baha'i families there, including several

large photographs with each article. Some nine articles were
published in Norwegian newspapers profiling Baha'is in various
parts of the country, describing their beliefs and way of life, and
reporting personal events.
On 8 March 1996, the Solomon Star carried a photograph and
short article on two Solomon Islands youth who were living in
Israel, serving at the Baha'i World Centre. In Papua New Guinea
four articles were published in January 1996, three in English
and one in Pidgin, on the return of a Papua New Guinean Baha'i
youth from her term of service at the World Centre. The Augusta
Chronicle, a newspaper in Georgia, United States, printed an
article with a large photograph, about a Baha'i youth's plans to
postpone college for a year in order to offer a year of service to
the Baha'i Faith.
An obituary on Salvatore "Tony" Pelle was printed in the
Honolulu Advertiser on 30 August 1995, following his passing.
Various articles were written in Samoa on the passing of Suhayl
Ala'i, a Baha'i of American Samoa who died while on a visit to
Western Samoa. The Samoa News carried a report of his death
on 18 August and ten days later reported on the post-funeral
memorial service in American Samoa. The Samoa Journal and
Advertiser published a photograph of the funeral, and the Samoa
Observer printed a lengthy memorial on Mr. Ala'i. In addition,
Mr. Ala'i's employees published a full-page appreciation in his
honor in Samoa News.
In the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Turks and Caicos News
and the Free Press reported the 1 February 1996 death of Baha'i
physician Francis Gilbert. Various newspapers in Uganda followed the unfolding story of the murder of Rodney Belcher, a
well-respected Baha'i physician (see pp. 309-11 ). Additionally,
the Washington Times, a U.S. newspaper, carried the story of his
death on 12 March 1996.

EssAYS,
STATEMENTS,
PRoANFILES
Wendy M. Heller explores the
religious origins of the organizing
principles of civil society, tracks their
secularization in the modern era,
and examines the prospect of an inclusive
global moral order based on
the enduring concept of covenant.

OVENANT
AND THE
OUNDATIONS
OF IVIL OCIETY

ver a century ago, Baha'u'llah, Founder of the Baha'i Faith,
wrote of the impending disintegration and collapse of the
established order of civilization: "Soon will the present-day order
be rolled up," He proclaimed, "and a new one spread out in its
stead." 1 In the interval, experience has borne out the prescience of
revelation; this century has seen Baha'u'llah's prophetic terms, of
disequilibrium and chaos, of the shaking of foundations, become so
much a part of daily life that, because of the pervasiveness of such
disintegration, some have been led to mistake an abnormal state for
a normal one, and to conclude that there simply are no foundations
for any human endeavor, and that, in consequence, strife and conflict
are the inevitable condition of existence. Yet an increasing number
of scholars are now willing to shed the "obtuse secularism"2 that, as

1. Baha'u'llah, Gleanings from the Writings of Baha 'u 'llah, trans. Shoghi
Effendi (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1976), p. 7.
2. Peny Miller, "From the Covenant to the Revival," in Religion in American
Life, ed. James Ward Smith and A. Leland Jamison (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1961), vol. 1, p. 336, n. 20.

a feature of contemporary frameworks of thought, has systematically excluded serious appraisal of the central importance of
religion and spiritual reality in human life and society. Faced by
the evidence of the bankruptcy of modernity, whose promises of
prosperity through materialism and ideology have proven hollow,
thinkers and scholars have begun to tum the light of critical scrutiny
upon the far-reaching effects that the displacement of religion by
secular ideology has had on civilization in the modem era. That
same secularism which was once heralded as the emancipation of
civilization is now increasingly identified as the root cause of its
disintegration.
This conclusion had been anticipated in the Baha'i writings,
which affirm that social and moral deterioration is directly
related to the decline of religion as a social force. "Religion,"
Baha'u'llah wrote, "is verily the chief instrument for the establishment of order in the world and of tranquillity amongst its
peoples. The weakening of the pillars of religion hath strengthened the foolish and emboldened them and made them more
arrogant. Verily I say: The greater the decline of religion, the
more grievous the waywardness of the ungodly. This cannot but
lead in the end to chaos and confusion." 3 Material civilization,
cut loose from the moderating influence of spiritual values, He
warned, "will prove as prolific a source of evil as it had been of
goodness when kept within the restraints of moderation ... The
day is approaching when its flame will devour the cities .... " 4
Affirming the central role of religion in the civilizing of human
character, 'Abdu'l-Baha explained:

Universal benefits derive from the grace of the Divine religions, for they lead their true followers to sincerity of intent,
to high purpose, to purity and spotless honor, to surpassing
kindness and compassion, to the keeping of their covenants
when they have covenanted, to concern for the rights of others,
to liberality, to justice in every aspect of life, to hu1nanity and
philanthropy, to valor and to unflagging efforts in the service

3. Baha'u'lhih, Tablets of Baha 'u 'llah revealed after the Kitab-i-Aqdas,
comp. Research Department, Universal House of Justice, trans. Habib
Taherzadeh, 2d ed. (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1988), pp. 63-64.
4. Baha'u'llah, Gleanings from the Writings ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 343.

COVENANT AND CNIL SOCIETY

of mankind. It is religion, to sum up, which produces all human
virtues, and it is these virtues which are the bright candles of
civilization. 5

In the 1930s Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith,
singled out as an agent of social decline the "prevailing spirit of
modernism with its emphasis on a purely materialistic philosophy
which, as it diffuses itself, tends to divorce religion from man's
daily life," resulting in the erosion of "conceptions of duty, of solidarity, of reciprocity and loyalty" as the center of gravity shifts to
the individual self. Symptoms of such a society that has lost its
spiritual bearings, he wrote, include religious intolerance, racism
and xenophobia, terrorism, crime, alcoholism, the weakening of
the family, and the breakdown of political and economic structures, to name but a few. 6
In the Baha'i view, however, the current experience of disorder
and turmoil is only one aspect of a two-fold process that is ultimately therapeutic and evolutionary, rather than solely destructive.
It clears the way for a recovery and renewal of the true and enduring
foundations upon which a global moral order can be constructed.
Though grounded in eternal verities, this process of spiritual and
social evolution is forward looking and cannot be confused with a
return to a vanished and unrecoverable past.
Sociologist Robert Bellah has remarked that the characteristic
modem attempt to substitute "a technical-rational model of politics
for a religious-moral one does not seem to me to be an advantage.
Indeed it only exacerbates tendencies that I think are at the heart of
our problems. If our problems are, as I believe them to be, centrally
moral and even religious, then the effort to sidestep them with
purely technical organizational considerations can only worsen
them." Although the contemporary combination of the morality of
self-interest, capitalism, and technological rationality has departed
from the earlier religious and moral world view, he argues, it does
not follow that the only possible alternative to modem secularism is

5. 'Abdu'l-Baha, The Secret ofDivine Civilization, trans. Marzieh Gail (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1957), p. 98.
6. Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of Baha 'u 'llah, rev. ed. (Wilmette:
Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1955), pp. 183, 187.

the "literal revival of that earlier conception." Indeed, he suggests,
"only a new imaginative, religious, moral, and social context for
science and technology will make it possible to weather the storms
that seem to be closing in on us in the late 20th century. " 7
The Covenantal World View
In the search for solutions to current social problems, attention
has been drawn to the importance of social institutions such as
the family and religion that represent "seedbeds of virtue": the
spiritual foundations provided by religion imbue individuals with
the virtues on which both civic participation and governance
depend. 8 Yet the connection is even stronger. Religion provides
not only the foundations but the bricks and cement of societythe shared beliefs and moral values that unite people into communities, as well as the world view and account of the meaning
and purpose of life that infuses those moral values with sense. 9
These, moreover, provide the basis of all legitimation for authority, the source of legal institutions, as well as the touchstone and
standard for evaluating the direction of society .10
Many of those who in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
influenced and fashioned modem Western political institutions
understood the pivotal importance of religion to the coherence
and maintenance of a social and political order. They were far less
influenced than has often been thought, by that typically modem
secular rationalism that displaces God by human reason; 11 on the
contrary, the world view that informed their thinking was based on
the scriptural account of human nature as having a spiritual purpose, which was summed up in the idea of the divine Covenant

7. Robert N. Bellah, The Broken Covenant: American Civil Religion in Time
ofTrial (New York: Seabury, 1975), p. xiv.
8. Mary Ann Glendon and David Blankenhorn, eds., Seedbeds of Virtue:
Sources of Competence, Character, and Citizenship in American Society
(Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1995).
9. Bellah, Broken Covenant, p. ix.
10. Ibid.
11. Ellis Sandoz, "Philosophical and Religious Dimensions of the American
Founding," The Intercollegiate Review 30 (1995): 27-42; A. James Reichley, Religion in American Public Life (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings
Institution, 1985).

COVENANT AND CNIL SOCIETY

between God and humankind. The purpose of human reason was
to know the existence of God, whose handiwork was evident in
creation; the summit of human freedom was to recognize and to
give assent to the superior authority of revelation, thus entering into
a covenant to willingly obey His commands.
This covenantal account of human nature, shared by Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam, is reaffmned in the Baha'i Faith as an eternal
truth. So it is not surprising to find that some ofBaha'u'llah's
teachings about freedom and rights, for instance, bear a similarity
to certain ideas of earlier ethical thinkers, for the very reason that
the concepts of religious freedom and conscience are directly
related to the idea of the divine Covenant. But to confuse this
transhistorical continuity for simple influence would be a mistake
underrating its great significance. John Locke (1632-1704), for
instance, drew his vastly influential ideas on religious toleration
and liberty directly from the Bible and the logical implications of
the Covenant. According to Daniel J. Elazar, the long history of
deliberation about the rights and obligations of parties to compacts
in medieval Jewish public law anticipated the seventeenth-century
political theorists precisely because "both schools flowed from a
common source"-the biblical covenants. 12 David Little points
out that modem doctrines of freedom of religion, including that in
the UN Declaration of Human Rights, far from being reducible to
the influence of Enlightenment rationalism, are "unthinkable"
apart from the religious concept of conscience, a concept also
asserted in the Qur' an. 13
Much has been written about the tremendous impact of seventeenth-century covenant or "federal" theology on the founding of
the American colonies and subsequent developments of the U.S.
constitutional era. The pivotal concept of the covenantal view is
a distinctive idea of freedom, which throughout its history and
in various diverse settings has retained a remarkable unity and
consistency. "Covenant liberty" has been conceptualized as a

12. Daniel J. Elazar, "Covenant as the Basis of the Jewish Political Tradition,"
The Jewish Journal of Sociology 20 (1978): 5-37, p. 18.
13. David Little, "The Westem Tradition," in David Little et al., Human Rights
and the Conflict of Cultures: Western and Islamic Perspectives on Religious
Liberty (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988), p. 26.

dialectic of freedom and duty: the liberation gained was from the
bonds of selfish desire; the supreme achievement of human freedom and agency was submission to the divine law. According to
Bellah, the "profoundly social" nature of this "covenant liberty"
was reflected in the words of the eighteenth-century New England
Baptist, Isaac Backus:

The true liberty of man is, to know, obey and enjoy his Creator,
and to do all the good unto, and enjoy all the happiness with and
in his fellow creatures that he is capable of; in order to which the
law of love was written in his heart, which carries in it's nature
union and benevolence to Being in general, and to each being in
particular, according to it's nature and excellency, and to it's
relation and connexion with the supre1ne Being, and ourselves.
Each rational soul, as he is part of the whole syste1n of rational
beings, so it was and is, both his duty and his liberty to regard
the good of the whole in all his actions.l 4

In the nineteenth century, through a number of factors, not least
of which was the corrosive effect of secularization and its resulting atomistic individualism, the social consensus in this religious
vision of social and moral order became steadily eroded. Today
that original religious concept of freedom as "true liberty" that
"meant freedom to do the good and was almost equivalent to virtue," a conception embedded in a context of social obligation and
divine purpose, has been displaced by an ideological notion of
freedom as the liberty of the isolated individual to pursue selfinterest without interference. 15
Locke on Religious Freedom
In the world view within which Locke composed his doctrine of
religious toleration, the primacy of freedom of the individual conscience was due to the importance of genuine belief (that is, freely
given consent to divine authority) in attaining salvation, for "Faith
only and sincerity, are the things that procure acceptance with
God." 16 Although Locke is usually identified with the theory of

14. Quoted in Bellah, Broken Covenant, p. 20.
15. Bellah, Broken Covenant, p. xii.
16. John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration, in The Works ofJohn Locke,
10 vols. (London: 1823; reprint, Aalen: Scientia, 1963), vol. 6, p. 28.

COVENANT AND CIVIL 8 OCIETY

social contract, his views on human nature, purpose, freedom, and
the good were squarely within the covenantal perspective. For
Locke the testimony of revelation was, as reason itself must conclude, of an authority necessarily superior to human reason, and as
such "carries with it Assurance beyond Doubt, Evidence beyond
Exception"; "faith" was the assent of reason to revelation and constituted the supreme degree of assent possible by human reason. 17
The "highest perfection of intellectual nature" lay "in a careful and
constant pursuit of true and solid happiness; so the care of our
selves, that we mistake not imaginary for real happiness, is the
necessary foundation of our liberty." That "real happiness" was
spiritual, not material. The "great privilege of finite intellectual
Beings" did not consist in freedom to do whatever the will chose,
but rather "the great inlet, and exercise of all the liberty Men have,
are capable of, or can be useful to them, and that whereon depends
the turn of their actions ... [consisted] in this, that they can suspend
their desires, and stop them from determining their wills to any
action, till they have duly and fairly examin 'd the flood and evil of
it as far forth as the weight of the thing requires." 8
Within the covenantal world view, the perfection of human
freedom was, in essence, to become determined by the good.
Thus, Locke wrote, "If we look upon those superiour Beings
above us, who enjoy perfect Happiness, we shall have reason to
judge that they are more steadily determined in their choice of
Good than we; and yet we have no reason to think they are less
happy, or less free, than we are." Rejecting the vulgar notion of
liberty as license, he observed: "Is it worth the N arne of Freedom
to be at liberty to play the Fool, and draw Shame and Misery upon
a Man's self? If to break loose from the conduct of Reason, and
to want that restraint of Examination and Judgment, which keeps
us from chusing or doing the worse, be Liberty, true Liberty, mad
Men and Fools are the only Freemen." 19
Though all men desired happiness, and thus sought the good, it
was evident that not everyone thought the same thing good. But
the apparent existence of a plurality of goods, he argued, would

17. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, ed. Peter H.
Nidditch (Oxford: Clarendon, 1975), 4.xvi.14.
18. Ibid., 2.xxi.51-52.
19. Ibid., 2.xxi.49, 50.

only be true "were all the Concerns of Man terminated in this
Life," that is, if ultimate happiness could really be found in material pursuits and the satisfaction of desire. Were this the case,
there could indeed be no way to judge between individuals' conflicting choices, or conceptions of their highest good, such as "why
one followed Study and I<nowledge, and another Hawking and
Hunting; why one chose Luxury and Debauchery, and another
Sobriety and Riches." The good would be defined by the object
one pursued. Yet Locke dismissed this conflation of desire and
human good as a dangerous delusion, remarking: "'twas a right
Answer of the Physician to his Patient, that had sore Eyes. If you
have more Pleasure in the Taste of Wine, than in the use of your
Sight, Wine is good for you; but if the Pleasure of Seeing be greater
°
to you, than that of Drinking, Wine is naught." 2 For Locke, freedom of conscience was the necessary precondition for fulfilling
one's duty to God and thus attaining the object of existence (the
good), for "the end of all religion is to please him, and that liberty
is essentially necessary to that end. "21
Locke conceptualized the theory set forth in his Letter on
Toleration (1689) as an explicitly religious idea, required by the
scriptural command of "charity, meelmess, and good-will in general towards all mankind, even those that are not Christians." 22
Indeed, he characterized the concept of religious toleration as the
hallmark of true religion itself. While the Letter is a foundational
document of modem liberalism, it is possible to see in it the extent
to which Locke took seriously not only the rights of individuals
but their social obligations, as well as the civil rights of communities. In proper perspective, individual rights were located within
a context that took account of correlative responsibilities; rightly
understood, the individual's freedom of conscience did not conflict
with, and thus did not supersede, the right of society to maintain
the conditions of order upon which all its individual members
depend. This was true with regard to religious, as well as civil,
society.

20. Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 2.xxi.54.
21. Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Works, vol. 6, p. 30.
22. Ibid., p. 5.

-----------------------------------------------------------;

COVENANT AND CIVIL SOCIETY

The principle that defmed the scope of, and linked together, the
domains of freedom and obligation was that the exercise of freedom
in the act of recognizing an authority (that is, giving "consent")
entailed a strong obligation of obedience. 23 Provided that membership in a religious society was by choice and "absolutely free and
spontaneous," Locke argued, "it necessarily follows, that the right
of making its laws can belong to none but the society itself, or
at least, which is the same thing, to those whom the society by
common consent has authorized thereunto." 24 What of those who,
having joined, later came to disagree with some part of the doctrine, or who disobeyed the code of conduct required of members?
Individual freedom of conscience remained unabridged so long as
one was as free to leave as to enter a religion. As for those who
disobeyed the laws, Locke recommended that "The arms by which
the members of this society are to be kept within their duty, are
exhortations, admonitions, and advice. If by these means the
offenders will not be reclaimed, and the erroneous convinced,
there remains nothing farther to be done, but that such stubborn
and obstinate persons, who give no ground to hope for their reformation, should be cast out and separated from the society .... I
hold," he wrote, "that no church is bound by the duty of toleration
to retain any such person in her bosom, as after admonition continues obstinately to offend against the laws of the society. For
these being the condition of communion, and the bond of society,
if the breach of them were permitted without any animadversion,
the society would immediately be thereby dissolved. "25 Excommunication, he argued, was the just and reasonable way to treat those
violations of norms which, as he correctly realized, if permitted
unchecked, would dissolve the unity, order, and integrity of the
community.
It is important to note that in arguing against the use of coercion
in religious matters, Locke was arguing against the sometimes brutal, physical punishments notorious to the era ("galleys, prisons,
confiscations, and death" 26 ) used by the civil authority in matters

23. Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Works, vol. 6, p. 13.
24. Ibid., p. 14.
25. Ibid., p. 16.
26. Ibid., p. 49.

concerning belief, and especially when imposed on persons of a
different religion. The use of force was appropriately exercised
by the civil authority in enforcing civil laws, which did not concern belief. But far from considering expulsion to be coercive, he
regarded it as a simple matter of holding people accountable to
their solemn promises, freely given. Nor did it have anything to
do with civil rights: "Excommunication," as such, Locke argued,
"neither does nor can deprive the excommunicated person of any
of those civil goods that he formerly possessed." For no one had
"any civil right" to partake of the privileges that accrued to membership in a voluntary religious association. 27
Religion and Civil Order
To see how much the common understanding of the relationship
between religion and civil order has changed, it is useful to look
at what Locke says about religion and civil government in the
Letter. In his argument about the separation of the "ecclesiastical" and the "civil," the distinction involved was not between a
religious sphere and an irreligious one: Locke took for granted
that religious principles were the foundation of the civil order.
He also acknowledged the justice of theocracy in principle (by
which he meant specifically a commonwealth in which civil and
religious law and authority were combined). His famous contention that there could be no Christian commonwealth did not rest
on any claim that theocracy itself was inherently unjust, but rather
on the simple fact that no Christian commonwealth, or indeed
any specific form of government, was prescribed in the Gospel;
and only what was clearly warranted by the revealed scripture
could be considered binding. However, where theocracy was ordained in the Holy Scripture itself, as it had been in the Law of
Moses, Locke insisted, it was obligatory. 28
Locke was concerned, rather, with the just extent of the jurisdictions of civil and religious authority in a society where the

27. Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Works, vol. 6, p. 17.
28. Ibid., pp. 37-38. See also The Reasonableness of Christianity as delivered
in the Scriptures, in The Works of John Locke, 10 vols. [London: 1823;
reprint, Aalen: Scientia, 1963], vol. 7, pp. 13-16.

covENANT AND CIVIL SOCIETY

general consensus in Christianity among the majority of citizens
was obscured and overshadowed by violent dissensus between
denominations. This disunity was intractable in the absence of
any universally recognized source of authority to adjudicate the
competing interpretations which had led to the fractionation of
the body of the religion into sects. In proposing that the "civil"
should be separate from the "religious," by "religious" Locke
was referring primarily to the contentious sources of difference
between denominations, not to the broad foundation of religious
morality which was uncontested. It seems he was also trying to
apply to the problem at hand a conceptual distinction, familiar
to Christians, between "the 'religious' duties owed directly to
God," as contained in the first four of the Ten Commandments
(concerning matters of faith and worship), and the "'moral' duties
owed to fellow human beings" which made up the rest of the commandments (the social or moral laws concerning actions against
persons and property, and so on). 29 While laws concerning inner
belief applied only to believers, the laws concerning outward behavior justly applied to every citizen, regardless of belief, as they
constituted the moral basis of the civil order.
But the origin of both these duties in the revealed scriptures
underscores the fact that the domains of the spiritual and the temporal, the "religious" and the "civil," are ultimately not radically
separate but are two aspects of one reality. 30 The relevant distinction in this case involved that of competence to judge, and thus to
impose punishment: only God could judge the sincerity of one's
belief; but human authorities could judge actions in society. Locke
wanted to ameliorate a prevalent condition of his time-the subjection of people to civil punishments for not belonging to the state
church or attending worship-by putting things in their proper
order. He proposed that membership in religious associations
should be voluntary and never compulsory; that different faiths
should be free to practice their beliefs (provided they did not
engage in sedition against the civil order), and that civil power

29. Little, "Western Tradition," p. 19; Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration,
Works, vol. 6, pp. 39-43.
30. Cf. Little, "Western Tradition," p. 20.

should be used only to enforce the civil, public laws of morality,
public security, and order, while religious institutions should hold
only the members of their own community to be bound by that
religion's beliefs, practices, and laws. In making these proposals,
Locke was in effect articulating the religious-not secular-principles for the just governance of a religiously plural society. The
theocracy of the Israelite Commonwealth, Locke pointed out, was
the source of the concept of "separation" he was arguing for, and
he cited this fact as the highest possible warrant of its justice.
Locke also argued against the use of physical punishment or
deprivation of property, whether imposed by religious or civil
authorities, on anyone at all in matters of belief and worship, primarily because it was unwarranted in the Christian scriptures,
and secondarily because it was ineffective anyway as coercion
could never procure belief. 31 But it would distort him out of context, and collapse a crucial conceptual distinction, to read this
classic argument against coercion in matters of religion as an
extension of rights of conscience specifically pertaining to the
civil domain, into the domain of the voluntary religious community, as if its internal life were also, like the civil sphere, a
space undefined by any commitments to particular beliefs or a
distinctive way of life. To do this, as Locke correctly saw, would
condemn any association based on belief to dissolution.
It is important to recognize that for Locke, and, for example,
the framers of the U.S. Constitution, the fact that the revealed
social laws of religion were the moral foundation of the civil
order was never in question. In the U.S. constitutional era the
"disestablishment" issue primarily concerned doing away with
public tax support for churches, which amounted to extracting
compulsory contributions to religious funds from nonbelievers.
Yet introducing that explicitly financial "disestablishment" did
not contradict the general expectation by all that government
ought to operate on the basis of the moral principles of religion. 32
Thus it can be said that, in a broader sense of the term, the "establishment"-that is, institutionalization-of those religious laws

31. Cf. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Secret of Divine Civilization, p. 46.
32. Reichley, Religion in American Public Life, p. 113.

~--------------------------------,

covENANT AND CIVIL SOCIETY

and values with civil application was never in question, nor even
mentioned, except affirmatively, because it was the indispensable
foundation of the society.
And it still is, for the deep structure of the Western legal system
in general remains the biblical moral code and even church canon
law, although the religious origins of the civil law have been
largely effaced. 33 According to sociologist Mattei Dogan, in spite
of a decline in religious belief "in Europe, Christian morals have
been absorbed into the State. The philosophy of the Ten Commandments, the prophets and the apostles is embodied in the civil
legislation of the whole of Europe. " 34 In the sense that a society's
governmental structures, processes, and laws represent the institutionalization of the moral values of its people, no state can exist
without an "established," that is, institutionalized, set of beliefs
that defme its moral orientation. Those beliefs, implicitly, are prior
to the institutional structures; without them, "institutions" are a
hollow shell. And, inescapably, the moral authority of civil laws
depends on an underlying belief in a legitimating conception of
good that makes those laws right.
The Secular Turn
In the modem era, those distinctive concepts of freedom and of toleration became detached from their original religious foundations
and anchored to another, secular system of thought that rejected any
preexisting obligation of divine origin. The idea of the good was
demoted from its universal transcendent position and relativized to
the individual. This shift reflected the displacement, in modem secular philosophic liberalism, of the religious view of human nature
as a creation of God, by a (sometimes tacit) materialist account
of human nature as self-creating and autonomous, of ultimate good
as something private and (potentially, at least) different for each
individual. Individual freedom retained its prominent position,
but instead of freedom to recognize the good (that is, God), it was

33. Harold J. Berman, Law and Revolution: The Formation of the Western
Legal Tradition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983),
p. 198.
34. Mattei Dogan, "The Decline of Religious Beliefs in Western Europe,"
International Social Science Journal145 (1995): 405-17, p. 417.

construed as freedom to choose between a plurality of goods or to
create one's own good, but in any case, the self, not a transcendent
source of that self, was the autonomous measure of its own good.
The concept of covenant, as the origin of society, was replaced by
social contract, in which the people themselves, and their private
interests, were seen as the authoritative source of the social bond. 35
By the twentieth century, a process that had begun with the attempt
to apply religious principles to mitigate the problem of religious
disunity had resulted in the eviction of the religious basis of the
entire collective moral system which had been taken for granted
as an indispensable foundation and the purpose of championing
religious liberty at all.
A key feature of the secular tum in modem moral philosophy
has been the attempt to separate the right, or justice, from any
substantive conception of human good, such as would be found in
a religious world view-that is, an account of reality, human nature, and purpose which gives direction and meaning to human
life. This conception of justice is regarded as prior to the good
and as universally valid because it does not depend on, and thus
give privilege to, any particular conception of the good. While it
has been given various renderings, the neutral conception of justice is generally concerned with ensuring a maximum, or an equal
amount of, liberty (and thus opportunity) for individuals to pursue their own self-chosen conceptions of the good life.
However, the view that it is possible to do right independently
of reference to the good would have been foreign to the thinking
of such a religious philosopher as John Locke. According to
Locke,

A good life, in which consists not the least part of religion
and true piety, concerns also the civil government: and in it
lies the safety both of men's souls and of the commonwealth.
Moral actions belong therefore to the jurisdiction both of the
outward and inward court; both of the civil and domestic governor; I mean, both of the magistrate and conscience. 36

35. Bellah, Broken Covenant, ch. 1; Miller, ''From the Covenant to the Revival,"
p. 335.
36. Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Works, vol. 6, p. 41.

COVENANT AND CNIL SOCIETY

Likewise alien would have been the modem secular notion of an
autonomous human reason able to formulate its own morality or
ethics without reference to God. For Locke,

A dependent, intelligent being is under the power of and
direction and dominion of him on whom he depends and must
be for the ends appointed him by that superior being. If man
were independent he could have no law but his own will, no
end but himself. He would be a god to himself and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure of all his actions. 37

Locke's conviction that belief in God was the essential ground
for a commitment to justice is reflected in his refusal to grant
atheism the status of a moral foundation equivalent to religion.
For "Promises, covenants, and oaths, which are the bonds of human
society, can have no hold upon an atheist. The taking away of
God, though but even in thought, dissolves all. Besides also, those
that by their atheism undermine and destroy all religion, can have
no pretense of religion whereupon to challenge the privilege of a
toleration." 38 This often misunderstood passage did not imply
atheists should not have the same civil rights as other citizens; it
merely refused to allow religious toleration to extend, by sophistry,
to an opposite, antireligious position that, because it denied the
source of legitimation for "the bonds of human society," lacked
the basic commitment to authority necessary to uphold any civil
order (and, of course, lacked any reason to consider religion worthy
of toleration).
Locke, in sum, thought that the right was intrinsically dependent on the good, that the good was necessarily the divine good, and
that while the coercive enforcement of sectarian dogmas and forms
of worship-quite correctly-had no place in civil government,
religious principles and moral values were inseparable from it.
In recent years, the idea that justice can be conceptualized in the
absence of any commitment to a set of transcendent values, or with
a minimal set of values, has been abundantly criticized and its

37. Quoted in John Dunn, The Political Thought of John Locke (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1969), frontispiece.
38. Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Works, vol. 6, p. 47.

contradictions enumerated, from a variety of perspectives, particularly with respect to its implications for community life.
Modern secular liberal philosophy was never intended to
constitute communities but rather to provide a theory of neutral
arbitration among the various individuals and communities over
which the modem state has jurisdiction. Thus it is not surprising
that the principles of liberal polity, emphasizing difference and
individualism, should be in tension with the concerns and needs of
communities, which depend upon unity and mutuality. In the historical experience of irreconcilable religious sectarianism which
gave rise to modem liberal political theory, the irreducibility of
disunity arose, as Locke was keenly aware, from the fact that the
points of contention involved the assertion of secondary doctrines
and practices above and beyond what was clearly warranted in the
scripture. But because such doctrines were not warranted-or
were not clearly warranted-they could never gain consensus by a
conclusive proof of their authority, and thus could only appeal to
probability; hence they could always be disputed. In contrast, he
observed, clearly warranted deductions caused no division. 39 Under
the circumstances, without any universally recognized authority
(for the same reason-absence of a clear scriptural warrant for any
such institution), dissensus was inevitable and at best might be
managed but never eliminated.
It is thus the absence of any infallible, scripturally warranted
center of interpretive authority that is the root of the historical,
religious problem to which the theory that would become modem
secular liberalism was originally proposed as the solution. The
presumption of irreconcilable difference, and hence of disunity,
is ingrained in that system of thought; and this, along with the
primacy of individual liberty (which as Locke noted became a
practical necessity precisely because of dissension and the need to
choose between competing sects), continues to shape contemporary concepts of the liberal polity. On the resulting model, the
community, as Philip Selznick observes, is not to be "based on
shared identity, shared purpose, or shared understanding of the

39. Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Works, vol. 6, p. 57; cf. Shoghi
Effendi, World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, pp. 20-21.

COVENANT AND CIVIL SOCIETY

common good; rather it is constituted by the principles of right
ordering that govern liberty." But that emphasis on individual
freedom and autonomy meets its limitations precisely where community life begins: for communities are constituted by unity and
sustained by commitments to shared purposes. Regulatory rules
and procedures for ensuring individual liberty cannot account for
or provide, for example, "ideals of caring and social justiceincluding care for children, health, families, the environment,
aesthetic values, opportunity, and the well-being of future generations."40 Such goals guided by ideals are unintelligible apart from
a vision of human good, excellence, and happiness.
The limiting consequences, as Selznick has noted, of conceiving
the community as a mere "framework within which autonomous
choices can be made" are that "The political quest for a distinctive
kind of community is abandoned. We are not to seek, through politics and government, the kind of community that will best redeem
the promise of fellowship or most closely approximate the potential for human growth, creativity, and responsibility." 41 As the
strictly value-neutral state attempts to exclude from public institutions and governance any reference to the kinds of ultimate goals
associated with a particular good way of life-and thus with religion-it precludes and indeed disqualifies itself from being able to
"advance human excellence."42 For to do that requires a conception
of the good, something to which the neutral state disclaims any
access.
As many have pointed out, modem liberal theory contains deep
contradictions. It is now widely recognized that, despite disclaimers,
a conception of the good and a theory of human nature-and thus
a set of particular beliefs-is being implemented all the same in
liberal theory, and this implies an exclusion of other beliefs:

Any conception of the hutnan good according to which, for
example, it is the duty of government to educate the members
of the comtnunity tnorally, so that they cotne to live out that

40. Philip Selznick, The Moral Commonwealth: Social Themy and the Promise
of Community (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), p. 381.
41. Ibid., p. 382.
42. John Rawls, quoted in ibid., p. 382.

conception of the good, may up to a point be held as a private
theory by individuals or groups, but any serious attempt to
etnbody it in public life will be proscribed. And this qualification of course entails not only that liberal individualism does
indeed have its own broad conception of the good, which it is
engaged in imposing politically, legally, socially, and culturally wherever it has the power to do so, but that in so doing its
toleration of rival conceptions of the good in the public arena
is severely limited. 43

According to Selznick, "fundamental values-not only basic
requirements of justice and citizenship but broader ideals of
personal and social well-being" are inevitably employed if only
tacitly; for instance, merely to have decided that human beings
need liberty is already to have committed oneself to a belief about
human nature. "The presuppositions of liberalism represent genuine moral choices, and their reaffirmation is a continuous act of
moral choice, the more so as liberalism takes seriously the quest
for social justice." As the pursuit of social justice becomes an aim
and purpose in government, that endeavor embodies an ensemble
of values far beyond any neutral or procedural concept of basic
liberties. Thus, for example, "Education for basic skills may arguably
be morally neutral, but not education for citizenship, for enlightenment, for social responsibility, for deferred gratification, for
intellectual and aesthetic appreciation."44 And the same is true of
a wide range of other social issues.
Ever more urgently, social theorists now call for recovering a
balance between the individual and society, between rights and
responsibilities within a coherent framework "Our situation today,"
Selznick writes, "calls for a more robust idea of community, one
that gives greater weight to the claims of mutuality and fellowship.
Liberalism's thin theory of community weakens its capacity to
speak with a clear voice where the public interest demands discipline and duty as much as (and in a given context perhaps more
than) freedom and self-realization." For that same insistence on

43.Alasdair Macintyre, Whose Justice? Which Rationality? (Notre Dame:
University ofNotre Dame Press, 1988), p. 336.
44. Selznick, Moral Commonwealth, pp. 383, 384.

covENANT AND CIVIL SOCIETY

value neutrality and emphasis on individualism undermines the
security and well-being of all when it eliminates any basis for
calling upon individuals to sacrifice their individual preferences
and concrete, short-term interests for the needs of a more abstract
common good: "it is hard to justify sacrifice-a ban on gas-guzzling
vehicles, a program of compulsory national service, a required
course of study-when individual choice is held sacred. "45
The idea that civil governance requires a value-neutral ethic
that strictly avoids all reference to a transcendent good is a peculiarly
modem secular development, which appears to be an attempt to
extend the principle of noncoercion in matters of belief into a
vastly altered context. In the new context, the possibility of moral
consensus upon any religious foundation has been wholly abandoned, and instead it is taken as axiomatic that the only available
ethical common ground is secular, that is, nonreligious. And yet,
every attempt to construct such a secular public ethic or conception of justice with universal validity discloses a tacit dependency
upon what tum out to be spiritual values. 46 When we trace the
concepts and principles on which justice-including the essential
ideas ofhuma11- equality and obligation-order, governance, and
citizenship depend, it becomes clear that any theory of these that
was entirely stripped of all its borrowed religious values would
be little different from the theoretical Hobbesian "state of nature":
a war of all against all. Such a condition, ruled only by the

45. Selznick, Moral Commonwealth, pp. 385, 386.
46. Some contemporary theorists acknowledge, in passing, the religious origin
of the ideas as a once-helpful ladder that can now be kicked away. Locke
wrote of the epistemic dependence of philosophers on revelation: "He that
travels the roads now, applauds his own strength and legs that have carried
him so far in such a scantling of time, and ascribes all to his own vigour;
little considering how much he owes to their pains, who cleared the
woods, drained the bogs, built the bridges, and made the ways passable;
without which he might have toiled much with little progress .... It is no
diminishing to revelation, that reason gives its suffrage too to the truths
revelation has discovered. But it is our mistake to think, that because reason confirms them to us, we had the first certain knowledge of them from
thence; and in that clear evidence we now possess them." (Reasonableness
of Christianity, Works, vol. 7, p. 145.)

unrestricted competition of self-interest, is nothing less than
radical individualism. 47 Yet the consequence of unbridled individualism is ultimately the erosion of the altruistic values on which
community, civil society, and, some argue, human evolution itself,
depend. 48
It has been suggested that even after the modem secular tum,
and the resultant weakening of the authority of religion, the social
order continued to run on the "accumulated moral capital" of the
past, 49 a fact that temporarily concealed the true social cost
incurred by abandoning religion. As this reserve has gradually
exhausted itself, we have witnessed an acceleration in the rate of
social and moral deterioration, expressed in the loosening of every
form of personal obligation, and have seen secular ideologies and
theories go bankrupt, unable to create community, to teach moral
values and virtues necessary to sustain the political order, or to
stem the rising tide of conflict and violence. The progression of
this disintegration has only thrown into relief the fact that "no
matter how undermined, a remnant of the older morality provides
much of what coherence our society still has." 50 Such recognition
has led to an emerging interest in the underlying principle at the
basis of that morality, the idea of covenant, as "an idea whose time
[has] come back." 51
The Concept of Covenant
Covenant, it has long been recognized, is not merely a theological concept but it has been termed the most powerful and

47. See also Bellah, Broken Covenant, p. 26.
48. Ronald Cohen, "Altruism and the Evolution of Civil Society," in Embracing the Other: Philosophical, Psychological, and Historical Perspectives
on Altruism, ed. Pearl M. Oliner et al. (New Yorlc New York University
Press, 1992), pp. 104-29.
49. James Q. Wilson, "Liberalism, Mode1nism, and the Good Life," in Seedbeds of Virtue: Sources of Competence, Character, and Citizenship in
American Society, ed. Mary Ann Glendon and David Blankenhorn (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1995), p. 19.
50. Bellah, Broken Covenant, p. xiii.
51. Daniel J. Elazar, "What Happened to Covenant in the Nineteenth Centmy?"
in Covenant in the Nineteenth Century: The Decline ofan American Political
Tradition, ed. Daniel J. Elazar (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1994), p. 4.

