Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Universal House of Justice, The Baha'i World: Volume 28 (1999-2000), Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 2001, bahai-library.com.
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THE BAHA f 1
wORLD
1999- 2000

156 OF THE BAHA'I ERA
THE,, ,,
EA_HXI
WORLD
1999á2000

AN
INTERNATIONAL RECORD

BAHA'I WORLD CENTRE
HAIFA
©2001 World Centre Publications

Order department: 24 Gardiner Close
Abingdon
Oxon, OX14 34A
England

Photo cred its: p. 286, 287, 289- courtesy of One Country magazine; p. 64-
courtesy of Cindy Hanks; p. 121 - courtesy of the Baha'i International Community Office of Pub lic Information, Paris Office; p. 11 3-courtesy of the Baha'i
International Community United Nations Office; p. 11 8- copyri ght Servizio
Fotografico. Other photos provided by the Audi o-Visual Department of the Baha'i
World Centre.

ISBN 0-85398-979-6 (Hardcover)
ISBN 0-85398-980-X (Softcover)

A Cataloguing-in-Publication number
is available from the British Library.

THE,. ,.
BAH.AI
WORLD
1999á2000

Printed and bound in Great Britain by
Biddies, Ltd. , Guildford and King's Lynn.
CONTENTS
Introduction to the Baha'i Community 7

WRITINGS AND MESSAGES
Baha'i Sacred Writings 21
From the Universal House of Justice 27

EVENTS 1999- 2000
Mount Carmel Projects: Progress 1999- 2000 35
New National Spiritual Assemblies 43
The Year in Review 47
Parliament of the World's Religions 105
The Baha'i International Community: Activities 1999-2000 111
Establishment of the First Chair for Baha'i Studies 123
Brazil's Response to Who is Writing the Future? 127
Education as Resistance to Forces of Disintegration
by Luiz Gushiken 129
The Dangerous Passage to a World Republic
by Leonardo Bo.ff 139
Detachment Shall Lead to Redemption
by Ricardo Young 148
Update: The Situation of the Baha'is in Iran 157
ESSAYS, STATEMENTS, AND PROFILES
A Tribute to Amatu'l-Baha Rul).iyyih Khanum
by Violette Nak!Jjawini 167
Some Aspects of Baha'i Scholarship
by Peter J Khan 197
Beyond Integration and Separation: The Dynamic Nature of
Baha'i Law
by Roshan Danesh 223
World Watch
by Ann Boyles 265
Profile:
Mongolian Development Center 285
Statements by the Baha' i International Community:
Current Situation of the Baha' is in Iran 29 1
The Right to Education 295

INFORMATION AND RESOURCES

Obituaries 303
Statistics 313
Directory 317
Selected New Publications 325
A Basic Baha'i Reading List 329
Glossary 333

Index 339
JNTRODUCTlQN
TO THE BAHA'I
COMMUNITY

judge in the United States receives an award from the Ameri-
A can Bar Association for her work in the development of
alternative dispute resolution. In northern Mongolia, people attending the inaugural festivities of a new local center are delighted
by performances of traditional music, comedy, and dance, which
are followed by a two-day women's seminar. An individual in
Guinea, concerned about the practice of female genital mutilation
in that country, organizes a meeting to help raise awareness about
the problem. In Bolivia, hundreds of people from Quechua,
Aymara, Mapuche, Wichi, Guaymi, Kariri Xoco, and Fulni-6 backgrounds attend a conference to discuss the progress of their
communities. A community in Portugal organizes a campaign for
students to participate in cleaning the local dam that provides drinking water for the city. In front of the president of Mauritius and
some two thousand children gathered at the State House to celebrate peace, a twelve-year-old girl sings "Citoyen du Monde"
["World Citizen"] , which so moves the dignitaries that they ask
for it to be sung several times so that the other children can learn
it. Students from Canada, Ghana, Macau, Sri Lanka, Togo, the

T HE B AI-IA.'f W ORLD

United States, and other countries constitute the first undergraduates of an academy in Switzerland whose vision is "to become a
microcosm of the world and to eventually welcome to its campus
at least one student from each country on the planet." Although
they come from diverse backgrounds and far-flung areas of the
planet, these people all share a united view of the world, its future, and their role in shaping it. They are Baha'is.
The Baha' i international community, comprising members
of the Baha'i Faith from all over the globe, now numbers some
five million souls. They represent 2,112 ethnic and tribal groups
and live in nearly 130,000 localities in 190 independent countries
and 45 dependent territories or overseas departments. What was
once regarded by some as a small, obscure sect was reported by
the Britannica Book of the Year 1992 to be the second-most widely
spread independent religion in the world, after Christianity. Its
membership cuts across all boundaries of class and race, governing itself through the establishment of local and national elected
bodies known as Spiritual Assemblies. Its international center and
the seat of its world-governing council, known as the Universal
House of Justice, are located in the Holy Land, in Haifa, Israel.
This article offers a brief introduction to the Baha'i community, its history, its spiritual teachings, and its aims and objectives.
Origins
In 1844, in Persia, a young siyyid (a descendant of the Prophet
MuI:iammad) named Mirza 'Ali-MuI:iammad declared Himself to
be the Promised Qa'im awaited by Shiah Muslims. He adopted
the title "the Bab," which means "the Gate," and His teachings
quickly attracted a large following. Alarmed by the growing numbers of "Babis," as His followers were known, the Muslim clergy
allied themselves with ministers of the Shah in an effort to destroy the infant Faith. Several thousand Babis were persecuted,
tortured, and killed in the following years, but the growth of
the new religion continued even after the Bab Himself was imprisoned and later executed in July 1850. The horrific treatment
of the Babis at the hands of the secular and religious authorities
was recorded by a number of Western diplomats, scholars, and

TI-IE BAHA'I C OMMUNITY

travelers, who expressed their admiration for the character and
fortitude of the victims of the persecution.
The Babi religion sprang from Islam in the same manner that
Christianity sprang from Judaism and Buddhism from Hinduism.
It was apparent early in the Bab's ministry that the religion
established by Hirn was not merely a sect or a movement within
Islam but an independent Faith. Furthermore, one of the main
tenets of Babi belief was the Bab's statement that He had been
sent by God to prepare the way for One greater than Himself,
Who would inaugurate an era of peace and righteousness throughout the world, representing the culmination of all past religious
dispensations.
Mirza I:Iusayn- 'Ali was one of the leading adherents of the
Babi Faith who was arrested and imprisoned during the tumultuous years of the Bab's brief ministry. He was spared from execution but was banished from Persia to Baghdad, Constantinople,
Adrianople, and finally the penal colony of Acre in Palestine. Thus,
the Persian government, which had secured the support of
the rulers of the rival Ottoman Empire in suppressing the new
movement, expected that His sphere of influence would be severely limited.
During His initial imprisonment Mirza I:Iusayn-' Ali had
received the first divine intimations that He was the Promised One
of whom the Bab had spoken. He adopted the title Baha'u'llah,
which means "the Glory of God," and publicly declared His
mission on the eve of His exile from Baghdad, in April 1863.
Bahci'u'llah was still nominally a prisoner when He passed
away near Acre in May 1892, although the authorities had gradually loosened their restrictions as they became acquainted with
Him and the nature of His teachings. During the long years of His
exile Baha'u'llah revealed the equivalent of more than one hundred volumes of writings, consisting of the laws and ordinances
of His dispensation, letters to the kings and rulers of the East and
the West, mystical teachings, and other divinely inspired writings.
In His Will and Testament, Baha'u'llah appointed His eldest son, 'Abbas Effendi, who adopted the title 'Abdu'l-Baha
("the Servant of Baha"), as His successor and sole authoritative

interpreter of His teachings. 'Abdu'l-Baha had shared His Father's
long exile and imprisonment and was freed only after a new
regime was installed by the "Young Turk" movement in 1908.
Shortly thereafter, at an advanced age, He embarked on an arduous journey to Europe and America where, from 1911 to 1913,
He proclaimed Baha'u'llah's message of universal brotherhood
and peace to large audiences, consolidated fledgling Baha'i
communities, and warned of the potential catastrophe looming on
Europe's darkening horizon. By the outbreak of World War I in
1914, 'Abdu'l-Baha had returned to His home in Haifa, just across
the bay from Acre, and devoted Himself to caring for the local
people, fending off famine by feeding them from stores of grain
He had safeguarded for just such an eventuality. 'Abdu'l-Baha's
humanitarian services and His promotion of intercultural harmony
were recognized by the British government, which, at the end of
the war, conferred upon Him a knighthood, a title He acknowledged but declined to use. He passed away in 1921 and is buried
on Mount Carmel in a vault near the spot where He had interred
the remains of the Bab some years before.
Among the legacies that 'Abdu'l-Baha bequeathed to history
was a series ofletters called the Tablets of the Divine Plan, which
He had addressed to the Baha'is ofNorthAmerica during the years
of World War I. These fourteen letters directed the recipients to
scatter to countries on all continents and share with their populations the teachings of Baha'u'llah- a mandate that led to the global
expansion of the Baha'i community.
Another legacy of 'Abdu'l-Baha is His Will and Testament,
which Baha'is regard as the charter of the administrative order
conceived by Baha'u'llah. In this document, 'Abdu'l-Baha appointed His eldest grandson, Shoghi Effendi, as His successor, to
act as Guardian of the Baha'i Faith and authorized interpreter of
its teachings.
During the period of his Guardianship, from 1921 to 1957,
Shoghi Effendi concentrated on four main areas: the development
of the Baha'i World Centre in the environs of Haifa; the translation and interpretation of the Baha' i sacred writings; the rise and
consolidation of the institutions of the Baha'i administrative

T HE B AHA' I C OMMUNITY

order; and the implementation of 'Abdu'l-Baha's plan for the
propagation of the Baha' i Faith around the world.
At the Baha'i World Centre, Shoghi Effendi effected the construction of a superstructure for the mausoleum containing the
remains of the Bab, which had been brought secretly from Persia
and interred by 'Abdu'l-Baha in a spot designated by Baha'u'llah
on Mount Carmel. Shoghi Effendi beautified and expanded the
simple native stone structure, which is today a site of pilgrimage
for Baha'is from all over the world. He enhanced the Baha'i properties and initiated construction of the International Baha'i Archives
Building to house the original Baha'i scriptures and artifacts from
the early days of the Baha'i Faith. This building, the first on the
arc-shaped path on the site designated as the world administrative
center of the Baha'i community, was completed in 1957. Shoghi
Effendi's actions laid the foundations, literally and figuratively,
for the further development of the Baha'i World Centre.
Shoghi Effendi was also instrumental in interpreting the
writings ofBaha'u'llah and 'Abdu' l-Baha and in translating them
from the original Persian and Arabic into English. The Guardian had served as secretary to 'Abdu'l-Baha for a number of
years and was a student at Oxford University at the time of his
Grandfather's passing. Shoghi Effendi's mastery of Persian,
Arabic, and English, coupled with the authority conferred upon
him as the appointed interpreter of the Baha'i writings, made him
uniquely qualified to undertake their translation. He also translated a history of the Babi Faith, authored a history of the first
century of the Baha'i Faith, God Passes By, and wrote thousands
of letters to communities and individuals around the world, elucidating passages from the writings and giving direction and impetus
to Baha'i activities.
Development of the Administrative Order
Shoghi Effendi's work in developing the Baha' i administrative
order is one of the most dramatic legacies of his years as Guardian. The first step in this development was to encourage the
organized, planned expansion of Baha'i communities in places
where local and national Baha'i councils, known as Spiritual Assemblies, would eventually be established. The Guardian

effected this global expansion of Baha'i communities through a
series of international plans of varying duration, during which
twelve National Spiritual Assemblies were elected.
At the time ofShoghi Effendi's sudden passing in 1957, the
Baha'i community was in the middle of a global plan of expansion and consolidation called the Ten Year Crusade. During this
period, which concluded in 1963- the centenary ofBaha'u'llah's
declaration of His mission in the Garden ofRiqvan in Baghdadthe goal was to open 132 new countries and major territories to
the Faith and to expand existing communities in 120 countries
and territories that had previously been opened. These ambitious
targets were actually exceeded by the end of the plan, in spite of
the difficulties posed by the Guardian's death.
'Abdu'l-Baha, in His Will and Testament, had authorized the
continuation of the Guardianship through the appointment by the
Guardian of a successor from among his own sons, should he have
them, or other direct descendants of Baha'u'llah. Such a designation was dependent upon the decision of Shoghi Effendi as to
whether an individual could be named who met the demanding
spiritual qualifications specified by 'Abdu'l-Baha. Shoghi Effendi
had no children and died without designating such a Guardian to
follow him. He had, however, taken steps toward the election of
the Universal House of Justice, the supreme governing body
of the Baha'i Faith which was to function, with him, as one of
the two authorized successors provided for in the writings of
Baha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha. He had also appointed a number
of individual Baha'is to an auxiliary institution of the Guardianship called Hands of the Cause of God. These individuals had
been charged with protecting the unity of the faith and collaborating
with National Spiritual Assemblies around the world to ensure
that the goals of the Ten Year Crusade were won. Upon Shoghi
Effendi's passing, these men and women guided the Baha'i
community to complete the plan initiated by the Guardian and to
hold the first election of the Universal House of Justice in 1963.
Conceived by Baha'u'llah Himself, the institution of the
Universal House of Justice is established on principles laid down
in the Baha'i sacred writings. Its election, by the members of the

TI-IE B AI-IA'f C OMMUNITY

fifty-six National Spiritual Assemblies that existed in April 1963,
clearly demonstrated the principle of unity so central to the Baha'i
Faith, with the nine members corning from four continents and
representing a variety of religious and ethnic backgrounds.
Based on the authority conferred on it by the Founder of the
Faith, the Universal House of Justice stands as the acknowledged
central authority in the worldwide Baha'i community and has, during the past thirty-six years, launched six global plans for the
advancement of the Faith. From a worldwide population of 408,000
in 1963, the Baha'i community has grown to approximately five
million members; the number of National and Regional Spiritual
Assemblies has grown from 56 to 181; and the number of Local
Spiritual Assemblies has increased from 3,555 to some 12,500.
Baha'is live in 235 countries and territories around the planet.
Spiritual and Moral Teachings and Baha'i Community Life
The force that unites this diverse body of people is the vision
achieved through their belief in Baha'u'llah as a Manifestation of
God, in the social and administrative structures He established,
and in the spiritual and moral teachings He propagated. Central to
these spiritual teachings is the concept that there is only one
God and that the world's great religions have been established by
Messengers or Manifestations of this Divine Reality-Abraham,
Krishna, Moses, Buddha, Zoroaster, Jesus, and Muhammad- who
have been sent throughout history to deliver a divine message commensurate with humanity's stage of development. The spiritual
essence of all the major religions, in the Baha'i view, is the same:
humanity has been created to know and to worship God. Only the
religions ' social teachings change through this process of progressive revelation. The Baha'i perspective sees the cumulative benefits
of progressively revealed religions as fundamental to an "everadvancing civilization." What divides various religious communities, Baha'is believe, comes not from God but from humanity
and its accretions to the essential religious teachings brought by
each divine Messenger.
At this stage of humanity's development, the unity of the
human race must be recognized, the equality of women and men
must be established, the extremes of wealth and poverty must be

THE B AHA'f W ORLD

eliminated, and the age-old promise of universal peace must be
realized. Likening the development of the human race to that of
an individual, the Baha'i writings say that we have passed through
stages analogous to infancy and childhood and are now in the midst
of a tumultuous adolescence, standing on the threshold of maturity. Baha'u'llah taught that humanity is destined to come of age,
but the course it takes to achieve that goal is entirely in its own
hands.
To promote the development of a society in which Baha'i
ideals can be fully realized, Baha'u'llah established laws and moral
teachings that are binding on Baha'is. Central to these is daily
obligatory prayer. Study of and meditation upon the Baha'i sacred writings each morning and evening is also enjoined. Baha'is
between the ages of fifteen and seventy, with certain exceptions,
observe an annual nineteen-day, dawn-to-dusk fast. Baha'u'llah
referred to prayer and fasting as the "twin pillars" of faith, an indication of their importance and the benefits to be gained from
them. He also raised work to the level of worship. The main
repository of Baha'u'llah's laws is a volume entitled the Kitab-i-
Aqdas, or the Most Holy Book.
There are no dietary restrictions in the Baha'i Faith, but the
consumption of alcohol and the use of narcotic and hallucinogenic
drugs are forbidden, as they affect the mind and interfere with
spiritual growth . Baha' u'llah counseled Baha'is to be honest and
trustworthy, to render service to humanity with an abundance of
deeds rather than mere words, to be chaste in their relationships
with others, and to avoid gossip and backbiting. He forbade lying,
stealing, adultery, sodomy, and promiscuity. The importance of
the family is central to Baha'i community life, as is the moral and
spiritual education of children.
Baha'is often gather together in their communities to study
the sacred writings of their Faith and to pray, but a central feature
in Baha'i community life is a meeting called the Nineteen Day
Feast, at which all members join in worship, consult about community affairs, and socialize. Pending the further development of
Baha'i communities, these meetings often occur in rented facilities , people's homes, or in a local Baha'i center. The Baha'i

TI-IE B AI-IJ-\' f C OMMUN ITY

writings call for the erection in each community of a beautifully designed House of Worship, surrounded by gardens and
functioning as a spiritual center of activity. A variety of social
and humanitarian institutions are also to be established around it.
A Baha'i House of Worship presently exists on each continent,
and sites have been purchased around the world for the construction of many more. They are open to people of all faiths-or those
professing no particular faith- for prayer and meditation. Services
are nondenominational. There are no sermons, only readings and
prayers from the Baha'i writings and scriptures of other faiths with
music by an a capella choir. This preserves the sacredness of the
experience of hearing and meditating upon the Holy Word without the interference of man-made concepts.
Aims, Objectives, and Activities
As the Universal House of Justice stated in a message addressed
to the peoples of the world, written in October 1985 on the eve of
the United Nations International Year of Peace, "Acceptance of
the oneness of mankind is the first fundamental prerequisite for
the reorganization and administration of the world as one country,
the home of humankind." The ultimate aim of the Baha'i Faith is
the establishment of unity among all the peoples of the world,
and it is because of its orientation towards unity on an international scale that the Baha'i community has been active at the United
Nations since that organization's inception. Today the Baha'i
International Community, an active non-governmental organization (NGO) that represents the collective voice of national Baha'i
communities around the world, enjoys special status with the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). It is particularly involved
in addressing human rights issues, the needs of women and children, and environmental concerns, as well as pursuing sound,
sustainable development policies. To coordinate its international
efforts in these areas, the Baha' i International Community's
United Nations Office and Office of Public Information, as well
as Offices of the Environment and for the Advancement of
Women, collaborate with National Spiritual Assemblies around
the world. The Baha'i International Community's activities at
the United Nations have earned it a reputation as one of the most

effective religious NGOs in the UN system. Its national and international representatives have taken active roles in the major world
summits and NGO forums sponsored by the United Nations
during the past decade.
Baha'is look towards a day when a new international order
will be established, a commonwealth to which all the nations of
the world will belong. As Shoghi Effendi wrote in 1936:

The unity of the human race, as envisaged by Baha' u'llah,
implies the establishment of a world commonwealth in which
all nations, races, creeds and classes are closely and permanently united, and in which the autonomy of its state members
and the personal freedom and initiative of the individuals
that compose them are definitely and completely safeguarded.
This commonwealth must, as far as we can visualize it,
consist of a world legislature, whose members will, as the
trustees of the whole of mankind, ultimately control the entire
resources of all the component nations, and will enact such
laws as shall be required to regulate the life, satisfy the needs
and adjust the relationships of all races and peoples. A world
executive, backed by an international Force, will carry out the
decisions arrived at, and apply the Jaws enacted by, this world
legislature, and will safeguard the organic unity of the whole
commonwealth. A world tribunal will adjudicate and deliver
its compulsory and final verdict in all and any disputes that
may arise between the various elements constituting this
universal system. 1

Shoghi Effendi went on to describe the tremendous benefits
to humanity resulting from such a world order:

The enonnous energy dissipated and wasted on war, whether
economic or political, will be consecrated to such ends as will
extend the range of human inventions and technical development, to the increase of the productivity of mankind, to
the extermination of disease, to the extension of scientific
research, to the raising of the standard of physical health, to
the sharpening and refinement of the human brain, to the
exploitation of the unused and unsuspected resources of the

Shoghi Effendi , Th e World Order of Baha 'u '!Lah: Selected Letters, I st
pocket sized ed. (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1991 ), p. 203.

T HE B AHA'f C OMMUNITY

planet, to the prolongation of human life, and to the furtherance of any other agency that can stimulate the intellectual,
the moral, and spiritual life of the entire human race. 2

To make its aims and objectives widely known and to promote its perspective on various issues, the Baha'i International
Community not only collaborates with like-minded organizations
in and out of the United Nations, but it engages in public information efforts to bring the spiritual and social principles of the
Faith to the attention of people everywhere. The persecution of
the Baha'is in Iran since the 1979 Iranian revolution has prompted
wide dissemination of information about the Baha'i Faith in the
international news media. More than two hundred members of
the Faith have been executed for their belief, considered as
heresy by the regime, and thousands more have been imprisoned,
fired from their jobs, or have had their homes confiscated or their
pensions cut off as a result of government orders. Baha'is around
the world have responded in unity to this ongoing persecution in
Iran-the land in which their religion was born-by petitioning
their governments to take action against this injustice; it is, to some
degree, as a result of these efforts that the persecutions have not
been more extreme, although Iran's Baha'is still face the possibility of arbitrary imprisonment and execution, and are still denied
fundamental rights and freedoms .3
The Baha' i community has also taken a proactive approach
in promulgating its views. The statement on peace issued by the
Universal House ofJustice in 1985, entitled The Promise of World
Peace, sparked a worldwide campaign of presentations and public education projects throughout the International Year of Peace
and since, aimed at government figures , leaders of thought, and
the general population. The centenary of Baha'u'llah 's passing in
1992 was commemorated, in part, with the publication of a statement detailing His life, teachings, and mission, designed to increase
knowledge of the Baha'i Faith among members of the public. A
statement presenting the Baha'i perspective on social development,
World Order of Baha 'u 'llah, p. 204.
See pp . 15 7- 64 and 29 1- 94 for furth er information on th e con tinuing persecution ofiran 's Baha ' i community.

The Prosperity ofHumankind, was disseminated at the World Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen in March 1995, and
later that year a statement entitled Turning Point/or All Nations
was released as a contribution to discussions on the future of the
United Nations during its fiftieth anniversary. In 1999, the Baha'i
International Community released Who Is Writing the Future?
Reflections on the Twentieth Century.
The Baha'i community has also been continually engaged in
a series of international teaching plans. It has seen rapid expansion in different parts of the world, perhaps most notably in Eastern
Europe and the former Soviet Union, where national Baha'i
communities have been established in recent years following the
collapse oflong-standing political barriers. New national governing bodies are also being formed elsewhere, as the Universal House
of Justice deems communities to have reached a sufficient level
of maturity.
The existence and growth of the Baha'i community offers
irrefutable evidence that humanity, in all its diversity, can learn to
live and work together in harmony. While Baha'is are not unaware
of the turmoil in the world surrounding them, their view is succinctly depicted in the following words, taken from The Prosperity
ofHumankind:

A world is passing away and a new one is struggling to be
born. The habits, attitudes, and institutions that have accumulated over the centuries are being subj ected to tests that are as
necessary to human development as they are inescapable.
What is required of the peoples of the world is a measure of
faith and resolve to match the enormous energies with which
the Creator of all things has endowed this spiritual springtime
of the race. 4

The source of this faith and resolve is the message of hope
offered to humanity by the teachings of Baba 'u' llah. It is a message that deserves the thoughtful consideration of all those who
yearn for peace and justice in the world.
Baha' i International Communjty's Office of Public Information, The Prosperity of Humankind ( l 995). See The Baha 'i World 1994- 95, pp. 273- 96, for the
complete text of th is statement.

BAHA'f
SACRED
WRITINGS

From the Writings of Baha'u'llah
aving created the world and all that liveth and moveth
H therein, He, through the direct operation of His unconstrained
and sovereign Will, chose to confer upon man the unique distinction and capacity to know Him and to love Him- a capacity that
must needs be regarded as the generating impulse and the primary purpose underlying the whole of creation ... Upon the inmost
reality of each and every created thing He hath shed the light of
one of His names, and made it a recipient of the glory of one of
His attributes. Upon the reality of man, however, He hath focused
the radiance of all of His names and attributes, and made it a
mirror of His own Self. Alone of all created things man hath been
singled out for so great a favor, so enduring a bounty.
These energies with which the Day Star of Divine bounty
and Source of heavenly guidance hath endowed the reality of man
lie, however, latent within him, even as the flame is hidden within
the candle and the rays oflight are potentially present in the lamp.
The radiance of these energies may be obscured by worldly

desires even as the light of the sun can be concealed beneath the
dust and dross which cover the mirror. Neither the candle nor the
lamp can be lighted through their own unaided efforts, nor can it
ever be possible for the mirror to free itself from its dross. It is
clear and evident that until a fire is kindled the lamp will never
be ignited, and unless the dross is blotted out from the face of the
mirror it can never represent the image of the sun nor reflect its
light and glory.
And since there can be no tie of direct intercourse to bind
the one true God with His creation, and no resemblance whatever
can exist between the transient and the Eternal, the contingent
and the Absolute, He hath ordained that in every age and dispensation a pure and stainless Soul be made manifest in the kingdoms
of earth and heaven ... These Essences of Detachment, these resplendent Realities are the channels of God's all-pervasive grace.
Led by the light of unfailing guidance, and invested with supreme
sovereignty, They are commissioned to use the inspiration of Their
words, the effusions of Their infallible grace and the sanctifying
breeze of Their Revelation for the cleansing of every longing heart
and receptive spirit from the dross and dust of earthly cares and
limitations. Then, and only then, will the Trust of God, latent
in the reality of man, emerge, as resplendent as the rising Orb of
Divine Revelation, from behind the veil of concealment, and implant the ensign of its revealed glory upon the summits of men's
hearts.
....i,-i

All praise and glory be to God Who, through the power of
His might, hath delivered His creation from the nakedness of
nonexistence, and clothed it with the mantle of life. From among
all created things He hath singled out for His special favor the
pure, the gem-like reality of man, and invested it with a unique
capacity of knowing Hirn and of reflecting the greatness of His
glory. This twofold distinction conferred upon him hath cleansed
away from his heart the rust of every vain desire, and made him
worthy of the vesture with which his Creator hath deigned to clothe

B AHA' f S AC RED W RITINGS

him. It hath served to rescue his soul from the wretchedness of
ignorance.
This robe with which the body and soul of man hath been
adorned is the very foundation of his well-being and development. Oh, how blessed the day when, aided by the grace and might
of the one true God, man will have freed himself from the bondage and corruption of the world and all that is therein, and will
have attained unto true and abiding rest beneath the shadow of
the Tree of Knowledge!

And now, concerning thy question regarding the creation of
man. Know thou that all men have been created in the nature
made by God, the Guardian, the Self-Subsisting. Unto each one
hath been prescribed a preordained measure, as decreed in God's
mighty and guarded Tablets. All that which ye potentially possess can, however, be manifested only as a result of your own
volition.

Strain every nerve to acquire both inner and outer perfections, for the fruit of the human tree hath ever been and will ever
be perfections both within and without. It is not desirable that a
man be left without knowledge or skills, for he is then but a barren tree. Then, so much as capacity and capability allow, ye needs
must deck the tree of being with fruits such as knowledge,
wisdom, spiritual perception, and eloquent speech.
From the Writings and Utterances of 'Abdu'l-Baha
Although to acquire the sciences and arts is the greatest glory of
mankind, this is so only on condition that man's river flow
into the mighty sea, and draw from God's ancient source His
inspiration. When this cometh to pass, then every teacher is as a
shoreless ocean, every pupil a prodigal fountain of knowledge.
If, then, the pursuit of knowledge lead to the beauty of Him Who
is the Object of all Knowledge, how excellent that goal; but if
not, a mere drop will perhaps shut a man off from flooding grace,
for with learning cometh arrogance and pride, and it bringeth on
error and indifference to God.

The sciences of today are bridges to reality; if then they lead
not to reality, naught remains but fruitless illusion. By the one
true God! If learning be not a means of access to Him, the Most
Manifest, it is nothing but evident loss.

The Manifestations of God are .. .in agreement with the view
that education exerteth the strongest possible influence on humankind. They affirm, however, that differences in the level of
intelligence are innate; and this fact is obvious, and not worth
debating. For we see that children of the same age, the same country, the same race, indeed of the same family, and trained by the
same individual, still are different as to the degree of their comprehension and intelligence. One will make rapid progress, one
will receive instruction only gradually, one will remain at the lowest stage of all. For no matter how much you may polish a shell,
it will not tum into a gleaming pearl, nor can you change a dull
pebble into a gem whose pure rays will light the world ... That is
to say, education cannot alter the inner essence of a man, but it
doth exert tremendous influence, and with this power it can bring
forth from the individual whatever perfections and capacities are
deposited within him. A grain of wheat, when cultivated by the
farmer, will yield a whole harvest, and a seed, through the gardener's care, will grow into a great tree. Thanks to a teacher's
loving efforts, the children of the primary school may reach the
highest levels of achievement; indeed, his benefactions may lift
some child of small account to an exalted throne. Thus is it clearly
demonstrated that by their essential nature, minds vary as to their
capacity, while education also playeth a great role and exerteth a
powerful effect on their development.
J,,-,

Woman's lack of progress and proficiency has been due to
her need of equal education and opportunity. Had she been allowed this equality, there is no doubt she would be the counterpart
of man in ability and capacity. The happiness of mankind will be
realized when women and men coordinate and advance equally,
for each is the complement and helpmeet of the other.

Jr>

To the mothers must be given the divine Teachings and effective counsel, and they must be encouraged and made eager to
train their children, for the mother is the first educator of the child.
It is she who must, at the very beginning, suckle the newborn at
the breast of God's Faith and God's Law, that divine love may
enter into him even with his mother's milk, and be with him till
his final breath.
So long as the mother faileth to train her children, and start
them on a proper way of life, the training which they receive later
on will not take its full effect. It is incumbent upon the Spiritual
Assemblies to provide the mothers with a well-planned program
for the education of children, showing how, from infancy, the child
must be watched over and taught. These instructions must be given
to every mother to serve her as a guide, so that each will train and
nurture her children in accordance with the Teachings.
Jr>

Then it is clear that the honor and exaltation of man must be
something more than material riches. Material comforts are only
a branch, but the root of the exaltation of man is the good
attributes and virtues which are the adornments of his reality. These
are the divine appearances, the heavenly bounties, the sublime
emotions, the love and knowledge of God; universal wisdom,
intellectual perception, scientific discoveries, justice, equity, truthfulness, benevolence, natural courage and innate fortitude; the
respect for rights and the keeping of agreements and covenants;
rectitude in all circumstances; serving the truth under all conditions; the sacrifice of one's life for the good of all people; kindness
and esteem for all nations; obedience to the teachings of God;
service in the Divine Kingdom; the guidance of the people, and
the education of the nations and races. This is the prosperity of
the human world! This is the exaltation of man in the world! This
is eternal life and heavenly honor!
These virtues do not appear from the reality of man except
through the power of God and the divine teachings, for they need
supernatural power for their manifestation. It may be that in the

world of nature a trace of these perfections may appear, but they
are unstable and ephemeral; they are like the rays of the sun upon
the wall.
As the compassionate God has placed such a wonderful
crown upon the head of man, man should strive that its brilliant
jewels may become visible in the world .
....10

During thy supplications to God ... consider how thine heart
is cheered, thy soul delighted by the spirit of the love of God, and
thy mind attracted to the Kingdom of God! By these attractions
one's ability and capacity increase. When the vessel is enlarged
the water increases, and when the thirst grows the bounty of the
cloud becomes agreeable to the taste of man. This is the mystery
of supplication and the wisdom of stating one's wants .
....10

The light of the sun becomes apparent in each object according to the capacity of that object. The difference is simply
one of degree and receptivity. The stone would be a recipient only
to a limited extent; another created thing might be as a mirror
wherein the sun is fully reflected; but the same light shines upon
both.
The most important thing is to polish the mirrors of hearts in
order that they may become illumined and receptive of the divine
light. One heart may possess the capacity of the polished mirror;
another, be covered and obscured by the dust and dross of this
world. Although the same Sun is shining upon both, in the mirror
which is polished, pure and sanctified you may behold the Sun
in all its fullness, glory, and power, revealing its majesty and
effulgence; but in the mirror which is rusted and obscured there
is no capacity for reflection, although so far as the Sun itself is
concerned it is shining thereon and is neither lessened nor deprived. Therefore, our duty lies in seeking to polish the mirrors
of our hearts in order that we shall become reflectors of that light
and recipients of the divine bounties which may be fully revealed
through them.

FROM THE
UNIVERSAL
HOUSEoF
JUSTICE

S ince its first election in 1963, the Universal House of Justice
has directed and coordinated the worldwide activities of
the Baha'i community. Originally ordained in the writings of
Baha'u'llah, the administrative structure of the Baha'i Faith was
defined by 'Abdu'l-Baha and was raised up during the Guardianship of Shoghi Effendi. A solid foundation of Local and National
Spiritual Assemblies was laid, and at that historic juncture when
the Baha'i Faith had spread widely enough and national communities were stable, the structure was capable of supporting an
international governing body, the Universal House of Justice.
Baha'is around the world now turn to it for vision and direction,
for the further application of the laws of Baha'u' llah, and for inspiration.
Ri9van 156 B.E. Message
In its message to the worldwide Baha'i community at Ri<;lvan in
April 1999, the Universal House of Justice both reviewed the accomplishments of what it termed a "community in a dynamic state
of transformation" and surveyed its future prospects.

The House of Justice began by noting the momentum generated by the Eighth International Baha'i Convention as the Baha'i
community entered the final year of its Four Year Plan. Signs of
that momentum were apparent in the establishment of three new
National Spiritual Assemblies, 1 progress made on the Mount
Cannel Projects at the Baha'i World Centre, an increase in the
size of pilgrim groups, and the translation and planned publication of texts from the writings of Baha'u 'llah. The development
of training institutes-at that date, 344, which had provided at
least one course to some 70,000 people- and the emergence of
Regional Baha'i Councils were given as indications of the growing strength of Baha'i communities, as was the involvement of
communities and individuals in social and economic development.
Accomplishments in external affairs and the increasing use of the
arts in the Baha'i community were also noted.
Looking ahead, the House of Justice called for the fonnation
of more new National Spiritual Assemblies. 2 It also announced two significant upcoming events: the inauguration of the
new Centre for the International Counsellors at the Baha'i World
Centre with a gathering of Counsellors and Members of the Auxiliary Boards in January 2001, and the official inauguration of the Terraces of the Shrine of the Bab in May 2001.
Contrasting "the confident vision that propels the constructive endeavors of an illumined community" with the "tangled fears"
of millions around the globe, the House of Justice urged Baha'is
everywhere to become fully engaged in pursuit of the ultimate
objective of making it possible for the world's peoples "to build a
united, peaceful and prosperous life."
26 November 1999
Some seven months later, on the Day of the Covenant,
26 November 1999, the Universal House of Justice took the

Sabah, Sarawak, and Slovakia; see The Baha 'i World 1998- 99, pp. 53- 58 .
The letter origina ll y ca ll ed for the format ion of new National Spiritual
Assemb li es in Latvia, Lithuani a, and Macedonia, but condition s in the latter
co untry later prompted the House of Justice to postpone the formation of the
National Assemb ly there.

TH E U NIVE RSAL H OUSE OF J USTICE

opportunity to provide a further review of the community's progress and prospects.
It particularly noted the growth of the worldwide network of
training institutes and the effort to develop formal programs and
systematically deliver courses. By that point, institutes had reached
some 100,000 people, resulting in "a greatly strengthened community, internally sound and notably reinforced." Achievements
in external affairs, in social and economic development, and in
the ability of the Baha'i community to reach out to and win the
trust of the general public, governments, and organizations of civil
society were also noted.
Looking ahead, the Universal House of Justice announced
that at Ri<;lvan 2000 the Baha'i community would embark on a
worldwide Twelve Month Plan "aimed at concentrating the forces,
the capacities and the insights" that had emerged through the Four
Year Plan. Following those twelve months, a Five Year Plan will
initiate "a series of worldwide enterprises that will carry the Baha'i
community through the final twenty years in the first century of
the Faith's FonnativeAge." 3
In preparation for those "worldwide enterprises," the Baha'i
community must bring institute programs into full operation and
further systematize its efforts to teach the Baha'i Faith. "Area
Growth Programs" in targeted regions of each continent will contribute to this process, and what is learned from them will be
incorporated into future plans. The House of Justice urged that
particular emphasis be given to children, and that "definite steps
be taken to ensure that the vision of the community fully embraces
its younger members."
At a moment when "keen interest is being shown by leaders
of thought in the destiny of the coming generations," the Universal House of Justice expressed its hope that "the Baha'i community,
both in its internal operation and its interactions with society, will
convey a sense of confidence in the future of humanity."

The Formative Age of the Baha'i Faith began with the pass ing of 'Abdu' l-
Baha in 1921.

28December1999
The enrichment of the spiritual life of the Baha'i community was
the theme of a letter written on 28 December 1999 by the Universal House of Justice, which said, "In every land we see a growing
thirst for spiritual life and moral clarity. There is recognition of
the ineffectiveness of plans and programs for human betterment
which are not rooted in lives of spiritual awareness and ethical
virtue." In this context, the House of Justice announced the universal application of all Baha'i laws pertaining to obligatory prayer,
fasting and the recitation of the Greatest Name ninety-five times
a day-all of which, it noted, directly foster individual devotional
life and so affect the community as a whole. 4
Further, noting that "The spiritual growth generated by individual devotions is reinforced by loving association among the
friends in every locality, by worship as a community and by service to the Faith and to one's fellow human beings," the House of
Justice called upon Baha'i communities to hold regular worship
meetings open to all and to become involved in projects of humanitarian service.
Other Letters
In a letter dated 24 August 1999, the House of Justice, noting that
Turkey is "a land held sacred in the hearts of Baha'is" because of
its historic associations with Baba 'u 'llah, expressed its grief at
the suffering and loss brought about by the devastating earthquake
there. It informed all National Spiritual Assemblies that it had
arranged for a financial contribution to be made to the relief effort
and for condolences to be extended to the country's president.
The passing of Hand of the Cause of God Amatu'l-Baha
Rul:iiyyih Khanum on 19 January 2000 occasioned a moving letter of tribute, which was addressed to the worldwide community
and was followed shortly after by an account of her funeral. 5

Some laws revealed by Baha ' u ' ll ah in the Kitab-i-Aqdas not yet universa ll y
binding a nd are being progressively app li ed by the Universal Ho use of Justice
as th e Baha'i community matures.
5 See pp . 167- 96 for a retrospective artic le o n the life of Amatu'l-B a ha

Rl'1J:iiyy ih Khan um and the text of the letter of tribute.