COVENANT AND CIVIL SOCIETY

enduring form of political foundation and one of the "fundamental
political concepts illuminating the origins and basis of political
life." 52 Since the earliest biblical covenants uniting the Israelite
tribes, the idea that human political relationships, like the relationship between God and humanity, ought to be based on "compact,
association, and consent" has provided various peoples the inspiration and pattern for community organization and state building.
According to Elazar, the resurgence of this world view in sixteenth-century Reformed Protestant Christianity in Europe gave
rise to the federal theology on which English and American Puritans, Huguenots, and Scottish Covenanters based their political
theories and constitutional principles, and which influenced the
development of federal states in Switzerland and the Netherlands
as well as the federation of the New England colonies into the
United States of America. Moreover, he notes, "the biblical vision
for the 'end of days '-the messianic era" includes an extension of
this divine "grand design" for human polity to "a world confederation or league of nations, each preserving its own integrity while
accepting a common divine covenant and constitutional order. This
order will establish appropriate covenantal relationships for the
entire world." 53
The idea of covenant refers to a constellation of concepts: the
free and willing recognition of a binding duty, originating in or
guaranteed by a transcendent source, to act together in a collective
enterprise defmed by a purpose and according to a set of precepts
or laws, with accountability in the form of blessing and benefits for
fulfillment and punishment and retribution for failure. 54 The vast
ramifications of this idea become apparent when we consider a
few of the implications that can be traced to the idea of covenant.
The element of free and willing recognition is the origin of the

52. Elazar, "Covenant as the Basis," pp. 6, 10.
53. Daniel J. Elazar, Exploring Federalism (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama
Press, 1987), pp. 119, 126-27, 120.
54. Cf. a different rendering of elements in Donald S. Lutz, "The Evolution of
Covenant Form and Content as the Basis for Early American Political Culture," in Covenant in the Nineteenth Century: The Decline of an American
Political Tradition, ed. Daniel J. Elazar (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1994), p. 35.

principle of consent, as the basis of free society and self-government. The recognition of a binding duty generates the concept
of strong obligation through the recognition of authority. The location of the duty in a transcendent, divine source is the pivot of the
idea of legitimation. In the summons to a collective, purposive
enterprise the community is created, implying for each individual
a commitment to participate and engendering a sense of identity,
loyalty, and responsibility. The set of precepts that guide and
direct this enterprise defme the character of the moral and political
order of the community. It is here we find the content of law,
rights and responsibilities, the hierarchy of values, and the virtues
entailed by them. It can also be seen here that, because of its
centrality to the lives and well-being of all the individuals who
belong to it, that collective enterprise is itself an entity which has
rights (in virtue of its responsibilities), and all those who identify
themselves with this community share an obligation to give attention and care to the protection of the community as a whole. And
finally, the element of retribution and proportionality is the basic
principle underlying all forms of accountability and is a fundamental
component of all moral codes. 55
The vehicle for ensuring the orderly practice, maintenance, and
transmission of a society's values is its institutions. 56 The specification of institutional structure can be considered as a separate
formal element of a covenant, 57 but the history of revealed covenants is notable for the absence of provisions for institutions or the
scope of their authority. That this absence has been the prime
cause of intrareligious conflict and schism highlights the profound
significance and unprecedented potentiality of the institutional
arrangements in the Baha'i Faith. The structures and principles of
the Baha'i Administrative Order are not only clearly specified in
the texts whose authority is universally recognized by Baha'is, but

55. Alison Dundes Renteln, '~A Cross-Cultural Approach to Validating International Human Rights: The Case of Retribution Tied to Proportionality,"
in Human Rights: Theory and Measurement, ed. David Louis Cingranelli
(New Yorlc St. Martin's, 1988).
56. Selznick, Moral Commonwealth, pp. 232-33.
57. Lutz, "Evolution of Covenant Form and Content," p. 37.

covENANT AND CIVIL SOCIETY

they are the subject of a special revealed covenant. The specific
provisions ofBaha'u'llah's Covenant ensure the integrity as well
as the flexibility and responsiveness of the system of governance,
and guarantee the unity of the Baha'i Faith itself by eliminating
the historical cause of schism. 58
It has been pointed out that the covenantal element specifying
the precepts governing social behavior is the historical source of
bills of rights, not as a "legalistic limit on the power of government, but rather as a celebration of the fundamental value
commitments of a people." According to DonaldS. Lutz, the current
concept of a "legalistic bill of rights ... is a direct descendent of
[this] foundation element found in covenants."59 Numerous colonial
Bills of Liberty exemplifying the people's "value commitments
all point to the earlier covenants, and the Bible that underlies them,
rather than to any Magna Carta or English common law tradition."
It has also been suggested that, in addition to the tendency to
federal structure, democratic participation and collective, consensus-oriented decision-making are intrinsic aspects of covenantal
polity.60
In the covenantal concept of authority, the obligation to obey
the law arises as a consequence of the relationship one recognizes
and freely affirms between oneself and the source of those laws.
Baha'u'llah begins His Most Holy Book, his Book of Laws, with
a renewal of the great Covenant. "The first duty" is recognition
of the authority of the Lawgiver; the second is to observe His or- .
dinances. 61 Here, we can see, morality is grounded in belief as '
"conscious lmowledge" 62 and begins with a duty, not a right.
Consequently, it can be seen, the right to religious freedom comes
into being, as a human right, in order to be able to fulfill the duty of
obedience to God. That is, it becomes a civil right as a result of
being held as a religious conviction.

58. Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, pp. 143-57.
59. Lutz, "Evolution of Covenant Form and Content," pp. 42-43.
60. Elazar, "Covenant as the Basis," pp. 17, 36.
61. Baha'u'llah, The Kitab-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book (Haifa: Baha'i
World Centre, 1992), par. 1.
62. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Baha'i World Faith: Selected Writings ofBaha 'u 'llah and
'Abdu 'l-Baha (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1976), p. 383.

THE BAHA.'f WORLD

The order of the two duties of recognition and obedience has
an important implication. Obedience, in a covenant, follows only as
a consequence of the genuine recognition of a source of authority
higher than oneself. This is why the covenantal form of legitimation and authority can never be confused with authoritarianism
because it is noncoercive by definition, beginning as it does with
the free, uncoerced consent of individual reason. Thus, those
who have seen coercion lurking wherever there is "transcendent
authority," who feel that anyone who believes in a universal truth
is bound to feel justified in forcing it on someone else, simply fail
to recognize the critical point that coercion is entirely inconsistent
with, and indeed, vitiates the principle of covenant. Although recognition of God is a duty, it cannot be performed at all unless it
is consent willingly given, for coerced belief is no belief at all. 63
Thus, in the past when ecclesiastical institutions undertook, without
warrant in their own scriptures, to make affiliation in a particular
faith or sect mandatory and to use force upon those who were not
believers, this was itself a contradiction of the most basic principle
of the divine Covenant. 64
However, the voluntary principle means that once one has given
consent, recognized the authority of the lawgiver, and become a
party to the covenantal relationship, one has obligated oneself to
the relationship, with all its provisions and implications. This conception of consent makes the covenantal relation very different
from the social contract, and contemporary notions of contract,
where individual interests are the measure of the contract itself.
Selznick writes: "a social ethic is the linchpin of the covenant. ...
This social ethic is something more than a natural, unconscious
acceptance of social norms." It "suggests an indefeasible commitment and a continuing relationship." Moreover, as he has noted,
covenant is the foundation for all other particular promises and

63. See Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Works, vol. 6, p. 11.
64. Although the use of force is authorized in the Qur' an, it is permitted only
in defense, and never against peaceful nonbelievers. See, for example,
Mohamed Talbi, "Religious Liberty: A Muslim Perspective," in Religious
Liberty and Human Rights in Nations and in Religions, ed. Leonard
Swidler (Philadelphia: Ecumenical Press, 1985), pp. 175-87; Little,
"Western Tradition," pp. 29-30.

COVENANT AND CIVIL SOCIETY

contracts. 65 In a covenant, we enter into a relationship, which is
not determined by purely individual interests. Entering it constitutes an affirmation that our own best interests are necessarily
located within it, and that they are inextricably interrelated with
those with whom we share membership in this collective enterprise. The covenant thus integrates the private and the public, the
spiritual and the temporal, as through the personal covenant with
God the individual enters the social covenant. Miller writes of this
idea as it was once conceptualized:

The personal covenant of the soul with God is itnpaled on the
same axis as the social, like a small circle within a larger.
Before entering into both the personal and social covenants
men have a liberty to go their own gait; afterwards they have
renounced their liberty to do anything but that which has
been agreed upon. The mutual consenting involved in a covenant, says Hooker, is the "sement" which solders together all
societies, political or ecclesiastical; "for there is no man constrained to enter into such a condition unlesse he will: and he
that will enter, must also willingly binde and ingage himself
to each member of that society to protnote the good of the
whole, or else a member actually he is not. " 66

The covenantal concept of social interdependence is expressed
as an encompassing, global perspective in the Baha'i writings, in
the central principle of the oneness of humanity. 'Abdu'l-Baha
writes ofBaha'u'llah's teaching:

The Blessed Beauty saith: "Ye are all the fruits of one tree,
the leaves of one branch." Thus hath He likened this world of
being to a single tree, and all its peoples to the leaves thereof,
and the blossoms and fruits. It is needful for the bough to blossom, and leaf and fruit to flourish, and upon the interconnection
of all parts of the world-tree, dependeth the flourishing of leaf
and blossom, and the sweetness of the fruit.
For this reason must all human beings powerfully sustain
one another and seek for everlasting life; and for this reason
must the lovers of God in this contingent w-orld become the

65. Selznick, Moral Commonwealth, p. 479n (citing Pitkin).
66. Perry Miller, Errand into the Wilderness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956), p. 90.

mercies and the blessings sent forth by that clement King of the
seen and unseen realms. Let them purify their sight and behold
all hmnankind as leaves and blossmns and fruits of the tree of
being. Let them at all times concern themselves with doing a
kindly thing for one of their fellows, offering to smneone love,
consideration, thoughtful help. Let them see no one as their
enemy, or as wishing thetn ill, but think of all humankind as
their friends; regarding the alien as an intimate, the stran~er as
a companion, staying free of prejudice, drawing no lines.

This view of human interdependence is reflected in Shoghi
Effendi's explanation of the Baha'i conception of society as based
on the subordination of"every particularistic interest, be it personal,
regional, or national, to the paramount interests of humanity,
firmly convinced that in a world of interdependent peoples and
nations the advantage of the part is best to be reached by the
advantage of the whole, and that no abiding benefit can be conferred upon the component parts if the general interests of the
entity itself are ignored or neglected. " 68 As the Universal House
of Justice has explained,

This relationship, so fundamental to the maintenance of civilized life, calls for the utmost degree of understanding and
cooperation between society and the individual; and because of
the need to foster a climate in which the untold potentialities of
the individual members of society can develop, this relationship
must allow "free scope" for "individuality to assert itself' through
modes of spontaneity, initiative and diversity that ensure the
viability of society. 69

The implications of such a model, and such a vision, to serve as the
foundation of a global social order are developed in the Baha'i
International Community's statement, The Prosperity ofHumanldnd:

Human society is composed not of a mass of merely differentiated cells but of associations of individuals, each one of whom

67. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu 'l-Baha (Haifa:
Baha'i World Centre, 1978), pp. 1-2.
68. Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 198.
69. Universal House of Justice, Individual Rights and Freedoms in the World
Order ofBaha 'u 'llah (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1989), p. 20.

---------------------------------------------------------------,

COVENANT AND CIVIL SOCIETY

is endowed with intelligence and will; nevertheless, the tnodes
of operation that characterize man's biological nature illustrate
fundamental principles of existence. Chief among these is that
of unity in diversity. Paradoxically, it is precisely the wholeness
and complexity of the order constituting the human body--and
the perfect integration into it of the body's cells--that permit
the full realization of the distinctive capacities inherent in each
of these component elements. No cell lives apart frotn the body,
whether in contributing to its function or in deriving its share
from the well-being of the whole. The physical well-being thus
achieved finds its purpose in making possible the expression of
human consciousness; that is to say, the purpose of biological
developtnent transcends the mere existence of the body and its
parts.
What is true of the life of the individual has its parallels in
human society. The human species is an organic whole, the
leading edge of the evolutionary process. That human consciousness necessarily operates through an infinite diversity
of individual minds and motivations detracts in no way from its
essential unity. Indeed, it is precisely an inhering diversity that
distinguishes unity from homogeneity or uniformity. What the
peoples of the world are today experiencing, Baha'u'llah said,
is their collective coming-of-age, and it is through this emerging maturity of the race that the principle of unity in diversity
will find full expression ....
. . . Because the relationship between the individual and
society is a reciprocal one, the transfonnation now required
must occur simultaneously within human consciousness and
the structure of social institutions. 70

The principle of interdependence and the relationship of the
interests of the individual and society naturally has crucial implications for the concepts of governance and of justice.
Governance as Trusteeship
Governance is frequently mentioned in the Baha'i writings as
trusteeship, as the administering of a trust. This itself is an enduring concept, and it is worth examining why. Baha'u'llah speaks of
the governors and administrators of society as "trustees" or
"trusted ones" of God. He writes: "Know ye that the poor are the

70. Baha'i International Community, The Prosperity of Humanldnd, reprinted
in The Baha '{World 1994-95, pp. 277-78.

trust of God in your midst. Watch that ye betray not His trust. Y e
will most certainly be called upon to answer for His trust on the
day when the Balance of justice shall be set." 71 The relation of
trusteeship is itself a kind of covenant-an agreement concerning
the exercise of power under a set of circumstances determined
by a relationship with ethical obligations implying proportional
recompense: reward for fulfilling the trust and punishment for
breaking it. Thus we can see why the preeminent virtue of governance is trustworthiness, described by Baha'u'llah as the "greatest
portal leading unto the tranquillity and security of the people,"
and "the supreme instrument for the prosperity of the world." 72
The salient fact in trusteeship is that power is being exercised
on behalf of some person or persons who, for some reason are
not in a position to do so directly-because they are absent,
young, old, and so on; this principle operates also in professional
ethics, where power is exercised on behalf of a vulnerable client
or group. We can include as vulnerable creatures to which we
stand in the relationship of trustees such entities as the environment, future generations, in fact all those who will be affected by
the exercise of power. Although all persons are equal before
God, as Baha'u'llah indicates it is really the most vulnerable
whose interests and rights we need to be most concerned to safeguard, those who are without wealth, without social status or
prestige; rather, it is those who do not have a voice to speak up
whose rights need to be protected-the poor. In a covenantal order,
it is not merely the governors of society who have an ethical duty
to care for the best interests of their people. The sense of responsibility to the common good is a civic virtue that devolves on each
member of the polity; as an ethical duty it increases in proportion
to the power and influence individuals exercise whether formally
or informally in various social roles, for example, as leaders of
thought, scientists, authors, and scholars.

71. Baha'u'lUih, Gleanings from the Writings of Baha 'u 'llah, p. 251. This
warning evokes the judgment upon Belshazzar in the "handwriting on the
wall" read by the prophet Daniel: "Thou art weighed in the balances, and
art found wanting" (Daniel6:27).
72.Baha'u'llah, Tablets ofBaha'u'llah, pp. 37-38.

COVENANT AND CIVIL SOCIETY

Anyone who governs or administers does so on the basis of this
covenant of trusteeship. The content of the trust obligation thus is
not reducible or subject to the desires or preferences of the individuals involved. They do not have a right to decide, for instance, to
repeal a moral law because it is unpopular. And this is why mere
majoritarianism (as the sum of the preferences of the many) is not
a true entailment of any kind of representative government that
occurs in a relationship of trusteeship, or covenant. Equity inevitably requires that some must get less than they might like to have so
that others will not have to go without, and that some individuals
must sacrifice their purely private interests when those conflict
with the common good. Thus it is essential that there be a way to
know what the common good is, in the cases where there is a conflict of preferences. And that means there must be a shared vision
that characterizes that community as a moral order, defmed by an
idea of what constitutes human excellence: a set of values and
principles that serve as terms of reference and the standard for
evaluative decision making. In this perspective, the virtue of sacrificing self-interest for the common good is not something that can
be imposed by an external source (otherwise it is not "sacrifice"),
but it arises out of personal commitment and the genuine consciousness of a unity of interests that is best described as love. And where
love is concerned, no sacrifice entails a net loss.
The virtue of trustworthiness implies strong accountability.
The trustee, in this case the governors of society, will be "called
upon to answer for His trust." But accountability can only have
motivating force if it is real and inevitable, and not merely a
chance of getting caught. Our own "best interests" are really only
fused with those of "the poor," that is, an "other," by a certainty
that how we act toward others determines how we will be judged,
and what we will receive. Thus 'Abdu'l-Baha writes:

... a religious individual must disregard his personal desires
and seek in whatever way he can wholeheartedly to serve the
public interest; and it is impossible for a human being to turn
aside from his own selfish advantages and sacrifice his own
good for the good of the community except through true religious faith. For self-love is kneaded into the very clay of man,

and it is not possible that, without any hope of a substantial
reward, he should neglect his own present material good. 73

The adoption of a spiritual perspective transforms that self-love
into a reference point for understanding the needs of others and
seeing their interests as linked with one's own: "0 son of man!"
Baha'u'llah reveals, "If thine eyes be turned towards mercy,
forsake the things that profit thee and cleave unto that which
will profit mankind. And if thine eyes be turned towards justice,
choose thou for thy neighbor that which thou choosest for thyseIf.,74
From a Baha'i perspective governance is really a spiritual
practice, for the judgments we make are dependent on the inner
orientation of the heart. In religious scriptures, the metaphor
of the balance is invoked as the image of the administration of
justice which is the measure of good governance. (Thus, even
the familiar image of the scales of justice is an ancient religious
concept.) Baha'u'llah, in His tablets, speaks of governance as
spiritual accountability:

It behoveth every ruler to weigh his own being every day in the
balance of equity and justice and then to judge between men
and counsel them to do that which would direct their steps unto
the path of wisdmn and understanding. This is the cornerstone
of statestnanship and the essence thereof. From these words
every enlightened tnan of wisdmn will readily perceive that
which will foster such aitns as the welfare, security and protection oftnankind and the safety ofhmnan lives? 5

Using a balance, or any measuring instrument, is a two-step process: before the scale can be used to weigh anything the justice
of the instrument itself must be ensured, and this is only possible
by orienting it to a standard that is outside of and transcends the
self. The one who would govern must first govern the self, must
come under the rule of divine justice, must set aside the self s
inclination to place a thumb on its side of the scale, and must

73. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Secret ofDivine Civilization, pp. 96-97.
74.Baha'u'llah, Tablets ofBaha'u'llah, p. 64.
75. Ibid., pp. 166-67.

COVENANT AND CNIL SOCIETY

become a servant of the interests of the people, regarding their
interests as one's own. In this respect it is worth recalling that to
have "scruples" comes from the term for some of the tiniest of
weights.
The covenant perspective also calls forth the virtues and the
vision that make governance more than mere management,
that is, the sense of being entrusted with "the care of a community."76 Governance, as trusteeship, is described in ~he Baha'i
writings as the care of a living organism, and institutions of
governance as a channel through which the spirit that gives it
life, that is, the promised blessings of the Covenant, flow.
Baha'u'llah's exhortations to the rulers of His day invoke this
sense of transcendent, loving obligation for the care of society as
a living being: "Take ye counsel together," He wrote to Queen
Victoria, "and let your concern be only for that which profiteth
mankind and bettereth the condition thereof. ... Regard the world
as the human body which, though created whole and perfect, has
been afflicted, through divers causes, with grave ills and maladies."77 To know what profits mankind and betters its conditions
requires reference to a vision of human good, just as the physician must know not only what disorder the patient suffers from,
but what remedy is required for the patient to become healedsomething that depends entirely on a clear vision of what
"health" is.
The Spirit of Covenant
What makes a covenant work is the spirit it engenders, which has
been referred to as "loving-kindness" and "grace," and which Shoghi
Effendi refers to as "transcending love." Elazar suggests that the
spirit that characterizes covenantal relationships

really means the obligation of a partner to a covenant to go
beyond the narrowly construed contractual demands of the partnership in order to make the relationship between them a truly
viable one .... A covenant is, after all, a contract and the tendency
in contractual systems is for people to act like lawyers, that is to

76. Selznick, Moral Commonwealth, p. 290.
77. Quoted in Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, pp. 39-40.

say, to try to construe the contract as narrowly as possible when
defining their obligations and as broadly as possible when defining the obligations of the other parties.

In contrast, the covenant spirit impels one to interpret "one's
contractual obligations broadly rather than narrowly, the broader
the better." 78
The collective, social purpose of the great Covenant between
God and humanity has always been the spiritual advancement of
civilization, and this is reflected in the fact that, as Elazar has
remarked, "one of the greatest achievements of covenantal
societies" is "the institutionalization of reform," that is, the dedication, on principle, of political institutions to the improvement of
social and economic conditions of all citizens. Citing the role of
covenantal thinking in the abolition of slavery, and nineteenthcentury reform movements in law and prisons, education, and
mental health, he says: "a strong case can be made that the very
idea of reform emerges from the covenant world view and is only
possible where that world view exists." In fact, he claims, "The progress of civilization can be traced as corresponding to the periods
in human history when the historical vanguard has recognized the
covenant idea and sought to concretely apply it to the building of
human, social, and political relationships." 79
It has been suggested that the power of covenantal unity is
expressed in its ability to create a "founding synthesis": the basis
of covenantal polity, not in common descent but in common
consent, creates "kinships of greater dignity and sanctity" than
°
mere ties of birth or ethnicity. 8 Covenants, therefore, are more
than instruments that bind, but are in fact "liberating devices that
call into existence new entities," that create relationships and
forge bonds of mutuality between different and formerly hostile
peoples. 81 It is this powerful concept which, Baha'is believe, has
the potential to unite the peoples of the world in a global political
and moral order. In the idea of "founding synthesis," we can see

78. Elazar, "Covenant as the Basis," p. 29.
79. Elazar, "What Happened to Covenant," pp. 14-15; Elazar, "Covenant as
the Basis," p. 10.
80. Elazar, "Covenant as the Basis," pp. 27, 25.
81. Ibid., p. 7.

COVENANT AND CIVIL SOCIETY

the mutual relation of such Baha'i principles as the unity and
equality of humankind, the oneness of religion, and the abolition
of prejudice. These bring together diversified elements, change
their existing beliefs about one another, and change their relationship to one another, uniting them into a new structure. 82 In
contrast, the ideology of rights-based individualism has no way
to account for or evoke an altruistic ethic which moves people to
become more concerned with giving to others than with getting
their own share, an ethic that goes beyond respect for others at a
distance to loving sacrifice so that others will have more than
oneself. An altruistic ethic arises from a relationship that encompasses otherness as an embrace.
That call to human unity is expressed inBaha'u'llah's writings in
the classic language of the eternal Covenant, as a summons to unite
in a global moral community, authorized by a sacred obligation, in
order to obtain the promised blessing of peace and prosperity:

0 contending peoples and kindreds of the earth! Set your faces
towards unity, and let the radiance of its light shine upon
you. Gather ye together, and for the sake of God resolve to
root out whatever is the source of contention amongst you.
Then will the effulgence of the world's great Lmninary envelop
the whole earth, and its inhabitants become the citizens of one
city, and the occupants of one and the satne throne ....
There can be no doubt whatever that the peoples of the
world, of whatever race or religion, derive their inspiration from
one heavenly Source, and are the subjects of one God. The difference between the ordinances under which they abide should
be attributed to the varying requirements and exigencies of the
age in which they were revealed. All of thetn, except a few
which are the outcome of human perversity, were ordained of
God, and are a reflection of His Will and Purpose. Arise and,
armed with the power of faith, shatter to pieces the gods of your
vain itnaginings, the sowers of dissension amongst you. Cleave
unto that which draweth you together and uniteth you. This, verily, is the tnost exalted Word which the Mother Book hath sent
down and revealed unto you. To this beareth witness the Tongue
of Grandeur from His habitation of glory. 83

82. Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 155.
83.Baha'u'lh1h, Gleanings from the Writings ofBaha'u'llah, p. 217.

The unity of the human race that is both made possible and mandated by the Covenant, as Shoghi Effendi has explained, "implies
the establishment of a world commonwealth in which all nations,
races, creeds and classes are closely and permanently united, and
in which the autonomy of its state members and the personal
freedom and initiative of the individuals that compose them are
definitely and completely safeguarded." 84
A Universal Moral Community
It has been argued here that the foundations of civil society are
themselves religious, that the structures and principles of law, order,
and governance are dependent upon a world view which locates the
purpose of life in a transcendent spiritual destiny that is realized
in the idea of the eternal Covenant, and which entails a particular
conception of human freedom as sacred. Like freedom, tolerance is
not a secular, but a religious idea. The dignity of all humans, from
which human rights arise, is a religious concept and depends upon a
definition of human nature as spiritual in essence. Rejecting the
notion that "an innate sense of human dignity will prevent man from
committing evil actions and insure his spiritual and material perfection," 'Abdu'l-Baha states: "if we ponder the lessons of history it
will become evident that this very sense of honor and dignity is
itself one of the bounties deriving from the instructions of the
Prophets of God," and is instilled only by education. 85
The duty to respect each person's dignity, that is, as tolerance
or "civility," is itself dependent upon "piety" as reverence for a
higher authority to which one is accountable. 86 It is piety that
both justifies and commands tolerance as a duty which is inextricable from righteousness. Baha'u'llah writes:

The heaven of true understanding shineth resplendent with the
light of two lu1ninaries: tolerance and righteousness.
0 1ny friend! Vast oceans lie enshrined within this brief saying. Blessed are they who appreciate its value, drink deep
therefrmn and grasp its 1neaning, and woe betide the heedless ....

84. Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBah a 'u 'llah, p. 203.
85. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Secret ofDivine Civilization, p. 97-98.
86. See Selznick, Moral Commonwealth, ch. 14.

COVENANT AND CIVIL SOCIETY

He goes on to recount: "At present the light of reconciliation is
dimmed in most countries and its radiance extinguished while
the fire of strife and disorder hath been kindled and is blazing
fiercely," and then He delivers a warning against committing
injustice and tyranny against people because of their religion,
specifically in reference to the rise of anti-Semitism in Europe.
Significantly, it is "two great powers who regard themselves as
the founders and leaders of civilization and the framers of constitutions" who "have risen up against the followers of the faith
associated with Him who conversed with God [Moses]." 87 Clearly
secular civilization and even constitutions are not sufficient to
guarantee basic human rights.
The protection of tolerance depends upon having an order in
which unity is based upon guiding principles anchored in a spiritual view. 88 These alone enable us to determine the "constructive
limits of freedom" that are essential if tolerance itself is not to be
exploited for purposes of domination. Only spiritual principles
enable us to answer the question, "Where does freedom limit our
possibilities for progress, and where do limits free us to thrive?" 89
An important feature of the divine Covenant in history has
always been its power of renewal, through which guiding norms
can be adapted to the requirements of the times, in light of the
overall goal of the advancement of civilization. Today the critical
requirement of the times is the consciousness of the oneness and
wholeness of humanity. It is this concept which provides the perspective from which social discourse can be rescued from sterile

87. Baha'u'lhih, Tablets ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 170.
88. See Glenn Tinder, Tolerance: Toward a New Civility (Amherst: University
ofMassachusetts Press, 1976), pp. 152-58. A vital Baha'i principle, articulated by Shoghi Effendi, is that "Unlike the nations and peoples of the
earth, be they of the East or of the West, democratic or authoritarian, who
either ignore, trample upon, or extirpate, the racial, religious, or political
minorities within the sphere of their jurisdiction, eve1y organized community enlisted under the banner ofBaha'u'lhih should feel it to be its first and
inescapable obligation to nurture, encourage, and safeguard evety minority
belonging to any faith, race, class, or nation within it." (The Advent of
Divine Justice [Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1990], p. 35).
89. Universal House of Justice, Individual Rights and Freedoms, p. 8.

contentious polarities, reconciling and integrating the necessary
aspects of unity and diversity-equality and equity, rights and
responsibilities, freedom and limits, individual and community.
But the current deification of difference for its own sake, the
ideology of individualism and particularism, and its consequent
aggressive anti-universalism, are all forms of mistaking the illness
of the age-disunity-for normalcy. The danger is that a retreat
inward to particularism (with the competition and adversarial struggle that implies) only exacerbates the problem and draws us away
from the solution. The narrowing of the moral community to those
most like oneself is a recipe for disaster, because it vitiates those
conditions that foster respect for others and creates instead exactly
the conditions that justify indifference to the suffering of others,
prejudice, hostility, and violent conflict. 90
To consider unity as the core truth of humankind is not to advocate a vague abstraction or a stifling notion of uniformity, but to
stress the relationship of diverse parts to one another in a complex
interdependent system. In contrast, when atomistic difference is
viewed as the core truth, relationship is precluded; indeed, such
concepts as equality, and even the very idea of universal human
rights, become incoherent the more the idea of radical diversity is
pressed, for such ideas as equality and human rights cannot be
invoked without appealing to principles with universal validity,
and without tacitly referring to a higher-order category in which
the two entities being contrasted can be recognized as two kinds of
one thing. The exclusion, in secular theories, of the possibility of a
transcendent basis for a sense of human unity marks the limit of
those theories to provide any integrating principle or framework
for human community beyond criteria of shared material conditions such as location, kinship, class, and culture.
Yet even some who stress the urgency of locating shared human values fmd that project confounded by the fact of diversity in
the existing communities of humankind. 91 As philosopher Paul

90. See Samuel P. Oliner and Pearl M. Oliner, The Altruistic Personality:
Rescuers ofJews in Nazi Europe (New York: Free Press, 1988).
91. See Sissela Bole, Common Values (Columbia: University of Missouri
Press, 1995).

COVENANT AND CIVIL SOCIETY

Gomberg argues, a universal morality must be grounded in the
possibility of universal community, and this is dependent upon a
universal identity. Only such an identity can provide a more
inclusive perspective than that of "parochial moralities" which
confine the scope of obligation to the group. 92 As long as people's identities are formed with reference to small groups, that
identity will determine the limits of their moral community and
conception of justice. But there is no merely rational way to
climb out of that impasse. Something else, beyond reason and
enlightened self-interest, must create a larger sense of identity
with others who are very different. The only possible source of
such an identity, and consequently of global community, must be
a spiritual one: only the spirit of transcending love has the power
to unite people who are dissimilar in material conditions and
background.
Baha'u'lh1h's charter for world order offers to the human civilizing process, at this critical moment in history, the renewal of
the society-building power of the great Covenant. It is the transcendent principle implicit in the divine Covenant that has always
been the agency of spiritual and social development, enabling
the passage to each new stage in the history of the cumulative
integration of human society. The Covenant is the fulcrum on
which human vision is lifted to new heights of unity, where the
moral community, previously confined to those who are akin, is
expanded to embrace, integrate, and unify formerly contending
peoples and kindreds into a single polity.
That vision is expressed in the words of Shoghi Effendi:

The Faith ofBaha'u'llah has assitnilated, by virtue of its creative,
its regulative and ennobling energies, the varied races, nationalities, creeds and classes that have sought its shadow, and
have pledged unswerving fealty to its cause. It has changed the
hearts of its adherents, burned away their prejudices, stilled
their passions, exalted their conceptions, ennobled their tnotives, coordinated their efforts, and transfonned their outlook.
While preserving their patriotis1n and safeguarding their lesser
loyalties, it has 1nade the1n lovers of 1nankind, and the detennined

92. Paul Gomberg, ''Universalism and Optimism," Ethics 104 (1994): 536-57.

upholders of its best and truest interests. While maintaining
intact their belief in the Divine origin of their respective religions, it has enabled them to visualize the underlying purpose
of these religions, to discover their tnerits, to recognize their
sequence, their interdependence, their wholeness and unity,
and to aclmowledge the bond that vitally links thetn to itself.
This universal, this transcending love which the followers of
the Baha'i Faith feel for their fellow-tnen, of whatever race,
creed, class or nation, is ... both spontaneous and genuine.
They whose hearts are wanned by the energizing influence of
God's creative love cherish His creatures for His sake, and recognize in every human face a sign of His reflected glory.
Of such tnen and women it tnay be truly said that to them
"every foreign land is a fatherland, and every fatherland a foreign land." For their citizenship, it tnust be remetnbered, is in
the Kingdmn ofBaha'u'llah. 93

93. Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBaha'u'llah, pp. 197-98.