T HE U NIVERSAL H OUSE OF J USTICE

The passing of member of the Universal House of Justice
Adib Taherzadeh on 23 January 2000, 6 the subsequent election of
Kiser Barnes to the Universal House of Justice, and the appointment of Zenaida Ramirez to the International Teaching Centre were
also announced in letters to the Baha'i community.
In support of its call for the further development of Baha'i
Institutes and the systematic growth of the community, in March
2000 the House of Justice released a seminal document on this
topic which offers an overview of the advancement of the institute process since April 1998, when the first document on the
subject was released.

See obituary, pp. 311 - 12.

EVENTS
1999-2000
View of the Shrine of the Bab.fi"om the lower terraces, at dusk.
MOUNT
CARMEL
PROJECTS
Progress 1999- 2000

"\l. Then Baha'u' llah visited Mount Cannel as a prisoner of the
VV Ottoman empire in the late nineteenth century, He indicated
the place on the then barren mountain that would someday become the spiritual and administrative center for Baha'is around
the world. On that spot now stands the Shrine of the Bab, the centerpiece for the Baha'i projects on the mountain. Now, a little more
than a hundred years after Baha'u'llah's visit, the terraced gardens that complement the Shrine and the buildings that house the
administrative center of the Baha'i world will be completed within
the next year.
The Ric;ivan 1999 message of the Universal House ofJustice
set the pace of work for the remaining months of the twentieth
century, listing "a chronology of expectations" for the period ahead,
and making two significant announcements: first, the holding of a
Counsellors ' Conference in the Holy Land in January 2001 to
"mark the occupation by the International Teaching Centre of its
permanent seat"; and second, following the completion of the
Mount Carmel Projects, the holding of dedicatory events between

21 and 25 May 2001. The goals thus set, the Mount Carmel Projects
team continued its labors.
Terraces of the Shrine of the Bab
A major challenge has been to maintain the gardens on the Terraces of the Shrine of the Bab in harmony with the mountain
environment. By the summer of 1999, the pattern for a new phase
of the landscaping program was established. This program entailed
the creation of wildlife corridors to provide a sustainable environment for beneficial birds, insects, and other wildlife that act as
natural pest deterrents. The gardens maintenance program will rely
on practices such as cultivation, mulching, and plant competition,
rather than the extensive use of chemicals. Implementation of this
program, however, required the completion of the formal axis of
the Terraces, centered around the long stairway that stretches their
length, and the gradual extension from this axis into slopes designed as an open garden park bordered on both sides with large
strips of natural forest.
The Terrace gardens are designed in three zones. The central
axis is formal in layout, with lawns, annual flower beds, santolina
hedges, geometrically pmned bushes and trees, and other ornamental details. Bordering this axis are transition-garden slopes
planted mainly with flowering trees, olive and oak trees, and
perennial bushes characteristic of the Middle East. With the
completion of the first two zones, the areas beyond were left free
to develop into natural forest to serve as wildlife corridors. It was

Th e double-storied
structure of the
nineteenth terrace
on Panorama
Street.

M OUNT C ARMEL P ROJECTS

Stone ornaments, paving, and.fountains on the nineteenth
terrace, which looks out over Haifa.

not long before several small birds indigenous to the mountain
returned to nest-blue kingfishers, sunbirds, finches, and quail.
Returning, too, were a host of beneficial insects like the ladybird
and preying mantis, and animals such as the mongoose, the hedgehog, and the land tortoise. These natural forest areas not only began
to provide a protected environment for such creatures, but also
served as a buffer zone between the gardens and surrounding residential areas, providing natural barriers to the sights and sounds
of the city.
In 1994, the Universal House of Justice wrote: "the beauty
and magnificence of the Gardens and Terraces now under development are symbolic of the nature of the transformation which is
destined to occur both within the hearts of the world's peoples and in the physical environment of the planet." 1 These words
continue to provide inspiration for the planning and care of the
gardens.
On 17 August 1999, a significant milestone in the Mount
Carmel Projects was reached when the bridge over Hatzionut
Avenue was used for the first time. The bridge connects the terrace of the Shrine of the Bab with the eleventh terrace.

Th e Universal House of Justi ce, letter to all National Sp iritu al Assemb li es, 4
Ja nuary 1994.

During this period, work gained momentum at the site of the
entrance plaza of the Terraces at the junction of Hagefen Street
and Ben Gurion Avenue. Excavations of more than one thousand
cubic meters of earth were completed, and a large underground
mechanical room was constructed to support the elaborate water
features designed for the plaza. A tubewell was drilled nearby to
supplement water resources for the gardens, extensive plumbing
work and installation of pipes was undertaken, and geometric
curves and aqua drains were constructed. The concrete structure
of the star-shaped central fountain was erected, forming the centerpiece of the plaza.

Th e Centre/or the
Study o.f the Texts,
the International
Archives Building,
and the Shrine of
the Bab.

The Centre for the Study of the Texts and the Archives
Extension
Another landmark in the projects, the completion of the Centre
for the Study of the Texts and the Archives Extension, was reached
in April 1999. The offices of the building manager, the building
facilities manager, and security were soon set up, and other
offices gradually moved into the premises.
On 4 July 1999, more than 150 key participants from the
main contractor's site team, the Mount Carmel Projects team, and
the subcontractors of all trades came together with Mr. Giora Perez,
the managing director of Perez G.G. Engineers, and Mr. Fariborz
Sahba, project manager, to celebrate this achievement. Mr. Sahba,
while conveying the appreciation of the Universal House of
Justice, expressed his gratitude to all concerned for collaborating
to complete the buildings on time and for being conscious of

M O UNT C ARMEL PI~OJE CT S

quality in all the work accomplished. The spirit of cooperation
evident on the site, he said, resulted in the construction of one of
the finest quality structures in Israel. Mr. Perez reiterated his deep
appreciation for the teamwork and said how his workers would
treasure the privilege of participating in these projects throughout
their lives.

Th e entrance lounge of'
the Centre/or the Study
of'the Texts.

The International Teaching Centre
As the Centre for the Study of the Texts and the Archives Extension were completed and occupied, the building of the International
Teaching Centre also rapidly approached completion. Production
of mill work, such as partitions for the dining rooms, shelves and
tables for the mail room, display cabinets for the book center, and
panelling for the auditorium, proceeded. The first four levels of
the common area will accommodate various departments, and other
staff facilities are also located there. By November 1999, millwork had been installed on all these levels, and marble paving in
the foyer of the auditorium and the staff dining room at levels
four and five had been completed. All levels of the building received their final coat of paint and carpet tiles were laid in the
office spaces. By March 2000, the council chamber for the International Counsellors was also completed.
Concomitant with the internal finishing work, extensive stone
cladding on the external walls was completed, and preparations
were made for landscaping around the Teaching Centre complex.
Thousands of cubic meters of earth were moved to allow the grading of the slopes, with much of the backfill material coming from
the excavations on the Terraces. Green tiles were installed on the

Exterior of the new International Teaching Centre building.

roof of the Teaching Centre building, hannonizing its appearance
with the other buildings on the Arc.
New Pilgrim Facilities in Haifa and Bahji
In its Ric;lvin 1999 message, the Universal House of Justice
conveyed its decision to implement an expanded pilgrimage
program, raising the number of pilgrims from groups of 100 to
150, upon completion of a new pilgrim reception centre in Haifa,
located on Hatzionut Street across from the Monument Gardens.
The new property comprises two structures which formerly served
as medical laboratories. While the original fa<;;ades of the two buildings on the property were restored, their interiors were fully
remodelled to create large formal spaces. Restoration work commenced in July 1998 and was completed by March 2000. A hall,
with a seating capacity of 350, was created in the main level of
one building, which also contains a lounge, kitchen, and dining
facilities. Reception areas and offices were created in the other
building, and a pedestrian bridge now connects the two.
The Universal House of Justice also approved architectural
plans "for a much needed facility to be built at Bahji to accommodate pilgrims and other Baha' i and non-Baha'i visitors." 2
Excavations began on 9 April 2000 and a week later an official
The Uni versal Hou se of Ju stice, message to the Ba ha' is of the world , 2 l
April 2000.

M OUNT C Al:ZMEL PROJECTS

ceremony was organized by the Baha'i World Centre to mark the
commencement of work. Prominent among the 160 invitees were
the mayor of Acre and others from the municipality. Representatives from the Greek Orthodox Church and the Islamic Waqf also
attended, as did Professor Moshe Sharon, incumbent of the Chair
for Baha'i Studies at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. The
Baha'i World Centre was represented by Albert Lincoln, secretary general of the Baha'i International Community, and Fariborz
Sahba, architect and project manager.

A bird s eye view of the progress on the Terraces and the Arc.
Recognition of the Projects
Since excavations for the construction of the Terraces commenced
in May 1990, the face of Mount Carmel has been transformed.
And although they are not yet fully complete, the Terrace gardens
are now attracting world attention.
On 25 May 1999, at a ceremony held at the residence of the
president oflsrael in Jerusalem, the Baha'i World Centre received
the Magshim '99 Award for the Terraces of the Shrine of the Bab.
The Terraces project was one of five selected for the award, given
by the Council for a Beautiful Israel, a non-governmental organization. Mrs. Aura Herzog, widow of the late president of Israel
Chaim Herzog and international president of the Council for a
Beautiful Israel, presented the award to Fariborz Sahba, who

received it on behalf of the Baha'i World Centre. In her introductory remarks, Mrs. Herzog said, "This is the second time that the
renowned Baha'i gardens have won the MagshimAward .. .this time
for the extraordinary final stage of the terraces development that
has taken place over the last decade. Today, the gardens are of
umnatched beauty, and they were judged without rival. . . We have
even heard them categorized as ... one of the wonders of the world."
The Fourteenth International Agricultural Exhibition (Agritech '99), organized by the Israel Export Institute, was held in
Haifa from 5 to 9 September 1999. Some nine thousand participants from around the world converged on Haifa for this event.
More than two hundred ministers and high ranking officials from
many nations were escorted to the Shrine of the Bab and the
Terraces on an official visit. Baha'i ushers, many of whom were
attired in their national costumes, represented a wide spectrum of
nationalities and presented a visible testimony to the worldwide
scope of the Baha'i community. Throughout the tour, Agritech
participants remarked on the beauty of the gardens. One of the
ministers commented, "In a beautiful environment people tend to
become beautiful. I feel in this beautiful and special atmosphere I
can recognize beauty in others."
The booklet The Bahri 'i Shrine and Gardens on Mount Carmel, Ha?fa- Israel, first published by the municipality of Haifa early
in 1999, is now available in Japanese, .Chinese, Arabic, and Portuguese, as well as French, German, Hebrew, Russian, Spanish,
Italian, and English. The booklet contains photographs of the
Shrine of the Bab, the surrounding terraces, and the buildings on
the Arc . It also describes the historical roots of the Baha'i Faith in
the Holy Land.
Several Israeli publications carried articles highlighting the
beauty of the gardens and focusing on the historical connection between the Baha'i Faith and the Holy Land. The Shrine of
the Bab and the Terraces were also filmed as one segment in the
world-wide coverage of millennium celebrations, broadcast on 1
January 2000 on BBC and ABC. It is estimated that the program
was seen by close to a billion viewers.

New
NATIONAL
,\SPIRITUAL
J-iSSEMBLIES

T he Baha'i Faith was first introduced to the Baltic States in
1927, when Martha Root-journalist and preeminent international teacher of the religion-visited the region. Sixty-five years
later, in 1992, the collapse of the Soviet Union made possible the
fonnation of the first Regional Spiritual Assembly of the Baltic
States, to administer the Baha'i communities of Estonia, Latvia,
and Lithuania.
At Ric;!van 1999, owing to the maturation of the Baha'i communities in these countries, separate National Spiritual Assemblies
were established in Latvia and Lithuania, and the former Regional
Spiritual Assembly of the Baltic States became the National Assembly of Estonia. Consequently the total number of National
Spiritual Assemblies around the world reached 181.
Nearly eighty years ago, 'Abdu'l-Baha specified the purpose
of these institutions in His Will and Testament, describing them
as "secondary Houses of Justice." Their function is not only to
manage the needs of each national Baha'i community and to act
as a representative of the Baha'is to the civil authorities, but also

TI-IE BAHA'I W ORL D

Members of the.first
National Spiritu al Assembly
of Latvia with Counsellors
Mai/a Philainen, Hartmut
Grossman, and Polin Rc!fat
(rear row, .fi'om leji to
right).

to serve as the electorate for the Universal House of Justice. The
first of these secondary Houses of Justice was established in 1923,
under the direction of Shoghi Effendi, and given the temporary
appellation National Spiritual Assemblies.
The Universal House of Justice decides when a national
community has progressed enough to warrant the formation of a
National Assembly. In addition to unifying and coordinating the
activities amongst the Local Spiritual Assemblies and Baha'is
within their respective countries, National Assemblies constitute
the major links between the national communities and the Universal House of Justice.
The Assemblies are elected in a unique democratic process,
without campaigning or nominations. Delegates from proportionally assigned electoral units within each country come together
annually to vote for the members of that country 's National
Assembly.
Latvia
The first Baha' i national convention of Latvia was held in the
House of Architects, in the Old Town of Riga, on 29 and 30 April
1999. Approximately forty people attended, including Maija
Philainen and Polin Rafat, both members of the Continental Board
of Counsellors in Europe; members of the former Regional
Assembly also attended. Hartmut Grossman, Counsellor member
of the International Teaching Centre, represented the Universal
House of Justice.
Mr. Grossman read the message of the Universal House of
Justice to the Latvian community, which expressed its "hope that
the deliberations of that gathering [the national convention] have

N EW N ATIONAL SPIRITUAL A SSHlBLIES

provided direction for your future initiatives and will result in glorious victories throughout your country." Members representing
seven different nationalities and ethnic groups were elected to the
new National Assembly at the convention.
During the convention proceedings, the Assembly consulted
with delegates on a number of issues immediately facing the
Latvian Baha' i community, such as the advancement of efforts to
spread the Baha' i teachings within the country, training institutes,
and the consolidation and training of local communities. Sylvia
Vice, an ethnic Latvian who grew up in Canada but returned to
Latvia in 1989, gave a personal account of the early history of the
Baha'is in that country.
All Local Spiritual Assemblies in Latvia are registered with
the government, and the new National Assembly is currently in
the process of seeking registration.

Members of the first
Na tional Spiritual
Assembly of Lithuania,
with Counsellors
Hartmut Grossman, and
Maija Phi/ainen (sea ted
in center).

Lithuania
Lithuania's first National Spiritual Assembly was elected during
the country's national convention on 1and2 May, 1999, in Vilnius.
Continental Counsellor Maija Philainen attended, as did members of the Auxiliary Board, members of the former Regional
Assembly, and thirty-five others, including representatives from
all local Baha'i communities in Lithuania and visitors from surrounding countries. The proceedings were conducted in Lithuanian,
with translation into English.
Hartmut Grossman, representing the Universal House of Justice, conveyed its special message to the Lithuanian Baha'is, which
stated in part, "A new chapter in the history of the Faith in your
country is opening. You can render no greater service to your

people than sharing the life-giving Message of Baha'u'llah with
your fellow citizens ... "
Mr. Grossman also offered a detailed analysis of the Four
Year Plan, focusing particularly on the increase in human resources
of the Baha'i community, the development of which requires the
effort of each individual and the goal of which is constant progress
towards the personal and community ideals set forth by Baha'u'llah
in His teachings.
A special tribute was paid to Helen Smith, the first Baha'i to
settle in Lithuania, who is currently serving as director of the national training institute and was elected to the new National
Assembly. The convention also welcomed the first Lithuanian
Baha'i fami ly into the community-a couple and their two children, who became Baha'is a few days before the convention, in
the town of Krelinga.
Seven of the nine members elected to the National Spiritual
Assembly were native Lithuanians, and two were pioneers from
other countries.
The Universal House of Justice expressed high hopes for the
region, saying, in a message written shortly after the election of
the Assembly, "The doors are open wide for your Baha'i community to attain unprecedented growth in the years immediately
ahead."
The Future
In messages to the Baha'is and the Assemblies of both countries,
the Universal House of Justice stressed the importance of unity to
the continued success of the Baha'i communities in these countries, which are viewed by much of the outside world as internally
divided and lacking social cohesion.
The fact that these fledgling Baha'i communities have matured during a time of upheaval gives them the opportunity to serve
as a unifying force in a region beset with divisions of nationality,
ethnicity, and culture, and the concurrent ills that clinging to these
differences bring.

THE
YEARrN
REVIEW

n the century and a half since its inception, the Baha'i Faith .
I has grown from a small, isolated community into a worldwide body, with more than five million members in virtually
every nation in the world . Under the guidance of Baha ' u'llah's
administrative framework the community continues to grow,
progress, and develop every year. This article surveys events and
activities of the Baha' i world during the period between Ric;lvan
1999 and Ric;lvan 2000.
Baha'u'llah wrote, "the earth is but one country and mankind its citizens." Baha'is around the world are striving both to
unify and to consolidate their own communities and to improve
conditions in the wider society by initiating social and economic
development projects; promoting the cause of peace and intergovernmental cooperation; implementing programs of moral
education; developing human resources through training institutes;
increasing racial, ethnic, and tribal harmony through dialogue and
cooperation; supp011ing human rights; fostering use of the arts;
and promoting scholarship.

Internally, the _Baha'is strive to create distinctive communities by such means as establishing local and national Baha'i centers,
gaining legal recognition for Baha'i institutions, strengthening
relationships with other religions and leaders of thought, and gathering in regional and national Baha'i conferences to consult and
build wider bonds of unity. Baha'i community development is
designed to promote creativity, build capacity, and develop distinctive social patterns. Beyond these activities, Baha'is are
teaching their Faith to the people of the world, an undertaking
which 'Abdu'l-Baha called "the greatest of all divine bestowals."
This constitutes more for Baha'is than a mere numerical increase;
it is a responsibility to humanity- to share the teachings which
they believe are the means for the advancement of the whole human race.
The sheer number of activities makes this record far from
comprehensive. Instead, it aims to provide a general overview
of the evolving range and sophistication of both local and national
activities, and perhaps give some insight into the challenges of
building a global community.
Africa
ANGOLA- Twenty-one people participated in Angola's first Baha'i
study course on the advancement of women, held from 3 to 6 May
1999. The participants in the all-day sessions studied the theme of
spiritual empowerment in Baha'u' llah's writings. In addition to

Participants in a
Baha'i deepening on
the empowerment of
women in Luanda,
Angola, in May 1999.

the all-day study sessions, the participants learned and sang new
songs.
BENIN- The regional women's committee of the Sahel hosted a
conference in Parakou in August 1999. More than 150 Baha'is
from Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, and Togo attended the
event, which was covered on local radio and regional television.
The departmental director of the Ministry for Women's Affairs of
Borgu attended. The conference was preceded by two days of workshops, a visit to the authorities of Parakou, and visits to nearby
localities.
BOTSWANA-The summer school organized by the Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Botswana, in collaboration with the
Provincial Baha'i Council of the North-West in South Africa, was
the first to be held entirely in the Setswana language and the first
to be held for all Batswana peoples on both sides of the Botswana-
South Africa border. The gathering took place in Mmabatho, South
Africa, from 16 to 21 December 1999. Dithapelo Tsa Baha 'i, the
first Baha'i prayer book in the Setswana language, was published
in September 2000, after five years of effort. It is also the first
hardcover book produced by the Botswanan Baha'i community.
BURKINA-Four regional women's conferences and four youth
conferences were held in Burkina during the period under review.
Between November 1999 and January 2000, Burkina's recently
formed drama group Light of Unity toured parts of the country
and performed before some 4,800 people, of whom more than 350
became Baha'is. The group also met with traditional chiefs and
government and religious officials. Jean Jacques Yem of Cote
d'Ivoire spent a month in Burkina training Baha'i youth in the
use of the arts to teach the Baha'i Faith.
CAMEROON- The Baha'i youth of Douala participated in the city's
parade to commemorate the International Day of the African Child
on 17 June 1999. Later, during a program in the village hall of
Akwa, the youth performed a "Dance of Unity" which they had
choreographed and sang songs they had composed. The program
was presided over by a provincial representative of the ministry

Tl IE B AHA'f W OI<LD

Wom en
celebrating
International
Wom en~á Day in
Douala,
Cameroon.

for Youth, Sport, and Social Affairs, and was attended by the minister for the Advancement of Women. The youth were interviewed
by radio and television reporters and awarded prizes by the ministers for "Best Peace Message," and "Best Message for Children's
Education for Peace."
CAPE VERDE-In December 1999, Leilani Smith-Tellez traveled
from the United States to Cape Verde to teach the Baha'i Faith.
During her visit, she was interviewed about the Faith on national
television, radio, and newspapers. She also had the opp01tunity to
give presentations about the Baha'i teachings and social and economic development programs undertaken by the Baha'is to the
president of cabinet ministers; the minister for Education, Science,
Youth, and Sport; and the director and founder of the oldest women's organization in Cape Verde.
CHAD-After almost a decade, Baha'i youth in Chad were able to
hold a national youth conference. Seventy-two youth from
fourteen localities gathered for two days in Apri l 1999 at the
Samandari Institute in Manda to consult about the role of Baha'i
youth, the different avenues of service open to them, and children's
education. In June, a teaching project guided by two full-time
facilitators from the Samandari Institute and composed mainly of
youth brought 340 people into the Baha'i Faith.
CONGO REPUBLIC- The government of the Congo Republic invited representatives of the Baha'i Faith and other religions to

make presentations at a two-day meeting in the Parliament building in Brazzaville. Held from 17 to 19 December 1999, the time,
called "Awareness-raising Days," was focused on conciliation and
forgiveness.
COTE D'IVOIRE- In May 1999, a campaign for the advancement
of women was launched in the region ofDanane, where participation of women in Baha'i activities has been low because of
entrenched traditional attitudes about female inferiority. Plans for
further strengthening the campaign include the adaptation of the
training rnanual "A Campaign for the Advancement of Women:
Training Package for Men and Women" to the needs and culture
of the locality.
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO- A Baha'i family in the
Democratic Republic of Congo took the initiative of renting an
exhibition hall in Lubumbashi from mid-March to mid-June 1999.
Family members placed a large banner over the entrance announcing a Baha'i exhibit and printed six hundred leaflets to distribute
to visitors. A highlight of the hall's activities over the three months
was a symposium held on 12 June entitled "What Religion for
Africa?" A professional writer and friend of the Baha'is gave the
keynote address at the gathering. Some 2,250 people visited the
hall, more than 2,500 leaflets were distributed, twenty books were
given away, and nine declarations of faith were recorded.
DJIBOUTI- The Local Spiritual Assembly of the capital city of
Djibouti embarked in July 1999 on a four-month campaign to teach
the Baha'i Faith. In Tadjoura, the Baha'is first went to the sultan
to obtain permission to inform the people about the Baha'i teachings. He remembered the Baha'is from a past visit and gave his
permission, saying, "The world is in serious trouble; we need these
kinds of teachings." The Baha'is distributed literature in the local
language.
ERITREA- About fifty people attended the meeting sponsored by
the national teaching committee of Eritrea on 19 September 1999,
to inform Asmara's Baha'i community of the cunent status of the
Ahdieh teaching project. Under the auspices of the project, four

traveling teachers joined two short-term pioneers in Agordat for
three weeks, where they distributed Baha'i literature and welcomed
two people to the Baha'i community. Elsewhere, Baha'is managed to open a temporary Baha' i center and undertook teaching
activities in Mendefera.
ETHIOPIA-A young man who became a Baha' i in Addis Ababa
in April 1999 shared the news with two friends in his home near
the Kenyan border. They also became Baha'is and in tum told
their friends about the Faith they had found. Several local Christians and Muslims heard how the Baha'i Faith was spreading in
their town and together went to the police asking that the three
Baha'is be jailed. After three days in jail, the Baha'is went to court.
The plaintiffs reported to the judges that the young men were creating havoc by spreading a strange religion and were teaching it
with unfamiliar and peculiar materials. The judges responded by
stating that the Baha'i Faith is well-known and the confiscated
books had been printed in Addis Ababa, where the Faith is officially recognized. After their release, news of the trial spread. By
the end of the month, thirty-three people had become Baha'is
after hearing of it by way of the trial. A meeting was called for the
new Baha'is, who elected a Local Spiritual Assembly.
GABON-The National Spiritual Assembly of Gabon is in the
process of renovating its national center in Libreville. It has successfully completed the first phase of the work and has begun the
second phase, which involves constructing an upper level on the
main annex of the center.
THE GAMBIA-Sang Correa, a well-known Gambian boxer who
is a Baha'i, married Elizabeth Mendy in Correa's hometown of
Lamin on 22 May 1999. The Local Spiritual Assembly of Lamin
conducted the region's first Baha'i marriage, strengthening the
Assembly's ability to apply Baha'i laws and understand their relationship to traditional practices.
GHANA-On 9 June 1999, the Local Spiritual Assembly of Madina
presented a set of books on the Baha'i Faith to the newly opened
Institute of Local Government Studies, whose mandate is to train

YEAR IN R EVIEW

local government employees from all over the country. The Baha'i
delegation was well received by the Institute's director and deputy
director. The director was particularly interested in the Baha'i concept of consultation and offered to arrange a forum in which the
region's different religions could present their teachings and their
relevance to local government administration.
GUI NEA- A Baha'i in N'zao organized a meeting on 27 July 1999
to help raise awareness of the problem of feminine genital mutilation in Guinea.
KENYA- Some 550 Baha'is representing twenty-six countries attended an international youth conference in Nairobi for four days
in December 1999. The theme of the conference was "Youth 2000:
The Role of Youth in the Coming Millennium." It was officially
opened by Dr. V. G. Simiyo, chairman of the Department of History at the University of Nairobi. Topics discussed included the
mission of Baha 'u ' llah, the Baha'i Covenant, the lives of selected
early Babi and Baha' i figures , the training institute process,
tribalism and superstition, and social and economic development.
Most talks were followed by workshops, and the arts played a
prominent role. Fourteen members of the Continental Board of
Counsellors and two Counsellor members of the International
Teaching Centre attended the event.
LESOTHO-In an effort to establish ties with people of capacity
in Lesotho, the Baha'i community presented copies of the Baha'i
International Community's recently published statement, Who

Baha 'is present the
statement Who is
Writing the Future?
to His Maj esty King
Letsie !II of Lesotho.

is Writing the Future? to invited guests at the celebration of
the anniversary of the birth of the Bab in Maseru on 20 October.
Several guests spoke about the document, including Mothusi
Mashologu, a well-known Basotho dignitary, and Khoeli Pholosi,
a member of the National Spiritual Assembly. A delegation had
previously presented a copy of the document to His Majesty King
Letsie III, who received it graciously. The document was also presented to government ministers, members of Parliament, and other
prominent people in the community.
LIBERIA-During a visit to Liberia, five African American women
met with government officials, civic groups, and women's organizations in Monrovia, after which they joined a teaching project.
From Monrovia, the group traveled to Dolo's Town where they
held training courses in computers and on the use of the arts to
teach the Baha'i Faith.
Radio programming created by Liberian Baha'is, broadcast
on the international service of Kiss Liberia Communication Network, have proven to be quite popular. Regular programs such as
"Society and Religion," "Morning Meditation,'' "Special Features,"
and "D.C. Talk" stimulate public inquiries and discussion.
MADAGASCAR- Twenty-one members of Local Spiritual Assemblies took part in an institute training session held from 25
September to 2 October 1999 at the Baha'i center in Antananarivo.
The first half of the course was spent studying the concept, role,
and functions of the institute and the place of human resource
development in large-scale community growth. The other half was
spent studying the Baha'i teachings on spiritual subjects such as
prayer, meditation, the soul, and the purpose of life.
MAURlTIUS- On 1 January 2000, some two thousand children
gathered at the State House, Le Reduit, to celebrate peace, along
with the president of the Republic of Mauritius. On behalf of the
Baha'i children of Mauritius, Rouhangiz Baichoo, a twelve-yearold Baha'i girl, addressed a vote of thanks to the president for his
treatment of children and interpreted a song composed by a
Malagasy Baha' i entitled "Citoyen du Monde" ["World Citizen"].

Y E.Al~ IN R EV TE \\'7

The president, his family, and other dignitaries were moved by
the song and asked that it be sung several times so that the other
children could learn it.
MOZAMBIQUE-During the "Green Light Teaching Project," initiated by the Baha'i community in Mozambique, more than
twenty-five hundred people in forty-nine new localities in the
Sofala and Manica provinces in the central part of the country
became Baha'is. Also, the first program to train tutors of institute
study circles in Mozambique was held for four days in June 1999,
at the national Baha'i center. Tutors are those who are expected
to form independent study circles in their home communities
after they have been trained. The training included vigorous study
of the Baha'i writings, and discussion of attitudes important for
tutors including the need to encourage students to be independent
and active participants in their own learning.
NAMIBIA-In a long-tenn, large-scale effort to promote race unity
in Namibia, the Baha'is of Windhoek have visited nearly all of
the city 's primary and secondary schools. During race unity presentations to principals, teachers, and students, more than ten
thousand people have heard the Baha'i perspective on race relations. Organizers hope to visit all the schools in the capital and
expand the project to outlying areas.
Namibia's first international Baha'i summer school attracted
more than four hundred Baha'is from seven countries in December 1999. The event, with the theme "Building a Unified, Vibrant,
Cohesive Cmmnunity," was enlivened by presentations by Hassan
Sabri from the United Kingdom and Kevin Locke from the United
States, and by a perfonning arts festival.
RWANDA-Many members of the minority pygmy tribe known as
Abatwa have become Baha'is and are actively participating in the
Baha'i community of Rwanda. In the past, the Abatwas had consistently refused to integrate with modern society or to accept any
religion.
SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE-Forty-eight Baha'is have completed
courses at the Elise Lynelle Training Institute in Sao Tome and

Jn Gisenye, Rwanda,
local Baha 'is work to
build a regional center
for the area.

Principe, where they studied the Baha'i teachings on spiritual subjects such as the purpose, significance, and nature of the soul, and
prayer and meditation.
SENEGAL- In its 5 and 6 October 1999 issues, a widely-read
Senegalese newspaper printed an article on various "dangerous
sects" being introduced to Senegal, including the Baha' i Faith.
Under the guidance of the National Spiritual Assembly of Senegal,
a letter was written to the editor to give the position of the Baha'is
on the issue. When there was no response, the Baha'is again contacted the paper and a delegation of three Senegalese Baha'is met
with the editor-in-chief. In the 13 December issue the letter of the
Baha'is was finally published.
On 17 April 2000, the Baha'i community of Senegal
launched the first Baha' i Web site of French-speaking Africa, at
<www.sn.bahai .org>.
SEYCHELLES- In the Seychelles, Baha'i holy days are now regularly announced on radio, TV, and in newspapers. There was also
national media coverage of the laying of the foundation stone of
the new national center, and a feature program on SBC TV on the
statement Who is Writing the Future ?, which also received coverage in the national newspaper Seychelles Nation.
SIERRA LEONE-In recognition and appreciation of the constructive ideas offered by two Baha'is during a television interview
concerning the peace process, members of the Baha'i community

Y-
EAR-
[N R -
EVIEW
-

of Sierra Leone were invited to participate in two subsequent interviews on national radio in the spring of 1999. The first focused
on the role of religion in nation building, and a member of the
Local Spiritual Assembly of Freetown gave a Baha'i perspective
on the topic. The second interview focused exclusively on the
Baha'i Faith.
SWAZILAND-Baha'i work in education in Swaziland advanced
from the established six preschools and one primary school to
include a Baha'i high school, known as Setsembiso Sebunye High
School, which opened its doors to 107 students in January 2000.
The building, housing the first two forms for a five-year program,
will be expanded over the next five years. This will culminate in
an education complex on a four-hectare campus for one thousand
students by 2005. The school aims to include moral and spiritual
education, advanced information technology starting from primary
school, and a community development outreach program of service to the greater community. The Baha'is in Swaziland also
recently dedicated their new local center in Nginamadolo. The previous local Baha'i center in the area became the first Baha'i
primary school and is now administered by the government.
TANZANIA- On 3 December 1999, seventeen Baha'is, including
thirteen secondary school students, traveled from Iringa to Mbozi
to begin a ten-day teaching trip sponsored by the Local Spiritual Assembly of Iringa. The group had prepared for the trip by
organizing a program of songs, puppet shows, and introductory

A study session/or
Baha 'i scouts held in
Scio Tome and
Principe.

Counsellor
member of the
In ternationa /
Teaching Centre
Joan Lincoln (rew;
sixth/iwn left)
with participants
in a leaching
conference in
Maradi, Niga

talks about the Baha'i Faith. The group was received warmly in
each village they visited, with audiences ranging in size from one
hundred to five hundred people.
TOGO-Sixty-five members from twelve Local Spiritual Assemblies-four from Burkina Faso and eight from Togo-met in Papri,
Togo, for two days in May 1999 to discuss teaching, the advancement of women, children 's education, and the importance of
holding Nineteen Day Feasts in their respective Baha' i communities. The first part of the conference was followed by an evening
fireside, which was followed by focused teaching campaigns
throughout the country.
UGAN DA-A large number of religious leaders representing the
Catholic Church, the Church of Uganda, Orthodox Christians, other
Christian denominations, the Muslim community, and the Baha'i
community were invited to a workshop in Kampala on religious
tolerance. The workshop was sponsored by the development organizations Always Be Tolerant, SNV Netherlands, GTZ Germany,
and the German Development Service and was held on 17 February 2000. Participants discussed the need for religious unity and
obstacles to it, the use of consultation and other tools to solve
conflicts, particularly in connection to the fourteen-year civil war
raging in the north of the country, and prospects for Ugandan
social and economic development. George Olinga of the National
Spiritual Assembly chaired both the morning and afternoon
sessions.

Y -EAR IN
- R-
EVIEW
-

ZAMBIA-A regional seminar for Baha'i headmen was held in
Sinazongwe, Zambia, from 11to13 June 1999, with nineteen traditional leaders attending. The purpose of the meeting was to
provide an opportunity for the headmen to meet and interact, to
deepen their knowledge of the Faith, and to consult about the best
ways to strengthen their respective Baha'i communities.
ZIMBABWE- The Local Spiritual Assembly of the Baha' is
of Bulawayo organized a seminar called "Curriculum for the
Twenty-First Century," held on 9 June 1999. Representatives from
twenty-two of the region 's sixty-three primary schools attended,
as did seven secondary school teachers and staff and lecturers from
the National University of Science and Technology. As part of
their attempts to put into practice the Baha'i teachings on education, the Baha ' is of Mubayira inaugurated their first Baha' i
preschool in October.

---
7 :"" 7"
...
... ... ...
...

Afhcan Baha 'is, including many who traveled fi-om Rwanda
to participate in a youth conf erence, pose in fi"onl of' the
House of Worship in Kampala, Uganda.
The Americas
ALASKA-Hundreds of Baha' is from all comers of the state responded to the programs and courses of the Alaska Baha'i Institute,
participating in courses, conferences, and training sessions. Two

training conferences focused on development skills for Local Spiritual Assemblies, training in the fundamental verities of the Baha'i
Faith, skills for teaching, and training for facilitators of the institute 's courses. The ABI developed a statewide network
of course facilitators, increasing their number from sixteen to
seventy-six facilitators, and brought the institute 's courses to about
four hundred people in more than thirty towns and villages.
ARGENTINA-Some thirty members of Argentina's Local Spiritual Assemblies gathered at the national Baha'i center in Buenos
Aires for two days of consultations in October 1999. Training sessions were held in inter-Assembly cooperation, the training institute
process, and the role of officers. In addition, an entire day was
spent discussing the role of Assemblies in handling personal matters. Participants were also able to spend half a day in consultation
with the National Spiritual Assembly.
BAHAMAS-On 21January2000, the Baha'is of the Bahamas were
given a thirty-minute slot on national television, free of charge, to
air "The Power of Prayer" video program produced by the Baha'i
community in the United States.
BARBADOS-The national women's committee of the Baha'is of
Barbados cosponsored a two-day workshop called "Women Speak
Across Faiths-Action and Reflection." The Baha'is participated
in panel discussions sponsored by the gender studies department
of the University of the West Indies and organized a dance

Men and
women study
training
institute
ma terials in
Sucre, Boli via.

Youth at the
Third Ba hit 'i
Gathering
ojAjiáo-
Descendants in
Brazil.

presentation entitled "Healing Battered Women" at the same university. Local daily newspapers covered all of the events.
BELIZE- The first national Baha'i children's conference of Belize
took place in August 1999, in Belmopan. After prayers there was
a discussion of the Baha'i teachings about race unity. Stories, songs,
and other activities reinforced the lesson of beauty in diversity.
BERMUDA- Bermuda's Baha' i youth workshop met every week
during the summer. Workshop members made contributions to the
Baha'i summer school in August, held a spiritual gathering later
that month, and were guests on the "Baha'i Live" radio program.
BOLIVIA- More than six hundred Baha'is, including hundreds of
Quechuas and scores of Aymaras from Bolivia and Peru, as well
as representatives of the Mapuche from Chile and Argentina, the
Wichi from Argentina, the Guaymi from Panama and Costa Rica,
and the Kariri Xoco and Fulni-6 from Brazil, attended the second
Encounter of the Native Peoples of the Americas, held in Sucre
for two days in August 1999. The event reflected the growth of
the Baha'i Faith in Quechua and Aymara communities. Participants consulted about the progress of their respective Baha'i
communities, specifically examined the elements of their native
cultures which help or hinder their Baha'i development, and shared
music and dance.