Ann Boyles looks at contemporary
concerns surrounding identity,
values, and governance from the
perspective of an evolving global
society.

ORLD
:ATCH

I n Apri11995, the New York Times invited its readers to send
in suggestions for names characterizing the age in which we
live. Common offerings were what one might expect: the Age of
Anxiety, the Age ofUncertainty, the Age of Fragmentation, the
Age of (Great and Failed) Expectations, the Age of Disillusion
(and Dissolution), the Age of Tribalism, the Age of Fundamentalism, the Age of Deconstruction, the Age of Greed, and
approximately twenty variations on the Millennia! or Messianic
Age. Editors reported that the word "global" was very common in
entries, as were the prefixes "dis," "re," "post," "cyber," and "fm
de." The Transnational Era and the Age of Kakistocracy (government by the worst people) were other names reflecting readers'
preoccupations. 1 On a more scholarly level, eminent historian Eric
Hobsbawm titled his history of the twentieth century, published in
1995, Age of Extremes. The book's first major section, covering
the years 1914 to 1945, is "The Age of Catastrophe," while the fmal
section, covering the last two decades, is "The Landslide."

1. International Herald Tribune, 3 April1995.

Such descriptions indicate the deep scepticism and pessimism
with which our age is generally regarded. They reflect, too, upon
the issue of identity: how we see ourselves as individual citizens
and as a society. As Hobsbawm puts it, "Since the middle of the
century ... the branch of [the old civilization has begun] to crack
and break.... The old maps and charts which guided human beings,
singly and collectively, through life no longer represent the landscape through which we move, the sea on which we sail. ... We do
not lmow where our journey is taking us, or even ought to take us."2
Hobsbawm, as an historian rather than a futurist, does not
offer many specific suggestions for the direction of humanity's
journey at either the individual or the collective level, but he does
advance the idea that some sort of political organization beyond
national boundaries will be necessary to deal effectively with a
world in which global economic integration is taking place. At the
same ti1ne, he recognizes that strong forces are at work against
such integration. Benjamin R. Barber also treats this subject in his
1995 volume Jihad Vs. Me World, characterizing the struggle as
one between an emerging globalism characterized by uniformity
("MeWorld," or rampant, unregulated Western consumerism) and
its opponents ("Jihad," or "violent and dogmatic particularism").
A chief characteristic of the individual living in MeWorld is
encapsulated in the following passage from Charles Durning's
How Much Is Enough: The Consumer Society and the Future of
Earth, a report for the W orldW atch Institute. Durning makes the
observation that "the words 'consumer' and 'person' have become
virtual synonyms" and that such identification has serious implications for individuals and their society. He continues, "The world
economy is currently organized to furnish 1.1 billion people with a
consumer life-style long on things but short on time." Such an
economy, he points out, is not concerned with matters of social
justice, with issues of unemployment or ofpoverty. 3

2. Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century 1914-
1991 (London: Abacus Books, Little, Brown and Co., 1995), pp. 16-17.
3. Charles Durning, How Much Is Enough: The Consumer Society and the
Future ofEarth (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1992), pp. 21-22;
cited in Benjamin R. Barber, Jihad Vs. Me World (New York: Times
Books, Random House, 1995), p. 223.

The view of the individual primarily as a consumer is commonplace today in many parts of the world. Advertising urges us to
become associated with a particular cigarette, a brand of perfume,
a line of clothing, a car, or other such items. Now we can go to
almost any part of the planet and consume the same kinds of fast
foods found originally in America, or stay in the same hotel chains,
or partake of the same soft drink, or watch many of the same television programs or movies or listen to the same music. In fact, at
least on a superficial level, it seems as though one of the chief
characteristics of the "global village" in which we are reputed to
live is our common consumerism. Certainly this is one of Barber's
central points.
While the life of consumerism depicted in MeWorld is less
than soul-satisfying, the forces that, in Barber's view, oppose that
life are no more comforting. Narrow-minded nationalistic or
ethnic interests blind their adherents to any conception of life
beyond their own particular view of how it should be lived.
Barber refers to Jihad's "recidivist tribalisms" and the "microwars" it promotes as "noisier and more obviously nihilistic than
[the forces of] MeWorld." He sees them as creating instability in
the short term, but in the long run, Barber predicts that the forces
of MeWorld will prove stronger: "MeWorld's homogenization
is likely to establish a macropeace that favors the triumph of
commerce and its markets and to give those who control information, communication, and entertainment ultimate (if inadvertent)
control over human destiny." He concludes, "Unless we can offer
an alternative to the struggle between Jihad and MeWorld, the
epoch on whose threshold we stand-postcommunist, postindustrial, postnational, yet sectarian, fearful, and bigoted-is likely
also to be terminally postdemocratic."4
Critics have attacked Barber for his sweeping generalizations. In
The New Republic, for example, Fareed Zakaria criticized Barber
for a diatribe against the effects of what he called "unchecked
participation by the masses," 5 pointing out that the increased

4. Barber, Jihad Vs. Me World, p. 20.
5. See "Paris Is Burning" by Fareed Zakaria in The New Republic, 22 Januaty
1996, pp. 27-30.

prosperity at the root of the struggle depicted by Barber is an
important transformation in our society:

The rise of a mass consumption society produces political,
economic and cultural side effects that are troubling. But
surely the criticism of this world, and of the liberal capitalism
which created it, must first recognize its accomplishments.
The political and economic changes that have created McWorld
are, on the whole, admirable ones. Giving people the ability
to live longer, to 1nove where they want, own a house, to enjoy such pleasures as vacations and restaurants and shopping
is good, even noble. 6

The point is no doubt well taken, but one must also consider this
startling statistic: The gulf separating the rich and the poor around
the world is widening, according to the United Nations Development Program, which reported in July 1996 that 1.6 billion
people in 89 countries are poorer now than they were ten years
ago. Further, the world's 358 billionaires have more assets than
the combined incomes of countries housing 45 percent of the
world's population. If such is the result of the kind of globalization described by Barber, it is worth questioning its value.
Is consumerism or an excessive preoccupation with material
concerns a good foundation, a conscionable basis, for any kind of
global society?
Consideration of such inequities has informed recent discussions concerning the defmitions and characteristics of government
that are appropriate to this evolving world. Commentators have
engaged in strenuous debates concerning various systems. Yet
most agree that democracy-in a form giving less emphasis on
consumerism and more on the responsibilities inherent in citizenship--is the answer. Barber refers to this shift as taking people
"from elementary animal being (the thinness of economics) to
cooperative human living (the robustness of strong democracy)." 7
He asserts that

6. Zakaria, "Paris Is Burning," p. 30.
7. Barber, Jihad Vs. Me World, p. 291.

WORLD WATCH

Strong democracy needs citizens; citizens need civil society;
civil society requires a form of association not bound by identity politics; that form of association is democracy. Or: global
democracy needs confederalism, a noncompulsory form of
association rooted in friendship and tnutual interests; confederalism depends on member states that are well rooted in civil
society, and on citizens for whom the other is not synonymous
with the enemy; civil society and citizenship are products of a
democratic way of life. 8

These are noble sentiments, but as Barber himself notes, civil
society and citizenship are not necessarily products of a democratic way of life-or at least of the democratic way of life as it
is lived in the West at present. Czech President Vaclav Havel,
writing of the widely perceived shortcomings of Western-style
culture and its current values, shares this view:

The tnain source of objections would seem to be what many
cultural societies see as the inevitable product or byproduct
of these values: moral relativism, tnaterialistn, the denial of
any kind of spirituality, a proud disdain for everything suprapersonal, a profound crisis of authority and the resulting
general decay, a frenzied consutneristn, a lack of solidarity,
the selfish cult of tnaterial success, the absence of faith in a
higher order of things or simply in eternity, and expansionist
mentality that holds in contempt everything that in any way
resists the dreary standardization and rationalistn of technical
civilization. 9

These, then, are the "values" widely associated with democracy,
rather than those of civic duty, responsible citizenship, and so on.
Havel has touched upon a point to which Western commentators have recently become very sensitive. In the West, the
common conception of values has been that they are something
that should be relegated to the private sphere, with no place in
the realm of discourse about our collective social life. Stephen L.
Carter's 1993 volume, The Culture of Disbelief· How American

8. Barber, Jihad Vs. Me World, p. 291.
9. Vaclav Havel, "The Spiritual Roots of Democracy," in Lapis: The Inner
Meaning of Contemporary Life (Summer 1995), p. 29.

Law and Politics Trivialize Religious Devotion, discusses the
implications of such a viewpoint, covering topics as diverse as
the issue of prayer in public schools and the abortion debate.
Carter's book has been seminal in the discussion about the role
of moral values in the public realm, and a growing number of
thoughtful people are now calling for a resuscitation of values in
what they see as our morally impoverished society. The growth
of political movements such as the communitarians is also a
reaction against the excessive emphasis in Western democracies
on the rights rather than the responsibilities of citizens. One
recent volume, Democracy's Discontent: America in Search of a
Public Philosophy, by Michael J. Sandel, has provoked much
discussion because of its treatment of this theme. Sandel writes:

The global media and tnarkets that shape our lives beckon
us to a world beyond boundaries and belonging. But the civic
resources we need to master these forces, or at least to contend
with them, are still to be found in the places and stories, metnories and meanings, incidents and identities, that situate us in
the world and give our lives their moral particularity.
The public philosophy by which we live bids us to bracket
these attachtnents, to set thetn aside for political purposes, to
conduct our political debates without reference to thetn. But
a procedural republic that banishes tnoral and religious argutnent frotn political discourse tnakes for an itnpoverished
civic life. It also fails to answer the aspiration for self-govemtnent; its itnage of citizens as free and independent selves,
unencutnbered by tnoral or civic ties they have not chosen,
cannot sustain the public spirit that equips us for self-rule. 10

Sandel's call for recognition that moral and religious issues
do have a place in public discourse is well argued, but he does
not resolve important questions such as how these issues can be
satisfactorily addressed in a pluralistic society. How, for example,
can a society find common ground when values may be widely
different among the groups that make it up? How does the concept of "public spirit" translate from one culture to another?
Thus, while Sandel and others are clear about the need for

10. Michael J. Sandel, Democracy's Discontent: America in Search ofa Public
Philosophy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996), pp. 349-50.

WORLD WATCH

moral content in political discourse, they are less clear about the
means of introducing and regulating it in a society where different values and faiths flourish. Sandel has been chided about just
this point. In the Times Literary Supplement review of Sandel's
book, Michael Rosen comments:

Sandel tells us that the republican favors those qualities of
character that "promote citizenship". What precisely those
qualities are, and to what lengths the State is entitled to go in
requiring that individuals show them, he does not tnake entirely
clear, but he does say explicitly that his vision of republican
politics is not one of uniformity. While deploring liberalism for
the supposedly debilitating consequences of neutrality, Sandel
claims that republicanistn itself etnbodies a "higher pluralism." But how, the tnore tnundane of us will ask, is such a
pluralistn supposed to work in practice? 11

While Sandel's and the communitarians' call for the reintroduction of values into the climate of governance is welcome and
useful, the basic assumption that a renewed and morally strengthened
Western-style democracy, with its unexamined embrace of adversarial governance, is the only model for enlightened government is
open to debate.
Havel, for example, cautions against the view of democracy
as a "closed" system, pointing out

the limited ability of today' s detnocratic world to step beyond
its own shadow, or rather the litnits of its own present spiritual and intellectual condition and direction, and thus its
limited ability to address humanity in a genuinely universal
way. As a consequence, democracy is seen less and less as an
open systetn, which is best able to respond to people's basic
needs, that is, as a set of possibilities that continually tnust be
sought, redefined and brought into being. Instead, detnocracy
is seen as sotnething given, finished, and cotnplete as is,
sotnething that can be exported like cars or television sets,
something that the more enlightened purchase and the less
enlightened do not. 12

11. Michael Rosen, "Against the Unencumbered Self," in the Times Litermy
Supplement, 18 October 1996, p. 14.
12. Havel, "Spiritual Roots of Democracy," p. 29.

In such a context, democracy becomes just another product in a
consumer society-not an evolving system capable of great change.
Sandel himself seems uncertain as to the global application of
reversing "the loss of mastery and the erosion of community that
lie at the heart of democracy's discontent": "The difficulty," he
says, "actually involves two related challenges. One is to devise
political institutions capable of governing the global economy.
The other is to cultivate the civic identities necessary to sustain
those institutions, to supply them with the moral authority the7
require. It is not obvious that both these challenges can be met." 1
Gertrude Himmelfarb frames the basic difficulty in these words:
"If we are to revitalize civil society, must we not also re-moralize
civil society, which is a far more difficult task?" 14 And Havel
takes the point even further when he affirms the need for the
spiritual within the democratic system and cautions against placing
too much faith in the mere machinery of the system:

The separation of executive, legislative and judicial powers,
the universal right to vote, the 1ule of law, freedom of expression, the inviolability of private ownership and all the other
aspects of democracy as a system that ought to be the least
unjust and the least capable of violence-these are merely
technical instruments that enable man to live in dignity, freedom, and responsibility. But in and of themselves, they
cannot guarantee hutnan dignity, freedom and responsibility.
The source of these basic human potentials lies elsewhere: in
tnan's relationship to that which transcends him. 15

Yet Himmelfarb and Havel stop short of speaking directly
about religion in this process. Similarly, communitarian leader
Amitai Etzioni, while arguing in The Spirit of Community for the
promotion of individuals' responsibilities towards the nurturance
of community, declines to discuss the role of religion in such an

13. Michael J. Sandel, "America's Search for a New Public Philosophy," in
The Atlantic Monthly (March 1996), p.72.
14. Gertrude Himmelfarb, "The unravelled fabric-and how to knit it up:
Mixed motives among the new communitarians," in the Times Literary
Supplement, 17 May 1996, p. 13.
15. Havel, "Spiritual Roots of Democracy," p. 30.

endeavor. Daniel A. Bell calls this "a glaring omission in a book
that aims for nothing short of a new moral crusade in what is perhaps the most religious country in the world [America]." 16
"Re-moralizing," in Himmelfarb's words, or reinforcing "man's
relationship to that which transcends him," in Havel's, is properly
the task of religion, but there is a general reluctance on the part
of commentators, even Stephen Carter, to allow religions to take a
role in the assertion of values in the public sphere. Carter wants
them to maintain their independence, their status as independent
critics of the political process or moral watchdogs. He writes,

.. .if the religions are able to ilnpose their own tneanings, there is
no longer any distinction, and, thus, no longer ilnportant work
for the triumphant religions as autonomous agencies to do. This
abandonment of the role of external moral critic and alternative
source of values and meaning willtnake sense when the Second
Coming is at hand, but not before. Until that titne, it is vital
that the religions struggle to tnaintain the tension between the
meanings and understanding propounded by the state and the
very different set of meanings and understandinfs that the contetnplation of the ultimate frequently suggests. 1

Certainly, introducing values into the public sphere in societies
that are multicultural and multifaith seems like an impossible
undertaking, which would mean a dramatic shift away from the
secular underpinnings of modern Western societies; it would
mean either giving precedence to one set of religious values over
the others or searching for the root values inherent in all faiths.
The task of legislating morality was easier in the past, when societies were more homogenous. Nationalistic or ethnic or tribal
movements that promote closed societies may be, in part, an
attempt to return to such times, when identity was more readily
defined and standards of appropriate behavior were more easily
regulated.
Yet, while the likelihood of finding common ground-or even
of generating the will to do so-may seem remote, another

16. Daniel A. Bell, "Together Again?", review of The Spirit of Community by
Amitai Etzioni, in the Times Literary Supplement, 25 November 1994, p. 6.
17. Carter, Culture ofDisbelief, p. 273.

commentator has observed that it is impossible for us to retreat
to the world of the past. Patrick Glynn, writing in the journal
New Perspectives Quarterly, says,

... we are at an i1nportant transition point in Western culture,
moving out of the great 1nodern era, with its deeply secular
pre1nises, into a new age that will not only be "postmodern,"
but also, in an i1nportant sense, "postsecular." The great dividing-line between church and state, between revelation and
reason, is ... being fundatnentally renegotiated. And this is
occurring not just in popular culture or politics, but at the very
cutting-edge of hu1nan inquiry. Indeed, so1ne of the most
ilnpressive signs of change-of the gradual e1nergence of a
"new paradigtn" opening the way to a 1nore explicitly spiritual
view of hu1nan life and even to a 1nore universal acceptance
of the existence of God-can be found in the 1nost advanced of
the physical sciences, such as quantu1n 1nechanics and cosmology. This is not a backward-looking rejection of 1nodemity,
but rather building upon 1node1nity's achieve1nents. 18

Glynn's assessment, that humanity must move forward to
embrace an emerging paradigm of existence that incorporates spirituality in a profound and all-pervasive way, accords with the view
advanced in the writings of the Baha'i Faith. At the foundation of
the spiritual teachings given by Baha'u'llah is the assertion that
humanity has reached a stage of maturity which demands both
fresh understanding of the nature of the individual and a new pattern of community life. 'Abdu'l-Baha, the son ofBaha'u'llah and
the Center of the Covenant He established with His followers, has
elaborated on this theme of the maturing of humanity:

All created things have their degree or stage of 1naturity.
The period of 1naturity in the life of a tree is the ti1ne of its
fruit-bearing ... The ani1nal attains a stage of full growth and
co1npleteness, and in the hu1nan kingdmn 1nan reaches his
1naturity when the light of his intelligence attains its greatest
power and developtnent.. .. Sitnilarly there are periods and
stages in the collective life of hu1nanity. At one tilne it was
passing through its stage of childhood, at another its period

18. Patrick Glynn, "Prelude to a Post-Secular Society," in New Perspectives
Quarterly (Spring 1995), p. 17.

of youth, but now it has entered its long-predicted phase of
tnaturity, the evidences of which are everywhere apparent. ..
That which was applicable to hutnan needs during the early
history of the race can neither tneet nor satisfy the detnands of
this day, this period of newness and consummation. Humanity
has etnerged from its former state of litnitation and prelitninary
training. Man must now become imbued with new virtues and
powers, new tnoral standards, new capacities. New bounties,
perfect bestowals, are awaiting and already descending upon
him. The gifts and blessings of the period of youth, although
timely and sufficient during the adolescence of tnankind, are
now incapable of tneeting the requiretnents of its tnaturity. 19

Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, also addressed this theme in a message to the Baha'is in the West in 1936:

The long ages of infancy and childhood, through which the
human race had to pass, have receded into the background.
Hutnanity is now experiencing the cotntnotions invariably
associated with the most turbulent stage of its evolution, the
stage of adolescence, when the itnpetuosity of youth and its
vehetnence reach their clitnax, and tnust gradually be superseded by the cahnness, the wisdotn, and the tnaturity that
characterize the stage of tnanhood. Then will the hmnan race
reach that stature of ripeness which will enable it to acquire all
the powers and ca~acities upon which its ultitnate developtnent tnust depend. 0

The discussion of the need for spirituality to play a more central
role in public as well as private life can be seen as a move towards
that maturity to which 'Abdu'l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi allude.
The maturing process of humanity as a collective entity also
presupposes a similar process at the level of the individual. Far
from conceiving of people as consumers, Baha'u'llah has described human beings as "the noblest and most perfect of all created
things." 21 Our nature, the Baha'i writings assert, is essentially

19. Cited in Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of Bahri 'u 'llrih: Selected Letters
(Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1991), pp. 164-65.
20. Ibid., p. 202.
21. Baha'u'llah, Gleanings from the Writings ofBahri 'u 'llrih (Wilmette: Baha'i
Publishing Trust, 1983), p. 179.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

spiritual, and in this age of the maturation of the human race, we
are responsible for developing the noble qualities latent within
us. "Regard man as a mine rich in gems of inestimable value,"
Baha'u'llah states; "Education can, alone, cause it to reveal its
treasures, and enable mankind to benefit therefrom," 22 and further, He says, "The potentialities inherent in the station of man,
the full measure of his destiny on earth, the innate excellence of
his reality, must all be manifested" in this age of the maturation of
humanity. 23
In the same vein, the Universal House of Justice states,

... the Writings of the [Baha'i] Faith not only acknowledge
that each individual has a God-given identity, but they also
set out the means by which this identity can achieve its highest
development and fulfillment. Baha'u'llah attests that through
the Teachings of the Manifestation of God "every man will
advance and develop until he attaineth the station at which he
can manifest all the potential forces with which his inmost
true self hath been endowed. " 24

From the Baha'i perspective, there exists a deep and inseparable
connection between the practical and spiritual dimensions of
human existence. In this paradigm, every human being has unique
capacities which he or she has the responsibility to develop,
a task best accomplished by following the teachings given by
God through His Manifestations-in this age, Baha'u'llah, Who
revealed laws and principles and established an administrative
order for His followers to enable them to transform both themselves and the society in which they live. In accordance with the
process of maturation, the Baha'i Faith teaches that the individual must exercise autonomy in deciding whether or not to avail
himself or herself of these spiritual guidelines for life. There
must be no compulsion in matters of faith; one must be entirely
free to investigate truth for oneself.

22. Baha'u 'llah, Gleanings fi·om the Writings ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 260.
23. Ibid., p. 340.
24. Universal House of Justice, letter to the National Spiritual Assembly of
the Baha'is of the United States, 11 September 1995.

It is the transformational force of the teachings of Baha'u'lhih
that motivates members of the Baha'i community around the
world. As each member of society "mines" the "gems of inestimable value" inherent in his or her soul and thus develops his or
her capacities, so society is transformed, and we see evidence
of "an ever-advancing civilization." Service to humankind thus
becomes the purpose of both individual life and all social arrangements. "Do not busy yourselves in your own concerns,"
Baha'u'llah writes, "let your thoughts be fixed upon that which
will rehabilitate the fortunes of mankind and sanctify the hearts and
souls ofmen." 25 And further, "The progress of the world, the development of nations, the tranquillity of peoples, and the peace of all
who dwell on earth are among the principles and ordinances of
God." 26
The divinely ordained order established by Baha'u'llah is concerned intimately with the development of the individual soul-a
concern far beyond the scope of calls for "good citizenship"-
though through developing spiritual qualities Baha'is become
good citizens, too. As 'Abdu'l-Baha has written,

And the honor and distinction of the individual consist in this,
that he atnong all the world's multitudes should become a
source of social good. Is any larger bounty conceivable than
this, that an individual, looking within hitnself, should find
that by the confirming grace of God he has becotne the cause
of peace and well-being, of happiness and advantage to his
fellow men? No, by the one true God, there is no greater bliss,
no tnore complete delight. 27

Thus, interwoven with the Baha'i teachings about the nature
of the individual is a model of collective life. "The earth is but
one country, and mankind its citizens," Baha'u'llah says. This
embryonic world civilization asserts the earth as one homeland
for the entire human family, whose Founder claimed as His chief

25. Baha'u'lhih, Gleanings from the Writings ofBaha 'u 'llah, pp. 93-94.
26. Baha'u'llah, Tablets of Baha 'u 'llah Revealed after the Kitab-i-Aqdas
(Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Tmst, 1995), pp. 129-30.
27. 'Abdu'l-Baha, The Secret ofDivine Civilization (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing
Tmst, 1994), pp. 2-3.

desire "the good of the world and the happiness of the nations."28
The analogy of society to the family is found throughout the
Baha'i writings. 'Abdu'l-Baha has said, for example,

Compare the nations of the world to the tnembers of a fatnily.
A family is a nation in miniature. Simply enlarge the circle of
the household, and you have the nation. Enlarge the circle of
nations, and you have all humanity. The conditions surrounding
the family surround the nation. The happenings in the family
are the happenings in the life of the nation. Would it add to the
progress and advancetnent of a family if dissensions should
arise among its members, all fighting, pillaging each other,
jealous and revengeful of injury, seeking selfish advantage?
Nay, this would be the cause of the effacement of progress and
advancement. So it is in the great family of nations, for nations
are but an aggregate of families. Therefore, as strife and dissension destroy a family and prevent its rsrogress, so nations
are destroyed and advancement hindered. 9

Further, speaking of the relationship between the rights of the
individual in the family and the group, 'Abdu'l-Baha has said,

The integrity of the family bond tnust be constantly considered, and the rights of the individual members tnust not be
transgressed ... All these rights and prerogatives must be
conserved, yet the unity of the family tnust be sustained. The
injury of one shall be considered the injury of all; the comfort
of each, the comfort of all; the honor of one, the honor of all. 30

This balance of individual and collective rights is elaborated
further by the Universal House of Justice, which quotes 'Abdu'l-
Baha' s statement that "the moderate freedom which guarantees
the welfare of the world of mankind and maintains and preserves
the universal relationships is found in its fullest power and
extension in the teachings ofBaha'u'llah," and then continues to
discuss how this is enacted in the Baha'i administrative order:

28. Words uttered by Baha'u'llah to Cambridge University orientalist Edward
Granville Browne during his interview in the Holy Land, spring 1890.
29. 'Abdu'l-Baha, The Promulgation of Universal Peace, rev. ed. (Wilmette:
Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1982), p. 157.
30. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Promulgation of Universal Peace, p. 168.

Within this framework of freedmn a pattern is set for institutional and individual behavior which depends for its efficacy not so much on the force of law, which adtnittedly must
be respected, as on the recognition of a tnutuality of benefits,
and on the spirit of cooperation maintained by the willingness,
the courage, the sense of responsibility, and the initiative of
individuals .... Thus there is a balance of freedmn between the
institution, whether national or local, and the individuals who
sustain its existence. 31

The system delineated by Baha'u'lhih, it can be seen from
these passages, incorporates elements of democracy but is not
limited to conceptions drawn specifically from it. The Baha'i
Faith attaches great importance to the diversity of human thought
and experience, but it does not encourage extreme individualism
that would threaten the common good. The benefits provided to
the individual in the social environment created when he or she
surrenders a degree of personal freedom to an accepted system of
order far outweigh any sacrifice, in the Baha'i view.
Writing of the unique character of the Administrative Order of
the Baha'i Faith, Shoghi Effendi clarified that while that Order
is not patterned specifically after autocratic, aristocratic, or
democratic forms of government, it "embodies, reconciles and
assimilates within its framework such wholesome elements as are
to be found in each one of them." 32 For example, the authority
of the sacred texts of the Faith is upheld, as are the interpretations
of 'Abdu'l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi, who followed in the line of
hereditary succession from Baha'u'llah. Democratic elections,
conducted by secret ballot and characterized by an absence of
features such as nominations, electioneering, factionalism, and
concern for power, are held either by direct or indirect vote for all
governing councils that administer the affairs of the community
around the world. Yet, once elected, members of the institutions are not responsible to those who elect them but have the

31. Universal House of Justice, Individual Rights and Freedoms in the World
Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, a letter to the followers ofBaha'u'llah in the United
States of America, 29 December 1988 (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust,
1989), p. 9.
32. Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 152.

obligation "to follow, in a prayerful attitude, the dictates and
promptings of their conscience" without being swayed by "the
feelings, the general opinion, and even the convictions of the mass
of the faithful. " 33
Since elections are carried out in a spiritual atmosphere, the
electorate expects that those it chooses will be spiritually responsible-a concept entirely foreign to secular forms of governance.
Moreover, its emphasis on non-adversarial and cooperative decisionmaking, the devolution of power to the grassroots of society, and the
necessity of involving the voices of women and the dispossessed,
stand in sharp contrast to the machinery of prevailing democratic
forms of governance. It is a model that simultaneously educates
and engages, and provides powerful tools for effecting meaningful
changes where unproductive habits have impeded progress. As
Shoghi Effendi states,

... this divinely revealed Order, which can never be identified
with any of the standard types of government referred to by
Aristotle in his works, embodies and blends with the spiritual
verities on which it is based the beneficent elements which are
to be found in each one of them. The admitted evils inherent in
each of these systems being rigidly and permanently excluded,
this unique Order, however long it may endure and however
extensive its ratnifications, cannot ever degenerate into any
form of despotism, of oligarchy, or of demagogy which must
sooner or later corrupt the machinery of all man-tnade and
essentially defective political institutions. 34

In short, the order delineated by Baha'u'llah is spiritual in nature;
values are not grafted onto it but inherent in it. The Baha'i Faith
offers a model of a changed society, a new paradigm suited to the
needs of a "postsecular" global world. In the words of Shoghi
Effendi:

The Revelation of Baha'u'lhih, whose supreme tnission is
none other but the achievement of this organic and spiritual

33. Shoghi Effendi, cited in The Constitution of the Universal House ofJustice
(Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1972), p. 6.
34. Ibid., p. 154.

unity of the whole body of nations, should, if we be faithful
to its implications, be regarded as signalizing through its
advent the coming of age of the entire human race. It should
be viewed ... as marking the last and highest stage in the
stupendous evolution of tnan' s collective life on this planet.
The emergence of a world community, the consciousness of
world citizenship, the founding of a world civilization and culture ... should, by their very nature, be regarded, as far as this
planetary life is concerned, as the furthermost limits in the
organization of human society, though man, as an individual,
will, nay must indeed as a result of such a consutnmation,
continue indefinitely to progress and develop. 35

Looking to the future, Eric Hobsbawm echoes the uncertainty of many contemporary thinkers when he concludes Age of
Extremes with the words, "We do not lmow where we are going,"
but he surely makes a profound observation when he continues,
"However, one thing is plain. If humanity is to have a recognizable
future, it cannot be by prolonging the past or the present. If we try
to build the third millennium on that basis, we shall fail. And the
price of failure, that is to say, the alternative to a changed society,
is darlmess." 36
Earlier in the century, historian Arnold Toynbee, in A Study of
History, drew a parallel between the general obscurity of the
Christian church in the second century of its existence and the
corresponding lack of awareness of the Baha'i Faith on the part
of most educated Westerners midway through the twentieth
century, going on to speculate about "how utterly the future might
be hidden ... from the mental vision of a Western student" today. 37
Hobsbawm's remark points up the continuing relevancy ofToynbee' s observation. Yet the vision of the future held by members of
the Baha'i community, however little it may be understood as yet
by the majority of the planet's inhabitants, refutes the idea of
encroaching darlmess; the Baha'i vision is, in contrast, one of great
promise. Expression to it was given in a letter written in 1988 to the

35. Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 163.
36. Hobsbawm, Age ofExtremes, p. 585.
37. Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, vol. 8 (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1979), p. 117.

Baha'i community of the United States, focusing on individual
rights and freedoms in the World Order ofBaha'u'llah, in which
the Universal House of Justice says,

The spirit of liberty which in recent decades has swept over
the planet with such tetnpestuous force is a tnanifestation of
the vibrancy of the Revelation brought by Baha'u'llah. His
own words confirm it. "The Ancient Beauty," He wrote in a
soul-stirring commentary on His sufferings, "hath consented to
be bound with chains that tnankind may be released from its
bondage, and hath accepted to be made a prisoner within this
tnost mighty Stronghold that the whole world may attain unto
true liberty."
Might it not be reasonably concluded, then, that "true liberty"
is His gift of love to the human race? Consider what Baha'u'llah
has done: He revealed laws and principles to guide the free; He
established an Order to channel the actions of the free; He proclaimed a Covenant to guarantee the unity of the free.
Thus, we hold to this ultimate perspective: Baha'u'llah catne
to set hutnanity free. His Revelation is, indeed, an invitation to
freedom-freedom from want, freedom from war, freedotn to
unite, freedotn to progress, freedom in peace andjoy. 38

In summary, the Baha'i model of social organization or collective life incorporates the spiritual principles and the moral
values which contemporary social commentators are seeking,
and at the same time it provides a framework for governance
that protects individual rights. Inclusive rather than exclusive, it
affirms the spiritual truth at the heart of all the major religions of
the world. The balance of rights and responsibilities it promotes
is suited to the needs of this new age, an age destined to move
towards light, not darkness.

38. Universal House of Justice, Individual Rights and Freedoms, pp. 21-22.

This statement was issued
in October 1995 by
the Baha'i International Community
on the occasion of the 50th anniversary
of the United Nations.

TuRNING PoiNT
FOR ALL
NATIONS

Unification of the whole oftnankind is the hall-mark of the
stage which human society is now approaching. Unity of family, of tribe, of city-state, and nation have been successively
attempted and fully established. World unity is the goal towards which a harassed humanity is striving. Nation-building
has come to an end. The anarchy inherent in state sovereignty
is moving towards a climax. A world, growing to maturity,
must abandon this fetish, recognize the oneness and wholeness of human relationships, and establish once for all the
tnachinery that can best incarnate this fundamental principle
of its life.
Shoghi Effendi, 193 6

I. Overview: An Opportunity for Reflection
The twentieth century, one of the most tumultuous periods in
human history, has been marked by numerous upheavals, revolutions and radical departures from the past. Ranging from the
collapse of the colonial system and the great nineteenth century
empires to the rise and fall of broad and disastrous experiments
with totalitarianism, fascism and communism, some of these

upheavals have been extremely destructive, involving the deaths
of millions, the eradication of old lifestyles and traditions, and
the collapse of time-honored institutions.
Other movements and trends have been more obviously positive. Scientific discoveries and new social insights have spurred
many progressive social, economic and cultural transformations.
The way has been cleared for new definitions of human rights
and affirmations of personal dignity, expanded opportunities for
individual and collective achievement, and bold new avenues for the
advancement of human knowledge and consciousness.
These twin processes-the collapse of old institutions on the
one hand and the blossoming of new ways of thinking on the
other-are evidence of a single trend which has been gaining
momentum during the last hundred years: the trend toward everincreasing interdependence and integration of humanity.
This trend is observable in wide-ranging phenomena, from
the fusion of world financial markets, which in turn reflect
humanity's reliance on diverse and interdependent sources of
energy, food, raw materials, technology and knowledge, to the
construction of globe-girdling systems of communications and
transportation. It is reflected in the scientific understanding of
the earth's interconnected biosphere, which has in turn given a
new urgency to the need for global coordination. It is manifest,
albeit in a destructive way, in the capacities of modem weapons
systems, which have gradually increased in power to the point
where it is now possible for a handful of men to bring an end to
human civilization itself. It is the universal consciousness of this
trend-in both its constructive and destructive expressions-that
lends such poignancy to the familiar photograph of the earth as a
swirling sphere of blue and white against the infinite blackness
of space, an image crystallizing the realisation that we are a single people, rich in diversity, living in a common homeland.
This trend is reflected, too, in steady efforts by the nations of
the world to forge a world political system that can secure for
humanity the possibility of peace, justice and prosperity. Twice
in this century humanity has attempted to bring about a new
international order. Each attempt sought to address the emergent recognition of global interdependence, while nevertheless

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preserving intact a system which put the sovereignty of the state
above all else. In the perspective of the century now ending, the
League of Nations, a breakthrough in the concept of collective
security, marked a first decisive step toward world order.
The second effort, born from the cataclysm of World War II
and based on a Charter drawn up principally by the victors of that
conflagration, has for 50 years provided an international forum
of last resort, a unique institution standing as a noble symbol for
the collective interests of humanity as a whole.
As an international organization, the United Nations has
demonstrated humanity's capacity for united action in health,
agriculture, education, environmental protection, and the welfare
of children. It has affirmed our collective moral will to build a
better future, evinced in the widespread adoption of international
human rights Covenants. It has revealed the human race's deepseated compassion, evidenced by the devotion of financial and
human resources to the assistance of people in distress. And in
the all-important realms of peace-building, peace-making and
peace-keeping, the United Nations has blazed a bold path toward
a future without war. 1
Yet the overall goals set out in the Charter of the United N ations have proved elusive. Despite the high hopes of its founders,
the establishment of the United Nations some 50 years ago did
not usher in an era of peace and prosperity for all. 2
Although the United Nations has surely played a role in preventing a third world war, the last half decade has nevertheless

1. Boutros Boutros-Ghali. 1992. An Agenda for Peace: Peace-making and
Peace-Keeping. Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to the Statement
Adopted by the Summit Meeting of the Security Council, January 31, New
Y orlc United Nations.
2. Surely the preamble to the Charter of the United Nations is among the
most inspired passages in the history of human governance:
"WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED
"to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice
in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and
"to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and
worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and
of nations large and small, and

been marked by numerous local, national and regional conflicts
costing millions of lives. No sooner had improved relations between the superpowers removed the ideological motivation for
such conflicts, than long-smoldering ethnic and sectarian passions
surfaced as a new source of conflagration. In addition, although
the end of the Cold War has reduced the threat of a global, terminal war, there remain instruments and technologies-and to
some extent the underlying passions-which could bring about
planet-wide destruction.
With respect to social issues, likewise, grave problems persist. While new levels of consensus have been reached on global
programs to promote health, sustainable development and human
rights, the situation on the ground in many areas has deteriorated. The alarming spread of militant racialism and religious
fanaticism, the cancerous growth of materialism, the epidemic

2. (cont.)
"to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations
arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be
maintained, and
"to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger
freedom,
"AND FOR THESE ENDS
"to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as
good neighbors, and
"to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and
"to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institutions of
methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common
interest, and
"to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic
and social advancement of all peoples,
"HAVE RESOLVED TO COMBINE OUR EFFORTS TO ACCOM-
PLISH THESE AIMS.
"Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives
assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full
powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present
Charier of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international
organization to be known as the United Nations."
(United Nations. 1994. Charter of the United Nations and Statute of the
International Court of Justice. United Nations Department of Public
Information. DPI/511-93243-Aprill994-40M.)