BRAZIL- The fifth annual World Citizenship Awards, sponsored
by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Brazil,
were presented in Rio de Janeiro on 8 December 1999. A jury
composed of members of eight non-governmental organizations
and the Baha'i community recognized six individuals and four
institutions for their outstanding contributions to the development
of society and the promotion of peace and understanding.
CANADA-In July 1999, the Baha'i community of Canada was
invited to offer prayers and readings during the devotional
program of a special event at Rideau Hall, the official residence
of the governor-general, which was hosted by the wife of the governor-general, Her Excellency Diane Fowler LeBlanc. More than
fifteen hundred guests , including diplomats , businessmen,
members of NGOs, artists, and academics participated in the
"Celebration of Life,'' held to thank those who had worked in various health and peace-related projects. The multifaith devotional
program featured prayer, readings, music, a tree planting, and the
release of a flight of doves.
Representatives of the National Spiritual Assemblies of
Alaska, Canada, Finland, Greenland, Norway, the Russian Federation, Sweden, and the United States, as well as members of the
Baha'i Council of Lapland, the Auxiliary Board, and Baha' is from
ten local communities in the Canadian north, met for the first
circumpolar Baha' i conference, held in Yellowknife, North west
Territories, from 24 to 26 September. The theme of the conference was "Creating a Culture of Growth in the Circumpolar
Regions"- a response to the Ric;lvan 1996 message from the Universal House of Justice, which urged greater cooperation between
the North American and Asiatic Baha'i communities. Among the
challenges facing Baha'is in the circumpolar areas are recovery
from the lingering effects of colonialism, human rights violations,
environmental degradation, racism, gender inequality, difficulties
facing youth, social scourges such as alcoholism and family abuse,
and the pressures of social conformity. In meeting these challenges,
the importance of prayer, devotional meetings, and support from
other Baha' i communities was stressed.

YEAl:( IN RE VIE W

CHILE-A National Unity Gathering was held for two days in September 1999 in Santiago. Sponsored by the National Spiritual
Assembly, the gathering brought together two hundred Baha'is,
including four members of the Continental Board of Counsellors
and all nine members of the National Assembly. The conference
was designed to focus the community's efforts on two main objectives: increasing the number of institute study circles and
teaching more intensively in the Mapuche Indian region in the
south and in the northern Copiapo desert.
COLOMBIA- Large numbers of Baha'is are now involved in the
Ruhi training institute programs with more than 5,300 participants
in some 250 study classes throughout the country.
COSTA RICA-An interreligious gathering for peace was held on
9 January 2000 as Costa Rica's opening event for the International
Year for a Culture of Peace. The activity, which was attended by
about two hundred people, took place in front of the Basilica of
Los Angeles in Cartago and included statements, prayers, meditations, and songs led by Baha'i, Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Jewish,
and indigenous representatives.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC-In the smmner of 1999, the Baha'i community of Santiago invited representatives of the media to discuss
statements and principles found in the recently released statement,
Who is Writing the Future? The exchange took place in front of a
live audience with a panel composed of Fernando Perez Memem,
editor of the newspaper La Informaci6n; Gladializa Pereyra, television producer and anchorwoman; Jose Gutierrez, radio and
television producer; Carlos Manuel Estrella, producer; and Paul
Peralta, representative of the Baha'i community. While the panelists offered a variety of viewpoints on the history of mankind, all
agreed on the need for the development of more spiritual qualities
in the future.
EAST LEEWARD ISLANDS- Donald and Christine Brown from
Canada visited Antigua and Montserrat during the last months of
1999. On Antigua, Mr. Brown spoke at a public meeting on the

Jn Bolivia, Baha 'is are
engaged in fam ify
literacy projects, which
include early literacy
for preschool children.

Baha'i attitude toward the third millennium. Both were interviewed
on radio and television and by two local newspapers.
ECUADOR- The Baha'i community of Ecuador engaged in many
activities for children and youth. Among them were a regional
youth conference that drew fifty-five youth from Chile, Ecuador,
and the United States, and a children's camp in Cuicocha, which
had thirty-five participants.
EL SALVADOR-El Salvador's Baha'i community offered to conduct a training workshop for the country's newly formed national
committee on education in human rights and, on 10 December
1999, participated in a commemoration of the fifty-first anniversary of the Declaration of Human Rights. A committee composed
of members of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, a consortium of
NGOs, and agencies of the United Nations system organized the
event. In January 2000, a Baha'i representative participated in a
workshop on "Culture of Peace" in commemoration of the eighth
anniversary of the peace accords in El Salvador, which was sponsored by the Commission on Culture of Peace of the Legislative
Assembly, the University of Peace of Costa Rica, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Copies of documents produced by the Baha'i
International Community relating to the topic were shared with
more than seventy participants.
FRENCH GUIANA- Baha' is as young as ten years old participated
in the Pearls of the Caribbean teaching project, forming a dance
group that was used as a catalyst for teaching the Baha' i Faith.
During July and August 1999, three Baha'is from Haiti and two

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from Guadeloupe, one from Germany, and one from Quebec,
Canada, joined thirteen youth in French Guiana, where they studied material developed by the Ruhi Institute and were taught dances
created by the Diversity Dance Workshop . After the two-week
program, they gave three presentations to the public, were interviewed for a report on the Baha'i community during a regional
news program, and received coverage in three full -page newspaper articles.
GRENADA-A Baha'i family prepared and arranged a series of
locally produced television programs to proclaim the teachings
and principles of the Baha'i Faith in Grenada.
GUADELOUPE-In August 1999, the Pearls of the Caribbean teaching project traveled to Guadeloupe where participants joined nine
Baha'i youth from Guadeloupe and Martinique and several adults
in a human rights education project. The group contacted local
authorities to discuss Baha'i involvement in the field of human
rights and to obtain permission to perform dances related to the
subject. Perfonnances were announced on radio and television and
were covered in local newspapers, and one television station produced a twenty-minute interview with a local Baha'i.

Th e Sparks of
Peace project in
Ge0tgetown,
Guyana, brought
together you th
.fi'om all over the
Ca ribbean region.

GUYANA- For twelve years the Sparks of Peace project has operated during the summer to help create a Caribbean Baha'i youth
identity. Twenty-four young Baha'is from Antigua, Barbados, Jamaica, St. Eustatius, St. Lucia, St. Kitts/Nevis, and Trinidad and
Tobago composed the team for summer 1999. Based in Guyana,

the team first met for two weeks of training and orientation, then
formed teams and traveled for some weeks throughout Guyana,
teaching the Baha'i Faith.
The Local Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Georgetown,
Guyana, was able to finalize arrangements related to the acquisition ofland for a local Baha'i center in December.
HONDURAS- Six of the nine Pech Indian villages in the Department of Olancho were represented at the Pech Baha'i Congress
held in Vallecito from 20 to 21 December. Four of the five chiefs
present were Baha'is, joining more than eighty other participants.
Also attending were Rolf von Czekus, a Counsellor member of
the International Teaching Centre, and Ruth Pringle, a member of
the Continental Board of Counsellors for the Americas. Themes
of the conference were preserving cultural identity, the growth
of the Baha'i community, and improving the quality of bilingual
education for children . Sacred Pech music, along with other
music, was performed. The secretary of the Federation of Pech
Indian Tribes of Honduras expressed his interest in working closely
with the National Spiritual Assembly on projects related to the
cultural, spiritual, and material progress of the Pech people in the
area.
MEXLCO- The Baha'i community of La Colima worked with
Colima's state agency Integral Development of the Family to give
a three-week course entitled "Developing Our Virtues." Classes
were held in July and were attended by 120 children between the
ages of seven and thirteen. The wife of the governor of the state,
Mrs . Hilda Ceballos de Moreno, attended the course's closing
ceremony and gave a talk in which she expressed her gratitude to
the Baha'i community for making the classes possible and her
hope that they would continue. This course was the result of a
number of initiatives in the field of moral deve lopment. In
another initiative, Baha' is supplied a weekly article called "Baha'i
Moral Development Project" to three of the city's most widely
read newspapers. The Baha'is also established an annual Baha'i
Human Virtues Award, which consists of publicly recognizing students, heads of households, and public school teachers who have

distinguished themselves by living a virtuous life. Several local
and state government institutions recognized and expressed
appreciation for the work.
PANAMA- An Encounter of Religions, organized by the Ministry
of Women, Youth, Children, and the Family, was held 28 December 1999. An audience of approximately one thousand welcomed
the president of Panama, government ministers, and representatives of the Baha' i, Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Muslim, and
indigenous faiths. The program consisted of an introductory
artistic presentation by the Baha'i youth workshop, a dramatic
presentation by the Buddhists, and songs by Christians and Hare
Krishnas. The five-minute presentation by each group emphasized
goodwill toward the new government and willingness to work
together.

Participants in a recent
institute co urse in Masaya,
Nicaragua, display their
graduation certificates.

PARAGUAY- An international youth conference was held in Paraguay in January 2000, bringing together more than four hundred
Baha'i youth to consult about fulfilling the goals set by the
Universal House of Justice and their role as Baha'i youth. The
conference was envisioned as the first in a series of youth conferences for the Americas.
PERU- The first meeting of the National Spiritual Assemblies of
the Andean countries took place in Lima during the first three
days of October 1999. Members of the National Spiritual Assemblies of Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela attended, as
did two members of the Continental Board of Counsellors, to
consult on teaching, strengthening Baha'i institutions, training, and
social and economic development projects.

PUERTO RICO-The services of Cam1en Jovet, a prominent television and radio news personality in Puerto Rico, were formally
recognized by the country's Baha'i community in a special
ceremony held on 23 April 1999. The Baha'is thanked her for her
tireless assistance in the aftermath of Hurricane George and for
the recognition she has given the Baha'i Faith over the years. Mrs.
Jovet publicly thanked the Baha'is during her nationally broadcast radio program the next morning.
ST. VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES- A radio program called
"Baha'i Vision," which includes interviews with Baha'is and non-
Baha'is and readings from the Baha'i sacred writings on different
themes, was aired weekly and reached many of the Caribbean
islands. Baha'is also participated in ten call-in radio programs during the last year to share the Baha'i viewpoint on various social
issues. In addition, Baha'i activities were announced on radio and
television as public service announcements.
SURINAME- The "Green Light Project" began in March 1999, as
a two-year teaching initiative in the upper Suriname River district
of Sipaliwini, which is home to the Sararnaccan tribe and thirty
percent of the Baha'i population in that country. The project was
designed to bring the Baha'i message to twenty villages and to
carry out an educational project through the establishment of regular devotional services, children's classes, and training institutes.
The program was developed with the assistance of Baha'i Secon,
a foundation for social and economic development functioning
under the direction of the National Spiritual Assembly.
TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO-Each year the government of Trinidad
and Tobago honors citizens who have done outstanding work in
different areas of nation building. This year, two of the awards
were presented to Baba'is. Henry Collymore received the Trinity
Cross- the highest award in the country-for distinguishing
himself in the field of medicine and community service. Mansingh Amarsingh was given the Hummingbird Silver Medal
for his twenty-five years of service to the nation in sports. The

presentations were made by President Arthur N. R. Robinson at
his official residence on 31 August 1999.
UNITED STATES-In a 7 April ceremony in San Francisco, Dorothy Nelson, senior judge of the US Court of Appeals for the
Ninth Circuit, received the 2000 D'Alemberte/Raven Award for
Outstanding Contribution to Dispute Resolution from the American Bar Association's Section of Dispute Resolution. The award
recognizes members of the legal profession who have contributed
significantly to the field of conflict resolution. James Alfini, chair
of the ABA Section on Dispute Resolution, called Judge Nelson
"a noted jurist and educator whose early recognition of the need
to focus on dispute resolution alternatives has had a profound
impact on the growth of the ADR field."
In May 1999, Firuz Kazemzadeh, secretary for external
affairs of the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States,
was named by President Bill Clinton to the nine-member US
Commission on International Religious Freedom. The commission studies international violations ofreligious freedom and issues
recommendations each year for US responses. Dr. Kazemzadeh's
appointment was announced along with the appointment of Laila
Al-Marayati, a leading US spokeswoman on Islamic issues, and
Charles Z. Smith, a justice of the Washington State Supreme Court.
Dr. Kazemzadeh has testified frequently before the House International Relations and Senate Foreign Relations Committees on
behalf of the National Spiritual Assembly concerning the religious
repression of the Baha'is, particularly in Iran. "The promotion of
religious freedom abroad is a priority of the Clinton presidency," the White House news release of 5 May stated. "These three
distinguished appointees will further ensure that international
religious freedom continues to be an integral part of the administration's foreign policy."
On March 9, 2000, the US president organized "A Call to
Action: The President's One America Meeting with Religious
Leaders." More than 150 religious leaders, including five Baha'is,
attended the meeting, whose purpose was to discuss the commitment of the United States' faith communities to improving racial

relations. Dr. Robert Henderson, secretary-general of the United
States National Spiritual Assembly, spoke to the gathering on
behalf of the Baha'is, highlighting the Baha'is' efforts towards
race unity. The press release issued by the White House regarding
the event specifically mentioned the 110,000 Baha'is in the US,
and their creation of "programs, videos, and TV spots which are
designed to reach households across the country with positive messages of spiritual solutions to social problems."
For the past five years the Persian-language Baha'i radio
program "Payam-e Doost" has been broadcasting from the
Washington, DC, area in the United States in order to disseminate
accurate information about the Baha'i Faith to Persian-speaking
audiences. On 14 November 1999, "Payam-e Doost" was broadcast for the first time on the World Wide Web, marking the first
time a radio program produced by Baha'is has been available
throughout the world on the Internet. 1
URUGUAY- The eightieth anniversary of the establishment of the
Baha'i Faith in Uruguay was celebrated at a conference held in
Montevideo on 18 and 19 September 1999. Isabel de Sanchez, a
member of the Continental Board of Counsellors for the Americas, was among the one hundred participants.
VENEZUELA- Approximately one hundred youth from most
major regions of Venezuela participated in the national youth
conference held in Cabudare from 29 July to 1 August 1999.
The conference was organized into workshops, which focused
on study, living a Baha'i life, the country 's goals for the Four
Year Plan, systematization, evaluation, and planning, and service in the areas of institutes, children's classes, use of the arts,
and expansion and consolidation projects. On the final day the
youth formed groups according to the twelve geographic areas
represented at the conference. Each group analyzed the status
of the Four Year Plan goals for its own area and then made
specific commitments to assist in achieving those goals.

Payam-e Doost is access ibl e at < www.baha iradio.org.>

WEST LEEWARD ISLANDS-During the course of the past year,
Baha'is in the West Leeward Islands have established ongoing
children's classes, devotional meetings, and study circles.

Members ()/the United States Advisory Commillee on
Religious Freedom Abroad, including Secretary of"State
Madelein e Albright (seated, thirdfiwn lefi) and Counsellor
Wilma Ellis (seated.far right) .

Asia
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS- The Local Spiritual Assembly of Port Blair, in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, held a series
of public competitions for school children. Different contests were
held for children from kindergarten to grade eight, while secondary students were asked to write for five minutes on the question
Who is Writing the Future?, a task inspired by the recent statement of the same name by the Baha'i International Community.
More than six hundred students participated in the contests,
and some 850 people attended the awards ceremony held on 12
November.
ARMENIA- The Baha'i institute in Armenia has been offering
study courses on "Fundamental Verities,'' and "Arising to Serve,''
and on art, drama, and music. By April 2000, about one-third of
the BaM'is in the country had completed the first two of these
courses. A postgraduate student named Goar Vardanyan, who is
not a Baha'i, wrote a dissertation on the Baha'i Faith, which was
received with interest in the scholarly community and published
during the summer of 1999.

BANGLADESH-Three Baha'is from Bangladesh attended a conference on women and peace held in Dhaka on 2 and 3 October.
The gathering was hosted by the NGO Women for Women, and
representatives were invited from NGOs for women in SAARC
countries (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation)-
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri
Lanka. The Baha'i representatives took an active part in all of the
workshops and plenary sessions, and in some instances selections
from the Baha'i writings were shared with the participants. One
of the decisions made by all of the participants was to publish a
newsletter for children in the SAARC nations, which would carry
articles on peace and respect for diversity. The Baha'is also presented two statements to the conference: "Women and the Peace
Process" and "Ending Violence Against Women."
CAMBODIA- On 25 January 2000, the Baha'is of Cambodia sponsored a high-level interfaith event to which representatives of five
major religions were invited. Called World Religion Day, the event
was so successful that His Majesty King Norodom Sihanouk sent
a letter of gratitude to the Baha'is for organizing it. More than
250 people, including ambassadors, ministers, community leaders, UN workers, and university students, gathered at the Hotel
Intercontinental in Phnom Penh to hear presentations from each
delegation on the theme of "Unity of Religions." Three prominent newspapers in the country covered the event.

Jn Cambodia,
an NGO
development
worker explains
th e Bahri 'i
concept of
equality of' th e
sexes.

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Baha 'is showcase
their fitem ture at a
book exhibition in
In dia.

GEORGIA-The institute process in Georgia took a further stride
in its development with the holding of a facilitators' course for
three days in May. Sponsored by the board of the national training institute, the course brought together twelve Baha'is from
five different communities and was a precursor to another tutor
training course attended by thi1ty-seven Baha' is.
HONG KONG--The Hong Kong Baha'i community's annual Award
for Services to Humanity was presented on 12 November 1999.
Some 140 people attended, including sixty Baha' is. The secretary
of justice, a member of the Legislative Council, the consulgeneral for Chile, a representative of Xinhua News Agency, a
leading educator, and other community leaders were among the
special guests. Cecilia Chan, a professor at the University of Hong
Kong, was given the award for 1999 for her work in the field of
moral education.
INDIA-Among other engagements during his state visit to India
in November, Pope John Paul II attended an interreligious meeting in New Delhi. Representatives of nine religions, including Zena
Sorabjee, a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors of
Asia, shared the platform with the pope during the 7 November
event organized by the Catholic Church, which was telecast live
throughout India and the world. Many ambassadors, high-ranking
government officials, political and civic leaders, and intellectuals, as well as cardinals, archbishops, and other senior religious

THE B AJ-IA'f W ORLD

dignitaries were present. Each religious representative had two
minutes in which to address the pope and the assembly.
The president of India, His Excellency Dr. Kocheril R.
Narayanan, gave one of the President's Awards for Remarkable
Achievements in the Field of Education to Setwan Yadav, the principal of the JNKT Government High School in Khagaria. The
ceremony took place on 5 September in the presence of government ministers and other prominent people.
JAPAN-In July 1999, nearly one hundred Baha'is from all over
Japan and visitors from every continent spent four days at the foot
of Mount Iwate, in the north of the country, attending the annual
Baha' i summer school. Nobuko Iwakura, a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors of Asia, delivered the keynote address.
The focus of the study sessions was Who is Writing the Future?, a
statement released by the Baha'i International Community in 1999.
KAZAKHSTAN- More than 270 Baha'is attended the international
Baha'i winter school in Almaty for five days in January, including two members of the Continental Board of Counsellors for
Asia and fourteen members of National Spiritual Assemblies of
Central Asia. The core of the conference was a series of workshops on subjects such as Baha'i community development, the
use of the arts, and living a Baha'i life. They also held a memorial
gathering for Amatu' l-Baha Ru~iyyih_Khanum , who had died a
few days earlier.
On 10 December, the Baha' i community of Kazakhstan took
part in the second Round Table on Freedom of Conscience,
Belief, and Religion. The theme of the event was "State, Society,
and Religion," and it was conducted with the assistance of the
Office of Democratic Institutes and Human Rights in Almaty.
Representatives of many religions, government ministries, and
departments participated in the conference, whose purpose was to
establish better relations between state, public, and religious
organizations. The Baha' is were represented by a member of the
Continental Board of Counsellors, an Auxiliary Board member,
and a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of Kazakhstan.
The meeting concluded with a consensus regarding the need for

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government to respect international standards on human rights and
to search for effective methods of interaction between governmental and religious associations.