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rise of crime and organized criminality, the widespread increase
in mindless violence, the ever-deepening disparity between rich
and poor, the continuing inequities faced by women, the intergenerational damage caused by the pervasive breakdown of
family life, the immoral excesses of unbridled capitalism and the
growth of political corruption-all speak to this point. At least a
billion live in abject poverty and more than a third of the world's
people are illiterate. 3
As the twin processes of collapse and renewal carry the world
toward some sort of culmination, the 50th anniversary of the
United Nations offers a timely opportunity to pause and reflect
on how humanity may collectively face its future. Indeed, there has
emerged of late a wide range of useful proposals for strengthening the United Nations and improving its capacity to coordinate
the responses of nations to these challenges.
These proposals fall roughly into three categories. One group
addresses primarily bureaucratic, administrative and fmancial problems within the United Nations system. Another group comprises
those that suggest reconfiguring bodies like the Economic and
Social Council, the Trusteeship Council and the Bretton Woods
economic institutions. Still others propose to undertake changes
in the United Nations political structure, calling, for example, for
an expansion of the Security Council and/or a reconsideration of
the United Nations Charter itself. 4
Most of these works are constructive, some are also provocative.

3. The World Banlc, World Development Report (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1994), pp. 162-63.
4. There have been a number of recent proposals which discuss the need for
refmms in the United Nations system within a particular issue area. For
example, Our Common Future, the report of the World Commission on
Enviromnent and Development (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987),
suggested a number of changes, such as the creation of a special UN
"Board for Sustainable Development" to coordinate UN action in promoting development while protecting the environment.
Likewise, the report of the Brandt Commission, Common Crisis North-
South: Co-operation for World Recove1y (London: Pan Books, 1983),
makes suggestions for reform in the critical areas of finance, trade and
energy, as they affect North-South imbalances.
The literature proposing widespread changes in the United Nations is

Among them, one of the most balanced and thoughtful is the
report of the Commission on Global Governance, entitled Our
Global Neighborhood, which argues for the widespread adoption
of new values, as well as structural reforms in the United Nations
system. 5
It is in the spirit of contributing to the ongoing discussion
and consultation on this issue of paramount importance that the
Baha'i International Community has been moved to share its
views. Our perspective is based on three initial propositions.
First, discussions about the future of the United Nations need
to take place within the broad context of the evolution of the

4. (cont.)
also voluminous and continues to grow, especially in anticipation of the
50th anniversary of the United Nations. The first major and serious reassessments of the United Nations began in the 1950s, in anticipation of the
tenth anniversary of the Charter. In this regard the publication in 1958 of
World Peace Through World Law by Grenville Clark and Louis B. Sohn,
which was among the first solid proposals to suggest eliminating the veto
power, must be considered a milestone. (Grenville Clark and Louis B.
Sohn, World Peace Through World Law, 3d. ed. enl. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1966).
More recent proposals range from the Stockholm Initiative, which
offers a generalist vision of what might be done to strengthen the United
Nations, to Harold Stassen's recent United Nations: A Worldng Paper for
Restructuring, which gives an article-by-article proposal for rewriting the
UN Charter. Benjamin Ferencz's latest book, New Legal Foundations for
Global Survival, offers a series of hard-headed and legal-minded suggestions for reform based on the premise that nations, peoples and individuals
must be free to pursue their destinies in whatever way they may see fitproviding it does not jeopardize or destroy the fundamental human rights
of others to live in peace and dignity. The Stockholm Initiative on Global
Security and Governance 1991, Common Responsibility in the 1990's
(Stockholm: Prime Minister's Office, Stockholm, Sweden). Harold Stassen, United Nations: A Worldng Paper for Restructuring (Minneapolis:
Learner Publications Company, 1994). Benjamin Ferencz, New Legal
Foundations for Global Survival (Oceana Publications, 1994).
5. The Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood: The
Report of the Commission on Global Governance (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1995).

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international order and its directions. The United Nations has coevolved with other great institutions of the late twentieth century.
It is in the aggregate that these institutions will define-and
themselves be shaped by-the evolution of the international
order. Therefore, the mission, role, operating principles and even
activities of the United Nations should be examined only in the light
of how they fit within the broader objective of the international
order.
Second, since the body of humankind is one and indivisible,
each member of the human race is born into the world as a trust
of the whole. This relationship between the individual and the
collective constitutes the moral foundation of most of the human
rights which the instruments of the United Nations are attempting to define. It also serves to define an overriding purpose for
the international order in establishing and preserving the rights of
the individual.
Third, the discussions about the future of the international
order must involve and excite the generality of humankind.
This discussion is so important that it cannot be confined to leaders-be they in government, business, the academic community,
religion, or organizations of civil society. On the contrary, this
conversation must engage women and men at the grass-roots
level. Broad participation will make the process self-reinforcing
by raising awareness of world citizenship and increase support
for an expanded international order.

II. Recognizing the Historical Context:
A Call to World Leaders
The Baha'i International Community regards the current world
confusion and the calamitous condition of human affairs as a
natural phase in an organic process leading ultimately and irresistibly to the unification of the human race in a single social
order whose boundaries are those of the planet.
The human race, as a distinct, organic unit, has passed through
evolutionary stages analogous to the stages of infancy and childhood in the lives of its individual members, and is now in the

culminating period of its turbulent adolescence approaching
its long-awaited coming of age. 6 The process of global integration, already a reality in the realms of business, finance, and
communications, is beginning to materialize in the political
arena.
Historically, this process has been accelerated by sudden and
catastrophic events. It was the devastation of World Wars I and
II that gave birth to the League of Nations and the United
Nations, respectively. Whether future accomplishments are also
to be reached after similarly unimaginable horrors or embraced
through an act of consultative will, is the choice before all who
inhabit the earth. Failure to take decisive action would be unconscionably irresponsible.
Since sovereignty currently resides with the nation-state, the
task of determining the exact architecture of the emerging international order is an obligation that rests with heads of state and
with governments. We urge leaders at all levels to take a deliberate role in supporting a convocation of world leaders before the
tum of this century to consider how the international order might
be redefined and restructured to meet the challenges facing the

6. Many thinkers have recognized the reality of oneness and understood its
implications for the development of human society, including paleontologist
Richard Leakey: "We are one species, one people. Every individual on
this earth is a member of 'homo sapiens sapiens,' and the geographical variations we see among peoples are simply biological nuances on the basic
theme. The human capacity for culture permits its elaboration in widely
different and colorful ways. The often very deep differences between
those cultures should not be seen as divisions between people. Instead,
cultures should be interpreted for what they really are: the ultimate declaration ofbelonging to the human species." Richard E. Leakey and Rodger
Lewin, Origins: What New Discoveries Reveal about the Emergence of
Our Species and Its Possible Future (New Yorlc Dutton, 1977).
In general terms, the writings of Shoghi Effendi offer a thorough and
extended exposition on the concept of the oneness ofhumanity. A brief
summary of the concept, as Baha'is view it, can be found in The World
Order of Baha 'u 'llah: Selected Letters, 2d rev. ed. (Wilmette: Baha'i
Publishing Trust, 1974; reprint, 1982), pp. 42-43.

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world. As some have suggested, this gathering might be called
the World Summit on Global Governance. 7
This proposed Summit might build on the experience gained
from the series of highly successful United Nations conferences
in the early 1990s. These conferences, which have included the
World Summit for Children in 1990, the Earth Summit in 1992,
the World Conference on Human Rights in 1993, the International Conference on Population and Development in 1994, the
World Summit for Social Development in 1995 and the Fourth
World Conference on Women in 1995, have established a new
methodology for global deliberations on critical issues.
A key to the success of these deliberations has been the substantive participation by organizations of civil society. Painstaking negotiations among government delegations about changes
in the world's political, social and economic structures have
been informed and shaped by the vigorous involvement of these
organizations, which tend to reflect the needs and concerns of
people at the grass roots. It is also significant that in each case,
the gathering of world leaders, in the presence of civil society
and the global media, gave the stamp of legitimacy and consensus to the processes of the conference.
In preparing for the proposed Summit, world leaders would
be wise to heed these lessons, to reach out to as wide a circle as
possible and to secure the goodwill and support of the world's
peoples.
Some fear that international political institutions inevitably
evolve toward excessive centralization and constitute an unwarranted layer of bureaucracy. It needs to be explicitly and
forcefully stated that any new structures for global governance
must, as a matter of both principle and practicality, ensure that

7. We are not alone in making this proposal. The Commission on Global
Governance writes in Our Global Neighborhood (p. 351): "Our recommendation is that the General Assembly should agree to hold a World
Conference on Governance in 1998, with its decisions to be ratified and
put into effect by 2000."

the responsibility for decision-making remains at appropriate
levels. 8
Striking the right balance may not always be easy. On the one
hand, genuine development and real progress can be achieved
only by people themselves, acting individually and collectively,
in response to the specific concerns and needs of their time and
place. It can be argued that the decentralization of governance is
the sine qua non of development. 9 On the other hand, the international order clearly requires a degree of global direction and
coordination.
Therefore, in accordance with the principles of decentralization

8. Two commonly used maxims illustrate this principle. "Small is beautiful,"
a maxim coined in the early '70s as an economic principle, applies equally
to governance. Schumacher explains: "In the affairs of men, there always
appears to be a need for at least two things simultaneously, which, on the
face of it, seem to be incompatible and to exclude one another. We always
need both freedom and order. We need the freedom of lots and lots of
small, autonomous unities, and, at the same time, the orderliness of largescale, possibly global, unity and coordination." E. F. Schumacher, Small is
Beautiful: Economics as ifPeople Mattered (New Y orlc Harper and Row,
1973), p. 65.
"Think globally, act locally," a slogan promoted by environmental and
community development activists, captures a perspective in which the
need for overall global coordination is carefully balanced against the need
for local and national autonomy.
9. "Far from aiming at the subversion ofthe existing foundations of society...
[a system of world governance] seeks to broaden its basis, to remold its
institutions in a manner consonant with the needs of an ever-changing
world. It can conflict with no legitimate allegiances, nor can it undermine
essential loyalties. Its purpose is neither to stifle the flame of a sane and
intelligent patriotism in men's hearts, nor to abolish the system of national
autonomy so essential if the evils of excessive centralization are to be
avoided. It does not ignore, nor does it attempt to suppress, the diversity
of ethnical origins, of climate, of history, of language and tradition, of
thought and habit, that differentiate the peoples and nations of the world.
It calls for a wider loyalty, for a larger aspiration than any that has animated the human race. It insists upon the subordination of national
impulses and interests to the imperative claims of a unified world. It repudiates excessive centralization on one hand, and disclaims all attempts
at uniformity on the other." Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of
Baha'u'llah, pp. 41-42.

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outlined above, international institutions should be given the
authority to act only on issues of international concern where
states cannot act on their own or to intervene for the preservation of
the rights of peoples and member states. All other matters should
be relegated to national and local institutions. 10
Furthermore, in devising a specific framework for the future
international order, leaders should survey a broad range of
approaches to governance. Rather than being modeled after any
single one of the recognized systems of government, the solution
may embody, reconcile and assimilate within its framework such
wholesome elements as are to be found in each one of them.
For example, one of the time-tested models of governance that
may accommodate the world's diversity within a unified framework is the federal system. Federalism has proved effective in
decentralizing authority and decision-making in large, complex,
and heterogeneous states, while maintaining a degree of overall
unity and stability. Another model worth examining is the commonwealth, which at the global level would place the interest of
the whole ahead of the interest of any individual nation.
Extraordinary care must be taken in designing the architecture
of the international order so that it does not over time degenerate
into any form of despotism, of oligarchy, or of demagogy corrupting the life and machinery of the constituent political institutions.
In 1955, during the first decade review of the UN charter, the
Baha'i International Community offered a statement to the United

10. Writing in the 1930s, Shoghi Effendi, who then led the worldwide Baha'i
community, sketched out some of the functions and responsibilities for
a future world legislature. Among other things, he wrote: "a world legislature,
whose members will, as trustees of the whole of mankind ... enact such laws
as shall be required to regulate the life, satisfy the needs and adjust the
relationships of all races and peoples." The World Order of Baha 'u 'llah,
p. 203.
This view is shared by such scholars as Jan Tinbergen, winner of the
1969 Nobel prize for Economics, who stated, "Mankind's problems can no
longer be solved by national governments. What is needed is a World
Government. Tllis can best be achieved by strengthening the United Nations
system.'' United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Human
Development Report 1994. Global Governance for the 21st Centwy (New
Y orlc Oxford University Press), p. 88.

Nations, based on ideas articulated nearly a century before by
Baha'u'llah. "The Baha'i concept of world order is defined
in these terms: A world Super-State in whose favor all the
nations of the world will have ceded every claim to make war,
certain rights to impose taxation and all rights to maintain
armaments, except for the purposes of maintaining internal order
within their respective dominions. This State will have to include an International Executive adequate to enforce supreme
and unchallengeable authority on every recalcitrant member of
the Commonwealth; a World Parliament whose members are
elected by the peoples in their respective countries and whose
election is confirmed by their respective governments; a Supreme
Tribunal whose judgement has a binding effect even in cases
where the parties concerned have not voluntarily agreed to submit their case to its consideration." 11
While we believe this formulation of a world government is at
once the ultimate safeguard and the inevitable destiny of humankind, we do recognize that it represents a long-term picture of a
global society. Given the pressing nature of the current state of
affairs, the world requires bold, practical and actionable strategies that go beyond inspiring visions of the future. Nevertheless,
by focusing on a compelling concept, a clear and consistent
direction for evolutionary change emerges from the mire of contradictory views and doctrines.

III. Defining a Role for the UN Within the Emerging
International Order
The United Nations was the centerpiece of the international system
created by the victors of World War II and, during the long
decades of ideological conflict between the East and the West,
it served its original purpose as a forum for international dialogue. Over the years, its mandate has been expanded to include
not only international standard-setting and promotion of social

11. Baha'i International Community. Proposals to the United Nations for
Charter Revision. 23 May 1955.

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and economic development but also peacekeeping operations on
several continents.
Over the same period, the political reality of our world
has experienced a dramatic transformation. At the time of
the UN's inception, there were some 50 independent states. That
number has grown to exceed 185. At the close of World War II,
governments were the main actors on the global scene. Today,
the growing influence of organizations of civil society and of
multinational corporations has created a much more intricate
political landscape.
Despite the growing complexity in its mission, the United
Nations system has retained more or less the same structure that
was designed for a new international organization some 50 years
ago. It is not surprising then that the occasion of its 50th anniversary has stimulated a new dialogue about its ability to meet the
political realities of the twenty-first century. Unfortunately, in
this dialogue, criticism has far outweighed praise.
Most criticisms of the operations of the United Nations are
based on comparisons with the operations of the leading organizations in the private sector or on inflated initial expectations.
Although some specific comparisons may be useful in improving
the efficiency of the United Nations, more general exercises of
this kind are essentially unfair. The United Nations lacks not
only the clear authority, but also the requisite resources to act
effectively in most instances. Accusations of the UN's failure are
in fact indictments of the member states themselves.
Judged in isolation from the reality within which it operates,
the United Nations will always seem inefficient and ineffective.
However, if it is viewed as one element of a larger process of development in systems of international order, the bright light of
analysis would shift from the UN' s shortcomings and failures to
shine on its victories and accomplishments. To those with an
evolutionary mindset, the early experience of the United Nations
offers us a rich source of learning about its future role within the
international regime.
An evolutionary mindset implies the ability to envision an institution over a long time frame perceiving its inherent potential

for development, identifying the fundamental principles governing
its growth, formulating high-impact strategies for short-term implementation, and even anticipating radical discontinuities along
its path.
Studying the United Nations from this perspective unveils
significant opportunities to strengthen the current system without the wholesale restructuring of its principal institutions or the
intensive re-engineering of its core processes. In fact, we submit
that no proposal for UN reform can produce high impact unless
its recommendations are internally consistent and direct the UN
along a projected evolutionary path toward a distinctive and relevant role within the future international order.
We believe the combination of recommendations described
herein meets these conditions and that their adoption would represent a measured but significant step toward building a more
just world order. 12
A. Resuscitating the General Assembly
The foundation for any system of governance is the rule of law
and the primary institution for promulgating law is the legislature. While the authority of local and national legislatures is
generally respected, regional and international legislative bodies
have been the subject of fear and suspicion.
In addition, the United Nations General Assembly has been a
target of attack for its ineffectiveness. Although some of the
accusations hurled against it are unfounded, there are at least two
shortcomings that hamper the ability of the General Assembly to
have impact.

12. Throughout His writings, Baha'u'lh1h consistently uses the terms "order,"
"world order," and "new world order" to describe the ongoing and
momentous series of changes in the political, social and religious life of
the world. In the 1870s, He wrote: "The world's equilibrium hath been
upset through the vibrating influence of this most great, this new World
Order. Mankind's ordered life hath been revolutionized through the agency
of this unique, this wondrous System-the like of which mortal eyes have
never witnessed." The Kitab-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book, trans. Shoghi
Effendi and a Committee at the Baha'i World Centre (Haifa: Baha'i World
Centre, 1992), par. 181.

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First, the current arrangement gives undue weight to state sovereignty, resulting in a curious mix of anarchy and conservatism.
In a reformed United Nations, the legislative branch and its voting structure will need to represent more accurately the people of
the world as well as nation-states. 13
Second, General Assembly resolutions are not binding unless
they are separately ratified as a treaty by each member state. If
the current system, which places state sovereignty above all other
concerns, is to give way to a system which can address the interests
of a single and interdependent humanity, the resolutions of the
General Assembly-within a limited domain of issues-must
gradually come to possess the force of law with provisions for
both enforcement and sanctions.
These two shortcomings are closely linked inasmuch as the
majority of the world's people, suspicious and fearful of world
government, are unlikely to submit to an international institution
unless it is itself more genuinely representative. 14
Nevertheless, in the short term, five practical measures are
possible to strengthen the General Assembly, enhance its reputation and align it with a longer term direction.
1. Raising Minimum Requirements for Membership
The minimum standards for conduct by a government towards its
people have been well established in the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights and subsequent international covenants, collectively referred to as the International Bill of Human Rights.
Without an unshakable commitment to regular and periodic
elections with universal participation by secret ballot, to freedom
of expression and to other such human rights, a member state
stands in the way of the active and intelligent participation of
the vast majority of its population in the affairs of its own
communities.
We propose that there should be consequences for member

13. 'Abdu'l-Baha, The Secret of Divine Civilization, 2d ed., trans. Marzieh
Gail (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1957; reprint, 1970), p. 24.
14. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD),
States of Disarray: The Social Effects of Globalization (London: KPC
Group, 1995), pp. 106-09.

states that violate these standards. Similarly, nations seeking recognition should be denied membership until they openly espouse
these standards or make recognizable efforts to move in that
direction.
2. Appointing a Commission to Study Borders and Frontiers
Outstanding irredentist claims continue to be a major source of
conflict and war, highlighting the critical need for general agreements on national boundaries. Such treaties can only be arrived
at after consideration of the arbitrary manner in which many
nation-states were originally defined and of all outstanding
claims of nations and ethnic groups.
Rather than relegating such claims to the World Court, we
believe it would be best to establish a special International Commission to research all claims affecting international boundaries
and then, after careful consideration, to make recotnmendations
for action. 15 The results would serve as an early warning system

15. There are many ways that such a Commission, or even the World Legislature itself, might go about detennining fair and just borders for all nations.
But as daunting as the task may seem, it is an impmiant pati of the process
ofbuilding a new order. Wrote 'Abdu'l-Baha: "True civilization will unfurl
its banner in the midmost heati of the world whenever a ce1iain number of
its distinguished and high-minded sovereigns-the shining exemplars of
devotion and determination-shall, for the good and happiness of all mankind, arise, with firm resolve and clear vision, to establish the Cause of
Universal Peace. They must make the Cause of Peace the object of general
consultation, and seek by eve1y means in their power to establish a Union
of the nations of the world. They must conclude a binding treaty and
establish a covenant, the provisions of which shall be sound, inviolable
and definite. They must proclaim it to all the world and obtain for it the
sanction of all the human race. This supreme and noble undertaking-the
real source of the peace and well-being of all the world-should be
regarded as sacred by all that dwell on earth. All the forces of humanity
must be mobilized to ensure the stability and permanence of this Most
Great Covenant. In this all-embracing Pact the limits and frontiers of each
and every nation should be clearly fixed, the principles underlying the
relations of governments towards one another definitely laid down, and all
international agreements and obligations asce1iained. In like manner, the
size of the armaments of every government should be strictly limited, for
if the preparations for war and the military forces of any nation should be

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for growing tension among civil or ethnic groups and assessment
of threats in situations benefiting from early preventive diplomacy.
In order to establish a genuine community of nations in the
long run, it will be necessary to settle finally all disputes over
borders. This research would serve that end.
3. Searching for New Financial Arrangements
Primarily triggered by the unwillingness of some member states
to remit their general assessments on time, compounded by the
absence of authority to collect any interest accrued because of that
delay, and further aggravated by the bureaucratic inefficiencies in
parts of its operations, the annual budget shortfall pressures the
UN into a crisis management mentality.
Voluntary payments from member states will never be a reliable approach to finance an international institution. Vigorous
approaches to revenue generation must be devised to enable the
smooth functioning of the UN machinery. We propose the immediate appointment of an expert Task Force to begin a rigorous
search for solutions.
In studying alternatives, the Task Force should be mindful of
several fundamental principles. First, there should be no assessments without representation. Second, in the interest of fairness and
justice, assessments should be graduated. Third, 1nechanisms for
encouraging voluntary contributions by individuals and communities should not be overlooked. 16

15. (cont.)
allowed to increase, they will arouse the suspicion of others. The fundamental principle underlying this solemn Pact should be so fixed that if
any government later violate any one of its provisions, all the governments on emih should arise to reduce it to utter submission, nay the human
race as a whole should resolve, with evety power at its disposal, to destroy
that government. Should this greatest of all remedies be applied to the
sick body of the world, it will assuredly recover from its ills and will
remain eternally safe and secure." The Secret of Divine Civilization, pp.
64-65.
16. Charitable giving in the United States in 1994 rose by 3.6 percent to $130
billion, according to Karen W. Arenson, "Charitable Giving Rose 3.6% in
1994, Philanthropy Trust Says," The New York Times, 25 May 1995, sec.
A,p. 22.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

4. Making a Commitment to a Universal Auxiliary Language
and a Common Script
The United Nations, which currently uses six official languages,
would derive substantial benefit from either choosing a single
existing language or creating a new one to be used as an auxiliary
language in all its fora. Such a step has long been advocated by
many groups, from the Esperantists to the Baha'i International
Community itself. 17 In addition to saving money and simplifying
bureaucratic procedures, such a move would go far toward promoting a spirit of unity.
We propose the appointment of a high-level Commission, with
members from various regions and drawn from relevant fields,
including linguistics, economics, the social sciences, education
and the media, to begin careful study on the matter of an international auxiliary language and the adoption of a common script.
We foresee that, eventually, the world cannot but adopt a single, universally agreed-upon auxiliary language and script to be
taught in schools worldwide, as a supplement to the language or
languages of each country. The objective would be to facilitate
the transition to a global society through better communication

17. "Regarding the whole question of an International Language .... We, as
Baha'is, are very anxious to see a universal auxiliary tongue adopted as
soon as possible; we are not the protagonists of any one language to fill
this post. If the governments of the world agree on an existing language,
or a constructed, new tongue, to be used internationally, we would heartily
suppmi it because we desire to see this step in the unification of the human
race take place as soon as possible." Shoghi Effendi, Directives from the
Guardian, comp. Getirude Garrida (New Delhi: Baha'i Publishing Trust,
1973), p. 39.
In making this proposal, we wish to call attention to the term "auxiliary." The Baha'i teachings value and promote cultural diversity, not
uniformity. At this point in history, then, we do not envision imposing a
single language worldwide. Rather, what we imagine is that peoples and
nations would keep their own local and national languages-while at the
same time be encouraged to learn a universal language. Certainly such a
universal language should ultimately be taught, as a required subject, in all
of the world's schools. But this should in no way detract from legitimate
expressions of national and local linguistic and cultural diversity.

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among nations, reduction of administrative costs for businesses,
governments and others involved in global enterprise, and a general fostering of more cordial relations between all members of the
human family. 18
This proposal should be read narrowly. It does not in any way
envision the decline of any living language or culture.
5. Investigating the Possibility of a Single International
Currency
The need to promote the adoption of a global currency as a vital
element in the integration of the global economy is self-evident.
Among other benefits, economists believe that a single currency
will curb unproductive speculation and unpredictable market
swings, promote a leveling of incomes and prices worldwide,
and thereby result in significant savings. 19
The possibility of savings will not lead to action unless there
is an overwhelming body of evidence addressing the relevant
concerns and doubts of skeptics, accompanied by a credible
implementation plan. We propose the appointment of a Commission consisting of the most accomplished government leaders,
academics and professionals to begin immediate exploration into
the economic benefits and the political costs of a single currency
and to hypothesize about an effective implementation approach.

18. "The day is approaching when all the peoples of the world will have
adopted one universal language and one common script," wrote Baha'u-
'llah in the late 1800s. "When this is achieved, to whatsoever city a man
may journey, it shall be as if he were entering his own home." Gleanings
from the Writings ofBaha 'u 'llah, trans. Shoghi Effendi (Wilmette: Baha'i
Publishing Tmst, 1983), p. 250.
19. In a "special contribution" to the 1994 Human Development Report,
James Tobin, winner of the 1981 Nobel Prize for Economics, observes that
"a permanent single currency" would eliminate much if not all of the turbulence currently associated with the huge amount of currency speculation
on world markets today. Observing that such a single world currency is
probably a long way off, he proposes as an interim measure an "international uniform tax" on spot transactions in foreign exchange. United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Human Development Rep01i
1994. A Tax on International Currency Transactions (New York: Oxford
University Press), p. 70.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

B. Developing A Meaningful Executive Function
At the international level, the single most important executive
function is the enforcement of a collective security pact. 20
Collective security implies a binding covenant among nations
to act in concert against threats to the collective. The effectiveness of the covenant depends on the degree to which members
commit themselves to the collective good, even iftnotivated by a
sense of enlightened self-interest.
Within the United Nations, the enforcement role is largely
carried out by the Security Council, with other functions of the
executive being shared with the Secretariat. Both are hampered
in fulfilling their mandated roles. The Security Council suffers from
an inability to take decisive action. The Secretariat is pressured
by the complex demands of the member states.
In the short term, four practical measures are possible to
strengthen the executive function within the United Nations.
1. Limiting the Exercise of the Veto Power
The original intention of the UN Charter in conferring veto
power on the five Permanent Members was to prevent the Security Council from authorizing military actions against a Permanent
Member or requiring the use of its forces against its will. 21 In
fact, beginning with the Cold War, the veto power has been
exercised repeatedly for reasons that have to do with regional or
national security.
In its 1955 submission on UN reform, the Baha'i International
Community argued for the gradual elimination of the concepts of
"permanent membership" and "veto power" as confidence in the
Security Council would build. Today, 40 years later, we reaffirm

20. The principle of collective security was put forth by Balui'u'lhih over a
century ago in letters to the kings and rulers of the world: "Be united, 0
kings of the earth, for thereby will the tempest of discord be stilled
amongst you, and your peoples find rest, if ye be of them that comprehend. Should anyone among you take up anns against another, rise ye all
against him, for this is naught but manifest justice." Gleanings fi·om the
Writings ofBah a'u '!lith, p. 254.
21. The Report of the Independent Working Group on the Future of the
United Nations, The United Nations in its Second Half-Century (Yale
University Press Service, 1995), p. 16.

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that position. However, we also propose that, as a transitionary
step, measures be introduced to curb the exercise of the veto
power to reflect the original intention of the Charter.
2. Institutionalizing Ad Hoc Military Arrangements
To support the peacekeeping operations of the United Nations,
and to add credibility to resolutions of the Security Council, an
International Force should be created. 22 Its loyalty to the UN and
its independence from national considerations must be assured.
The command and control of such a fully armed Force would
reside with the Secretary-General under the authority of the
Security Council. Its finances, however, would be determined by
the General Assembly. In constructing such a force, the Secretary-General would seek to draw competent personnel from all
regions of the world.
If properly implemented, this Force would also provide a
sense of security that might encourage steps toward global disarmament, thereby making possible an outright ban on all weapons
of mass destruction. 23 Furthermore, in line with the principle of

22. Glenview Foundation, The Stassen Draft Charter for a New United
Nations to Emerge from the Original, to Serve World Peace and Progress
for the Next Forty Years (Philadelphia: Glenview Foundation, 1985).
Grenville Clark and Louis B. Sohn, World Peace Through World Law
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966). Keith Hindell,
"Reform of the United Nations?" in The World Today: Journal of the
Royal Institute of International Affairs (United Kingdom, Feb. 1992) Vol.
48, No.2. pp. 30-33. John Logue, "New World Order Means Reformed
U.N.," World Federalist News, July 1992. Benjamin B. Ferencz and Ken
Keyes Jr., Planethood: The Key to Your Future (Coos Bay, Oregon: Love
Line Books, 1991 ). Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace: Peacemaking and Peace-Keeping. Report of the Secreta1y General Pursuant to
the Statement Adopted by the Summit Meeting of the Security Council,
January 31 (New York: United Nations, 1992).
23. This is not to say that steps to ban such weapons should await the full
development and deployment of such a Force. We wholeheartedly support
current steps to renew the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear
Weapons and to firmly establish a comprehensive test ban, as well as any
further efforts to eliminate nuclear, chemical and/or biological weapons.
Likewise, stronger efforts must be made to restrict and control conventional weapons such as land mines, which kill indiscriminately.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

collective security, it would become gradually understood that
states need only maintain armaments sufficient for their own
defense and the maintenance of internal order.
As an immediate step toward the establishment of this Force,
the present system of ad hoc arrangements could be institutionalized to establish core regional forces for rapid deployment during
a CflSlS.
3. Applying the Notion of Collective Security to Other Problems
of the Global Commons
Although originally conceived within the context of a threat of
military aggression, the principle of collective security, some
argue, may now be applied in an expansive manner to all threats
which, although apparently local in nature, are actually the result of the complex breakdown of the present-day global order.
These threats include but are not limited to international drug
trafficking, food security, and the emergence of new global pandemics.24
We believe this issue would have to be included on the agenda
of the proposed Global Summit. However, it is unlikely that
expansive formulations of collective security would preclude the
fundamental cause of military aggression.
4. Retaining Successfitl UN Institutions with Independent
Executive Function
Some of the more independent organizations within the UN family, such as the UN International Children's Emergency Fund, the
International Civil Aviation Organization, the Universal Postal
Union, the International Telegraph and Communications Union,
the International Labour Organization, and the World Health Organization, have enjoyed conspicuous success with focused but
important areas of international concern.

24. Mahbub ul Haq, 1994. Senior Advisor to UNDP Administrator. Team
Leader of the Group that prepares the UNDP annual Human Development
Reports which have brought, in recent years, fresh insights to development theory and practice, including a new concept on human security.