Th e Baha 'i booth
at the Seoul
!11temational
Co nference of Non-
Governmental
01 ganizations, held
10- 15 October 1999
in Korea.

KOREA- The 1999 International Conference of Non-Governmental Organizations was held from 10 to 15 October at Olympic Park,
Seoul. With more than eight thousand people attending from 107
countries, the event was dubbed by the media the "Olympics of
Culture." The theme was "The Role ofNGOs in the 21st Century:
Inspire, Empower, and Act!" The principal representative of the
Baha'i community to the United Nations, Techeste Ahderom,
served as an organizer of activities under the theme of human
rights, and a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of Korea
worked as director for program planning for the Korean organizing committee and as vice-spokesman during the conference. Other
Baha'is served as speakers or in other roles. The program consisted of five plenary assemblies on human civilizations of the
past and future, ten thematic meetings on the conference's main
topics-peace and security, the environment, education for all, ethics and values, human rights, social and economic development,
youth and children, public health, gender equality, and productive
aging-workshops, clinics, and regional caucuses. Cultural performances and more than one hundred exhibits enlivened the
atmosphere. The president of the Republic of Korea, Dae-Jung
Kim, spoke during the opening session, and the secretary-general
of the United Nations, Kofi Annan, sent a message on video. The

conference was initiated by the Global Cooperation Society International in consultation with the United Nations Economic and
Social Council and Kyung Hee University, Seoul.
KYRGYZSTAN-Representatives from the National, International
and Slavic Universities, Bishkek Autotransport Technical School,
and directors and teachers of Bishkek and Tokmok schools attended a conference on "The Baha' i Faith and Education" held in
the National Library of Bishkek on 14 December 1999. The purpose of the conference was to inform these leaders of thought about
the aims and history of the Baha'i Faith. A book exhibition was
held, and the schools' libraries were presented with selections of
the Baha'i writings.
MALAYSIA- Almost 1,200 Baha'is gathered at four regional conferences held simultaneously on 25 and 26 June 1999, in Malaysia.
The programs of the conferences, held in Sungei Petani, Kuala
Lumpur, Klang, and Kota Baru, were similar. The first day began
with the keynote message from the Spiritual Assembly of Malaysia, followed by a presentation of Who is Writing the Future? and
a slide presentation of the construction projects on Mount Carmel
at the Baha'i World Centre. The second day was spent in detailed
discussions of the region's plan for expanding and strengthening

Ba ha 'is in Erdenbulgan,
Mongolia , stand in.fi'ont of
their new local Baha 'i centa

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its Baha'i community. Ten members of the Continental Board of
Counsellors for Asia attended the conferences.
MONGOLIA- The Baha'is of Erdenbulgan, an isolated village of
about three thousand people in the north of Mongolia, dedicated
their new Baha'i center in May. Traditional music, dance, and
comedy performances delighted the large audience. The town's
deputy mayor and education officer attended and spoke wannly
of the Baha'is and their contributions to the life of the village,
specifically mentioning the three-year-old vegetable growing
project. 2 Rosalie Tran, a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors of Asia, opened the center and was the guest of honor at a
two-day women's seminar, the first activity to take place there .
In October, the National Spiritual Assembly of Mongo lia
received registration certificates for the provinces ofDarkhan and
Zavkhan, which enables the National Assembly to can-y out Baha'i
activities there.

Jn Mya nmar; assistants lo the
the Auxiliary Board members
hold a study course.

NE PAL-Bharat Koirala, chainnan of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Nepal, former editor of the Nepalese
newspaper Gorkhapatra and founder of the Nepal Press Institute,
was given the Knight International Press Fellowship Award in
October 1999 which "honors outstanding individuals who have
made remarkable contributions to the media in their region of the
world." Koirala was singled out for his role in "spearheading many
innovative programs in communication to reach the rural masses
and for his continued support and struggle for freedom of expres-
.
SIOn.
"
See pp. 285- 90 of thi s vo lume fo r a profil e of th e Mongolian Developm ent
Center, which sponsors the vegetabl e growing project in Erd enbul gan.

In Labipur, two hundred people attended a regional women's
conference. The local Baha'is organized food and accommodations for all the participants. "What was rewarding," said one
conference attendee, "was the active participation of women in
the discussions regarding the progress of the Faith, concern for
the welfare of women and children, and issues of health and
hygiene and the education of women and children." In a society
where the participation of women in the Baha'i community is still
quite low, the proportion of female participation in institute courses
has risen to thirty percent-a phenomenon that has aroused the
curiosity of neighbors. Seeing the change effected in paiticipants,
more and more people have attended and graduated from training
courses on the Baha'i teachings.
PAKISTAN- The local youth committee of Quetta organized a
celebration of the country's Independence Day at the national
Baha'i center on 13 August 1999. The meeting began with prayers
in Urdu and Arabic, followed by singing and a tableau presented
by Baha'i children. The Baha'i speaker stated that independence
imposes great responsibility on people and that free people must
use their freedom for the progress of humankind as well as their
own nation. She said that Independence Day was an opportunity
to consider one's contribution toward the welfare of all people.
Two local newspapers covered the event.
PHILIPPINES-On 20 September 1999, the Baha'i community of
the Philippines organized the observance of the International Day
of Peace, which was hosted by the city government ofMuntinlupa
(part of the National Capital Region) and attended by some 2,750
people. About two hundred people were also present at a second
venue, the World Peace Park inside the New Bilibid Prisons Reservation. City mayor Jaime R. Fresnedi and vice mayor Vicente
Chua led the local dignitaries. Dr. Reynaldo Imperial, chainnan
of both the Association for Baha'i Studies in the Philippines and
the national education committee, spoke on behalf of the Baha'i
community. Bouquets of flowers were laid at the base of the monument at the World Peace Park and prayers were offered followed
by the ringing of the Peace Bell.

The External Affairs Office of the Baha'i community of the
Philippines worked with the United Nations Information Center
(UNIC) in its human rights education campaign. The UNIC has
invited the Baha'is to participate in planning and consultative meetings for the International Year for the Culture of Peace in the year
2000.
SABAH-Following a conference in Kg. Manggis, in the Malaysian state ofSabah, in April 1999, Baha'is undertook a two-week
campaign to teach their Faith. Thirty Baha'is carried out teaching
and consolidation activities in the villages, resulting in enrollments
in the Baha'i community and in existing communities becoming
more knowledgeable about the procedures of Baha'i elections.
SARAWAK- A special project to open Lusong Laku, in the Malaysian state of Sarawak, to the Baha'i Faith and to teach the Penan
tribespeople began successfully in the fall of 1999. Forty-three
people enrolled as Baha'is.
The Baha'i Office for the Advancement of Women played
an active part in a workshop on legal literacy held in Kuching
on 5 December 1999. The workshop was organized by the
Malaysian National Council of Women's Organizations and
sponsored by the Konrad Adenauer Foundation. Subjects covered
included the Domestic Act, the Child Protection Act, and family
law. A member of Parliament opened the event, and speakers
included representatives from the Sarawak Welfare Department,
the Royal Police of Malaysia, the One-stop Crisis Centre of
Kuching Hospital, and the Association of Women Lawyers.
SINGAPORE- In June 1999, the work of Mrs. Shirin Fozdar was
recognized in a documentary television program about persons of
Indian origin who have made significant contributions to the
development of Singapore. Mrs. Fozdar, who was one of the first
Baha' i pioneers to that country in 1950, was acclaimed in many
circles for her work in promoting the advancement of women.
The year 2000 marks the fiftieth am1iversary of the establishment of the Baha'i community in Singapore. Celebrations will

be held throughout the country from May to September, based on
the theme "Unity in Diversity."
SRI LANKA- In 1949, the first Sri Lankan citizens became Baha'is,
making 1999 the fiftieth anniversary of the establishment of the
Baha'i Faith in the country. The National Spiritual Assembly
encouraged Local Spiritual Assemblies and individual believers
around the country to organize suitable commemorative events.
Young Baha'is trained in leadership and drama by Sri Lanka's
national training institute fonned a youth group called the Institute of Positive Behavior. During its first year the group staged
shows in twenty localities in Kalutara, Kadugannawa, Dehiowita,
Hatton, and the Vavuniya regions in front of eight thousand people.
TAIWAN- Following the earthquake in Taiwan on 21 September
1999, the Baha'i community, short of material resources, decided
to assist in reconstruction efforts by offering free classes for children in areas damaged by the quake. The Baha'is now offer very
successful classes in three locations. One member of the Baha' i
community arranged for a one-hour radio program to air every
Sunday morning on earthquake-related stress, such as anxiety and
depression.
THAILAND--The sixth Southeast Asian (SEA) Baha'i Forum, composed of representatives from the National Spiritual Assemblies
of Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines, Sabah, Sarawak,
Singapore, and Thailand, was held in Bangkok for two days in
September. Zenaida Ramirez, a member of the Continental Board
of Counsellors for Asia, guided the consultations on subjects such
as the progress of the training institutes, the need for a systematic
program for teaching people of Buddhist background, the pooling
of professional resources , external affairs, and strategies for
establishing ties with leaders of thought. Joint sessions with youth
representatives highlighted the need to help prepare Baha'i youth
to enter the new century with a clear sense of how to respond to
these challenges and echoed the parallel SEA national youth committee conference held at the same time.

YEAl~ IN REVIEW

UZBEKISTAN-The government of Uzbekistan invited representatives of the country's religions to a press conference held on 12
August 1999, to celebrate the anniversary of the passing of the
law on religious liberty. A Baha'i representative spoke to the gathering and was later given assurance that legal registration of
additional local Baha'i communities would soon take place. Several communities were formally recognized under the law soon
afterwards, to bring registered communities to a total of five:
Bukhara, Jizak, Navoi, Samarkand, and Tashkent.
VIETNAM- During the serious flooding in Vietnam in late 1999,
many local Baha'i communities made contributions of both time
and money for the relief of victims. During the year the Baha'i
community also formed a women's committee, an external affairs
committee, and a legal committee, which will coordinate social
and economic development projects such as literacy programs and
. .
m1croeconom1cs.

Taiwanese children participate in a drawing competition on themes
such as family, children :S education, and the advancement of women.
Australasia
AUSTRALIA- More than 450 men and women from some fifteen countries attended the International Women's Conference in
Brisbane from 16 to 18 September 1999, making it one of the

largest and most diverse women's events ever held in the country.
Sponsored by the Office for the Advancement of Women of the
Baha'i community of Australia, the conference gathered an outstanding lineup of educators, activists, lawyers, and religious and
government leaders from around Australasia and elsewhere to
speak on issues related to the advancement of women. Almost
one-third of the participants were indigenous Australians. The event
was aimed at "forging new partnerships among diverse sectors of
society, taking practical measures to promote the advancement of
women, and looking towards spiritual and moral values as the key
to consolidating gains." The types of partnerships discussed
included not only inter- and intragender interactions, but also
alliances with businesses, government, like-minded nongovernmental organizations, different cultures, and spiritual groups. Some
fifteen plenary sessions and seventy workshops focused on such
topics as education, communication and the media, the workplace,
women in the United Nations, health and healing, business and
technology, diversity, social and economic development, and issues related to indigenous peoples.
In response to an invitation from the National Spiritual Assembly of Australia, His Excellency Sir William Deane,
governor-general ofAustralia, officially opened the new ACT (Australian Capital Territory) Baha'i center on 10 December.
This year's annual Clara and Hyde Dunn Dinner, held in October 1999 in Sydney, featured a lecture by Dr. Robert Kim-Farley,

Children at Newport
Public School in
Australia learn
áabout the Baha 'i
Faith as part of'a
special religious
education program.

YEAR IN RE VfEW

a Baha'i who works for the World Health Organization. The dinner, named after the first Baha'is in Australia, is dedicated to the
social ideals they championed. Dr. Kim-Farley's lecture, entitled
"Health for All: The Challenge of the New Millennium," was
presented to an audience of more than 180 people and addressed
the changing needs of a global society in seeking answers to
humanity 's health crises.
COOK ISLANDS- A national teaching conference was held on 14
August 1999, at the Baha'i center on Rarotonga Island to discuss
the hosting of firesides, systematic planning, and teaching the
Baha'i Faith. Each Local Spiritual Assembly was encouraged to
develop a systematic plan for teaching the Baha'i Faith in its area.
EASTERN CAROLINE ISLANDS- The Baha'is of Pohnpei sponsored
a seminar for women in October 1999. The sessions on women
and finance, moral education, and family consultation were favorably received, and requests were made for similar events to be
held in the future.
HAWAIIAN ISLANDS-The Baha'is of Koolaupoko, on the island
Oahu, entered a float in Kailua's annual Fourth of July parade,
winning first prize in the category for religious organizations. The
theme of the entry was "1,000 Years of Unity and Aloha." The
float was later featured on the evening news of all three local television stations.
KIRIBATI- Two Ocean of Light conferences were held in Kiribati
early in the year, one on Abemama Island in January 1999, and
the other on Kiritimati Island in February. Both meetings were
organized by local Baha'is and featured singing and dancing. The
morning sessions were composed of presentations on various topics, including teaching and consultation, followed by discussion.
MARIANA ISLANDS-About fifty Baha'is assembled at the University of Guam for the Marianas Baha'i summer school held on
22 and 23 May 1999. Through workshop-style courses, Baha'is
had the opportunity to study different aspects of the Faith and enjoy the company of their friends .

NEW CALEDONIA AND THE LOYALTY ISLANDS- More than ninety
Baha'is attended the national winter school held in Yate, New
Caledonia, in September. Participants studied the relationship
between traditional practices and the Baha'i teachings, among other
subjects.
In the midst of a nationwide examination of new religious
movements, a scholar named Jean Paul Aluze contributed a
paper on the Baha'i Faith to a four-volume encyclopedia on the
indigenous peoples of New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands.
These detailed synopses of many minority religious groups in the
country will be distributed througho ut the French-speaking
Pacific. At a time when several established churches have raised
their voices in criticism of the New Cal edonian Baha' i community, the author's portrayal of the Baha'i Faith and its community
was welcomed by the Baha'is as a positive contribution to the
Islands' debate on religious values and pluralism. Among other
things, the encyclopedia notes the Baha' i Faith 's forty-year
history in the Islands and the fact that it "is recognized as a world
religion," something particularly important in the face of local
accusations that the Baha' i Faith is a "cult." The encyclopedia
will be distributed to institutions of higher learning and libraries
throughout the French-speaking world.
NEW ZEALAN D- Terrence O'Brien, fonner ambassador of New
Zealand to the United Nations, was the keynote speaker at the
Association for Baha'i Studies conference held at Victoria University in Wellington, New Zealand, in July 1999. The conference's
theme was "Global Prosperity," and Mr. O' Brien's experience at
the United Nations and as director of the Institute for Strategic
Studies at Victoria University enabled him to speak about the role
of regional and international organizations in world development.
He stated that the United Nations is a monumental organization,
unprecedented in human history, whose shortcomings can be attributed to its member states, not the UN itself. More than a dozen
Baha'is presented papers at the conference.
Thirty Baha'i youth participated in a week-long project in
January 2000, in memory of Hedi Moani, a New Zealand Baha'i

YEA!< IN R -
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-

who was murdered because of his beliefS in October. The group
embarked on a wide range of voluntary service activities, including helping with environmental clean-up work, assisting at the
blood bank, and cleaning the houses of those suffering from arthritis. Some time was spent each afternoon distributing invitations
to the public for concerts and talks each evening, which were also
organized by the Baha'i youth.
PAPUA NEW GUINEA- Dr. Sirus Naraqi , a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors and former resident of Papua New
Guinea, was decorated as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire. During a ceremony held at the Government House in
Port Moresby on 28 October he was honored for his distinguished
services to medicine and science and for contributing to the growth
of the nation . Dr. N araqi spent eighteen years as a medical specialist and head of medicine at the University of Papua New
Guinea. The presentation was made by the governor-general, Sir
Silas Atopare, on behalf of Queen Elizabeth II.
SAMOA-In June and July 1999, the Hawaiian and Samoan Baha'i
youth dance workshop traveled to Western Samoa and American
Samoa, performing more than thirty-five times for some fifteen
thousand people. Samoan radio, television, and newspapers covered the workshop, and the performances were well received by
the traditional leaders of the village communities they visited. In
May, the Samoan Baha' i youth workshop performed and did community service in urban areas of Apia and Pago Pago. After their
tour with the Hawaiian youth, the Samoan youth held a fundraiser
for a village preschool and perfonned in national public events.
SOLOMON ISLAN DS- The seventh annual Blums' Community
Service Award program took the form of an interreligious service
for unity held in Honiara in September. The award, founded by
Baha' is to honor the spirit of the first Baha'i pioneers to the island, was changed this year, said the organizers, "from the normal
recognition of service by Solomon Islanders to a worship service
as it was felt that this was more appropriate under the present
ethnic circumstances in the country." More than three hundred

THE B AHA:f W ORLD

people attended to listen to the governor-general, Father John Lapli,
give an overview of unity, and representatives of several churches
and the Baha'i community read selections from their sacred
writings. Banners created by students from local primary schools
were presented, and several choirs provided music. The entire program was broadcast live on national radio.
TONCA- Baha'is in Tonga broadcast a radio program in September 1999 entitled "Prayer." Though the Tongan Baha' is have
previously broadcast programs, this was the first show proctuced
without any restrictions, and the first on a well-established FM
station. They received substantial positive feedback concerning
the content.
After three years of operation, Tonga's Ocean of Light School
has an enrollment of 176 students, including three of the king's
grandchildren. This year a kindergarten was built and a pre-high
school curriculum was added. The school has received encouragement and assistance from Baha'is in Australia and New
Zealand.
VANUATU- The Baha'i community of Vanuatu played an important part in the economic summit meeting convened by the Tafea
provincial government and held in Isangel, Tanna, from 6 to 8
October 1999. The gathering was held to examine uses of the
island's resources. Baha'is were involved in the preparations for
the meeting at the national and local levels. As a member of an
umbrella group of NGOs, the National Spiritual Assembly of
Vanuatu was invited to submit comments on the draft plan and to
present information on Baha' i development projects, particularly
in the field of literacy. At the local level, Baha'i youth were asked
to help construct the meeting house and other facilities for the
summit, and they offered to provide musical entertainment in the
evenings. The Baha'i community was the only religious group
invited to send representatives to the meeting and was able to formally offer the Baha'i perspective on sustainable, human-centered
development, bolstered with specific suggestions of lines of action the government could take . Many prominent people attended
the final day of the summit, including four government ministers,

three members of Parliament, the high commissioners of Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, representatives of
AusAID and the Asian Development Bank, several directorsgeneral of government departments, and the president of the
provincial council, who joined the many local leaders already
present at the gathering. In all, more than one thousand people
were present, including observers. At the signing ceremony, the
Baha'is were asked to sign the document on behalf of all of
the religious groups in Vanuatu, and afterwards they received
a formal delegation from the provincial government expressing appreciation for the contributions made by the Baha'is.
WESTERN CAROLINE ISLANDS- The first international Baha'i
youth conference to be held in the Republic of Palau, in the Western Caroline Islands, took place in Ngardamau from 18 to 24 July
1999. Nine Baha'is from Palau and nine from Yap explored the
theme "Becoming Our True Selves," with sessions offered on
Baha'i identity, prayer and meditation, study of the Baha'i writings, living a Baha' i life, and consultation, interspersed with service
projects for the State of Ngardmau such as picking up trash,
cleaning, and painting. The conference ended with a dramatic
performance and a short talk for the public.

Th e choir ofthe Baha'i House of Worship in Samoa pelforms on
4 August for the filming of a video series.

Europe
ALBANIA-The use of Ruhi Institute materials has met with success in Albania. Courses, held once a month in nine communities
for four consecutive months, have increased the number ofBaha'is
teaching the Faith in their communities and have led to an
increase in Baha'i enrollment in the country.
In an effort to alleviate some of the suffering due to ethnic
strife in Kosovo, the National Spiritual Assembly and individual Baha'i families in Albania hosted Kosovar refugees in their
homes.
AUSTRIA-In Austria, "Act Now" events were held every three
months to provide Baha'i youth and their friends with the opportunity to think critically and take action on themes such as Who is
Writing the Future?, thus opening a path for them to engage in a
process designed to lead to peace.
In November 1997 the Baha'i community of Baden founded
"Family Days" in Baden, which has evolved into an annual fourday event with programs and seminars, music, and arts for adults,
youth, and children. The municipality and its cultural office, local
newspapers, a Catholic parish, and two schools collaborate with
the Baha'is on this project.
BELARUS- An international youth conference held 28 March 2000
in Minsk brought together some 170 people from Belarus, Canada, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Moldova, and the Ukraine,

Women in Brussels,
Belgium, preparing to
read "Words of Peace"
as part of a celebration
- for the Week of Peace in
Octobei- J 999.

Y-
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EVIEW
-

Participants in
Bulgaria 'sfirsl Ruhi
training institute in
Kostenets, Bulgaria, in
Februm y 2000.

including many members of the youth committees of central Asia.
Just one-third of the attendees were Baha'is. The conference
focused on developing artistic skills and featured workshops, a
concert, and dramatic performances. Baha'is initiated a teaching
project in Minsk afterwards.
BELGIUM- The Belgian gove1mnent asked for advice and recommendations from civil society with regard to its projected plan
for sustainable growth. The response by the National Spiritual
Assembly of Belgium marked the first time the Assembly had
officially submitted recommendations to the goverrunent.
On 20 April Professor Kamyab Samii, a member of the
National Spiritual Assembly, was granted by royal decree, at the
request of the University of Louvain-la-Neuve, the civil decoration Officer of the Order of Leopold for his work in education
and scientific research . In November, he was also elected as an
associate member of the Royal Belgian Academy Council of
Applied Sciences.
BULGARIA- The second annual One World Peace Tour by a youth
dance workshop from the United States took participants throughout Bulgaria, where they performed and assisted the Baha ' i
community in its teaching work for almost seven weeks during
the summer of 1999. The workshop danced in the parks and streets
of several cities, was featured numerous times on radio and television, and performed with the renowned Bulgarian musicians

B.T.R. and Kolselo, the latter during a concert held at the National Palace of Culture.
CANARY ISLANDS- Women in the Canary Islands organized and
participated in celebrations of Peace Week from 15 to 23 October,
and in training aimed at helping them to become organizers, public speakers, facilitators, and teachers in support of peace. The
effort was part of a broad campaign coordinated by the European
Women's Task Force, and similar events were held in nineteen
countries throughout Europe.
CYPRUS- Twenty-one Baha' is gathered for a teaching conference
held at the Baha'i center in south Nicosia on 30 October, where
they consulted about the country's goals for the Four Year Plan
and planned strategies for reaching greater numbers of people with
the Baha'i teachings.
CZECH REPUBLIC- Jan Sole, advisor to President Vaclav Havel
of the Czech Republic, approached the Czech National Spiritual
Assembly, offering to hold a meeting to discuss the role of the
religious believer in contempora1y society. He stated that this offer was being made to all state-recognized churches and religions.
The gathering took place in Prague on 4 June 1999, when Dr.
Sole addressed the twenty-five Baha' is who had come from all
over the country. "He spoke for an hour," wrote one observer,
"about many subjects related to ethical values in today's society
and the role of religion in promoting these values." During the
discussion that followed, Dr. Sole said he appreciated the openness, tolerance, and absence of fanaticism of the Baha'is he had
encountered. The meeting ended with a promise by Dr. Sole to
rep01i back to the president about the gathering, and he expressed
the hope that similar events would be held in the future.
ESTONIA-Estonia's first national Baha'i summer school was held
for five days in July 1999 in Viljandi. Baha' is from Belgium,
Canada, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, and the United
States were among the eighty-three pmiicipants. The community's
winter school was á held in Tartu from 26 to 30 December,
and attracted forty people who studied current Baha'i thinking

Y-EAR IN
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regarding community growth in workshops held in English, Estonian, and Russian.
FRANCE- The French Diversity Dance Workshop traveled throughout the country in June, meeting with great success. In Sarlat, one
show began with an audience of one hundred and ended with more
than 450 spectators; in Lot and Garonne, the group won the suppo1i of a government deputy; in Massy, the municipality requested
a performance; and the local press in Limousin described their
perfonnance with the headline "Emotion is in the Streets."
The second annual "Nuit de l 'Espoir" ("Night of Hope") concert, which was first held in 1998 as part of the French Baha'i
community's centennial celebrations, took place in Paris on 3
December 1999. It was organized by 9 Productions, a company
created by Baha' is and non-Baha'is to promote the Baha'i teachings through the arts. Under the theme of "Together for a Culture
of Peace," the "Nuit de l'Espoir" was held in collaboration with
UNESCO and featured a blend of songs, dances, and other performances by well-known artists. Proceeds from the event were
offered to Les Restos du Coeur, a French charity.
The July issue of Le Monde Diplomatique featured an article by William S. Hatcher entitled "Promoting Social Justice,
Tolerance and Equality. The Baha'i Faith: Humanism Against Fanaticism." The aiiicle covers the early days of the Baha'i movement
and presents it from a global perspective.
GERMANY-On 23 January 2000, a thirty-minute documentary
film on the history of the Baha'i Faith was aired on the German
cable television station Siidwestrundfunk. "On the Way to the Land
of Unity-the Baha'i Religion" was filmed in Gennany and at
the Baha'i World Centre in Haifa, Israel, and was broadcast in
Austria, France, Germany, Luxembourg, and Switzerland to a
potential audience of some 130,000 people.
On 7 September 1999, the German Baha'i community was
represented at a joint press conference of senior representatives of
Buddhism, Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and the Baha'i Faith, held
in Frankfurt. A joint declaration was released, calling for religious
freedom and cooperation between religions. It received widespread

attention from the Gennan media, including Germany's major press
agency.
The Trustee ofI:Iuququ'llah, Hand of the Cause of God 'Ali-
Mul).ammad Varqa, traveled to Hofheim in October 1999. Dr. Varqa
was accompanied by Counsellor member of the International
Teaching Centre Firaydoun Javaheri. Approximately one thousand
people from forty-one countries gathered at the conference on
I:Iuququ'llah as Dr. Varqa delivered several talks highlighting the
spiritual aspects of the law, including its influence on the soul,
society, and the development of the Baba 'i community. A new
video about I:Iuququ'llah was shown, and there were several artistic presentations.
GREECE-Arsis, a Greek organization for the social support of
youth, in collaboration with Thessaloniki Baha'is, organized a
seminar on "Youth and Their Rights: Creating an Environment
for Youth to Develop." Greetings from the mayor ofThessaloniki
and the vice-mayor for culture were addressed to the organizers
during the event, at which the rector ofLandegg Academy, spoke
on human rights. The event, held on 5 May 1999, was featured on
national television, and a local private television station aired a
thirty-minute interview. On the radio, a twenty-minute interview
focused mainly on the Baha'i Faith, and two newspapers printed
articles profiling the event.

A delegation of
members of'the
National
Spiritual
Assembly of
Hungw y meets
with President
Arpad Gonez
(center) in May
1999.

Y- IN RE
L:AR- -VlEW'
-

HUNGARY-On 11 May 1999, a delegation of four Baha'is met
with the president of the Republic of Hungary, Arpact Gonez, and
took the opportunity to highlight some activities of the Hungarian
Baha'i community. The Baha'i representatives expressed their appreciation for the president's work in human rights and thanked
him for the country's consistent support for the Baha'is in Iran.
They also mentioned that eighty percent of the Hungarian Baha'i
community belongs to the Roma minority and that the equality of
all mankind is a crucial issue for the Baha'is. The president welcomed this news, saying that in his opinion making peace with
the Roma will be the major task of Hungary for decades to come.
On 20 July, several Hungarian Baha'is held a meeting with
Florian Farkas, president of the National Roma Association. Mr.
Farkas mentioned that he found the principles of the Baha'i Faith
very attractive and expressed his hope that collaborative cultural
events could be organized between the Roma and Baha'i communities.
ICELAND-More than one thousand people came to a fair held on
26 March 2000, in Westfjords in honor of the United Nations
International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.
Over twenty nationalities had their own booths offering literature,
visual and audio-visual material, artwork, and food from their country, and religious and non-governmental organizations also had
booths. This is the third time that this occasion has been celebrated.
The event was initiated by a Baha'i woman in isafjordhur, who
formed a task force with others interested in the issue. It has since
been supported by many organizations and the municipalities in
the area. The task force has used the event to draw the attention
of the Icelandic authorities to the high number of foreigners
living in the region, and in May the Icelandic Parliament agreed
to establish a Regional Information and Social Center for Newcomers.
REPUBLIC OF IRELAND- A multicultural calendar produced by
Access Ireland was officially released by the lord mayor of Dublin, Mary Freehill, during an event held 7 September 1999, at her

1 Ba ha 'is in the
Netherlands at their
booth during the
I l iberation Festival in
May 1999.

official residence . Baha'i holy days are marked on the calendar,
along with those of other world religions.
ITALY- A spirit of understanding and mutual friendship was experienced by representatives of the twenty religions invited by the
Catholic Church to attend the Interreligious Assembly held in the
Vatican City from 24 to 29 October 1999. The two Baha'i representatives, Maria Augusta Hedayat and Julio Savi, reported that
they "heard the participants speaking of unity of the peoples of
the world, of harmony among religions, the end of the conflicts
between religions."
At the request of the Ministry of Public Education, the Italian Baha'i c01mnunity presented the project "The Earth is But
One Country" during a national symposium of educational agencies. The project is aimed at increasing the ability of teachers at
all school levels to cope in a multicultural society. All of the material presented at the symposium was compiled on a CD-ROM
and distributed to all schools in Italy.
LITHUANIA- The first Lithuanian Baha'i summer school , in
Kretinga, was held from 30 July to 3 August 1999. Baha'is from
every community in Lithuania attended, as well as visitors from
Belarus, Estonia, Latvia (which had its own three-day summer
school around the same time), Norway, the United Kingdom,
and the United States. A member of the Continental Board of
Counsellors for Europe spoke on the school's theme, "Who is
Baha'u'llah?" The pat1icipants studied a major letter from Shoghi

Y EAR IN REV! EW

Effendi and were apprised of the newly elected National Spiritual
Assembly's plan for the development of the country's Baha'i
community. 3
LUXEMBOURG-Every year, the Baha'is of Luxembourg host a
formal celebration of the 28 June birthday of His Royal Highness
the Grand Duke, which is the same day as the country's National
Day. The commemoration for 1999 featured some sixty invited
guests, including representatives from different religious communities.
NETHERLANDS- "Promoting Positive Messages Through the Media: The Happy Hippo Show" was presented at The Hague Appeal
for Peace conference in the Netherlands as an example of how
Baha'is are helping create new conditions for understanding, cooperation, and lasting peace in South Eastern Europe. The Hague
Appeal was convened by a number of non-governmental organizations in order to mobilize civil society in support of world peace.
Participants were able to demonstrate the activities of their respective organizations, draw inspiration from each other's efforts,
and consult to plan future projects. Held from 11 to 15 May 1999,
the conference drew more than ten thousand people from all over
the world, making it the largest civil society peace conference in
history. The Netherlands Baha'i community and the European
Baha'i Youth Council (EBYC) had exhibition booths in the Global Forum area. The Netherlands community also sponsored its
youth dance workshop, Awake, which gave perfonnances on the
theme of promoting tolerance.
NORWAY- On 11 November 1999, the inaugural conference for
the National Dialogue on Religion and Belief took place at the
University Aula in Oslo. The Norwegian government intends to
initiate a year-long nationwide dialogue ofreligions and spiritual
communities on such issues as the family, the environment,
justice, gender equality, violence, education, ethics, and religious freedom. The program was composed of short talks, and

See pp. 43-46 of this vo lume for more on the e lection of the Nationa l Spiritua l Assemblies of Latvia and Lithuania.

THE B AI-IA'f W ORLD

representatives from nine major religions, including the Baha'i
Faith, read from their sacred texts, with His Majesty King Harald
V presiding. Professor Hans Kling spoke about global ethics and
the importance of religious dialogue for peace, and the Bishop of
Oslo spoke about mutual respect and the issue of teaching religion in schools.
Nineteen ninety-nine was the final year of the LOTUS project
at the New Era Development Institute (NEDI) in India, marking
twelve years of collaboration between the National Spiritual
Assembly of the Baha'is ofN01way and the Norwegian Agency
for Deve lopment Cooperation (NORAD) . Through the Norwegian Baha'i Committee for Social and Economic Development
(NBCSED), the Norwegian Baha'i community and NORAD have
funded projects at NEDI that have fostered the development of
human resources, regional centers, and the institutional and technical capacity of the institution, During the LOTUS project, NEDI
and the Telemark Teacher Training College in Norway signed an
agreement regarding the value of academic, cultural and personal
exchange, with special emphasis on partnership and bilateral exchange in the field of child and youth education, and environmental
and peace education. The NBCSED has also been instrumental in
establishing Bistandstorget, an umbrella organization for NGOs
within the development field in Norway. This has created a unique
opportunity for the presentation and discussion of the Baha'i
approach to social and economic development in a professional
setting. The Baha' i community is now chairing the board of
Bistandstorget for the second consecutive year.
POLAN D- On 29 February 2000, for the third consecutive year, a
presentation on the Baha'i Faith was made at Kopemik University's
Institute of Sociology, in Torun, Poland.
The European Family Life Task Force held a conference
entitled "My Home" in the national Baha'i center in Poland from
28 to 30 January 2000. The gathering focused on promoting Baha'i
values in family life, touching on issues such as hospitality, creating a loving environment, and family consultation. Representatives

from Belarus, Moldova, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Slovakia, and
the Ukraine attended.
PORTUGAL-In July 1999, the Baha'is of Portugal were granted
permission to offer an elective class in public high schools
entitled "World Citizenship-Morals and Religion According to
the Baha'i Teachings." After contacts were established in ten
schools and a curriculum was approved by the Ministry of Education, several students in each school selected the course, which
was scheduled to begin the following September.
To commemorate World Environment Day on 5 June, the
Baha'is of Evora, in collaboration with the Ministry of the Environment and with the support of the municipality, organized a
"Clean Dam, Live Water" campaign in which more than fifty students from two schools participated. The children, who had
previously been given information about the environment, were
very receptive to the idea of cleaning the local dam, which provides drinking water for the city. The teachers, too, became
enthusiastic and asked to be included in future activities of this
type organized by the Baha'is.
ROMANIA-In August 1999, forty Romanian Baha'i travel teachers were joined by youth from Bolivia, Canada, France, Germany,
Greece, Italy, and the United States, who formed a group called
Diversity Dance Theatre of Europe (DDT). The group performed
twice a day either in rented halls or in public spaces. The professionalism of the DDT and the subjects they treated in their dances

Counsellor Sohrab
Yousejfian (left) meets
with Dr. Ibrahim
Rugova, leader of
ethnic Albanians, in
Kosovo, Serbia.

TH E B AHA.'f W ORLD

prompted the national television station and two private stations
to invite them to perform live on their shows. As a result of the
teaching campaign spearheaded by the DDT, thousands of people
directly learned of the Baha'i Faith, and millions of people saw
the televised performances.
RUSSIAN FEDERATION-The first regional Baha'i school of the
Sak.ha Republic was held for three days in July 1999. Forty-seven
Baha'is from seven localities were present, as was a member of
the Continental Board of Counsellors for Asia and a musical youth
group from Kazakhstan . Around the same time, two Baha'is visited various towns in the region, including Yakutsk, Tulagina,
Nerungri, Berjigestakh, Khatasi, and Kangalasi. They met with
a number of dignitaries, including the minister of Culture, the
vice minister of Environmental Protection, and a member of Parliament. They were interviewed for a television news program,
donated books to public libraries, taught several children's classes,
and visited isolated Baha'is who had not had contact with other
Baha'is for a number of years.
SICILY-Sicily's first Baha'i youth dance workshop, One Family,
was formed in Catania in October 1998, after being inspired by a
two-week visit from the dance workshop Panacea, formed by
young volunteers serving at the Baha'i World Centre. During 1999,
membership grew from ten to thirty-five members, and One Family gave dozens of performances in schools, theaters, public parks,
and other locations. The principal of one school at which they
performed asked the group to organize a project using music and
dance to sensitize students and their families to some of the social
problems around them. In December the workshop performed at
a Christian oratory, with Christian youth, nuns, and priests in the
audience. After the performance the father superior said he was
moved by the performance and felt that the group represented a
force for peace in the world.
SLOVAKIA- A summer school for the Baha'is of Slovakia was
held in Bystra from 31 July to 5 August 1999. About ninety people

participated in workshops on family life, education, marriage, and
teaching the Baha'i Faith.
In March, the Voices of Bah a choir visited Bratislava for four
days and participated in a series of teaching and proclamation
events, culminating in a public concert which drew close to five
hundred people. The choir, together with the Slovak Radio Symphony Orchestra, also made the first recording of an oratorio
dedicated to Baha'u'llah's Tablet of Carmel.
SLOVENIA AND CROATIA-The Baha'i community of Slovenia and
Croatia held its seventh annual winter school in the woods of
Cerknica, Slovenia, in January 2000. The 28 December letter from
the Universal House of Justice regarding the further application
oflaws of the Kitab-i-Aqdas was studied and served to inspire the
gathering.
As part of the popular morning show "Good Morning Croatia," broadcast on Croatian national television, two twelve-minute
segments profiling the Indian Baha'i House of Worship were aired,
and the editor plans to produce further programs on Baha' i subjects.
SPAIN- A public presentation of the Spanish translation of the
Kitab-i-Aqdas took place on 12 November at the national Baha' i
center in Spain, before an audience of two hundred. Two lectures
emphasized the position of the Kitab-i-Aqdas among religious holy
books and its significance for Baha'is.
From 17 through 25 July, the Baha'i community ofElche, in
collaboration with Miguel Hernandez University, organized the
second summer course on "Music, the Cultural Feature of Gypsy
People." Three Gypsy organizations also assisted in organizing
this event, which was sponsored by Elche's city hall and attended
by three hundred people.
The Trustee ofI:Iuququ'llah, Hand of the Cause of God 'Ali-
Mul).ammad Varqa, accompanied by Counsellor member of the
International Teaching Centre Firaydoun Javaheri, attended a Span-

ish conference on I:Iuququ'llah in Barcelona in October 1999.
Nearly five hundred Baha'is from twelve countries attended, and
Dr. Varqa gave talks regarding the law of I:Iuququ'llah, its spiritual significance, and its influence on individuals and community
development.
SWEDEN- More than 120 Baha'is attended the six-day-long Swedish Baha'i summer school in July. The focus of the summer school
was The Seven Valleys , one of the primary mystical works of
Baha'u'llah, recently translated into Swedish. Baha'i writer Julio
Savi came from Italy to conduct classes, some of which focused
on Islam, Baha'i identity, and the reality of man. Artistic works
were also produced on the themes of The Seven Valleys.
SWITZERLAND- On 20 September 1999, representatives of the
Baha'i Faith, Buddhism, the Catholic and Protestant churches, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism spoke and prayed before a crowd of
three hundred people in Baden. The Baha'i Choir ofZurich/Aargau
gave its first public concert at the event. During the afternoon the
various religions offered typical dishes from the diverse cultures
represented in their communities. The Baha'i speaker quoted
'Abdu'l-Baha concerning neighborliness: "Be kind to the strangers ... Help to make them feel at home; find out where they are
staying, ask if you may render them any service; try to make their
lives a little happier." This quotation appeared in an article written about this event. Newspapers and the regional radio and
television station publicized this activity, which grew out of an
interreligious study group in which several Baha'is have been participating over the last year and a half.
The 1999 graduation ceremonies ofLandeggAcademy, concomitant with the second international symposium "Converging
Realities: On Integrating the Spiritual and the Scientific," took
place at the Swiss-based school from 22 to 25 April 1999. Ten
young women and men from Canada, Ghana, Macau, Sri Lanka,
Togo, the United States, and elsewhere-the founding class of the
Academy's bachelor of arts program-were welcomed by the rector and eighty other dignitaries and guests. "In its diversity," said
Dr. Hossein Danesh, rector ofLandegg, "the graduating group em-

bodies the beginning of the implementation of the vision of the
Academy, to become a microcosm of the world and to eventually
welcome to its campus at least one student from each country on
the planet." Seven master of arts graduates also received their
diplomas. Professor Moshe Sharon, incumbent of the Chair for
Baha'i Studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and Hans
Hohener, former president of the Swiss Canton of Appenzell
Ausserrhoden and long-time minister of Education, gave the keynote addresses at the Converging Realities conference, which
attracted a number of accomplished academics. An additional event