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Generally, these organizations already have their own executive
function. Their independence should be retained and reinforced as
part of the international executive. 25
C. A Strengthened World Court
In any system of governance, a strong judicial function is necessary
to moderate the powers of the other branches and to enunciate,
promulgate, protect and deliver justice. The drive to create just
societies has been among the fundamental forces in history 26-
and without doubt no lasting world civilization can be founded
unless it is firmly grounded in the principle of justice.
Justice is the one power that can translate the dawning consciousness of humanity's oneness into a collective will through
which the necessary structures of global community life can be
confidently erected. An age that sees the people of the world
increasingly gaining access to information of every kind and to a
diversity of ideas will find justice asserting itself as the ruling
principle of successful social organization.
At the individual level, justice is that faculty of the human
soul that enables each person to distinguish truth from falsehood.
In the sight of God, Baha'u'lh1h avers, justice is "the best beloved of all things" since it permits each individual to see with
his own eyes rather than the eyes of others, to know through his
own knowledge rather than the knowledge of his neighbor or his
group.
At the group level, a concern for justice is the indispensable
compass in collective decision-making, because it is the only
means by which unity of thought and action can be achieved. Far
from encouraging the punitive spirit that has often masqueraded
under its name in past ages, justice is the practical expression of
awareness that, in the achievement of human progress, the interests of the individual and those of society are inextricably linked.
To the extent that justice becomes a guiding concern of human

25. Erskine Childers, ed. Challenges to the United Nations: Building a Safer
World (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994). pp. 21-25.
26. John Huddleston, The Search for a Just Society (Oxford: George Ronald,
1989).

interaction, a consultative climate is encouraged that permits
options to be examined dispassionately and appropriate courses
of action selected. In such a climate the perennial tendencies
toward manipulation and partisanship are far less likely to
deflect the decision-making process.
Such a conception of justice will be gradually reinforced by
the realization that, in an interdependent world, the interests of
the individual and society are inextricably intertwined. In this context, justice is a thread that must be woven into the consideration
of every interaction, whether in the family, the neighborhood, or
at the global level.
We see in the current United Nations system the foundation
for a strengthened World Court. Established in 1945 as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, the International
Court of Justice is characterized by many positive elements. The
current system for the selection of judges, for example, seeks to
create a judicial panel which is representative of a wide range of
peoples, regions, and judicial systems. 27

27. About 75 years ago 'Abdu'l-Baha offered the following suggestions for a
future world comi: "the national assemblies of each countty and nationthat is to say parliaments-should elect two or three persons who are the
choicest of that nation, and are well informed concerning international
laws and the relations between governments and aware of the essential
needs of the world ofhumanity in this day. The number of these representatives should be in proportion to the number of inhabitants of that countty.
The election of these souls who are chosen by the national assembly, that
is, the parliament, must be confinned by the upper house, the congress and
the cabinet and also by the president or monarch so these persons may be
the elected ones of all the nation and the govemment. The Supreme Tribunal will be composed of these people, and all mankind will thus have a
share therein, for every one of these delegates is fully representative of his
nation. When the Supreme Tribunal gives a ruling on any international
question, either unanimously or by majority rule, there will no longer be
any pretext for the plaintiff or ground of objection for the defendant. In
case any of the govemments or nations, in the execution of the inefutable
decision of the Supreme Tribunal, be negligent or dilatmy, the rest of the
nations will rise up against it, because all the governments and nations of
the world are the supporters of this Supreme Tribunal. Consider what a
finn foundation this is! But by a limited and restricted League the purpose

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The Court's primary shortcoming is that it lacks the authority
to issue legally binding decisions, except in those cases where
states have chosen in advance to be bound by its decisions. Without jurisdiction, the Court is powerless to administer justice. 28 In
time, the decisions of the World Court may become binding and
enforceable upon all states; however, in the short term, the World
Court might be strengthened through two other measures.
1. Extending the Court's Jurisdiction
Currently, the Court's jurisdiction is limited to a few categories
of cases, and only nations have standing to bring an action. We
propose that in addition to member states, other organs of the
United Nations should be given the right to bring cases before
the Court.
2. Coordinating the Thematic Courts
The World Court should act as an umbrella for existing and new
thematic courts, that arbitrate and adjudicate international cases
within specific thematic domains.
Early components of a unified system can already be found in
the specialized courts for arbitration of such matters as commerce and transportation, and in the proposals for such bodies as
an International Criminal Court and a Chamber for Environmental
Matters. Other issue areas that might need to be addressed under
such a system would include courts for international terrorism
and drug trafficking.

27. (cont.)
will not be realized as it ought and should." Selections from the Writings of
'Abdu '1-Baha, comp. Research Department of the Universal House of
Justice, trans. a Committee at the Baha'i World Centre and Marzieh Gail.
(Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1978) pp. 306-07.
28. At the present time, for example, the Court's jurisdiction is limited to 1)
cases which the parties refer to it jointly by special agreement, 2) matters
concerning a treaty or convention in force which provides for reference to
the Court, and 3) specified classes of legal disputes between States for
which they have recognized the jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory.
Europa World Year Book 1994. Vol. 1 (London: Europa Publications
Limited, 1994), p. 22.

IV. Releasing the Power of the Individual: A Critical
Challenge of the Emerging International Order
The primary objective of governing institutions at all levels is the
advancement of human civilization. This objective is difficult to
satisfy without the inspired and intelligent participation of the
generality of humankind in the life and affairs of the community.
With a focus on building institutions and creating a community
of nations, international bodies have historically remained distant from the minds and hearts of the world's people. Separated
by several layers of government from the international arena and
confused by the media's coverage of international news, the vast
majority of people have not yet developed an affinity for institutions like the United Nations. Only those individuals who have
had some access to the international arena through channels like
organizations of civil society seem able to identify with these
institutions.
Paradoxically, international institutions cannot develop into an
effective and mature level of government and fulfill their primary
objective to advance human civilization if they do not recognize
and nurture their relationship of mutual dependency with the people
of the world. Such recognition would set in motion a virtuous cycle
of trust and support that would accelerate the transition to a new
world order.
The tasks entailed in the development of a global society call
for levels of capacity far beyond anything the human race has so
far been able to muster. Reaching these levels will require an
enormous expansion in access to knowledge on the part of every
individual. International institutions will succeed in eliciting and
directing the potentialities latent in the peoples of the world to
the extent that their exercise of authority is moderated by their
obligation to win the confidence, respect, and genuine support of
those whose actions they seek to govern and to consult openly
and to the fullest extent possible with all those whose interests
are affected.
Individuals who become confident and respectful of these
institutions will, in turn, demand that their national governments increase their support, both political and economic, for the

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international order. In turn, the international institutions, with
increased influence and power, will be better positioned to undertake further actions to establish a legitimate and effective world
order.
Along with the measures for strengthening its structure, the
United Nations needs to adopt initiatives that release the latent
power in all people to participate in this galvanizing process. To
this end, certain themes that accelerate the advancement of the
individual and society warrant special consideration. Among
them, promoting economic development, protecting human
rights, advancing the status of women, and emphasizing moral
development are four priorities so closely tied to the advancement
of civilization that they must be emphasized as part of the United
Nations agenda.
A. Promoting Economic Development
Economic development strategies employed by the United N ations, the World Banlc and a number of governments during the
last 50 years, however sincerely conceived and executed, have
fallen far short of aspirations. In much of the world, the gap
between the "haves" and "have-nots" has widened and is accelerating with the persistent disparity in income levels. Social
problems have not subsided. In fact, crime and disease are not just
on the rise; they are also becoming endemic and more difficult to
combat.
These failures can be traced to a number of factors. They include a misplaced focus on large-scale projects and bureaucratic
over-centralization, unjust terms of international trade, a pervasive
corruption that has been allowed to flourish throughout the system,
the exclusion of women from the decision-making processes at
all levels, a general inability to ensure that resources reach the
poor, and the diversion of development resources into military
hardware.
A dispassionate examination of these factors betrays a common
systematic and fundamental flaw in the current paradigm for
economic development: material needs are often addressed without taking into account the spiritual factors and their motivating
power.

Development should not become confused with the creation of
an unsustainable consumer society. True prosperity encompasses
spiritual as well as material well-being. Food, drink, shelter and a
degree of material comfort are essential, but human beings cannot
and never will find fulfillment in these necessities. Nor is contentment to be found in the somewhat more intangible material
attainments such as social recognition or political power. Ultimately, not even intellectual achievement satisfies our deepest
needs.
It is in the hunger for something more, something beyond
ourselves, that the reality of the human spirit can be properly
understood. Although the spiritual side of our nature is obscured
by the day-to-day struggle for material attainment, our need for
the transcendent cannot long be disregarded. Thus a sustainable
development paradigm must address both the spiritual aspirations
of human beings and their material needs and desires.
Education is the best investment in economic development.
"Man is the supreme Talisman. Lack of a proper education
hath, however, deprived him of that which he doth inherently
possess," writes Baha'u'lhih. "Regard man as a mine rich in gems
of inestimable value. Education can, alone, cause it to reveal its
treasures, and enable mankind to benefit therefrom. " 29 Education implies more than a process of mastering a narrow body of

29. Gleanings from the Writings ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 260.
"The primary most urgent requirement is the promotion of education. It is
inconceivable that any nation should achieve prosperity and success
unless this paramount, this fundamental concern is canied forward. The
principal reason for the decline and fall of peoples is ignorance. Today the
mass of the people are uninformed even as to ordinary affairs, how much
less do they grasp the core of the important problems and complex needs
of the time." ('Abdu'l-Baha, The Secret ofDivine Civilization, p. 109)
"This same difference is noticeable among animals; some have
been domesticated, educated, others left wild. The proof is clear that the
world of nature is imperfect, the world of education perfect. That is to say,
man is rescued from the exigencies of nature by training and culture;
consequently, education is necessary, obligatory. But education is of
various kinds. There is a training and development of the physical body
which ensures strength and growth. There is intellectual education or mental

J\IRNING pOINT

knowledge or learning a set of life skills. In truth, education,
which should be a fundamental imperative of development, must
also teach the process for knowledge acquisition, cultivate the
powers of intellect and reasoning, and infuse the student vvith
indispensable moral qualities.
It is this comprehensive approach to education that allows
people to contribute to the creation of wealth and encourage its
just distribution. 30
Genuine wealth is created when work is undertaken not simply
as a means of earning a livelihood but also as a way to contribute
to society. We hold that meaningful work is a basic need of the
human soul, as important to the proper development of the individual as nutritious food, clean water and fresh air are to the
physical body.
Because of the spiritually damaging nature of dependency,
schemes which focus solely on redistributing material wealth are
doomed to failure in the long run. Distribution of wealth must be

29. (cont.)
training for which schools and colleges are founded. The third kind of education is that of the spirit. Through the breaths of the Holy Spirit man is
uplifted into the world of moralities and illumined by the lights of divine
bestowals. The moral world is only attained through the effulgence of the
Sun of Reality and the quickening life of the divine spirit." 'Abdu'l-Baha,
The Promulgation of Universal Peace: Talks Delivered by 'Abdu 'l-Baha
During His Visit to the United States and Canada in 1912, comp. Howard
MacNutt, 2d. ed., (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1982), pp. 329-30.
30. Governments and their partners must bear in mind that material equality
is neither achievable nor desirable. Absolute equality is a chimera. At various points along the way, there will nevertheless be the necessity for the
redistribution of some of the world's wealth. For, indeed, it is becoming
increasingly obvious that unbridled capitalism does not provide the answer
either. Some regulation and redistribution is necessary to promote material
justice. In this regard, a tax on income is, in principle, one of the fairest and
most equitable means. There must also be a role for the voluntary sharing
of wealth-both at an individual and an institutional level. Equal opportunities for economic advancement and progress, however, must be woven
into the very fabric of the new order. Ultimately, the most important regulation on any economic system is the moral regulation that begins in the
hearts and minds of people.

approached in an efficient and equitable manner. In fact, it must
be intimately integrated with the process of wealth creation.
We propose the following recommendation to the United N ations system for promoting more effective development.
1. Launching a Determined Campaign to Implement Agenda 21
The plan of action formulated at the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development incorporated a wide range of
views from civil society and a set of principles not unlike those
articulated in this statement. Unfortunately, however, little has been
done by member states to implement the measures described in the
plan.
If the objectives of Agenda 21 are to be addressed and satisfied, an expanded effort, different in nature but comparable in
scale and commitment to the Marshall Plan for the re-development of post-war Europe, might be necessary. In this case, the
Bretton Woods institutions would be called upon to mount a pronounced campaign to expedite national implementation efforts.
A mandate of this nature can result only from a conference, similar to the first Bretton Woods meetings 50 years ago, dedicated
to a wholesale reexamination of these institutions. The purpose
of this reexamination would be to make available to the people
of the world sufficient resources so that they could implement
local initiatives. Moreover, the conference could also expand its
agenda to address deeper issues of global economic security
through the redefinition of existing institutions or the creation of
new structures. 31
If successful, this new machinery could also be extended to
coordinate implementation of the measures identified at the
recent Social Summit.
B. Protecting Fundamental Human Rights
Over the five decades since the United Nations was founded, an

31. The establishment of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) is a commendable first step in the right direction and may be useful in the long run,
as one of the tools that could be the basis for funding Agenda 21, if its
operational scale is enlarged and its mandate redefined.

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understanding has emerged that human rights must be recognized
and protected internationally if peace, social progress and economic
prosperity are to be established.
The foundation for international agreement on the nature of
human rights is the all-important Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, adopted by the United Nations in 1948 and elaborated in
two international covenants-the International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Social,
Economic and Cultural Rights. In addition, some 75 other conventions and declarations identify and promote the rights of women
and children, the right to freedom of worship, and the right to
development, to name but a few.
The current United Nations human rights regime has two major
shortcomings: limited means for enforcement and follow-up,
and too little emphasis on the responsibilities that accompany all
rights.
Human rights enforcement at the international level needs to
be handled in a manner similar to the treatment of military
aggression under a collective security regime. The violation of
human rights in one state must be considered the concern of all,
and enforcement mechanisms must provide for a unified response on the part of the entire international community. The
question of when and how to intervene to protect human rights is
more difficult to answer. Vigorous enforcement will require a
high degree of global consensus on what constitutes a flagrant
and willful violation.
Important steps toward global consensus were taken during
the process leading up to the 1993 World Conference on Human
Rights, which affirmed unequivocally that human rights are universal, indivisible and interdependent, and ended the long-standing
debate about the relative importance of civil and political rights as
compared to social, economic and cultural rights. 32 Conference
resolutions also confirmed that human rights must be applied
irrespective of differences of racial background, ethnic origin,
religious belief or national identity. They encompass the equality

32. World Conference on Human Rights. Vienna Declaration and Programme
of Action. 14-25 June 1993. Vienna, Austria.

of women and men; they include for all individuals worldwide
the same rights to freedom of investigation, information and religious practice; and they embody the right of everyone to basic
necessities such as food, shelter, and healthcare. 33 Beyond the
need to build consensus and strengthen enforcement of human

33.A further elaboration of this concept can be found in The Prosperity of
Humanldnd, a statement of the Baha'i Inte1national Community's Office
of Public Information, published in February 1995: "The activity most
intimately linked to the consciousness that distinguishes human nature is
the individual's exploration of reality for himself or herself. The freedom
to investigate the purpose of existence and to develop the endowments of
human nature that make it achievable requires protection. Human beings
must be free to know. That such freedom is often abused and such abuse
grossly encouraged by features of contemporary society does not detract
in any degree from the validity of the impulse itself.
"It is this distinguishing impulse of human consciousness that provides
the moral imperative for the enunciation of many of the rights enshrined
in the Universal Declaration and the related Covenants. Universal education, freedom of movement, access to information, and the opportunity to
participate in political life are all aspects of its operation that require
explicit guarantee by the international community. The same is true of
freedom of thought and belief, including religious liberty, along with the
right to hold opinions and express these opinions appropriately.
"Since the body of humankind is one and indivisible, each member
of the race is born into the world as a trust of the whole. This trusteeship
constitutes the moral foundation of most of the other rights-principally
economic and social-which the instruments of the United Nations are
attempting similarly to define. The security of the family and the home,
the ownership of property, and the right to privacy are all implied in such
a trusteeship. The obligations on the part of the community extend to the
provision of employment, mental and physical health care, social security,
fair wages, rest and recreation, and a host of other reasonable expectations
on the part of the individual members of society.
"The principle of collective trusteeship creates also the right of every
person to expect that those cultural conditions essential to his or her identity enjoy the protection of national and international law. Much like the
role played by the gene pool in the biological life of humankind and its
environment, the immense wealth of cultural diversity achieved over
thousands of years is vital to the social and economic development of a
human race experiencing its collective coming-of-age. It represents a heritage that must be permitted to bear its fruit in a global civilization. On the
one hand, cultural expressions need to be protected from suffocation by the

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rights, it is important to establish a greater understanding that to
each right is attached a corresponding responsibility.
The right to be recognized as a person before the law, for example, implies the responsibility to obey the law-and to make
both the laws and the legal system more just. Likewise, in the
socio-economic realm, the right to marry carries with it the
responsibility to support the family unit, to educate one's children
and to treat all family members with respect. 34 The right to work
cannot be divorced from the responsibility to perform one's duties
to the best of one's ability. In the broadest sense, the notion of
"universal" human rights implies a responsibility to humanity as a
whole.
Ultimately, while it is up to the individual to fulfill the responsibility in each such area, it is up to international institutions to
protect the related human right. We propose three measures for
immediate action.
I. Strengthening the Machinery of the UN for Monitoring,
Implementation and Follow-Up
The United Nations machinery for the monitoring, implementation and follow-up of government compliance with international

33. (cont.)
materialistic influences currently holding sway. On the other, cultures
must be enabled to interact with one another in ever-changing patterns of
civilization, free of manipulation for partisan political ends."
34. Ultimately, respect for human rights must begin in the family: "Compare
the nations of the world to the members of a family. A family is a nation in
miniature. Simply enlarge the circle of the household, and you have the
nation. Enlarge the circle of nations, and you have all humanity. The conditions sunounding the family sunound the nation. The happenings in the
family are the happenings in the life of the nation. Would it add to the
progress and advancement of a family if dissensions should arise among
its members, all fighting, pillaging each other, jealous and revengeful of
injury, seeking selfish advantage? Nay, this would be the cause of the
effacement of progress and advancement. So it is in the great family of
nations, for nations are but an aggregate of families. Therefore, as strife
and dissension destroy a family and prevent its progress, so nations are
destroyed and advancement hindered." The Promulgation of Universal
Peace, p. 157.

covenants is inadequate. The Center for Human Rights consists
of a very small professional staff struggling to support efforts
to monitor the compliance by countries of all treaties they have
ratified.
We believe the resources assigned to this Center must be dramatically increased if it is to discharge its duties properly.
2. Encouraging Universal Ratification ofInternational
Conventions on Human Rights
Since ratifying the international conventions on human rights
creates an obligation for member states, albeit not a practically enforceable one, the Secretary-General and all bodies of
the UN might consider every opportunity to encourage member
states to act on this issue. In fact, a demanding timeline for universal ratification may be an inspiring goal to be set by the General
Assembly.
3. Assuring Respect for the Monitoring Organs of the UN
Involved in Human Rights
Since the mandate of the human rights monitoring agencies is
of a very serious nature, the UN needs to be particularly mindful
of perceptions created by the structure and processes of these
agencies and equally deliberate in acting to resolve compromising
situations.
We believe it would be prudent to explore during the nomination process the qualifications of member states in visible
positions and to exclude from election to membership on the
Commission on Human Rights and other monitoring agencies,
any member states that have not yet ratified the international
conventions. While these member states would still be able to
fully participate in deliberations, it would protect the United
Nations from a potentially embarrassing and compromising situation.
We also believe that a single exception is warranted to the
above rule. Member states, not under the scrutiny of the UN, that
have sufficient protection for fundamental human rights within
their constitutions, but which have not been able to complete the
ratification process because of internal political reasons, should

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not be barred from election to visible positions.
Finally, it also seems prudent for member states that have ratified the international conventions but are under scrutiny for gross
human rights violations to be disqualified from election to the
offices of conferences and other meetings of the Commission on
Human Rights. This will prevent a widespread perception of the
proceedings as a mockery.
C. Advancing The Status Of Women
The creation of a peaceful and sustainable world civilization will
be impossible without the full participation of women in every
arena of human activity. 35 While this proposition is increasingly
supported, there is a marked difference between intellectual acceptance and its implementation.
It is time for the institutions of the world, composed mainly of
men, to use their influence to promote the systematic inclusion of
women, not out of condescension or presumed self-sacrifice but as
an act motivated by the belief that the contributions of women are
required for society to progress. 36 Only as the contributions of
women are valued will they be sought out and woven into the fabric

35. "When all mankind shall receive the same opportunity of education and
the equality of men and women be realized, the foundations of war will be
utterly destroyed. Without equality this will be impossible because all differences and distinction are conducive to discord and strife. Equality
between men and women is conducive to the abolition of warfare for the
reason that women will never be willing to sanction it. Mothers will not
give their sons as sacrifices upon the battlefield after twenty years of anxiety and loving devotion in rearing them from infancy, no matter what
cause they are called upon to defend. There is no doubt that when women
obtain equality of rights, war will entirely cease among mankind." The
Promulgation of Universal Peace, pp. 174-75.
36. "Let it be known once more that until woman and man recognize and realize equality, social and political progress here or anywhere will not be
possible. For the world of humanity consists of two parts or members: one
is woman; the other is man. Until these two members are equal in strength,
the oneness of humanity cannot be established, and the happiness and
felicity of mankind will not be a reality. God willing, this is to be so." The
Promulgation of Universal Peace, p. 77.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

of society. The result will be a more peaceful, balanced, just and
prosperous civilization. 37
The obvious biological differences between the sexes need
not be a cause for inequality or disunity. Rather, they are an
aspect of complementarity. If the role of women as mothers is
properly valued, their work in nurturing and educating children
will be respected and properly rewarded. It should also be aclmowledged that the child-bearing role does not diminish one's
aptitude for leadership, or undermine one's intellectual, scientific
or creative capacity. Indeed, it may be an enhancement.
We believe progress on a few critical fronts would have the
greatest impact on the advancement of women. We share the
following perspectives which are foundational to the recommendations which follow.
First and foremost, violence against women and girls, one of
the most blatant and widespread abuses of human rights, must
be eradicated. Violence has been a fact of life for many women
throughout the world, regardless of race, class, or educational
background. In many societies, traditional beliefs that women
are inferior or a burden make them easy targets of anger and
frustration. Even strong legal remedies and enforcement mechanisms will have little effect until they are supported by a transformation in the attitudes of men. Women will not be safe until a
new social conscience takes hold, one which will make the mere
expression of condescending attitudes towards women, let alone
any form of physical violence, a cause of deep shame.

37. "The world in the past has been ruled by force, and man has dominated
over woman by reason of his more forceful and aggressive qualities both
of body and mind. But the balance is already shifting-force is losing
its weight and mental alertness, intuition, and the spiritual qualities oflove
and service, in which woman is strong, are gaining ascendancy. Hence
the new age will be an age less masculine, and more permeated with the
feminine ideals-or, to speak more exactly, will be an age in which the
masculine and feminine elements of civilization will be more evenly balanced." 'Abdu'l-Baha, quoted in John E. Esslemont, Baha 'u '!lith and the
New Era, 4th rev. ed. (Wilmette: Baha'i Books, published by Pyramid
Publications for Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1976), p. 156.

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Second, the family remains the basic building block of society
and behaviors observed and learned there will be projected onto
interactions at all other levels of society. Therefore, the members
of the institution of the family must be transformed so that the
principle of equality of women and men is internalized. Further,
if the bonds of love and unity cement family relationships, the
impact will reach beyond its borders and affect society as a whole.
Third, while the overall goal of any society must be to educate
all its members, at this stage in human history the greatest need is
to educate women and girls. 38 For over 20 years, studies have
consistently documented that, of all possible investments, educating women and girls pays the highest overall dividends in
terms of social development, the eradication of poverty and the
advancement of community. 39
Fourth, the global dialogue on the role of men and women
must promote recognition of the intrinsic complementarity of the
two sexes. For the differences between them are a natural assertion of the necessity of women and men to work together to bring

38. This principle, that women and girls should receive priority over men and
boys in access to education, has been a long-standing principle in the
Baha'i teachings. Speaking in 1912, 'Abdu'l-Baha said: "In proclaiming
the oneness of mankind [Baha'u'llah] taught that men and women are
equal in the sight of God and that there is no distinction to be made
between them. The only difference between them now is due to lack of
education and training. If woman is given equal oppmiunity of education,
distinction and estimate of inferiority will disappear .... Furthermore, the
education of women is of greater importance than the education of men,
for they are the mothers of the race, and mothers rear the children. The
first teachers of children are the mothers. Therefore, they must be capably
trained in order to educate both sons and daughters. There are many provisions in the words ofBaha'u'lhih in regard to this.
"He promulgated the adoption of the same course of education for man
and woman. Daughters and sons must follow the same curriculum of
study, thereby promoting unity of the sexes." The Promulgation of Universal Peace, pp. 174-75.
39. Lawrence H. Summers, Vice President & Chief Economist for the World
Bank, Investing in All the People. 1992. Also, USAID. 1989. Technical
Reports in Gender and Development. Making the Case for the Gender
Variable: Women and the Wealth and Well-being of Nations. Office of
Women in Development.

to fruition their potentialities for advancing civilization, no less
than for perpetuating the human race. Such differences are inherent in the interactive character of their common humanity.
This dialogue needs to consider the historical forces which have
led to the oppression of women and examine the new social,
political and spiritual realities which are today transforming our
civilization.
As a starting point for this dialogue we offer this analogy from
the Baha'i Writings: "The world of humanity has two wingsone is women and the other men. Not until both wings are
equally developed can the bird fly. Should one wing remain weak,
flight is impossible. " 40 In addition, we support the following three
specific measures.
1. Increasing the Participation of Women in Member State
Delegations
We recommend that member states be encouraged to appoint an
increased number of women to ambassadorial or similar diplomatic
positions.
2. Encouraging Universal Rat~fication ofInternational
Conventions that Protect Women's Rights and Improve their
Status
As with the international conventions on human rights, the Secretary-General and all bodies of the UN should consider every
opportunity to encourage member states to proceed with ratification of conventions and protocols that protect women's rights
and seek their advancement.
3. Planning Ahead for Implementation of the Beijing Platform of
Action
The Forward-Looking Strategies declaration adopted at the
Nairobi conference was highly bold and imaginative, yet its
implementation was rather ineffective. 41 We believe that a lesson

40. Selections fi'Oln the Writings of 'Abdu 'l-Baha, p. 302.
41. The Nairobi FoiWard-Looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women.
As adopted by the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development
and Peace, Nairobi, Kenya, 15-26 July 1985.

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should be learned from this unfortunate experience and deliberate plans be put into place to ensure that the Platform of Action
emerging from the Beijing conference does not meet a similar
fate.
We propose that a monitoring system be established to prepare status reports on the implementation of adopted measures
and to make presentations to the General Assembly annually,
highlighting the top 20 and bottom 20 member states in terms of
compliance.
D. Emphasizing Moral Development
The process of integrating human beings into larger and larger
groups, although influenced by culture and geography, has been
driven largely by religion, the most powerful agent for changing
human attitudes and behavior. By religion, however, we mean
the essential foundation or reality of religion, not the dogmas and
blind imitations which have gradually encrusted it and which are
the cause of its decline and effacement.
In the words of 'Abdu'l-Baha, "Material civilization is like
the body. No matter how infinitely graceful, elegant and beautiful it may be, it is dead. Divine civilization is like the spirit, and
the body gets its life from the spirit. ... Without the spirit the world
of mankind is lifeless." 42
The concept of promoting specific morals or values may be
controversial, especially in this age of humanistic relativism.
Nevertheless, we firmly believe there exists a common set of
values that have been obscured from recognition by those who
exaggerate minor differences in religious or cultural practice for
political purposes. 43 These foundation virtues, taught by all
spiritual communities, constitute a basic framework for moral
development.

42. Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu '1-Baha, p. 303.
43. The interfaith declaration entitled "Towards a Global Ethic," which was
produced by an assembly of religious and spiritual leaders from virtually
every major world religion and spiritual movement at the 1993 Parliament
of the World's Religions in Chicago, suggests that it is indeed possible
for the world's religions to find much common ground in this regard. The
declaration states: "We affirm that a common set of core values is found in

Reflection on the commonalities inherent in the great religious
and moral systems of the world reveals that each one espouses
unity, cooperation and harmony among people, establishes
guidelines for responsible behavior and supports the development
of virtues which are the foundation for trust-based and principled
interactions. 44
1. Prom,oting the Development of Curriculafor Moral Education
in Schools
We advocate a universal campaign to promote moral development.
Simply put, this campaign should encourage and assist local
initiatives all over the world to incorporate a moral dimension
into the education of children. It may necessitate the holding of

43. (cont.)
the teachings of the religions, and that these form the basis of a global
ethic ... There already exist ancient guidelines for human behavior which
are found in the teachings of the religions of the world and which are the
condition for a sustainable world order."
44. The Golden Rule, the teaching that we should treat others as we ourselves
would wish to be treated, is an ethic variously repeated in all the great
religions:
Buddhism: "Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful." Udana-Varqa, 5:18.
Zoroastrianism: "That nature only is good when it shall not do unto
another whatever is not good for its own self." Dadistan-i Dinik, 94:5.
Judaism: "What is hateful to you, do not to your fellow men. That is
the entire Law, all the rest is commentary." The Talmud, Shabbat, 3la.
Hinduism: "This is the sum of all true righteousness: deal with others
as thou wouldst thyself be dealt by. Do nothing to thy neighbor which
thou wouldst not have him do to thee after." The Mahabharata.
Christianity: "As ye would that men should do to you, do ye also to
them likewise." Luke 6:31.
Islam: ''No one of you is a believer until he desires for his brother that
which he desires for himself." Sunnah.
Taoism: The good man "ought to pity the malignant tendencies of others;
to regard their gains as if they were his own, and their losses in the
same way." The Thai-Shang.
Confucianism: "Surely it is the maxim of loving-kindness: Do not unto
others that you would not have them do unto you." Analects, XV, 23
Baha'i Faith: "He should not wish for others that which he doth not
wish for himself, nor promise that which he doth not fulfill." Gleanings
ji-om the Writings ofBaha 'u 'llah.

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conferences, the publication of relevant materials and many other
supportive activities, all of which represent a solid investment in a
future generation.
This campaign for moral development may begin with a few
simple precepts. For example, rectitude of conduct, trustworthiness, and honesty are the foundation for stability and progress;
altruism should guide all human endeavor, such that sincerity
and respect for the rights of others become an integral part of
every individual's actions; service to humanity is the true source
of happiness, honor and meaning in life.
We also believe the campaign will be successful only to the
extent that the force of religion is relied upon in the effort. The
doctrine of the separation of church and state should not be used
as a shield to block this salutary influence. Specifically, religious
communities will have to be drawn in as collaborative partners in
this important initiative.
As it proceeds, this campaign will accelerate a process of individual empowerment that will transform the way in which people,
regardless of economic class, social standing, or ethnic, racial or
religious background, interact with their society.

V. A Turning Point for All Nations: A Call to World Leaders
We have reached a turning point in the progress of nations.

Unification of the whole of mankind is the hall-1nark of the
stage which human society is now approaching. Unity of family, of tribe, of city-state, and nation have been successively
atte1npted and fully established. World unity is the goal towards which a harassed humanity is striving. Nation-building
has come to an end. The anarchy inherent in state sovereignty
is 1noving towards a climax. A world, growing to 1naturity,
1nust abandon this fetish, recognize the oneness and wholeness of hutnan relationships, and establish once for all the
1nachinery that can best incarnate this fundatnental principle
of its life. 45

45. The World OrderofBaha'u'llah, p. 202.

THE BAHA'f WORLD

Over a century ago, Baha'u'llah taught that there is but one
God, that there is only one human race, and that all the world's
religions represent stages in the revelation of God's will and purpose for humanity. Baha'u'llah announced the arrival of the time,
foretold in all of the world's scriptures, when humanity would at
last witness the uniting of all peoples into a peaceful and integrated
society.
He said that human destiny lies not merely in the creation of a
materially prosperous society, but also in the construction of a global civilization where individuals are encouraged to act as moral
beings who understand their true nature and are able to progress
toward a greater fulfillment that no degree of material bounty
alone can provide.
Baha'u'llah was also among the first to invoke the phrase "new
world order" to describe the momentous changes in the political,
social and religious life of the world. "The signs of impending
convulsions and chaos can now be discerned, inasmuch as the prevailing Order appeareth to be lamentably defective," He wrote.
"Soon will the present-day order be rolled up and a new one
spread out in its stead. "46
To this end, He laid a charge on the leaders and members of
society alike. "It is not for him to pride himself who loveth his
own country, but rather for him who loveth the whole world. The
earth is but one country and mankind its citizens."47
Above all else, leaders for the next generation must be motivated by a sincere desire to serve the entire community and must
understand that leadership is a responsibility; not a path to privilege. For too long, leadership has been understood, by both leaders
and followers, as the assertion of control over others. Indeed, this

46. Baha'u'lhih. The Proclamation of Baha 'u 'llah to the Kings and Leaders
ofthe World (Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1967), p. 113.
47. Baha'u'llah, Tablets of Baha 'u 'llah revealed after the Kitab-i-Aqdas,
comp. Research Department of the Universal House of Justice, trans.
Habib Taherzadeh with the assistance of a Committee at the Baha'i World
Centre (Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1978), p. 167.

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age demands a new definition of leadership and a new type of
leader. 48
This is especially true in the international arena. In order to
establish a sense of trust, win the confidence, and inculcate a fond
affinity in the hearts of the world's people for institutions of the
international order, these leaders will have to reflect on their own
actions.
Through an unblemished record of personal integrity, they
must help restore confidence and trust in government. They must
embody the characteristics of honesty, humility and sincerity
of purpose in seeking the truth of a situation. They must be committed to and guided by principles, thereby acting in the best
long-term interests of humanity as a whole.
"Let your vision be world-embracing, rather than confined to
your own selves," Baha'u'lhih wrote. "Do not busy yourselves in
your own concerns; let your thoughts be fixed upon that which
will rehabilitate the fortunes of mankind and sanctify the hearts
and souls of men. " 49

48. The Commission on Global Governance writes: "As the world faces the
need for enlightened responses to the challenges that arise on the eve of
the new century, we are concerned at the lack of leadership over a wide
spectrum of human affairs. At national, regional, and international levels,
within communities and in international organizations, in governments
and in non-governmental bodies, the world needs credible and sustained
leadership.
"It needs leadership that is proactive, not simply reactive, that is
inspired, not simply functional, that looks to the longer term and future
generations for whom the present is held in trust. It needs leaders made
strong by vision, sustained by ethics, and revealed by political courage that
looks beyond the next election.
"This cannot be leadership confined within domestic walls. It must
reach beyond country, race, religion, culture, language, life-style. It must
embrace a wider human constituency, be infused with a sense of caring for
others, a sense of responsibility to the global neighborhood." Our Global
Neighborhood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 353.
49. Gleanings from the Writings ofBaha'u'llah, p. 7.

This statement by the Baha'i
International Community was
prepared for the United Nations
Fourth World Conference on
Women, held in Beijing,
September 1995.

The Role of Religion in Promoting
TH~DVANCEMENT
of WOMEN

A bold and courageous plan for the advancement of both
men and women, the Platform for Action of the Fourth
World Conference on Women stands on solid ground. It sets out
an Agenda for Equality which stresses women's rights as human
rights, emphasizes shared responsibility and partnership between
women and men, and calls for immediate action to create a peaceful, developed and just world, based on the principle of equality and
built on the strength of women's knowledge, energy, creativity
and skills. Thus the Platform for Action addresses the advancement of women from the standpoint of moral principle, as distinct
from pure pragmatism.
The Baha'i International Community is encouraged by and
applauds this principled approach, but we feel it must go much
farther. If the Platform for Action is to win the worldwide support it requires for successful implementation, the principle on
which it is founded, the equality of men and women, needs to be
understood as an essential aspect of an even broader principle:
the oneness of humanity. Properly understood in the context of

the oneness of humanity, equality of the sexes must be embraced
not only as a requirement of justice but as a prerequisite for
peace and prosperity. Nothing short of a compelling vision of
peace, and commitment to the values on which it must be based,
will have the power to motivate the revolutionary changes in
individual behavior, organizational structures, and interpersonal
dynamics called for by the Platform for Action.
Traditionally, religion has been one of the most powerful
sources of both vision and values. Every religion, particularly in
its early stages, has evoked a new vision for society, articulated
values consonant with that vision, and inspired both personal
and institutional transformation. At the same time, it must be
acknowledged that religion has also been a source of division
and social fragmentation. Indeed, the record of religions in
promoting the advancement of women has been uneven. While,
typically, in the early years of their existence, religions have
tended to encourage the participation of women, historical
evidence suggests a gradual tendency among religious institutions over time to establish practices and support attitudes that
impede the development of women's potential.
Because religion is such a potentially powerful force for
progress, religious leaders and people of faith everywhere are
urged to step forward as lovers of humanity to promote those
eternal, unifying principles-or spiritual values-that can inspire
in both individuals and governments the will to implement the
Agenda for Equality.
Foremost is the principle of the oneness of humankind. It lies
at the heart of the exhortation that we should treat others as we
ourselves would wish to be treated, an ethical standard upheld in
some form by every religion. To establish justice, peace and
order in an interdependent world, this principle must guide all
interactions, including those between men and women. If the
treatment of women were scrutinized in the light of this ethical
standard, we would doubtless move beyond many traditional,
religious and cultural practices.
The personal transformation required for true equality will
undoubtedly be difficult for men and women alike. Both must
relinquish all attachment to guilt and blame and courageously

ADVANCEMENT OFWOMEN

assume responsibility for their own part in transforming the
societies in which they live. Men must use their influence, particularly in the civil, political and religious institutions they control,
to promote the systematic inclusion of women, not out of condescension or presumed self-sacrifice but out of the belief that the
contributions of women are required for society to progress.
Women, for their part, must become educated and step forward
into all arenas of human activity, contributing their particular
qualities, skills and experience to the social, economic and
political equation. Women and men together will ensure the
establishment of world peace and sustainable development of
the planet.
Religious leaders and people of faith everywhere have a special
responsibility to reaffirm those eternal spiritual principles that
unite and.bind together the hearts and release the capacities of
every soul. Galvanized by the spirit and vision of the oneness of
the human family, women and men together can, in the spirit
of the Agenda for Equality, create a peaceful, just and prosperous
world in which to nurture the generations to come.

Written statement for the 47th
Session of the Sub-Commission on
Prevention ofDiscrimination and
Protection ofMinorities,
Geneva, 31 July to 2 5 August
1995.

The Realization of
ECONOMIC,
sociAL & CuLTURAL
RIGHTS

A s the twentieth century draws to a close, it is no longer
possible to maintain the belief that the approach to social
and economic development to which the materialistic conception
of life has given rise is capable of meeting humanity's needs.
Optimistic forecasts about the changes it would generate have
vanished into the ever widening abyss that separates the living
standards of a small and relatively diminishing minority of the
world's inhabitants from the poverty experienced by the vast
majority of the globe's population. 1
The Baha'i International Community believes that it is unrealistic
to imagine that the vision of the next stage in the advancement of
civilization can be formulated without a searching reexamination of
the attitudes and assumptions that currently underlie approaches to
social and economic development. At the most obvious level, such
rethinking will have to address practical matters of policy, resource

1. Baha'i International Community's Office ofPublic Information, The Prosperity of Humankind, Introduction, para. 7. (See The Baha'i World 1994-95,
pp. 273-96 for the full text of this statement.)

utilization, planning procedures, implementation methodologies,
and organization. As it proceeds, however, fundamental issues will
quicldy emerge, related to the long-term goals to be pursued, the
social structures required, the implications for development of
principles of social justice, and the nature and role of knowledge
in effecting enduring change. Indeed, such a reexamination will be
driven to seek a broad consensus of understanding about human
nature itself. 2 We are being shown that, unless the development of
society finds a purpose beyond the mere amelioration of material
conditions, it will fail of attaining even these goals. That purpose
must be sought in spiritual dimensions of life and motivation that
transcend a constantly changing economic landscape and an artificially imposed division of human societies into "developed" and
"developing." 3
The bedrock of a strategy that can engage the world's population in assuming responsibility for its collective destiny must be
the consciousness of the oneness of humankind. 4 The human
species is an organic whole, the leading edge of the evolutionary
process. That human consciousness necessarily operates through
an infinite diversity of individual minds and motivations detracts
in no way from its essential unity. Indeed, it is precisely an inhering diversity that distinguishes unity from homogeneity or
uniformity. What the peoples of the world are today experiencing,
Baha'u'lhih, the Founder of the Baha'i Faith, said, is their collective coming-of-age, and it is through this emerging maturity of the
race that the principle of unity in diversity will fmd full expression. 5
Justice is the one power that can translate the dawning consciousness of humanity's oneness into a collective will through which
the necessary structures of global community life can be confidently erected. 6
At the group level, a concern for justice is the indispensable
compass in collective decision making, because it is the only

2. Introduction, para. 4.
3. Introduction, para. 8, 11. 5-10.
4. Chapter I, para. 1, 11. 1-3.
5. Chapter I, para. 3, 11. 2-9.
6. Chapter II, para. 1, 11. 1-3.

goNOMIC, sociAL,AND CULTURAL RIGHTS

means by which unity of thought and action can be achieved. Far
from encouraging the punitive spirit that has often masqueraded
under its name in past ages, justice is the practical expression of
awareness that, in the achievement of human progress, the
interests of the individual and those of society are inextricably
linked. To the extent that justice becomes a guiding concern of
human interaction, a consultative climate is encouraged that permits
options to be examined dispassionately and appropriate courses
of action selected. In such a climate the perennial tendencies
toward manipulation and partisanship are far less likely to deflect
the decision-making process. 7
The implications for social and economic development are
profound. Concern for justice protects the task of defming progress
from the temptation to sacrifice the well-being of the generality
of humankind-and even of the planet itself-to the advantages
which technological breakthroughs can make available to privileged minorities. In design and planning, it ensures that limited
resources are not diverted to the pursuit of projects extraneous to
a community's essential social or economic priorities. Above all,
only development programs that are perceived as meeting their
needs and as being just and equitable in objective can hope to
engage the commitment of the masses of humanity, upon whom
implementation depends. 8
What Baha'u'llah is calling for is a consultative process in which
the individual participants strive to transcend their respective
points of view, in order to function as members of a body with
its own interests and goals. In such an atmosphere, characterized
by both candor and courtesy, ideas belong not to the individual
to whom they occur during the discussion but to the group as a
whole, to take up, discard, or revise as seems to best serve the goal
pursued. Consultation succeeds to the extent that all participants
support the decisions arrived at, regardless of the individual
opinions with which they entered the discussion. 9 Viewed in
such a light, consultation is the operating expression of justice in

7. Chapter II, para. 3.
8. Chapter II, para. 4, 11. 1-10.
9. Chapter III, para. 5, 11. 1-9.

human affairs. So vital is it to the success of collective endeavor
that it must constitute a basic feature of a viable strategy of social
and economic development. 10
Universal education will be an indispensable contributor to
the process of capacity building, but the effort will succeed only
as human affairs are so reorganized as to enable both individuals
and groups in every sector of society to acquire knowledge and
apply it to the shaping of human affairs. 11
Throughout recorded history, human consciousness has depended upon two basic knowledge systems through which its
potentialities have progressively been expressed: science and
religion. Through these two agencies, the race's experience has
been organized, its environment interpreted, its latent powers
explored, and its moral and intellectual life disciplined. 12 It is,
therefore, in the context of raising the level of human capacity
through the expansion of knowledge at all levels that the economic
issues facing humankind need to be addressed. 13 Instruments of
social and economic change so powerful must cease to be the
patrimony of advantaged segments of society, and must be so
organized as to permit people everywhere to participate in such
activity on the basis of capacity. 14
Moreover, as the experience of recent decades has demonstrated, material benefits and endeavors cannot be regarded as
ends in themselves. Their value consists not only in providing for
humanity's basic needs in housing, food, health care, and the like,
but in extending the reach of human abilities. The most important
role that economic efforts must play in development lies, therefore, in equipping people and institutions with the means through
which they can achieve the real purpose of development: that is,
laying foundations for a new social order that can cultivate the
limitless potentialities latent in human consciousness. 15

10. Chapter III, para. 6, 11. 1-4.
11. Chapter IV, para. 1, 11. 5-8.
12. Chapter IV, para. 2, 11. 1-5.
13. Chapter V, para. 1, 11. 1-3.
14. Chapter IV, para. 4, 11. 2-5.
15. Chapter V, para. 1, 11. 3-11.

goNOMIC, socJAL,AND CULTURAL RIGHTS

Only in this way can economics and the related sciences free
themselves from the undertow of the materialistic preoccupations that now distract them, and fulfill their potential as tools
vital to achieving human well-being in the full sense of the term.
Nowhere is the need for a rigorous dialogue between the work of
science and the insights of religion more apparent. 16
The problem of poverty is a case in point. Proposals aimed at
addressing it are predicated on the conviction that material resources
exist, or can be created by scientific and technological endeavor,
which will alleviate and eventually entirely eradicate this age-old
condition as a feature of human life. A major reason why such relief
is not achieved is that the necessary scientific and technological
advances respond to a set of priorities only tangentially related to the
real interests of the generality of humanldnd. A radical reordering
of these priorities will be required if the burden of poverty is
fmally to be lifted from the world. Such an achievement demands
a determined quest for appropriate values, a quest that will test
profoundly both the spiritual and scientific resources of humankind. Religion will be severely hampered in contributing to this joint
undertaking so long as it is held prisoner by sectarian doctrines
which cannot distinguish between contentment and mere passivity
and which teach that poverty is an inherent feature of earthly life,
escape from which lies only in the world beyond. To participate
effectively in the struggle to bring material well-being to humanity,
the religious spirit must find-in the Source of inspiration from
which it flows-new spiritual concepts and principles relevant to an
age that seeks to establish unity and justice in human affairs. 17
A challenge of similar nature faces economic thinlcing as a result
of the environmental crisis. The fallacies in theories based on the
belief that there is no limit to nature's capacity to fulfill any
demand made on it by human beings have now been coldly
exposed. A culture which attaches absolute value to expansion,
to acquisition, and to the satisfaction of people's wants is being
compelled to recognize that such goals are not, by themselves,
realistic guides to policy. Inadequate, too, are approaches to

16. Chapter V, para. 2, 11. 3-8.
17. Chapter V, para. 3.

economic issues whose decision-making tools cannot deal with
the fact that most of the major challenges are global rather than
particular in scope. 18
The effect of the persistent denial to women of full equality with
men sharpens still further the challenge to science and religion
in the economic life of humankind. To any objective observer
the principle of the equality of the sexes is fundamental to all
realistic thinking about the future well-being of the earth and its
people. It represents a truth about human nature that has waited
largely unrecognized throughout the long ages of the race's
childhood and adolescence. 19 A commitment to the establishment
of full equality between men and women, in all departments of
life and at every level of society, will be central to the success
of efforts to conceive and implement a strategy of global development.20
The task of creating a global development strategy that will
accelerate humanity's coming-of-age constitutes a challenge to
reshape fundamentally all the institutions of society. The protagonists to whom the challenge addresses itself are all of the
inhabitants of the planet: the generality of humankind, members
of governing institutions at all levels, persons serving in agencies of international coordination, scientists and social thinkers,
all those endowed with artistic talents or with access to the
media of communication, and leaders of nongovernmental organizations. 21 The enterprise requires a radical rethinking of most
of the concepts and assumptions currently governing social and
economic life. It must be wedded, as well, to a conviction that,
however long the process and whatever setbacks may be encountered, the governance of human affairs can be conducted along
lines that serve humanity's real needs. 22

18. Chapter V, para. 6.
19. Chapter V, para. 9, 11. 1-7.
20. Chapter V, para. 9, 11. 11-15.
21. Chapter VII, para. 1, 11. 1-8.
22. Chapter VII, para. 1, 11. 13-18.

The Baha '{International
Community submitted this
statement on the United Nations
Decade for Human Rights
Education to the UN Commission
on Human Rights in March 1996.

HUMAN RIGHTS
EDUCATION

T he Baha'i International Community wholeheartedly welcomes
the proclamation of the United Nations Decade for Human
Rights Education (hereafter, "the Decade"). We believe that education is indispensable to the realization of human rights. Education
which instills in hearts and minds an awareness of and a sensitivity
to the human rights of all persons constitutes, in our opinion, an
essential tool for the promotion and implementation of international
human rights standards.
In particular, we welcome the emphasis of the Commission
on Human Rights on the importance of a holistic educational
approach. In Resolution 1995/4 7, for example, the Commission
expressed its conviction that "human rights education, both formal
and non-formal, should involve more than the provision of information and should constitute a comprehensive life-long process
by which people at all levels of development and in all strata of
society learn respect for the dignity of others and the means and
methods of ensuring that respect in all societies." Moreover, the
Commission echoed the inspirational words of Article 26 of the

THE BAHA'I WORLD

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which proclaims that
"education shall be directed to the full development of the human
personality and to the strengthening of respect for fundamental
human rights and freedoms." 1
The Plan of Action prepared by the High Commissioner for
Human Rights reflects this integrated conception of education by
defining human rights education as "training, dissemination and
information efforts aimed at the building of a universal culture of
human rights through the imparting of knowledge and skills and
the molding of attitudes which are directed to:

(a) The strengthening of respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms;
(b) The full development of the hutnan personality and
the sense of its dignity;
(c) The promotion of understanding, tolerance, gender
equality and friendship among all nations, indigenous peoples
and racial, national, ethnic, religious and linguistic groups;
(d) The enabling of all persons to participate effectively in
a free society; and
(e) The furtherance of the activities of the United Nations
for the maintenance of peace. 2

The Baha'i International Community fully embraces these
goals and objectives. Human rights education, if it is to succeed,
must seek to transform individual attitudes and behavior and
thereby establish, within every local and national community, a
new "culture" of respect for human rights. Only such a change in
the fundamental social outlook of every individual-whether a
government official or an ordinary citizen-can bring about the
universal observance of human rights principles in the daily lives
of people. In the final analysis, the human rights of an individual
are respected and protected-or violated-by other individuals,
even if they are acting in an official capacity. Accordingly, it
is essential to touch the hearts, and elevate the behavior, of all

1. Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1995/47 (3 March 1995).
2. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights,
Plan ofAction for the United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education, 1995-2004, para. 2 (1995) (hereafter Plan ofAction).

HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION

human beings, if, in the words of the Plan ofAction, human rights
are to be transformed "from the expression of abstract norms" to
the "reality" of the "social, economic, cultural and political
conditions" experienced by people in their daily lives. 3
The Baha'i teachings have long advocated both moral and
intellectual education as essential to enabling human beings to
realize their full potential as contributing members of socially and
spiritually advancing communities. Baha'u'llah, the Prophet-
Founder of the Baha'i Faith, proclaimed that "Man is the supreme
Talisman. Lack of a proper education hath, however, deprived him
of that which he doth inherently possess." Baha'u'llah furthermore
counseled: "Regard man as a mine rich in gems of inestimable
value. Education can, alone, cause it to reveal its treasures, and
enable mankind to benefit therefrom."4
In the Baha'i view, the education required to enrich the human
mind and spirit must seek to develop those essentially moral
attributes-including truthfulness, courtesy, generosity, compassion, justice, love, and trustworthiness-whose reflection in
the everyday lives of human beings can create harmonious,
productive families and communities and make the enjoyment
of fundamental rights a reality for all their members. Such
education, moreover, must help to instill in every individual a
keen, emotionally grounded awareness of the fundamental unity
of humankind. As people begin to see each other as members of
one human family, they will become willing to discard negative
learned stereotypes and begin to see people of other ethnic
groups, nationalities, classes and religious beliefs as potential
friends rather than as threats or enemies.
Educational programs undertaken as part of the Decade must also
cultivate a greater understanding that to each right is attached a
corresponding responsibility. The right to be recognized as a
person before the law, for example, implies the responsibility to
obey the law-and to make both the laws and the legal system
more just. Likewise, in the socioeconomic realm, the right to

3. Plan ofAction, para. 6.
4. Baha'u'lhih, Gleanings from the Writings of Baha 'u 'llah (Wilmette:
Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1976), pp. 269-70.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

marry carries with it the responsibility to support the family unit,
to educate one's children and to treat all family members with
respect. The right to work cannot be divorced from the responsibility to perform one's duties to the best of one's ability. In the
broadest sense, the notion of "universal" human rights implies a
responsibility to humanity as a whole. This interplay between rights
and responsibilities has, for nearly fifty years, been acknowledged
in Article 29 of the Universal Declaration, and is reaffirmed in
the Plan of Action itself. 5 Human rights education should
accordingly focus on developing an awareness of the connection
between rights and responsibilities and of the personal responsibility we each have to safeguard the rights of our fellow human
beings.
In Turning Point for All Nations, a statement issued on the
occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations, the
Baha'i International Community called for a universal campaign to
promote moral education. 6 Because Baha'is believe that moral
education is needed to bring about the "universal culture of human
rights" envisioned by the Plan ofAction, and because an individual's fundamental moral framework is formed at a very young age,
we strongly endorse the Plan of Action's call for beginning human rights-inspired education in early childhood. 7 We encourage
governments and nongovernmental organizations, including religious
organizations, to consider ways of instilling an awareness of human
rights, human unity, and responsibilities towards others in educational programs for the youngest children. Indeed, because girls
will become the mothers and primary educators of the next
generation, we also recommend that if educational resources are
limited, the girl child be accorded priority.

5. See Plan of Action, para. 21, which recommends that the general public
"be the subject of far-reaching human rights information efforts designed
to infonn them of their rights and responsibilities under the international
human rights instruments."
6. Baha'i International Community, Turning Point for All Nations: A Statement of the Baha'i International Community on the Occasion of the 5Oth
Anniversary of the United Nations (1995), p. 21. See pp. 40-41 of this
volume.
7. Plan ofAction, para. 25.

HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION

Finally, the Baha'i writings affirm that religion is the chief
instrument "for the establishment of order in the world and of
tranquillity amongst its peoples." 8 We, therefore, believe that
religious organizations have an especially important role to play
in providing the type of values-centered education we have
described here, and we welcome their explicit inclusion in the
Plan ofAction.
Baha'i communities in 173 countries are already both promoting and providing education, based on the principle of the
oneness of humanity, which seeks to cultivate respect for the
rights of others, a sense of responsibility for the well-being of the
human family, and the moral attributes that contribute to a just,
harmonious and peaceful world civilization. As a fundamental
tenet of their religion, Baha'is are committed to the eradication
of all forms of prejudice, including those based on race, ethnic
origin, religion, sex or nationality-prejudices that fuel hatred
and cause otherwise good people to deprive their fellow citizens
of their rights. Baha'is are thereby working to build, in the communities in which they reside, that new culture conducive to the
universal enjoyment of human rights that is a primary goal of the
Decade. As the United Nations and national focal points in member
states develop curricula for the Decade, the Baha'i International
Community would be pleased to offer whatever insights might be
useful, based on its century and a half of experience promoting
respect for the rights of all people.

8. Baha'u'lhih, Tablets of Baha 'u 'llah (Haifa: World Centre Publications,
1978), pp. 63-64.

PROFILE:
_A?SOCIATION
forthe COHERENT
DEVELOPMENT
ofthe AMAZON

I n 1994, eight young people from different rural communities
in the Amazon concluded their high school studies at the
Djalal Eghrari Polytechnical Institute in Iranduba, Brazil. During
the ceremony, many of the parents were seen crying as they
watched their children graduate-an unbelievable dream in the
Amazon where these youth were the only ones in their communities to have finished their secondary studies.
The Dj alai Eghrari Polytechnical Institute is one of the components of the Association for the Coherent Development of the
Amazon (ADCAM). ADCAM, a non-profit organization based
on Baha'i principles and dedicated to the education and development of the population of the rural regions of the Amazonas
state, was initiated following the call of the Universal House of
Justice in 1983 for greater involvement of Baha'i communities in
social and economic development. In January 1984, the National
Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Brazil sent a research team,
whose members had a collective experience of more than 30
years tn the region and who were professionals in the fields of

THE BAHA'f WORLD

The Djalal
Eghrari Polytechnical Institute in
Iranduba, Brazil,
places emphasis on
agriculture and
rural development.

health, education, agriculture, and rural development, to survey
the possibilities of greater participation in the socioeconomic
development of the Amazon. Three distinct aspects identified by
this team as crucial to the progress of the region-education,
health care, and the development of the rural economy-therefore became the focus of this organization.
Specifically, AD CAM seeks to furnish the means by which
rural populations may gain competence in the fields of education,
health, and rural production; to research jointly with local populations options for self-sustained development; to offer educational
and social services to the community; to build capacities for the
formation and administration of grassroots organizations; to use
consultation as a method of group decision making for the
solution of social and economic problems; to promote consciousness of the interdependence of all the members of society, and of
people and nature; and to establish a dynamic coherence between
the spiritual and material aspects of life.
The first major initiative of ADCAM was the establishment of
the Eghrari Institute in 1984 to fulfill two distinct purposes: to
assist with Baha'i activities and to provide practical and academic
education for the local youth. The institute began its operations in
1988 with a 19-day rotational cycle: for 19 days about 20 male
and 20 female students study in Iranduba and then return to their
villages for the same period of time to apply the principles they
have learned. The practical work performed by the students

ADCAM

during the 19-day period in their communities involves simple
individual or group projects in which students carry out assignents, often consisting of an elementary survey of their own
communities under the categories of agriculture, health, water,
and social conditions.
In order to expand its capacity to serve the needs of the region,
the school is presently shifting from a four-year state-sponsored
curriculum to address the following five lines of action: (1) formal
education, through modifying the existing school to follow the
System of Tutorial Apprenticeship (SAT), an integrated rural
education program pioneered by FUNDAEC in Colombia 1;
(2) community development, focusing on the creation of community structures based on the Baha'i teachings to maintain basic
health, education, production and organization; (3) preparation of
sufficient educational materials for the execution of short training
courses and for the application of SAT; (4) training of human
resources, which includes creating opportunities for the staff of
the institute, as members of a nongovernmental organization, to
develop their administrative abilities in rural education and
development and in the SAT program; and (5) the establishment
of an efficient administrative model for the institute, enabling it to
execute its diverse programs.
On 3 January 1995, the Canadian Deputy Prime Minister and
Minister of Environment visited the Djalal Eghrari Institute,
which is partly funded by the Canadian embassy. Her scheduled
30-minute inspection of the project expanded to about two hours
because of her enthusiasm and interest. She later stated that this
was the best part of her tour of the Amazon.

1. FUNDAEC (Fundaci6n para la Aplicaci6n y Enseiianza de las Ciencias)
is a non-profit organization seeking to counter the effects of industrialization in rural Colombia. Founded in 1974 and based in Cali, FUNDAEC
uses Baha'i principles in its approach to development and sponsors anumber of rural development programs, including a microenterprise project, an
agro-industrial training center, and the SAT program for rural education.
For further infonnation on FUNDAEC and its projects, see One Country,
the quarterly newsletter of the Baha'i Intetnational Community, vol. 7, no.
4 (January-March 1996) and vol. 8, no. 1 (April-June 1996).

The second major program of ADCAM, the Nucleus or Center
for Social Welfare, located in Manaus, Amazonas, emerged from
the Lar Linda Tanure orphanage. In 1985, the Baha'is were asked
by a group of businessmen and the government to establish and
administer a home for abandoned children. Its approach clearly
reflects the Baha'i view of human nature. In the words of Ferial
Farzin, the center's director, "we search for the jewel that we
believe exists inside each person."
By 1991, Lar Linda had expanded its sphere of operations to
include educational programs for children and pre-adolescents,
including moral education in addition to regular academic subjects.
Courses for women from the surrounding low-income neighborhood included health, hygiene, nutrition and disease prevention.

Students outside
the Lar Linda
~;;.;;::~~~ Tanure school,
a component of
the Association
for the
Coherent
Development
of the Amazon
(AD CAM).

One outreach initiative saw the organization of a mothers'
group in the neighborhood immediately adjacent to the schoolan example of how the students' parents can become a force for
social change and action. Members of the group walk around
together in the evenings, visiting families with problems and
providing mutual support. As one member of the group said,
"The Baha'i community gives us a new vision. Many, many
people promise us things. But they do little accomplishment. But
the Baha'is are always willing to serve, and they show us that
examp1e. "
The Center's success is reflected in the fact that by 1992 more
than 250 abandoned children had been served by the orphanage;

ADCAM

of this number approximately 60 percent had been adopted,
while another 40 percent had returned to their parents. A total of
more than 140 students had taken part in an outreach program.
By 1993, Lar Linda had fully evolved from an orphanage into
a school, and it signed an agreement with the Baha'i-owned
Masrour Association to establish the Masrour Vocational School
on the property. The main purpose of the vocational school is to
provide the students with some skills while making them conscious of their social responsibilities. Students can take courses in
hairdressing, child and adolescent psychology, human relations,
moral education, and first aid.
Christina Ihhamus de Paula, a teacher at Masrour, said that if
the school had not been established to serve children in the area,
"most of them would be abandoned and like many other children
they would live in the streets." She continued, "many of the
students are from the poorest class of society and they lack care
and tenderness. I feel myself that they need my love, because
they often don't have it at home. Not all of them get enough to
eat, so the need for the school is very important."
Presently, there are more than 350 children and youth attending
the Lar Linda School, and about 200 people participating in the
Masrour Vocational Program.
Having sustained and expanded its initiatives for more than a
decade, ADCAM is achieving its goal to provide a regional system
whereby the spiritual needs of the long-suffering rural population
of the region can be met in conjunction with their material progress. The Association is motivating the rural population to seek
alternative solutions to their present problems rather than thinking
they have left them behind by seeking the overly crowded urban
centers.

- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------;
JNFOR~TION
ESOURCES
OBITUARIES

Rodney Lynn Belcher
This is worship: to serve manldnd and became a Baha'i in 1957.
and to minister to the needs of Together the Belchers raised two
the people. Service is prayer. sons.
A physician ministering to the
sick, gently, tenderly, free from At the time of his passing, Dr.
prejudice and believing in the Belcher was etnployed by Health
solidarity of the human race, he Volunteers Overseas, an organiis giving praise. zation which is based in Wash-
'Abdu '1-Baha ington, D.C. and implements an
orthopedics project in Uganda
Rodney Lynn Belcher, a tnember funded by US AID. He had spent
of the Ugandan Baha'i commu- tnany years in East Africa both
nity, was shot and killed on 11 teaching and practicing ortho-
March 1996 by vehicle hijackers pedic surgery, focusing initially
in the parking lot of Mulago on victitns of war and later also
Hospital in Kampala. He was 64 treating the effects of polio and
years old. other diseases.
Born in the United States on 2 Dr. Belcher first went to Uganda
November 1931, Rodney Belcher in the early 1980s as a Fulbright
married Dawn Dayton in 1953 lecturer in Makerere. He trained

tnany of Uganda's physicians in using canes or sitnple walking
orthopedics, and he established sticks Dr. Belcher had assisted
the tnaster of tnedicine progrmn them to obtain. Virtually the
in orthopedic surgery at Mulago entire staff of the U.S. Embassy
Hospital. He collaborated with and of USAID were there, as
the British Red Cross to set up an well as tnany colleagues from
orthopedic workshop at Mulago Mulago Hospital and Mulago
Hospital which tnakes artificial University.
limbs, wheelchairs, and braces for
mnputees, victitns of polio, and The news tnedia picked up the
others. He also established the story of Dr. Belcher's murder
orthopedics progratn operating at and a number of accounts were
Muhitnbili Hospital in Tanzania. published in various newspapers,
He served as a Fulbright lecturer including the New Vision in
and a professor at the University Uganda and the Washington Post
ofNairobi's tnedical school, and and the Washington Times in the
taught orthopedics at the tnedical United States.
school at Georgetown University
in Washington, D.C. for many During the days following Dr.
years. Belcher's passing, the Belcher
family, and in particular Dr.
The Belcher fmnily contributed Belcher's widow, Dawn, was designificantly to the Ugandan luged by letters and tnessages
Baha'i comtnunity. One Baha'i of condolence frmn people of
noted, "With tretnendous grace eminence in Africa, friends, indiand self-effacement, they tnade viduals Dr. Belcher had assisted,
their resources of titne, tnoney, and health service organizations
and the invaluable vehicle, with with which he had collaborated.
Dawn as driver, available for the Many of these tnessages bore
work of the Faith. Their home eloquent witness to Dr. Belcher's
was open to the tnany visitors numerous acts of kindness and
who relied on the Belchers for sacrifice as he strove to serve the
international telephone calls, people of Uganda. The King of
faxes, hot water, and food .... " Buganda, His Majesty, Ssabasajja Kabaka Ronald Muwenda
The funeral took place on 12 Mutebi II stated, "It is with a
March 1996, beginning with a sense of great personal loss that I
tnemorial program at the Baha'i mourn the sudden departure of a
Tetnple in Kampala. The service 111an who has been so dear and
then moved to the burial site, useful to our nation."
where the Baha'i prayer for the
dead was recited. The tnoumers, United States Senator Patrick
nutnbering over 2,000, filed past Leahy praised Dr. Belcher in the
the casket; tnany of thetn were Senate, declaring, as published
in wheelchairs, on crutches, or in the Congressional Record, "It

OBITUARIES

would be hard to conceive of a National Spiritual Assembly of
more senseless, horrible crime. Uganda:
Rod Belcher was a wonderfully
generous human being who de- DEEPLY GRIEVED BRUTAL
voted his professional life to MURDER DEDICATED OUT-
improving the lives of others .... STANDING PIONEER RODNEY
At his funeral, Dr. Belcher was BELCHER WHOSE INDEFATIGA-
honored by the Ugandan Vice BLE SERVICES WILL ALWAYS
President, the Minister of Health, BE LOVINGLY REMEMBERED.
the director of the hospital, the SELFLESSLY, ENERGETI-
dean of the tnedical school, CALLY AND COURAGEOUSLY,
the Atnerican Atnbassador, the TOGETHER WITH HIS DISTIN-
British High Comtnissioner, and GUISHED WIFE, HE LABORED
tnany others. The orthopedic AMONG HIS COMPATRIOTS IN
clinic that he worked so hard to THE UNITED STATES AND WITH
establish was formally named EVEN GREATER DISTINCTION
after him. The streets were lined SINCE 1970 IN TANZANIA,
with people who knew him per- KENYA AND UGANDA, SERVING
sonally or had heard of the Am- THE POPULATION THROUGH
erican doctor who had done so HIS MEDICAL PROFESSION
much for the Ugandan people." AND PROMOTING INTERESTS
The comments of Ugandan Vice BELOVED FAITH IN THESE
President, Dr. Specioza Wandira COUNTRIES.
Kazibwe, who had studied surgery under Dr. Belcher when she PRAYING HOLY SHRINES FOR
was a medical student, included PROGRESS HIS LUMINOUS
her warm memories of how he SOUL ETERNAL KINGDOM,
had encouraged her in her wish AND FOR COMFORT AND
to specialize in surgery, even SOLACE HIS DEAR WIFE AND
though in that time and place it MEMBERS FAMILY.
was a medical speciality not as ADVISE HOLD MEMORIAL
welcoming to wmnen as others. MEETING HIS HONOR IN
The National Spiritual Assetnbly HOUSE OF WORSHIP. ASK
of the United States wrote to TANZANIAN KENYAN NA-
Mrs. Belcher, "His universal TIONAL ASSEMBLIES HOLD
kindness to all levels of society SIMILAR GATHERINGS IN HIS
and rectitude of conduct exem- NAME.
plified his adherence to the
principles of our Faith and tnade
him widely respected as a 'true Suhayl Ala 'i
physician.'" Upon receiving the On 14 August 1995 in Western
news of Dr. Belcher's passing, Satnoa. Born 5 January 1927 into
the Universal House of Justice a Baha'i family in Teheran, Iran,
sent the following tnessage to the Suhayl Ala'i imtnigrated to New

Zealand in 1950 and graduated serve in that country until her
with a degree in agriculture from death.
Massey University. He married
Lilian Wyss in 1954, joined her Gail Avery Davis
in Western Samoa, and two of On 7 Novetnber 1995 in Alaska.
their children were born there. In Born on 29 Septetnber 1903 in
1959, Mr. and Mrs. Ala'i moved the United States, Gail Avery
to American Samoa, where their learned about the Baha'i Faith in
youngest child was born. Mr. her forties and returned to school
Ala' i was appointed to the first for nurse's training so that she
Continental Board of Counsel- could better serve the Cause she
lors in Australasia in 1968 and had embraced. In 1953 she left
served on that institution until her home in Montana to pioneer
1990. He also served as a mem- to Baranof Island in Alaska, for
ber of the first National Spiritual which she was natned a Knight
Assetnbly of the South Pacific ofBaha'u'llah. She lived on Barand of the National Assembly of onof, in Sitka, for smne 40 years.
Samoa. His consulting business, She was adopted as a Tlingit and
Pacific Services, developed over tnarried Albert Davis, the head
time into Pacific Products and of the Coho Clan of Tlingits for
Pacific Marketing. Sitka.

Samiheh Banani Sabri Elias
On 8 May 1995 in Canada. Born On 22 October 1995 in Egypt.
on 8 December 1907 in Teheran, Mr. Elias embraced the Baha'i
Iran, in 1925 she married Musa Faith at the age of 14 in Egypt
Bam!ni, who was later appointed after learning about it from his
a Hand of the Cause, and bore brother and uncle. In the 1930s,
six children. In Iran, Mrs. Banani he becatne the first Baha'i to
was one of the early members of pioneer to Ethiopia, where he
the National Committee for the helped fonn the first Local Spiri-
Advancement of Women. At the tual Assembly of Addis Ababa
instruction of Shoghi Effendi, and arrange for the translation of
the Banani family transferred its Baha 'u 'llah and the New Era inresidence to Dezashoub, Iran, to Amharic. After returning to
from 1943 to 1945, in order to Egypt, he settled again in Ethiteach the Baha'i Faith. They pio- opia with his wife Fahima and
neered to Uganda in 1951, where two children, and in 1954 they
Hand of the Cause of God Banani pioneered to French Somaliland
passed away in 1971. From 1974 (now Djibouti); for this service
to 1976, Mrs. Banani pioneered Mr. and Mrs. Elias were named
in the Canary Islands. She then Knights of Baha'u'llah. In the
moved to Canada, serving as a tnid-1960s he pioneered again, to
member of the Local Assembly Libya. He eventually settled in
of Toronto. She continued to Egypt, traveling to countries of

OBITUARIES

the Middle East in order to visit pioneers to Africa, moving first
and encourage fellow Baha'is. to Liberia in 19 51, to Morocco in
1954, and then back to Liberia in
Ruth Byford 1962. In 1953 he spent 45 days at
On 10 January 1996 in Canada. the World Centre, assisting the
Ruth Monk was born in Nova Guardian with the developtnent
Scotia, Canada, on 12 June 1930, of Baha'i properties. He later
and studied nursing and psy- served on a nutnber of national
chiatric nursing. She becarne a cotntnittees and Local Spiritual
Baha'i in Montreal in 1956 and Assetnblies in the United States,
tnarried Glen Byford in 1957; to- and for nearly twelve years he
gether they raised two children. was a metnber of the National
The Eyfords served the Baha'i Spiritual Assetnbly of the Hacommunities in Iceland, India, waiian Islands.
and various locations in Canada
and settled finally in St. Albert, Eileen Dewar Hill
Alberta, in 1970. Mrs. Byford On 23 October 1995 in Guyana.
traveled extensively throughout Born in 1914, she married James
Canada, teaching others about Hill in 1939, learned about the
the Baha'i Faith and working to Baha'i Faith from her sister and
assist and strengthen various became a Baha'i in 1956. She
Baha'i communities. She served was a regular participant in the
as an Auxiliary Board member activities of the Guyanese Baha'i
and as chairman of the National community and served on the
Assembly of Canada. She was first Regional Assembly of the
also a member at different times Guianas, which fonned in 1970,
of a number of Local Assemblies and on the National Assembly of
and national and local cotnmit- Guyana when it came into being
tees. Mrs. Byford's service to the in 1976. She took pains to share
community at large, including the Baha'i Faith with others in
her work as a nurse counselor her native country, and in 1983
with the Alberta Alcohol and she becatne Guyana's first inter-
Drug Abuse Commission, was national pioneer by settling in
recognized by the tnayor of St. Grenada for 11 years, where she
Albert and a member of the Leg- was elected to the first National
islative Assembly in November Assetnbly in 1984, serving as its
1995. treasurer. Mrs. Hill was elected
to the Local Spiritual Assembly
William R. Foster of Georgetown, Guyana, every
On 18 May 1995 in Hawaii. Wil- year for sotne 25 years, and she
liam Foster, born in the United also served on that of Springs/
States on 6 June 1912, became Woodlands, Grenada for about
a Baha'i in the early 1930s. He nine years. In Grenada she was
was the first African-American on various national committees,
Baha'i to respond to the call for and she was also the librarian for

many of the years she spent in worked as a commercial artist.
that country. Mrs. Hill served the After she etnbraced the Baha'i
Society for the Blind from 1958 Faith in 1951, she pioneered in
until1980. She had one son. Canada itself, first to Saskatoon,
in Saskatchewan, and then to sev-
Marion Hofman eral other communities, to help
On 5 December 1995 in the Unit- form Local Spiritual Assemblies.
ed Kingdotn. Born on 17 May She was designated a Knight
1910 in Visalia, California, in ofBaha'u'llah by Shoghi Effendi
the United States, Marion Holley for her service in fulfilling the
joined the Baha'i cotnmunity in extretnely difficult pioneering
the early 1930s. She attended both goal of Anticosti Island, in 1956.
Stanford University and the Uni- Mary married Ken McCulloch in
versity of California, Berkeley, 1958, and together they moved
and worked as a budget analyst to Baker Lake, in the Northwest
for the city of San Francisco in Territories; there they shared the
the 1940s. She was appointed to Baha'i Faith with the first Inuit
theN ational Teaching Comtnit- Baha'i in Canada. They also estee of the United States during tablished the Baker Lake Baha'i
the first Seven Year Plan, and House and arranged for Baha'i
after tnarrying David Hofman in literature to be translated into
1945 she served on the National Inuktitut. In her later years, Mrs.
Spiritual Assembly of the British McCulloch was involved with
Isles (1945-1963), its National translating Baha'i literature into
Teaching Committee (1945-50), Ulaainian. The McCullochs had
and the first Auxiliary Board of one daughter.
Europe, appointed in 1954. From
1963 to 1988 she served at the James Moncho
Baha'i World Centre, where her On 5 September 1995 in Botswahusband was a tnetnber of the na. J atnes Moncho was born on
Universal House of Justice. She 30 July 1907 in Ganyesa, South
continued to work frmn the Holy Africa; in 193 8 he tnarried Stella
Land for some twelve years as Motshedi. He becatne a Baha'i in
tnanager of George Ronald Pub- 1955 and in 1957 he was elected
lisher in the United Kingdom. to the first Local Assembly of
The Hofmans had two children. Mafeking, in South Africa. That
satne year the Monchos moved
Mary McCulloch to Botswana and thus became the
On 7 January 1996 in Canada. first Baha'is of that country. Mr.
Mary Zabolotny was born on Moncho is retnetnbered for his
9 November 1918 in Winnipeg, translations of the Baha'i sacred
Manitoba, Canada, to Ukrainian writings into Setswana; in 1982
itntnigrants. She studied at both he was atnong the first Baha'is to
the University of Manitoba and travel to Tsabong, in the Kalathe Winnipeg School of Art and hari Desert, to share with others

OBITUARIES

the tnessage of Baha'u'llah. He serve the Baha'i Faith, and then
worked as a school inspector and again to Neyshabur in 1952. In
founded tnany schools in the 1953 he tnarried Bahereh Sharifi.
Tsabong region. He also began They pioneered to Indonesia in
feeding programs in schools in 1954, where he served for the
places where hunger kept child- remaining 41 years of his life,
ren from attending and in poor offering his medical skills to the
and remote areas. Mr. and Mrs. Indonesian people through his
Moncho had four children. position as an Indonesian civil
servant within the Department of
Juana Ortuno Lopez Health-forgoing an expatriate
On 1 August 1995 in Spain. One work contract to take a position
of the founding members of the with very little financial remu-
Iberian Baha'i community, she neration. He worked in public
accepted the Faith in 1947. She hospitals in all the towns and
was elected the chairperson of villages in which they resided,
the Local Spiritual Assembly of operating a private practice in
Madrid, and then left Spain, the evenings in order to support
where she had been born in 1905 his wife and their six children.
in Cieza, Murcia, to pioneer in In recognition of these tnedical
Cuba. There she served on a services, Dr. Soraya received a
number of Local Assemblies at c01n1nendation from the governdifferent times and was elected a tnent of Indonesia. His various
tnetnber of the first National professional postings took him
Spiritual Assetnbly of the Greater and his fatnily to five different
Antilles and then later of the first localities within the first three
National Spiritual Assetnbly of years of their life in Indonesia; in
Cuba. During the years after her 1957 they settled in Bojonegoro,
return to Spain in 1963 she was East Java, where he lived until
elected to various Local Spiritual his death. Dr. Soraya served on
Assemblies over the years. Her the Local Assetnbly of Jakarta,
contributions to the Faith also and his service for a period as a
include a translation of the Seven tnetnber of the Auxiliary Board
Valleys fr01n French into Spanish took him to nutnerous Baha'i
in 1953. c01nmunities within Indonesia,
as well as a great many countries
Nurredin Soraya elsewhere in Asia. Dr. Soraya
On 15 October 1995 in Indo- assisted with the translation of
nesia. Born on 6 March 1920 in Baha'i writings into Indonesian
Isfahan, Iran, Nurredin Soraya from Arabic and Persian.
becatne a Baha'i in 1945. He obtained his degree as a tnedical Habib Taherzadeh
doctor frotn the University of On 18 August 199 5 in Brazil.
Teheran in 1949 and tnoved to Born to a Baha'i family ofYazd,
Baluchistan, in 1950, in order to Iran, on 4 January 1908, Habib

Taherzadeh attained the presence Ama Dahan Talon
of 'Abdu'l-Baha at the early age On 24 May 1995 in the Philipof five, upon his fatnily' s visit to pines. In 1971, Atna Dahan Talon
the Holy Land in 1913. He tnar- accepted the Baha'i Faith, and
ried Farrokhlegha Missaghieh in he becmne a pillar of the Baha'i
1941, and they had two children. cotnmunity within his native
Frotn 1950 to 1955, Mr. Taher- Mangyan tribe. Although he had
zadeh served as a tnetnber of the no fonnal education, he consistranslation cotntnittee of the tently taught the Baha'i Faith in
National Assetnbly of Iran. From the Mangyan areas, served as
1953 to 1954, he and his fatnily a tnetnber of a Local Spiritual
pioneered to Turkey, and then in Assetnbly and an assistant to an
1955 they were the first Iranian Auxiliary Board tnember, and
Baha'is to tnove to Brazil. Frotn constantly brought inspiration to
1955 to 1957, Mr. Taherzadeh his fellow Filipino Baha'is. Mr.
served as a tnetnber of the Local Talon and his wife, Hunhon, had
Assembly of Rio de Janeiro, and five children.
in 1957 he was elected to the
first Local Spiritual Assembly Leala Tasi
of Curitiba, to which he was re- On 4 August 1995 in Satnoa.
elected for tnany years. In 1961, One of the highest chiefs of his
he becmne a tnetnber of the first village, Leala Tasi becatne a
National Spiritual Assembly of tnember of the Baha'i com-
Brazil. Mr. Taherzadeh was a tnunity in 1968 and served it the
noted translator, a scholar, and rest of his life. He served on the
an Esperantist. He worked in the National Spiritual Assembly of
Research Department of the Uni- Satnoa, as well as the Local
versal House of Justice from Spiritual Assetnbly of Puleia. He
1970 to 1977, during which time was a tnarriage officer for the
he translated the Tablets which island of Savaii and offered his
cotnprise Selections from the land for construction of its first
Writings of the Bab and Tablets Baha'i center. He and his wife,
ofBaha 'u 'llah Revealed after the Ta' atni1o Leala, together raised
Kitab-i-Aqdas. He also authored eight children.
at the request of the Universal
House of Justice a glossary and
a description of a translation
tnethodology based on the translations of Shoghi Effendi. He
was a frequent traveler, visiting
various places throughout the
world to inspire and enrich the
understanding of Baha'is and to
share Baha'u'llah's teachings
with others.

STATISTICS
General Statistics

Worldwide Baha'i population More than 5 million
Countries/dependent territories where 190 countries/
the Baha'i Faith is established 45 territories
Continental Counsellors 81
Auxiliary Board members serving
throughout the world 990

National/Regional Spiritual Assemblies 174
Local Spiritual Assemblies 17,148
Localities where Baha'is reside 121,058
Tribes, races and ethnic groups
2,112
represented in the Baha'i community
Languages into which Baha'u'llah's
writings have been translated 802

Baha'i Publishing Trusts 30

All statistics as ofMay 1995

Geographic distribution of Local Spiritual Assemblies
by continent

knericas 4515 Europe 950

Australasia 901

Growth in the number of localities where Baha'is reside

120000

100000

80000

60000

4()()()()

?0000 ill

0 ~M~mmmmllllll
1954 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1C85 1990 1995

STATISTICS

Growth in the number of National and
Regional Spiritual Assemblies

Social and Economic Development
Baha'i development activities are initiated either by Baha'i administrative institutions or by individuals or groups of believers. Together,
these activities contribute to a global process of learning about a
Baha'i approach to social and economic development. They presently
fall into three general categories.

Grassroots Activity
Most Baha'i social and economic development effmis are
attempts by Baha'is in villages and towns around the world to
address the problems and challenges faced by their localities
through the application of spiritual principles enshrined in the
Baha'i Teachings. They may begin in the Baha'i community or
as suppmi of Baha'is for the development initiatives of other
organizations, but all extend their benefits to the well-being of the
society as a whole. It is estimated that in 1995-96 there were
some 1,350 such activities of vmying duration and levels of
complexity which addressed a wide range of issues including
education, the environment, agriculture, health, the advancement
of women, and the elimination of prejudice.

Sustained Independent Projects
A second level ofBaha'i social and economic development activities is represented by the work of about 270 ongoing projects.
The vast majority are schools, including preprimary, primary,
secondary, and post secondary educational institutions. They also
include small hospitals, dispensaries and clinics, vocational training centers, and radio stations. Some address such specific
concerns as race unity, equality between women and men,
microenterprise, immunization and primaty health care, literacy,
and tree-planting.

Organizations with Integrated Action
Some Baha'i development efforts have achieved the stature of
development organizations with relatively complex programatic
structures and significant spheres of influence. These organizations, 34 in number and located in all continents of the globe,
systematically train human resources and manage a number of
lines of action to address problems of local communities and
regions in a coordinated, interdisciplinary manner.

DIRECTORY

Asociaci6n de Estudios Baha'is- Asociaci6n de Estudios Baha'is-
Chile Ecuador
c/o Casilla 3731 c/o Peter Newton, secretary
Santiago 1 Apartado 1142
Chile Cuenca
Ecuador
Asociaci6n de Estudios Baha'is-
Colombia Asociaci6n de Estudios Baha'isc/o Asamblea Espiritual Nacional de Puerto Rico
los Baha'is de Colombia c/o Cesar Reyes, secretary
Apartado Aereo 51387 Chemistry Dept., University of
Bogota 12 Puerto Rico
Colombia Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00708
USA
Asociaci6n de Estudios Baha'is de
Espana Associa~ao de Estudos Baha'is do
c/o Arash Arj omandi Rad Brasil
c/Pep Ventura, 57 1 C Caixa Postal No. 11019
ES-08810 Sant Pere de Ribes 80421 Curitiba-Parana
Barcelona Brazil
Spain

Association d'Etudes Baha'ies Association for Baha'i Studies-
Europe Francophone Japan
c/o Centre Baha'i c/o Tokyo Baha'i Center
24 route de Malagnou 7-2-13 Shinjuku
CH-1208 Geneva Shinjuku-ku
Switzerland Tokyo 160
Japan
Association for Baha'i Studies-
Australia Association for Baha'i Studiesc/o Colin Dibdin, secretary Malaysia
P.O. Box 319 c/o The Spiritual Assembly of
Rosebery, NSW 2018 the Baha'is of Malaysia
Australia 4 Lorong Titiwangsa 5
Setapak
Association for Baha'i Studies- 53000 Kuala Lumpur
East, Central and Southern Malaysia
Africa
c/o C. Rouhani, secretary Association for Baha'i Studies-
P.O. Box 82549 New Zealand
Mombasa c/o The National Spiritual Assembly
Kenya of the Baha'is ofNew Zealand
P.O. Box 21-551
Association for Baha'i Studies- Henderson, Auckland
English-Speaking Europe New Zealand
Fariba Hedayati, secretary
c/o 27 Rutland Gate Association for Baha'i Studies-
London North America
SW71PD 34 Copernicus Street
England Ottawa, Ontario KIN 7K4
Canada
Association for Baha'i Studies-
Ghana Chapter Association for Baha'i Studiesc/o The National Spiritual Assembly Russia
of the Baha'is of Ghana Uralskaya St. 6-1-66
P.O. Box 7098 Moscow 107207
Accra-Nmih Russia
Ghana
Association for Baha'i Studies-
Association for Baha'i Studies- Trinidad and Tobago
India c/o The National Spiritual Assembly
c/o Chetan Parikh of the Baha'is of Trinidad and
2 Akash Deep, Peston Sagar Road 3 Tobago
Chembur, Bombay 400 089 P.O. Box 755
India Port of Spain
Trinidad, West Indies

DIRECTORY

Association for Baha'i Studies- Baha'i Health Agency
Venezuela c/o 27 Rutland Gate
c/o Donald R. Witzel London
Apartado 934 SW7 1PD
Barquisimeto, Edo. Lara United Kingdom
3001-A
Venezuela Baha'i International Community,
Haifa Offices:
Association for Baha'i Studies- " Office of the Secretary-General
West Africa "Office of Public Information
c/o Farhang Tahzib, secretary P.O. Box 155
P.O. Box 2029 31 001 Haifa
Marina-Lagos Israel
Nigeria
Baha'i International Community,
Association Medicale Baha'ie New York Offices:
c/o Mirabelle Week • United Nations Office
26 me de Paris • Office for the Advancement of
F-78560 Paris Women
France • Office of the Environment
866 United Nations Plaza,
Associazione Italiana per gli Studi Suite 120
Baha'i New York, NY 10017-1822
c/o Assemblea Spirituale Nazionale USA
dei Baha'i d'Italia
Via della F ontan ella 4 Baha'i International Community,
I-00187 Rome Geneva Office:
Italy • United Nations Office
Route des Morillons 15
Bahaa Esperanto-Ligo (BEL) CH-1218 Grand-Saconnex
P.O. Kesto 500133 Geneva
D-60391 Frankfurt Switzerland
Germany
Baha'i International Community,
Baha'i Association for Arts Paris Office:
Dintel20 • Office of Public Information
7333 MC 45 rue Pergolese
Apeldoom F-75116 Paris
Netherlands France
Baha'i Computer and Baha'i International Health
Communications Association Agency
webmaster@www.bcca.org P.O. Box 510
http://www. be ca. org Westmount, Quebec H3Z 2T6
Canada

Baha'i Justice Society Health for Humanity
6065 Lake Fonest Drive, Suite 200 467 Jackson Street
Atlanta, GA 30328 Glencoe, IL 60022
USA USA

Baha'i Medical Association of Hong Kong Baha'i Professional
Canada Society
Box 143, RR #2 C-6, 11th Floor, Hankow Centre
Dugald, Manitoba ROE OKO Middle Road, Tsim Sha Tsui
Canada Kowloon
Hong Kong
Baha'i Office of the Environment
for Taiwan International Association of
149-13 Hsin Sheng South Road Baha'i Publishers and
Section 1 Distributors
Taipei 10626 c/o Baha'i Publishing Tmst
Taiwan 6 Mount Pleasant
ROC Oakham
Leicestershire
Centro de Estudios Baha'is, LEIS 6HU
Argentina United Kingdom
Otamendi 215
1405 Buenos Aires, C.F. Landegg Academy
Argentina CH-9405 Wienacht/AR
Switzerland
European Baha'i Business Forum
c/o George Starcher, secretary Mottahedeh Development
35 avenue Jean-Jaures Services
F-73000 Chambery 750 Hammond Drive, Bldg. 12,
France Suite 300
Atlanta, Georgia 30328
European Baha'i Youth Council USA
27 Hampstead Hill Gardens
London World Community Foundation
NW3 2PJ 315 West 70th Street,
United Kingdom Suite 9B
New York, NY 10023
Gesellschaft fiir Baha'i-Studien, USA
Executive Board
c/o Heinz Hample-W affenthal
Maria-Spotl-Weg 11
A-6130 Schwaz
Austria

DIRECTORY

Baha'i Publishing Trusts
ARGENTINA HONG KONG
Editorial Baha'i Indolatino- Baha'i Publishing Trust
americana C-6, 11th Floor, Hankow Centre
Otamendi 215 Middle Road, Tsim Sha Tsui
1405 Buenos Aires, C.F. Kowloon
Argentina Hong Kong

AUSTRALIA INDIA
Baha'i Publications Australia Baha'i Publishing Trust
P.O. Box285 P.O. Box 19
Mona Vale NSW 2103 New Delhi 110 001
Australia India

BELGIUM ITALY
Maison d'Editions Baha'ies Casa Editrice Baha'i
205 rue du Trone Via Filippo Turati, 9
B-1050 Brussels I-00040 Ariccia (Rome)
Belgium Italy

BRAZIL JAPAN
Editora Baha'i do Brasil Baha'i Publishing Trust
Rua Conego Eugenio Leite, 350 7-2-13 Shinjulcu
05414 - Sao Paulo - SP Shinjuku-ku
Brazil Tokyo 160
Japan
COTED'IVOIRE
Maison d'Editions Baha'ies KENYA
08 B.P. 879 Baha'i Publishing Agency
Abidjan 08 P.O. Box 47562
Cote d'Ivoire Nairobi
Kenya
FIJI ISLANDS
Baha'i Publishing Trust KOREA
P.O. Box 2007 Baha'i Publishing Trust
Government Buildings C.P.O. Box 991
Suva Seoul 100-609
Fiji Islands Korea

GERMANY LEBANON*
Baha'i-Verlag
Eppsteiner Strasse 89 MALAYSIA*
D-65719 Hofheim
Germany
* Address communications to Baha'i World Centre, P.O. Box 155, 31 001
Haifa, Israel.

NETHERLANDS RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Stichting Baha'i Literatuur Unity Baha'i Publishing Trust
Riouwstraat 27 Bolshaya Morskaya Str. 53-17
2585 GR The Hague St. Petersburg
Netherlands Russia

NIGERIA SPAIN
Baha'i Publishing Trust Editorial Baha'i de Espana
P.O. Box 2029 Bonaventura Castellet 17
Marina-Lagos ES-08222 Terrassa
Nigeria Spain

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PHILIPPINES #149-13 Hsin Sheng South Road
Baha'i Publishing Ttust Section 1
P.O. Box 4323 Taipei 10626
1099 Manila Taiwan
Philippines ROC
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ul. Nowogrodzka 18A/4 P.O. Box 2662
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* Address communications to Baha'i World Centre, P.O. Box 155, 31 001
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Selected EW
PUBLICATIONS

'Abdu'l-Baha in America: Agnes Parsons' Diary
Edited by Richard Hollinger with a foreword by Sandra Hutchinson. Los
Angeles: Kalimat Press, 1996. 167 pp.
An intimate day-by-day account kept by Baha'i Agnes Parsons of 'Abdu'l-
Baha's stay in Washington, D.C., and in Dublin, New Hampshire, during His
journey to America in 1912.

Arising to Serve
The Ruhi Institute. Riviera Beach, Florida: Palabra Publications, 1995. 80 pp.
The second in a series of books written by the Ruhi Institute in Colombia to
assist Baha'is to gain a progressively greater understanding of the Baha'i writings and to prepare them for sharing their Faith with others.

Baha'u'llah: The Great Announcement of the Qur'an
Muhammad Mustafa. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Baha'iPublishing Trust, 1995. 115 pp.
A revised and expanded version of a book originally written in 1959 to assist
English-speaking readers to understand issues frequently raised by Muslims
with regard to the Baha'i Faith.

Created Rich: How Spiritual Attitudes and Material Means Work
Together to Achieve Prosperity
Patrick Barker. Happy Camp, California: Naturegraph Publishers, 1995.
207 pp.
A guide to the spiritual and practical principles of wealth acquisition written
primarily for Baha'is but suitable for anyone seeking to become financially
independent.

Developing Genius: Getting the Most Out of Group Decision-Making
John Kolstoe, with illustrations by Trevor R.J. Finch. Oxford: George Ronald,
1995. 260 pp.
The Baha'i writings and the author's years of experience in education and
business serve as the basis for this guide to the principles of effective consultation.
Ethel Jenner Rosenberg: The Life and Times of England's Outstanding
Pioneer Worker
Robert Weinberg. Oxford: George Ronald, 1995. 336 pp.
Using Ethel Rosenberg's diaries and letters, minutes and notes from the meetings of the first Baha'i institutions in Britain and other original documents, the
author explores the life of the first Englishwoman in her native country to accept
Baha'u'llah as a Manifestation of God.

Fire and Gold: Benefitting From Life's Tests
Compiled by Brian Kurzius. Oxford: George Ronald, 1995. 368 pp.
This volume, which includes passages long out of print, is a compilation of quotations from the Baha'i writings on the purpose and source of the tests faced by
individuals and society and how to find comfort, inner peace and spiritual upliftment in the face of them.

Foundations for a Spiritual Education
National Baha'i Education Task Force. Wilmette, Illinois: Baha'i Publishing
Ttust, 1995. 208 pp.
This work provides a selection of extracts from the Baha'i writings on the
nature, purpose, content, and process of spiritual education and offers an initial
framework for carrying these principles into practice.

The God of Buddha
Jamshed Fozdar. Rome: Casa Editrice Baha'i, 1996. 184 pp.
Using the Buddha's own words concerning the recurring manifestation of the
Supreme in the material world, the author discusses the place of Buddhism in the
panorama of ever-recurring religious revelation.

The Greatness Which Might Be Theirs: Reflections on the Agenda and
Platform for Action for the United Nations Fourth World Conference on
Women: Equality, Development and Peace
Baha'i International Community Office for the Advancement ofWomen, 1995.
87 pp.
A collection of essays on topics such as education, health, violence, human
rights and the girl child prepared on the occasion of the Fourth World Conference on Women.

Jesus Christ in Sacred Baha'i Literature: A Compilation with Introductory Observations by Michael Sours
Compiled by Michael Sours. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1995. 120 pp.
A compilation ofthe writings ofBaha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha on the station of
Christ and the transfonning power of His teachings.

NEW pUBLICATIONS

The Law of Love Enshrined: Selected Essays
John Hatcher and William Hatcher. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996. 296 pp.
In a selection of nine essays based on themes found in Balui'u'lhih's Most Holy
Book, the Kitab-i-Aqdas, a professor of English literature and a mathematician
offer arguments for the existence, unity and uniqueness of God and for God's
role in the evolution of the human species.

Meditation
Wendi Momen. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996. 144 pp.
This volume briefly describes a number of techniques and practices that one
might employ to develop the faculty of meditation and provides verses from the
Baha'i writings upon which to focus.

Moments with Baha'u'llah: Memoirs of the Hand of the Cause of God
'fara~u'llah Samandari
Translated by Mehdi Samandari and Marzieh Gail. Los Angeles: Kalim:it
Press, 1995. 76 pp.
Hand of the Cause of God Tara~'llah Samandari, who undertook his first
pilgrimage during Baha'u'llah's lifetime and was present at the time of
Baha'u'llah's ascension, recounts his many experiences in the presence of this
precious Being.

The Odyssey of the Soul
Artemus Lamb. Oxford: George Ronald, 1995. 96 pp.
Drawing on the literature of the Baha'i Faith, the author charts the progress
of the soul from its birth, through its journey in the physical world, to the world of
the spirit after death, looking particularly at the nature of the soul, the value
of prayer and meditation, the purpose of hardships, and immortality.

Portraits of Some Baha'i Women
O.Z. Whitehead. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996. 184 pp.
Portraits of seven Baha'i women-Emogene Hoagg, Claudia Coles, Anna Kunz,
Amelia Collins, Kate Dwyer, Ella Bailey, and Ella Quant-whose services to the
Baha'i Faith have spanned the twentieth century.

The Pupil of the Eye: African Americans in the World Order of
Baha'u'llah
Bonnie J. Taylor. Riviera Beach, Florida: Palabra Publications, 1995. 200 pp.
Excerpts from the Baha'i scriptures relating to the important role played by
people of African descent in the progress of the Baha'i Faith, the need for racial
unity and the dangers of racism, the contributions of African Americans to the
Baha'i Faith and the destiny of African peoples.

Sacred Moments: Daily Meditations on the Virtues
Linda Kavelin Popov. Fountain Hills, Arizona, and Chicago: Virtues Communications, 1996. 440 pp.
A simple tool for daily reflection and meditation which weaves together the
wisdom found in the world's religions, personal anecdotes, and quotations from
celebrities, philosophers, and average people.

Sexual Morality and the World Religions
Geoffrey Parrinder. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1996. 290 pp.
This revised and updated edition includes a chapter exploring the Baha'i views
on chastity, contraception and abortion, marriage and divorce, and the status of
women.

A Short History of the Baha'i Faith
Peter Smith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1996. 168 pp.
An introduction to the history and global development of the Baha'i Faith up to
the present time.

So Great An Honor: Becoming a Baha'i
National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States. Wilmette,
Illinois: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1995. 81 pp.
Designed primarily as a welcoming guide for new members of the Baha'i community, this book familiarizes readers with the essential truths of the Baha'i
Faith, gives a glimpse ofBaha'i history, discusses the Covenants ofBaha'u'llah
and 'Abdu'l-Baha, and outlines the features of the Baha'i Administrative Order.

The Style of the Kitab-i-Aqdas: Aspects of the Sublime
Suheil Bushrui. Bethesda, Maryland: University Press of Maryland, 1995.
74 pp.
Professor Suheil Bushrui, who holds the Baha'i Chair for World Peace at the
University of Maryland, assists the non-Arabic speaking reader to understand
the distinguishing characteristics of this most sacred of Baha'i texts as it
appeared in its original Arabic form.

Symbol and Secret: Qur'an Commentary in Baha'u'llah's Kitab-i-iqan.
Studies in the Babi and Baha'i Religions, Volume Seven
Christopher Buck. Los Angeles: Kalimat Press, 1995. 326 pp.
The author offers the results of his research into the revelation of the Kitab-i-
Iqan and the early history of its publication, addresses criticism of the Book, and
analyzes the rhetorical techniques used by Baha'u'llah.

Ultimate Visions: Reflections on the Religions We Choose
Edited by Martin Forward. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1995. 288 pp.
A collection of essays by leading theologians and scholars of many different
faiths, including the Baha'i Faith, on which religion they choose to live by, and
why.

The following list has been prepared to provide a sampling of works
conveying the spiritual truths, social principles, and history of the Baha'i
Faith. It is by no means exhaustive. For a more complete record of Baha'i
literature, see Bibliography of English-language Works on the Babi and
Baha'i Faiths, 1844-1985, compiled by William P. Collins (Oxford:
George Ronald, 1990).

SELECTED WRITINGS OF BAHA 'U'LLAH

The KiUib-i-Aqdas
The Most Holy Book, Baha'u'lhih's charter for a new world civilization. Written
in Arabic in 1873, the volume's first authorized English translation was released
in 1993.

The Kihib-i-iqan
The Book of Certitude was written prior to Baha'u'llah's declaration of His
mission as an explanation of progressive revelation and a proof of the station of
the Bab.

The Hidden Words ofBaha'u'lhih
Written in the form of a compilation of moral aphorisms, these brief verses
distill the spiritual guidance of all the Divine Revelations of the past.

Tablets of Baha'u'llah revealed after the Kitab-i-Aqdas
A compilation of tablets revealed between 1873 and 1892 which enunciate
important principles of Baha'u'lhih's Revelation, reaffirm truths He previously
proclaimed, elaborate on some of His laws, reveal further prophecies, and
establish subsidiary ordinances to supplement the provisions of the Kitab-i-
Aqdas.

Gleanings from the Writings ofBaha'u'llah
A selection of Baha'u'lh1h's sacred writings translated and compiled by the
Guardian of the Baha'i Faith to convey the spirit of Baha'u'llah's life and
teachings.

WRITINGS OF THE BAB

Selections from the Writings of the Bab
The first compilation of the Bab's writings to be translated into English.

SELECTED WRITINGS OF 'ABDU'L-BAHA

Paris Talks: Addresses given by 'Abdu'l-Baha in Paris in 1911-1912
Addresses given by 'Abdu'l-Baha to a wide variety of audiences in Paris in
1911-1912, explaining the basic principles ofthe Baha'i Faith.

The Secret of Divine Civilization
A message addressed to the rulers and people of Persia in 1875 illuminating the
causes of the fall and rise of civilization and elucidating the spiritual character
of true civilization.

Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Baha
A compilation of selected letters from 'Abdu'l-Baha's extensive correspondence on a wide variety of topics, including the purpose of life, the nature of love,
and the development of character.

Some Answered Questions
A translation of 'Abdu'l-BaM's answers to a series of questions posed to Him
during interviews with Laura Clifford Barney between 1904 and 1906. The
topics covered include the influence of the Prophets in the evolution of
humanity, the Baha'i perspective on Christian doctrine, and the powers and
conditions ofthe Manifestations of God.

BAHA:f READING LIST

SELECTED WRITINGS OF SHOGHI EFFENDI

God Passes By
A detailed history of the first one hundred years of the Baha'i Faith.

The Promised Day Is Come
A commentary on Baha'u'llah's letters to the kings and rulers of the world.

The World Order ofBaha'u'llah: Selected Letters
An exposition on the relation between the Baha'i community and the entire
process of social evolution under the dispensation ofBaha'u'llah, in the form of
a series of letters from the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith to the Baha'is of the
West between 1929 and 1936.

INTRODUCTORY WORKS

Baha'u'llah
Baha'i Intetnational Community, Office ofPublic Information, 1991.
A brief statement detailing Bahci'u'llah's life and work issued on the occasion of
the centenary of His passing.

Baha'u'llah and the New Era
John Esslemont. 5th rev. papered. Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust,
1990.
The first comprehensive account of the Baha'i Faith, written in 1923 and
updated for subsequent editions.

The Baha'i Faith: The Emerging Global Religion
WilliamS. Hatcher and J. Douglas Martin. San Francisco: Harper & Row,
Publishers, 1985.
Textbook providing an overview of Baha'i history, teachings, administrative
structures, and community life.

All Things Made New
John Ferraby. 2d rev. ed. London: Baha'i Publishing Ttust, 1987.
A comprehensive outline of the Baha'i Faith.

Most of the books listed above have been published by various Baha'i
Publishing Trusts and are available in bookshops, libraries, or from
the Trusts. Please see the Directory for addresses.

GLOSSARY

'Abdu'l-Baha: (1844-1921) Son of Baha'u'llah, designated His
successor and authorized interpreter ofHis writings. Named 'Abbas
after His grandfather, 'Abdu'l-Baha was known to the general
public as 'Abbas Effendi. Baha'u'llah gave Him such titles as "the
Most Great Branch," "the Mystery of God," and "the Master." After
Baha'u'llah's passing, He chose the name 'Abdu'l-Baha, meaning
"Servant of Baha 'u'llah."

Administrative Order: The system of administration as conceived by
Baha'u'llah, formally established by 'Abdu'l-Baha, and realized
during the Guardianship of Shoghi Effendi. It consists, on the one
hand, of a series of elected councils, universal, national and local, in
which are invested legislative, executive, and judicial powers over
the Baha'i community, and, on the other hand, of eminent and
devoted Baha'is appointed for the specific purpose of propagation
and protection of the Faith under the guidance of the Head of that
Faith, the Universal House of Justice.

Amatu'l-Baha Rul_liyyih Khanum: Mary Sutherland Maxwell, an
eminent North American Baha'i who became the wife of Shoghi

Effendi Rabb{mi, Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, in 1937, after which
she became lmown as Rul;liyyih Khanum Rabbani. (Amatu'l-Baha
is a title meaning "Handmaiden ofBaha'u'llah.") She served as the
Guardian's secretary during his lifetime and was appointed a Hand
of the Cause of God in 1952. She is the most prominent dignitary of
the Baha'i community.

Arc: An arc cut into Mount Carmel in Haifa, Israel; along this pathway the international administrative buildings of the Baha'i Faith
are being built.

Auxiliary Boards: An institution created by Shoghi Effendi in 1954 to
assist the Hands of the Cause of God. When the institution of the
Continental Boards of Counsellors was established in 1968 by the
Universal House of Justice, the Auxiliary Boards were placed under
its direction.

Bab, the: The title, meaning "Gate," assumed by Siyyid 'Ali-Mul;lammad, the Prophet-Founder of the Babi Faith and the Forerunner of
Baha'u'llah. Born 20 October 1819, the Bab proclaimed Himself to
be the Promised One of Islam and announced that His mission was
to alert the people to the imminent advent of "Him Whom God shall
make manifest," namely, Baha'u'llah. Because of these claims, the
Bab was executed by order ofNa~iri'd-Din Shah on 9 July 1850.

Baha'i Era: The period of the Baha'i calendar beginning with the
Declaration of the Bab on 23 May 1844, and expected to last until
the next appearance of a Manifestation (Prophet) of God after the
expiration of at least one thousand years.

Baha'i International Community: A name used generally in reference
to the worldwide Baha'i community and officially in that community's external relations. In the latter context, the Baha'i International
Community is an association of the National Spiritual Assemblies
throughout the world and functions as an international nongovernmental organization. Its offices include its Secretariat at the Baha'i
World Centre, a United Nations Office in New York with a branch
in Geneva, an Office of Public Information, an Office of the Environment, and an Office for the Advancement of Women.

GLOSSARY

Baha'i World Centre: The spiritual and administrative center of the
Baha'i Faith, located in the twin cities of Acre and Haifa, in Israel.

Baha'u'llah: Title assumed by Mirza I:Iusayn-'AH, Founder of the
Baha'i Faith. Born on 12 November 1817, He declared His mission
as the Promised One of all Ages in April 1863 and passed away in
Acre, Palestine, on 29 May 1892 after 40 years of imprisonment,
banishment, and house arrest. Baha'u'llah's writings are considered
by Baha'is to be direct revelation from God.

Consultation: A form of discussion between individuals and within
groups which requires the subjugation of egotism so that all ideas
can be shared and evaluated with frankness, courtesy, and openness
of mind, and decisions arrived at can be wholeheartedly supported.
Its guiding principles were elaborated by 'Abdu '1-Baha.

Continental Boards of Counsellors: An institution created in 1968 by
the Universal House of Justice to extend into the future the work of
the institution of the Hands of the Cause of God, particularly its
appointed functions of protection and propagation. With the passing
of Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, there was no
way for additional Hands of the Cause to be appointed. The duties
of the Counsellors include directing the Auxiliary Boards in their
respective areas, advising and collaborating with National Spiritual
Assemblies, and keeping the Universal House of Justice informed
concerning the conditions of the Faith in their areas. Counsellors
are appointed for terms of five years.

Convention: A gathering called at a regional, national, or international level for consultation on matters affecting the welfare of the
Baha'i community and for the purpose, respectively, of electing
delegates to a National Convention, electing the members of aNational Spiritual Assembly, or electing the members of the Universal
House of Justice.

German Templer Colony: Group of houses with red-tiled roofs at the
foot of Mount Carmel that once housed members of the Society of
the Temple, founded in Germany in the mid-1800s. Templers
foregathered in Haifa in 1863 to await the second coming of Christ.

Hands of the Cause of God: Individuals appointed first by Baha'u'lh1h,
and others named later by Shoghi Effendi, who were charged with
the specific duties of protecting and propagating the Faith. With the
passing of Shoghi Effendi there is no further possibility for
appointing Hands of the Cause; hence, in order to extend into the
future the important functions of propagation and protection, the
Universal House of Justice in 1968 created Continental Boards of
Counsellors and in 1973 established the International Teaching
Centre which coordinates their work.

Holy Days: Eleven days commemorating significant Baha'i anniversaries, on nine of which work is suspended.

I.Inququ'lhih: Arabic for "the Right of God." As instituted in the
Kitab-i-Aqdas, payment to "the Authority in the Cause to whom all
must tum" (at present, the Universal House of Justice) of 19 percent
of what remains to one's personal income after one's essential
expenses have been covered. Funds generated by the payment of
I:Iuququ'llah are used for the promotion of the Faith and for the
welfare of society.

International Teaching Centre: An institution established in 1973 by
the Universal House of Justice to bring to fruition the work of the
Hands of the Cause of God in the Holy Land and to provide for its
extension into the future. The duties of the International Teaching
Centre include coordinating, stimulating, and directing the
activities of the Continental Boards of Counsellors and acting as
liaison between them and the Universal House of Justice. The
membership of the Teaching Centre comprises all the surviving
Hands of the Cause and also nine Counsellors appointed by the
Universal House of Justice. The seat of the International Teaching
Centre is located at the Baha'i World Centre in Haifa, Israel.

Knight of Baha'u'lhih: Title initially given by Shoghi Effendi to
those Baha'is who arose to open new territories to the Faith during
the first year of the Ten Year Crusade ( 19 5 3-1963) and subsequently applied to those who first reached those remaining unopened
territories at a later date.

Lesser Peace: A political peace to be established by the nations of the

GLOSSARY

world in order to bring about an end to war. Its establishment will
prepare the way for the Most Great Peace, a condition of permanent
peace and world unity to be founded on the spiritual principles and
institutions of the World Order of Baha'u'lh1h and signalizing
humanity's coming of age.

Local Spiritual Assembly: The local administrative body in the
Baha'i Faith, ordained in the Kitab-i-Aqdas. The nine members are
directly elected by secret ballot each year at Ri<;lvan from among the
adult believers in a community.

Monument Gardens: Beautifully landscaped gardens at the heart of
the Arc on Mount Carmel where befitting monuments have been
erected over the graves of the daughter, wife, and youngest son of
Baha'u'llah, and also the wife of 'Abdu'l-Baha.

Mount Carmel: The mountain spoken of by Isaiah as the "mountain
of the Lord." Site of the Baha'i World Centre including several
Baha'i holy places, the most important of which are the Shrine of
the Bab and the Monument Gardens.

National Spiritual Assembly: The national administrative body in the
Baha'i Faith, ordained in the Baha'i sacred writings, with authority
over all activities and affairs of the Baha'i Faith throughout its area.
Among its duties are to stimulate, unify, and coordinate the manifold
activities of Local Spiritual Assemblies and of individual Baha'is
within its jurisdiction. The members of National Spiritual Assemblies
throughout the world constitute the electoral college for the Universal House of Justice. At Ri<;lvan 1995, there were 174 National or
Regional Spiritual Assemblies. See also Regional Spiritual Assembly.

Nineteen Day Feast: The principal gathering in each local Baha'i
community, every Baha'i month, for the threefold purpose of worship, consultation, and fellowship.

Pioneer: Any Baha'i who arises and leaves his or her home to journey
to another country for the purpose of teaching the Baha'i Faith.
"Homefront pioneer" is used to describe those who move to areas
within their own country that have yet to be exposed to the Baha'i
Faith or where the Baha'i community needs strengthening.

Regional Spiritual Assembly: An institution identical in function to
the National Spiritual Assembly but including a number of countries
or regions in its jurisdiction, often established as a precursor to the
formation of a National Spiritual Assembly in each of the countries
it encompasses.

Ri~van: Arabic for "Paradise." The twelve-day festival (from 21 April
through 2 May) commemorating Baha'u'lh1h's declaration of His
mission to His companions in 1863 in the Garden of Ri9van in
Baghdad.

Shoghi Effendi Rabbanf: (1897-1957) The Guardian of the Baha'i
Faith after the passing of 'Abdu'l-Baha in 1921, designated in His
Will and Testament as His successor in interpreting the Baha'i
writings and as Head of the Faith.

Shrine of Baha'u'llah: The resting place of Baha'u'llah's mortal
remains, located near the city of Acre, Israel. The Shrine is the holiest
spot on earth to Baha'is and a place of pilgrimage.

Shrine of the Bab: The resting place of the Bab's mortal remains, located on Mount Carmel in Haifa, Israel, a sacred site to Baha'is, and a
place of pilgrimage.

Tablet: Divinely revealed scripture. In Baha'i scripture, the term is
used to denote writings revealed by Baha'u'llah, the Bab, and 'Abdu'l-
Baha.

Universal House of Justice: Head of the Baha'i Faith after the passing
of Shoghi Effendi, supreme administrative body ordained by
Baha'u'llah in the Kitab-i-Aqdas, His Book of Laws. The Universal
House of Justice is elected every five years by the members of the
National Spiritual Assemblies who gather at an International Convention. The House of Justice was elected for the first time in 1963
and occupied its permanent Seat on Mount Carmel in 1983.

Adapted from A Basic Baha'i Dictionary, Wendi Momen, ed. (Oxford:
George Ronald, 1989).

INDEX

A Bahamas 92, 113
A Work/in OurHands79, 168,175 Bahiyyih Khanum 150
Abbott, Robert 181 Baltic States 15, 45, 48, 81, 122
'Abdu'l-Baha 6, 52, 60, 151, 155, 180, 186,207,209, Banani, Samiheh 312
210,213,218,232,235,236,237,264,268,269, Bangladesh 3, 115, 117, 166
276, 277, 278, 279 Barbados 77, 102, 175
selected writings of 332-333 Barber, Benjamin R. 224, 225, 226, 227
Advancement of Women, Offices for, national 80, 82, Barrow, Dame Nita, Governor-General of Barbados
83, 136, 148, 152 102
Ala'i, Suhayll82, 311-312 Beatrix, Queen of the Netherlands 95, 167
Alaska 52, 77, 86, 113, 157, 311 Belarus 15, 29, 43, 48, 49, 50, 80
Albania 15, 69, 98, 109,110, 131,179 Belcher, Rodney Lynn 182, 309-311
Amatu'l-Baha Rulfiyyih Kh{mum 37, 42, 46, 47, 67, Belgium 103, 105, 171
69, 70, 103, 132, 133 Belize 109, 164
American Samoa 172, 182, 311 Bellah, Robert N. 187, 188, 190, 204
Andaman and Nicobar Islands 172 Benin 112
Angola 66, 94 Bermuda 90, 92, 181
Antigua 136 Blums Community Service Award 177
Argentina 79, 82, Ill Boeykens, Lily, UN Commission on the Status of
Annenia 15, 29, 43, 45,48 Women 103
arts 68, 78, 85, 89, 95, 110, Ill, 112, 121-123, 158 Bolivia 75, 79, 97, 131, 137, 148
Association baha'ie de Femmes, France 83, 152 book fairs Ill, 112
Association for the Coherent Development of the Bophuthatswana 29, 166
Amazon (ADCAM) 301-305 Bosnia 85
Association medicale baha'ie 104, 148, 152 Botswana 85, 101, 109, 110,313
Association of African Women on Research and De- Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, UN Secretary General 152,
velopment 148 162, 169, 175
Associations for Baha'i Studies 118, 119, 121, 136 Brazil3, 92, 95, 98, l 06, Ill, 117, 134, 140, 169, 178,
Australia 71, 77, 79, 90, 100, 109, 110, Ill, 113, 140, 301,314
165, 175, 178, 181 British Broadcasting Corporation 72, 140
Austria 105, 171, 178 Bulgaria 81, 106, 109, 180
Azerbaijan 15, 69 Burkina Faso 111, 112
Azores 173 Burundi 108
Bushmi, Suheil 164
B
Bab, the 5, 7, 332 c
Shrine of 40, 55, 58, 59, 60, 61 Cambodia 15, 66, 110
Baha'i Chair for World Peace, University of Mary- Cameroon 38, I 04, 112, 137, 148
land at College Park, U.S.A. l 02, 118, 164 Canada 4, 42, 46, 49, 76, 80, 85, 86, 88,89-90,92,98,
Baha'i Faith 109, 112, 114, 131, 140, 143, 152, 153, 156, 173,
administrative order ofS-10, 39,206,237,238 174, 179, 180, 181,311,312,313
aims of 12-16 Canary Islands 91, 107, 311
history of 4-10 Carter, Stephen L. 227, 228,231
laws and moral teachings 11 Central African Republic 81
spiritual teachings 10 Chad 81
Baha'i Health Agency of South Africa 99 Chair for Baha'i Studies, Lucknow University, India
Baha'i International Community 4, 12-14,28,67,68, 118, 120, 174
75, 94, 95, 102, 142, 152, 181, 210, 246, 247, children 68, 73-76, 99, 100, Ill, 120, 169, 178
251,258,260,285,289,296,298,299 Chile 83, 97, 101, 123
activities of 125-138 China 67, 68, 70, 80, 86, 145
description of 125 Ciskei 29
Office for the Advancement ofWomen 12, 126, Claus, Prince, the Netherlands 95
135-137, 147 Clinton, Bill, President of the United States 162
Office ofPublic Information126, 130-131 Clinton, Hillary Rodham, First Lady of the United
Office of the Environment 12, 126, 132, 133 States 85
United Nations Office 12, 125, 127, 129 Clinton-Davis, Lord and Lady 69, 70
Baha'i World Centre 4, 7, 37, 62, 66, 70, 76, 182,312, Club of Budapest I 03
313 Colombia 38, 117, 119, 303
prominent visitors to 29, 70-71, 130 Color Me Human Week 3
Baha'u'llah 5, 14, 38, 44, 47, 150, 165, 185, 186,207, Commission on Global Governance 78,246,249,283
209,211' 212,214,218,221,232,233,234,235, Commonwealth of Independent States 45,48
237,238,240,252,254,263,268,277,281,282, Commonwealth ofthe Northern Mariana Islands 106
283,297 community life, Baha'i 11-12, 50
selected writings of 19-25, 331-332 conferences 69, 88
Shrine of 42, 61 conflict resolution 80, 120
Bahu 'u 'lluh, the statement 73 Congo 91

consultation 80, l 06, 291 Esperantists 258
Continental Boards of Counsellors Estonia 108, 122, 167
Africa 176 Ethiopia 38, 50, 51, 76, 83,312
Americas, the 181 European Baha'i Business Forum 106
Asia48, 166 European Baha'i Youth Council 78, 134
Australasia 167,173,311 European Parliament 140
Auxiliary Boards of 32-33, 42 European Task Force for Women 81
Conference of37--42, 68 Eyford, Ruth 313
Europe 50
Continental Counsellors 29,30-31,38 F
Cook Islands 83, 93, 101, 107, 113, 176 family 79, 80, 81, 83-85, 118, 134, 136, 148
Queen of101 violence 84-85, 136
Costa Rica 74, 85, 101, 105, 167, 168 Faroe Islands 110,114,121
Cote d'Ivoire 99, 112 Federated States ofMicronesia 101
covenant 185-222 Fiji 73, 113
Covenant ofBaha'u'lhih 240 Finland 38, 70, 75, 108, 110
Croatia 15, 114 Foster, WilliamR. 312
Cuba 101, 111,313 Four Year Plan 31, 33, 38, 41, 42, 65, 67
Cyprus 116, 165 Fourth International Dialogue on the Transition to a
Czech Republic 77, 81, 112, 130, 175 Global Society 67, 69, 102, 131
Czechoslovakia 15 France 42, 79, 83, 92, 94, 98, 103, 104, 105, 107,
110, 122, 140, 152
D FUNDAEC303
Davis, Gail Avery 312 Furutan, 'Ali-Akbar 37, 67, 69, 70
de Poort Conference Center, the Netherlands 103
democracy 229, 230 G
Denmark 67, 101, 110, Gabon82
development. See social and economic development Gambia, the 106, 176, 177
Djibouti 312 Gemayal, Amine, former President of Lebanon 103
Dominican Republic 101 Georgia 15, 29, 43,44--47, 48, 79
Germany 38, 45, 48, 49, 79, 91, 92, 98, 103, 114,
E 140, 176, 181
Earth Charter Workshop, the Netherlands 94-95 Ghana 78, 112, 118
Earth Summit. See United Nations Conference on Gibraltar 108
Environment and Development girl child 153, 154, 298
East Leeward Islands 77, 84 global governance 67, 69, 75, 78, 102, 103
Eastern Bloc 66 See also Commission on Global Governance
Eastern Caroline Islands 80, 101 Gonez, Arpad, President of Hungary 112
ECO APLICADA 95, the Third Latin American En- Gorbachev, Mikhail, President of Green Cross Intercounter of Environmental Educators 95 national94
economic, social, and cultural rights 289-294 Greatness Which Might Be Theil~~, The 136, 155
Ecuador 74, 97, 121 Greece 91, 95, 104, 105, 131, 148, 176
education 29, 32, 66, 80, 97, 106, 119 Greenland 3, 86, 109
children's classes 73, 117 Grenada 312
conferences 75 Grossmann, Hartmut 50
environment 95, 96, 178 Guardian of the Baha'i Faith. See Shoghi Effendi
health 99 Guardianship 8
moral 73, 74, 75, 119 Guatemala 101
teacher training 49, 73, 74, 117 Guinea 92, 97
See also schools Guinea-Bissau 116
Egypt 103,312 Gushiken, Luiz, Federal Deputy, Brazil 98
El Hassan, Princess Rahma hint, of Jordan 103 Guyana97, 102,121,157,173,174,176,312
El Salvador 96 Gypsies 115
Elazar, Daniel J. 189,204,205,207,215,216
elections, Baha'i 237, 238 H
Elias, Sabri 50,312 I:Iuququ'llah, law of67, 70
Elizabeth II, Queen of England 71 Haifa 2000 62
Ellis, Wilma 181 Haiti 116,117
Encyclopedia Britannica 4 Hands of the Cause of God 9, 37, 39, 52, 53, 68,311
environment 68, 78, 94-96, 97, 113, 118, 138, 178, Havel, Vaclav, President of the Czech Republic 227,
180 229, 230,231
See also Baha'i International Community, Of- Hawaii 52, 76, 90, 93, 173, 174, 175, 181, 182,312
fice of the Environment health care 72, 97, 98-101
Environment, Offices of, national 95 inmmnization 99
Equatorial Guinea 73 primary health workers 100-10 1
Eritrea 15, 29, 43, 106, 108 Health for Humanity 98, 134, 151, 152

INDEX

Henry, Paul-Marc, Ambassador-at-Large of France UN General Assembly resolution on human
103 rights in 142
Hill, Eileen Dewar 313-314 UN Special Rapporteur on Religions Intolerance
Hinds, Samuel, Prime Minister of Guyana 157, 174 140, 142-143, 144
Hobsbawm, Eric 223, 224, 239 United Nations Special Representative on 140,
Hofman, Marion 314 143-144
Holy Days 53, 74, 77, 108 Ireland, Republic of79, 93, 163, 172, 175, 177, 180
Honduras 101 Irfan Colloquium 120
Hong Kong 38, 42, 75, 107, 168 Israel 62, 70
Houses ofWorship 11 Italy 42, 53, 57, 69, 81, 92, 103, 105, 109, 120, 122
Australia 71
India 63, 181
Japan 119 Jagan, Cheddi, President of Guyana 176
Panama 91 Jamaica 77
Westem Samoa 71, 167 Japan 71, 77, 84, 92, 113, 122, 132
human rights 12, 80, 88, 98, 104, 107, 119, 129-130, Jordan 92
134, 138, 176,270-275
See also United Nations K
Human Rights and Citizenship Special Commission, Kabua, Amata, President of the Marshall Islands 71,
Brazill07 72, 103, 127-128, 163
Hungary 15, 77, 103, 105, 112, 122, 164 Kaliningrad 11 0
Kaufman, Edy l 03
Kazakhstan 15, ll7
Iceland ll4, 312 Kazibwe, Specioza Wandira, Vice President ofUgan-
Iliescu, Ion, President of Romania l 02, 131 da 310
India 42, 46, 70, 74, 77, 79, 80, 82, 96, 102, 103, 110, Kenya42, 81, 100, 109,131,150,311
112, 113, 115, 117, 118, 120, 165,166,168, 172, Kiribati 71, Ill
173, 174, 177, 179,312 Kitab-i-Aqdas ll, 67, 103, 207
judgement by the Supreme Court of 30 release of Persian edition 34
indigenous peoples 66, 68, 73, 76, 85-86, 101, 108, Knights ofBaha'u'llah 48, 52, 53,312,313
113 Korea, Democratic People's Republic of92
Aborigines 90 Korea, Republic of70, 78, 116
Amoogunas 113 Kyrgyzstan 15, 173, 176
Guaymis 85
Inuits 86, 313 L
Maoris87, 101,113,114 LandeggAcademy, Switzerland 102, 120
Native Americans 86, 114 landmark occasions 108-109
Tlingits311 Laos 99
Torres Strait Islanders 90 Lar Linda Tanure, Brazil 304-305
Indonesia 313,314 Laszlo, Ervin, President of the Club of Budapest 103
Institute of Personal Law and Research, Bangladesh Latvia 92, 108
117 League ofNations 243, 248
institutes 33, 68, 77, 79, 81, 93, 97, 100, llO, 116-- Leahy, Patrick, United States Senator 310
117, 118, 119 Lesser Peace 29, 64
Anis Zuntlzi School, Haiti 117 Letters of the Living 120
Baha'i Pemmnent Teaching Institute, Italy 120 Liberia66, 108,109,110,112,117,118,179,312
Baha'i Vocational Institute for Rural Women, Libya 312
India 96 literacy 66, 72, 82, 96, 97, 112
Djalal Eghrari Polyteclmical Institute, Brazil Lithuania 110, 122
301-303 Locke, John 189, 190-197, 208
Institute for Baha'i Studies, Wilmette, U.S.A. Lucknow University, India 118, 120
121 Luxembourg 80, 105
Louis G. Gregory Baha'i Institute, U.S.A. 109
Masethla Institute, Zambia 137 M
Olinga Institute, India 80 Ma'atu, Prince, Tonga 84
interfaith activities 68, 78, 90, 93-94, 118 Macau 74, 95, 97, 174, 178
international auxiliary language 127, 128, 163, 258- Macedonia, former Yugoslavian Republic of 114
259 Madagascar 75, 79, 112, 164
International Baha'i Archives building 7 Mal)rami, Dhabil;m'llah 140, 144
International Teaching Centre 37, 39, 50, 66, 69 Malawi 727?5, 82, 177
International War Crimes Tribunal for former Yugo- Malaysia 79, 83, 85, 92, 110, 117, 136, 137, 148, 150,
slavia 103 173,174,178,181
Inuit Circumpolar Conference 86 Malietoa Tanumafili II, King ofWestern Samoa 84
involvement in the life of society l 0 1-l 07 Malietoa, Princess To'oa Tosi 73
Iran 30, 105, 171-172, 181, 311, 313, 314 Malta 179
Balui'icommunityof14, 139-144 Mandela, Nelson, President of South Africa 72

Manifestations of God 10 Papua New Guinea 38, Il3, 115, 182
Margaret, Princess, ofEngland 162 Paraguay II3
Mariana Islands 42, 71, 73, 79, 106, 173, 177 Parliament of the World's Religions I62, 279
Marsha11Islands71, 72,78-79, I03, II5, I27, 173, peace 5, 14, 68, 78, 79, 80, 8I, 85,91-93, 103, 134,
I77, I78 147, 157, 166, 167, 176, 180
Mauritius 78, II2, I64, 176 women and 136
Mbasogo, Theodora Obiang Nguema, President of Peace Corps 76, 84
Equatorial Guinea 73 Peace Monument, Brazil 92, 178
McCulloch, Mary 3I4 Peace Pavilion, Canada 92
media 76, 82, 83, 84, 85, 9I, 98, IOI, I04, 105, I08, peacekeeping 127, 128
IIO, II3, II5, I21, 123, I71-182 Perez, Shimon 62
Melic,Jordan 79, I68-I69, 175 Peru 74, 92, 97, !01, Ill
Mexico 38, Il3 Philip, Prince (the Duke of Edinburgh) 69, 72
Mirza 'Ali-Muhammad. See the Bab Philippines, the 38, 42, 46, 92, 97, 104,314,315
Mirza I:Iusayn-;Ali. See Baha'u'llah Poland 15, 70,110
Moldova I5, 34, 49, 53, II4 Portugal 78, II6
Moncho, James 3I4-3I5 poverty 72, 81, I 07
Mongolia 3, I5, 75, 98, II3, II6 presidents 69, 71, 72, 73, 75, 78, 82, 93, 102, I03,
Mongolian Development Center 76, 98 112,122
moral development 98, 279-281 prominentpeople84,90,91,93, 10I, I03, 104, I05,
Morocco 3I2 107, 109, II9
Moscow Center for Gender Studies I 54 Promise <!(World Peace, The I4, 72, 73, II2
Mount Carmel Projects 29, 55-64, 66 prosperity98, IOI, 102, I07, II9
Arc 55 Prosperif)'<!fHumankind, The !5, 73, lOI, 102,130,
Centre for the Study of the Texts 55-57 I34, I65, I76, 2IO, 272,289
extension to the Intemational Baha'i Archives Puerto Rico 72, I 57
building 56-57
Intemational Teaching Centre 57-58 R
terraces 55, 58-62, 63 race unity 68, 72, 86-9I
Mozambique II6 Race Unity Day 86, 88
Muluzi, Bakili, President of Malawi 72,75 Radio Baha'i 97
Myanmar 74, II7 Ecuador I21
Peru Ill
N the Philippines 97
N'Dow, Wally 134 radio stations 74, II8
Namibia 72 recognition of the Baha'i Faith 68, 107-108
National Spiritual Assemblies, election of29 Reunion 42
Nepal82 Rice, Emma 52
Netherlands, the 76, 90, 94, 95, I03, 105, 106, I 52, Rigvan message (!52 B.E.) 28-30
167 Rissho Kosei-Kai 71
New Caledonia 92, II3 Robinson, Mary, President of the Republic of Irenew world order 254, 282 land 93, 180
New Zealand 77, 86, 87, 113, 114, II7, 172, 173, Rodrigues Island 112
174, I75, I79, 3II Romania 15, 38, 72, 89, 92, 102, I05, 131
NGO Forum on Women '95 147-15I Roohizadegan, Olya I7I
See also United Nations Fourth World Confer- Rosello, Pedro, Governor of Puerto Rico 72
ence on Women Ruhi Institute, Colombia 119
Nicaragua 74, IOI Russia 15,48,49, I04, I05, I08, 110,113,163, I78,
Niger 38, 73, II2, Il7 179
Nigeria 80, Il2, I74 Chita 74
Northem Ireland 122 Chokotka 86
Norway70, 75,105, Il5, 117,171, I79, 182 Siberia II3
Nujoma, Kovambo, First Lady of Namibia 73 Yakutia 76
Rwanda II2
Ocean of Light Project 73 s
One Count1y, newsletter of the Baha'i Intemational Sahba, Fariborz 57, 59, 63
Community I26, 131 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines I73, 177
Ortufio Lopez, Juana 315 Samandari-Hakim, Christine I 07
Our Global Neighborhood 78, 128 Samoa 315
See also American Samoa and Western Samoa
p San Marino, Republic of 141
Pacific Horizons International Conference 86, 87, Sandel, Michael J. 228-230
173 Sao Tome and Principe 34, 53
Pakistan 91, 97, !50 Schneider, Bertrand, Secretary-General of the Club
Panama 49, 70, 74, 86, 91,97 ofRome 103

INDEX

scholarship 68, 117-121 Tasi, Leala 316
schools 66, 72, 74, 75, 89, 91, 97, 99, 100, 117 teaching conferences 48
Banani Rural Secondary School for Girls, Zam- teaching projects
bia 137 Cabudare Project, Venezuela 112
Colegio Baha'i Nur, Chile 168 Enoch Olinga, Senegal112
Masrour Vocational School, Brazil305 Enoch Olinga, Uganda 112
Maxwell International Baha'i Secondary Ephraim Te Paa, New Zealand 113
School, Canada 89 Fazli, India 113
Ocean of Light International Primary School Hackney, United Kingdom 114
178 Heart of Australia Calling, Australia 113
School of the Nations, Brazil 167 Holy Mariner, New Zealand 113
See also education Light of Unity Campaign, West Africa 112
Scotland 110, 173 Maori Vision III, Canada 114
Selznick, Philip 200,201,202,206,208,215,218 Marian Jack VII, Russia, Siberia, Mongolia 113
Senegal 80, 102, 112 Muhajir, South Korea 116
Serbia 114 Neman 9449
Seventh International Baha'i Convention37 Ocean of Light, the Pacific 113
Seychelles 112 Sparks of Peace, the Caribbean 77
sharing the message ofBaha'u'lhih 15, 77, 109-116 traditional, Papua New Guinea 113, 115
conferences 52, 69, 110 Woodburn, United States 113
Shetland Islands 172, 173 Tenorio, Grace, First Lady of Saipan 71
Shoghi Effendi 7, 8, 13, 28, 58, 64, 67, 187,207,210, Thailand 74
215,218,219,221,233,237,238,239,241 Three Year Plan 34, 42, 55, 64, 65-68
selected writings of 333 Tito, Teburoro, President of Kiribati 71
Sicily 15, 29, 43, 52, 53, 70 Tobey, Mark 181
Sierra Leone 66, 108, 112 Togo 112, 117, 164, 165
Singapore 79, 94, 95, 117, 165, 168, 173, 175, 178, Tonga84, 107,110,117,119,178
180 "Towards a Global Ethic" 279
Singh, Karan, Auroville Foundation 103 Traditional Media as Change Agent 137, 148
Slovak Republic 92, 178 Transkei 29
Slovenia 15,104, 114,122 Trinidad and Tobago 77, 92, 157, 174, 179, 181
social and economic development 66, 68, 96-101, Tunisia 142
102, 131,319 Turkey42,83,92, 110,114,131,134,314
conferences 97, 98 Turkmenistan 15
Solomonislands74, 113,117,175,177,182 Turks and Caicos Islands 182
Soraya, Nurredin 315 Turning Point.for All Nations 15, 101, 104, 126, 161,
Sorensen, Gillian, UN Under-Secretary General126, 162, 169, 175,298
128, 163, 164 exhibit in Geneva 164
South Africa 29, 72, 79, 99, 109, 112, 121, 162, 166, presentation to dignitaries 164-166
172,313 seminar 127-129, 163
Spain 93, 105, 107, 110, 115,313 text of statement 241-283
King and Queen of 107 Turvey, Reginald 121
Spiritual Assemblies, National Tutu, Archbishop Desmond 162
new in 1995 43-53 Tuvalu 75, 113
to be forn1ed in 1996 53 Two Year Teaching Plan 45, 49
Sri Lanka 79, 84, 94, 97, 123, 179
Ssabasajja Kabaka Ronald Muwenda Mutebi II, of u
Buganda, Uganda 310 Uganda 97, 99, 112, 176, 182,309,311
St. Eustatius, Netherlands Antilles (West Leeward Is- Ukraine 15, 34, 49, 92
lands) 107 United Kingdom46, 49, 62, 69, 70, 71, 77, 79, 84, 92,
St. Vincent and the Grenadines 77, 177 98, 99, 102, 110, 119, 122, 140, 163, 172, 173,
Strong, Maurice, Chairman of the Earth Council 94 312,313
Summit on the Alliance between Religions and Con- United Nations 12, 28, 49, 67, 78, 79, 104, 105, 139,
servation 67, 69, 131, 132-133, 138 142, 145, 241-283
Swaziland 93, 102, 164, 174, 180 Charter 243-244
Sweden75, 80, 108, 110 Conm1ission on Human Rights 129, 142, 144,
Switzerland 80, 92, 102, 120 295
Conm1ission on Sustainable Development 138
T Conm1ission on the Status of Women 103, 138,
Tahirih 120 153
Tadjikistan 46 Conference on Environment and Development
Taherzadeh, Habib 315-316 12,249,270
Taiwan 74, 95, 178 Decade for Human Rights Education 295-299
Tajikistan 15 Fourth World Conference on Women 13, 67, 68,
Talon, Ama Dahan 316 80, 86,130,131,135,136,138,145-158,174,
Tanzania 94, 110, 165, 181,310 249, 285-287

General Assembly 254-259 v
General Assembly resolution on human rights Vanuatu92,96, 107,113,159-160
in Iran 142 Varqa, Dr. 'Ali-Mu~ammad 37, 53, 67, 70
Habitat II 130, 134 Venezuela 74, 102, 112
Human Rights Day 104, 131, 176 Violence-Free Family, Building Block l?fa Peaceful
International Conference on Population and Civilization, The 136
Development 249 Voice of America, Persian Service 69
International Day of Peace 91 von Sponeck, Hans 166
International Women's Day 80, 81, 82
International Year of Tolerance 175 w
New Agenda for the Development of Africa in Walker, David 82
the 1990s 137 West Leeward Islands 108
Secretary Generall52, 162, 169, 175 WesternSamoa3, 71, 73,84, 167,182,311
report of 144 WETV80
Security Council 260-262 Winkelbach, Helmut and Olga 48, 49
Special Rapporteur on Religious Intolerance women68, 73, 79-85, 89, 96, 97, 99, 100, 106, 111,
140, 142-143, 144 112, 128, 129, 136, 137, 138, 145-158, 166,
Special Representative on Iran 140, 143-144 174-175, 177,275-279,285-287
Sub-Conm1ission on the Prevention of Dis- advancement of 66, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 98, 106,
crimination and Protection of Minorities 142 119, 135, 136, 152, 311
UN 50 15, 67, 68, 104, 126-129, 138, 157, conferences 49, 67, 68, 80, 81, 85, 86, 135
159-170, 175,245,298 on Continental Boards of Counsellors 38
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) 75, See also Baha'i International Conmmnity, Of-
84, 109, 125, 129, 136, 138, 148, 153, 157, fice for the Advancement of Women
161, 262 Women for International Peace and Arbitration 152,
United Nations Development Fund for Women 153
(UNIFEM) 84, 136, 137, 148, 161 Workshop Worldwatch Conference on Sustainable
United Nations Development Progranm1e (UN- Development and International Co-operation
DP) 80, 137, 146, 165,226 102, 131
United Nations Economic and Social Council World Citizenship:A Global Ethic.for Sustainable
(ECOSOC) 125, 138, 153, 161 Development 134
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and World Citizenship Awards, Brazill67
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 94, 102 World Conference of Children 169
United Nations Environment Programme (UN- World Conference on Religion and Peace 67, 71
EP) 132, 161 World Court 256, 263-265
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 189, World Day of Prayer for Peace 91
255, 295, 298 World Federalist Association 78
World Conference on Human Rights 12, 249, world order 221
271 World Religion Day 180
World Environment Day 92, 96 World Summit on Global Governance 249
World Health Organization 70, 161, 262 world unity 241
World Sunm1it for Children249 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) 132
World Sunm1it for Social Development 12, 15, World Women 158
28, 67, 101, 176, 180,249 WorldWatch Institute 224
Year of the Family 85
United States 3, 42, 49, 67, 70, 78, 84, 85, 86, 88-89, y
92, 94, 97, 98, 102, 103, 113, 117, 119, 120, youth 66, 68, 69, 72, 76-79, 85, 97, 115, 116, 155,
121, 134, 140, 141, 152, 153, 162, 163, 164, 178, 179
171, 172, 173, 175, 179, 182, 240, 309, 310, conferences 47, 49, 76, 78-79
312 Youth '95
House ofRepresentatives 141 Alliance for Progressive Global Change 78
Unity in Diversity Week 89 youth workshops 76-77,78,88,90, 112, 150, 178
Universal House of Justice 4, 9, 37, 38, 39, 46, 48, Yugoslavia, former 85, 103, 114
50, 55, 59, 63, 64, 69, 70, 98, 117,210,219,
234, 236, 240, 311, 313, 314 z
messages of27-34, 41 Zafy,Therese, First Lady of Madagascar 75
Universidad Bolivariana, Chile 101 Zaire 77, 100
Universidad Nur, Bolivia 74 Zambia4, 100,110,112,115,122,131,137
University of Maryland at College Park, United Zimbabwe42, 109,110,117
States 67, 69, 102, 118, 164
University of Maryland, Center for International Development and Conflict Management 102, 118
Uruguay 111,121,141
USSR 15, 45,48
Uzbekistan IS, 113,114,117