Baha 'is
of Gypsy
descent hold
a Na w Ritz
celebration in
Sivas, Turkey.

celebrating the tenth anniversary of the World Order Studies certificate program at the Academy was held 24 July.
TURKEY- For the second year in a row, the Turkish Atatiirk Thought
Society approached the Iskenderun Local Spiritual Assembly for
assistance in preparing an artistic program for a celebration of
May's National Children's Day. In recent years, the event has been
adapted to include children from all cultures and is a national holiday. The Assembly's consultations with the organizers resulted in
popular musical and dance performances.
Within two days of the devastating earthquake of August
1999, members of the Turkish Baha'i community were on the
disaster site endeavoring to help the survivors. A committee formed
by the National Spiritual Assembly set up two tents where differ-

ent daily activities were provided for nearly one hundred women
and children, and a group of Baha'i doctors also volunteered. The
tent project continued for six months following the earthquake,
and regular visits to relocated families continue.
The Turkish-Greek Women's Peace Initiative (WINPEACE),
organized a two-day conflict resolution seminar in Ankara, which
the rector of Landegg Academy was invited to facilitate jointly
with another expert. Financial assistance for the seminar was received from the Soros Foundation.
UKRAINE- Baha'i youth and their friends from Belarus, Canada,
Croatia, Luxembourg, Moldova, and various parts of the Ukraine
gathered in Kiev for three days in July 1999 for the "Act Now"
conference, organized by the European Baha'i Youth Council to
give further impetus to the European youth movement towards
unity and peace. Inspired by the conference's practical workshops,
study sessions, and artistic presentations, the youth held several
open firesides and welcomed ten people into the Baha'i Faith.
The National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Ukraine
became legally registered on 27 July 1999, enabling the Assembly to own land, manage funds, publish literature, establish
charitable institutions, and sponsor public activities.
UNITED KINGDOM-On 3 January 2000, representatives of the
Baha'i community of the United Kingdom joined members of eight
other major religions in the Royal Gallery of the House of Lords
for a major interfaith celebration of the new millennium. The event
took place in the presence of the duke and duchess of Gloucester,
Dr. George Carey, archbishop of Canterbury, and Prime Minister
Tony Blair. A member of each of the religions gave a presentation
on shared values, such as community, care and compassion, justice and respect, to an audience of members of Parliament, religious
leaders and faith community members from across the country.
The British Broadcasting Corporation showed thirty minutes of
highlights of the celebration immediately afterwards, and there
was national newspaper coverage the next day, sending a highly
public signal about the importance of interfaith dialogue. In his
welcoming remarks, Chris Smith, secretary of state for Culture,

YEAR IN R EVIEW

The Unity Dance
Workshop
pe1formsfor
the "Century of
Light " awards
ceremony in
Belfast, Northern
Ireand, in
November I 999.

Media, and Sport, referred to the event as a gathering of the "nine
major religions of the United Kingdom," a statement that marks
recognition of the Baha'is as a major faith community by the royal
family, the government, and the Church of England.
Baha'is observed the centenary of the arrival of the Baha'i
Faith in the United Kingdom with events around the country. One
of the notable events was "The Wayfarer's Journey," a musical
drama based on Baha'u'llah's work, The Seven Valleys. Using the
famous Cheddar Caves as the venue, the story was told in music,
poetry, and art as the audience passed through each cave to experience another aspect of the Faith of Baha'u'llah. Some five
hundred people attended the presentation, more than a hundred of
whom were not Baha' is.
Sixteen members of the European Baha'i Business Forum
and representatives from the Baha'is of the United Kingdom attended the Enterprise Summit, which was held in conjunction with
the State of the World Forum from 4 to 9 May 1999, in Belfast,
Northern Ireland. More than eight hundred people, representing
varied sectors of society, were involved. Baha'is shared their perspective on progressive business practices in the changing world
economy during the joint plenary sessions, special events, receptions, and informal discussions.
More than 1, 100 people, and over two hundred dignitaries
attended what is believed to have been the largest public event

ever organized by the Baha'i community in the United Kingdom.
Held in the Waterfront Hall in Belfast, Northern Ireland, on 18
November 1999, the program included perfonnances from different cultures. Special awards were presented to local people and
organizations that fostered equality, peace, elimination of prejudice, and human rights. Ulster Television, Radio Ulster, and
regional and local newspapers covered the event.

The 1999 Parliament of the
World :s Religions bmught more than
seven thousand religious representatives
j i-0111 around the world to Cape Town,
South AFica, in Decembe1'.

PARLIAMENT
OF THE
W,ORLD'S
RELIGIONS

F or the first week of December 1999, residents of Cape Town,
South Africa, witnessed a remarkable metaphor in action.
Seven thousand teachers, scholars, leaders, and religious believers gathered, as representatives of hundreds of millions of their
coreligionists in some ninety countries, to consult with, learn from,
and share fellowship with each other. Religion, so long viewed as
divisive in human affairs, has been engaged for several decades in
a process of rediscovering itself, chiefly driven by interfaith dialogue. The contraction of borders, economies, and cultures has
changed the face of more than governments. Globalization is forc -
ing the world's religions to take a fresh look at their existence in a
wide spectrum of faiths. The Parliament of the World's Religions
represents a high point in this movement towards introspection
and consultation. One of the chief results of the Parliament was
the seventy-page document A Call to Our Guiding Institutions, a
plea to those people and institutions responsible for shaping the
future course of humanity- religions; governments; organizations
of agriculture, labor, industry, and commerce; educators; the arts

and media; science and medicine; and non-governmental organizations. The Call underscores the commonality of moral virtues
and their potential role in solving global social problems, touches
upon issues as diverse as sustainable development, global governance, media ethics, and debt relief. In short, it offers a blueprint
for religious and secular partnership in addressing the new millennium's global challenges.
Held six years after the Parliament in Chicago that marked
the one-hundredth anniversary of the 1893 World's Parliament
of Religions, the 1999 event offered a glimpse of some of the
currents in the worldwide interfaith movement.
"We find ourselves at a moment when people everywhere
are coming to recognize that the world is a global village," the
Call says. "Unique to this moment is the possibility of a new level
of creative engagement between the institutions of religion and
spirituality and the other powerful institutions that influence the
character and course of human society . .. What is needed now is a
persuasive invitation to our guiding institutions to build new, reliable, and more imaginative partnerships toward the shaping of a
better world."
"We're convinced that the international interreligious movement is one of the most important features of the modern world,"
said Jim Kenney, international director of the Council for the Parliament of the World's Religions, which cosponsored the event
along with the Parliament of the World's Religions, South Africa.
"Our motivation for holding the Parliament comes from the fact
that the world is shrinking and that diversity is more and more
apparent," said Kenney. "Twenty years ago, a Westerner might
never have encountered a Buddhist or a Baha'i or a Muslim or a
Hindu. Now ... the followers of all these traditions live adjacent to
each other."
Events like the Parliament embody an ideal of the Baha'i
teachings . In the Kitab-i-Aqdas, the central book of the Baha'i
revelation, Baha'u'llah exhorts His followers to "[c]onsort with
all religions with amity and concord" and states elsewhere that
the doctrines of holy war, ritual impurity, and other hindrances

p ARLIANlE NT OF R ELIGIONS

to interreligious unity have been categorically abolished. "So powerful is the light of unity," says Baha'u'llah, "it can illuminate the
whole earth." 1
The Call was one of two new efforts of this year's gathering
intended to stimulate faith groups to take their involvement in the
Parliament to the level of joint action. The other was the offering
of "Gifts of Service to the World," a listing of several hundred
faith-inspired service projects.
The Parliament
The Parliament opened with a colorful procession of religious
leaders and believers through the streets of Cape Town. As
several thousand Baha'is, Buddhists, Christians, Hindus, Jains,
Jews, Muslims, Sikhs, Zoroastrians, African indigenous leaders,
and others wound their way through the city, they were at times
heckled by fundamentalist groups and even threatened with
violence. The protests were reflections of the challenges tha surround interfaith dialogue. 2
The daily program of the Parliament began with morning
prayers and meditations, followed by numerous workshops and
talks, and evening plenary sessions and artistic performances.
Scholars, activists, and religious leaders addressed topics ranging
from the basic teachings of the world's religions to an exploration
of faith -inspired solutions to world problems.
"Much time and energy was devoted to discussing practical
problems such as poverty and discrimination, social injustice and
the stifling of ancient traditions, environmental pollution and
global ethics, economic exploitation, and health issues," said
Varadaraja V. Raman, professor emeritus of physics and humanities at the Rochester Institute of Technology in the United States
and a representative of the Zygon Center for Science and Religion. "Thus, for example, in one session a speaker expounded on
the human rights violation suffered by millions of ' untouchables '
in India, while in another, an eminent scholar interviewed some
Baha'u'llah, Cleanings .fiwn the Writings ofBaha'u '/Lah (Wilmette: Baha'i
Publishing Trust, 1994), p. 288 .
For more on interre li gious dialogue, see " World Watch ," pp. 265- 84 .

Native American elders on how their religions and cultures have
been marginalized in modem America."
More than one hundred Baha' is from around the world
attended the Parliament and many were integrally involved in its
organization and operation, including Dr. Amy Marks, who acted
as cochair and spoke during the opening and closing plenary sessions. Several other Baha'is served as trustees on the Parliament's
South African and international boards of directors; Lally Warren, a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors for Africa,
read a prayer as one of the twenty dignitaries on stage during the
opening devotions; Shohreh Rawhani, secretary of the South
African National Spiritual Assembly, was a main speaker; nine
Baha'is served as representatives to the high-level Parliament
Assembly; a Baha'i youth dance group and Kevin Locke, a native
American Baha'i, perfonned at two of the plenaries and there were
Baha'i booths and displays.
During the final three days, an Assembly of some four
hundred religious and spiritual leaders gathered for consultations
and to make further commitments to joint action. Joining the Assembly were secular leaders from business, agriculture, academia,
the media, and international organizations such as the World Bank.
The closing ceremony featured a short speech by the Dalai
Lama, leader of Tibetan Buddhists. He said he was encouraged
that so many people could honor each other's religions and
expressed the hope that such meetings would result in concrete
social action.
A Noble Heritage
The 1999 Parliament builds on the World Parliament of Religions,
held in Chicago in 1893, which brought together several hundred
scholars, theologians, and religious leaders of East and West. The
1893 event is viewed by some as the dawn of interfaith dialogue,
and also holds the distinction of being the first time the Baha'i
Faith was introduced to the public in the Western hemisphere. 3
3 In his address to the conference, the Reverend Henry H. Jessup, D.D. , director of Presbyterian missionary operations in northern Syria, quoted Ca mbridge
Orienta li st E.G. Browne's description ofBaha'u ' ll ah.

P ARLIAMENT OF RELIGIONS

Religious leaders,
including Baha'i
representative A my
Marks (thirdfi-om le.fi),
stand with Nelson
Mandela, former
president of
South Africa .

The Council for the Parliament of the World's Religions was established after a highly successful 1993 centenary of that event
drew more than ten thousand participants to Chicago. Among the
major products of the 1993 Parliament was a document called Towards a Global Ethic, a statement of global ethics as defined by
the world's major religions.
Council officials said they chose South Africa for the 1999
Parliament because of the role that religion played in the struggle
against apartheid. "We believe that there is a unique role that religion and spirituality play in social transformation," said Dirk Ficca,
executive director of the Council. "It provides resources for the
people to get a clear vision of where they might go, and an outline
of the most peaceful and just way to get there."
Addressing the Parliament, former South African president
Nelson Mandela acknowledged, "without the Church and religious
institutions, I would never be here today," explaining that it was
Christian, Muslim, Hindu, and Jewish religious groups that were
instrumental in providing him and other young blacks with an education-and later in giving comfort to political prisoners and their
families. "I appreciate the importance ofreligion," he said. "You
have to have been in a South African jail under apartheid where
you could see the cruelty of human beings to each other in its
naked form. Again, religious institutions and their leaders gave
us hope that one day we could return." He went on to say that
"religion will have a crucial role to play in guiding and inspiring
humanity to meet the enormous challenges we face" in the next
century.

Once the decision was made to hold the 1999 Parliament in
South Africa, much of the planning and implementation of the
event was turned over to the Parliament of the World's Religions,
South Africa (PWRSA), an autonomous interfaith organization.
"The South Africa religious community, humble as it was, rose to
the immense task of playing host to the Parliament," said Amy
Marks, cochair of PWRSA and a member of the South African
Baha'i community. "In truth," said Marks, "it can be said that the
1999 Parliament of the World's Religions was achieved on the
interreligious foundations built by those who were key players in
the struggle áagainst apartheid." The next Parliament was tentatively scheduled for 2005.
A welcoming message from the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of South Africa, which appeared on the front
page of Vukani, the official newsletter of the Parliament (and
which was distributed as an insert in the municipal newspaper
Cape Times), summed up the sp irit of the Baha'i contribution
to the gathering by speaking of the

vast majority of the peoples of the world [who] accept and
understand that we are one people- one people rich in the diversity of our cultures, languages, temperaments and thought ..
As a new century opens, the overrid ing challenge facing all of
the world 's peoples is to understand and who lehearted ly
accept ... that the time has come to rise above our petty differences of national and religious rivalries and work constructively
and enthusiastically to build new order in th e world.

A gathering a/some of the
participants at the 1999
Parliament of the World~á
Religions in Cape To wn,
South A.fi-ica.

THEBAHA'f
INTERNATIONAL
C£tE:'\~~tlY

r-y-ihe Baha'i International C01mnunity both encompasses and rep-
.l resents, at the United Nations and in other international fora,
the more than five million Baha' is living in at least 235 countries
and dependent territories around the world. Its 181 national and
regional affiliates are engaged in a wide range of activities aimed
at realizing the Baha'i Faith's central principles of peace and justice. For the last several years, four major themes-human rights,
moral development, the advancement of women, and global
prosperity-have shaped the Baha'i International Community's
activities at the local, national, and international levels.
The Baha'i International Community's United Nations Office and its Office of Public Information play complementary roles
in the promotion of this work. The United Nations Office, with
over fifty years of experience offering Baha'i perspectives on global issues and supporting UN programs, has in recent years
significantly increased efforts aimed at assisting its national affiliates to influence relevant programs and developments in their
countries. The Office of Public Infonnation, which also represents

11 1
the Baha'i community internationally, disseminates information
about the Baha'i Faith around the world, oversees production of
the award-winning newsletter One Country, and maintains the official Web site of the Baha' i International Community.
United Nations
First affiliated with the UN in 1947, the Baha'i International Community has long supported the work of the United Nations. As an
international non-governmental organization (NGO) at the UN,
the BIC was granted consultative status with the United Nations
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) in 1970, with the United
Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) in 1976, and with the United
Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) in 1989. A
working relationship with the World Health Organization (WHO)
was also established in 1989. The BIC has United Nations Offices in New York and Geneva and maintains representations to
United Nations regional commissions in Addis Ababa, Bangkok,
and Santiago, and to UN offices in Nairobi, Rome, and Vienna.
Its Office of the Environment (established in 1988), and its Office
for the Advancement of Women (established in 1992) function as
adjuncts of its United Nations Office. Over the course of the last
decade, the Baha'i International Community's United Nations Office has increasingly encouraged its national affiliates to expand
their involvement in the work of the United Nations.
Human Rights Education initiative
As National Spiritual Assemblies have assumed a greater role in
Baha'i diplomatic work, many have joined in a global campaign
to encourage active engagement in the UN Decade for Human
Rights Education (1995-2004). To promote this Human Rights
Education initiative, the Baha'i International Community's United
Nations Office developed a training program for national Baha'i
communities. Ninety-nine of the National Spiritual Assemblies that
have chosen to participate in this global campaign sent representatives to one of fourteen regional diplomatic training sessions held
between October 1998 and November 1999.
Seminars were offered in Australia, Cameroon, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cote d'Ivoire, Denmark, Romania, Thailand,

BAI-IA'l I NTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY

Participants in a human
rights education training
session in Trinidad.

Trinidad and Tobago, the Ukraine, the United States, and Uruguay. Materials were made available in English, French, Russian
and Spanish, and at least one training session was offered in each
of those languages. Moreover, the training sessions themselves
were highly participatory, encouraging trainees to draw on their
personal experience and to explore how to identify and apply relevant spiritual principles to diplomatic situations they encounter
in their own countries.
Following the seminars, the trained external affairs representatives briefed their National Spiritual Assemblies on what they
had learned in order to help develop national plans for promoting
the Decade for Human Rights Education. Many of these same trainees have also begun offering the training to others, thereby
systematically increasing the human resources available to carry
out diplomatic initiatives at national, regional, and local levels.
The United Nations Office is supporting this work with a Human
Rights Education Newsletter and a Human Rights Education
CD-ROM.
Human rights
The Baha'i International Community's support for the UN Decade for Human Rights Education is a natural extension of its
efforts since 194 7 to promote human rights and responsibilities as
the foundation for a peaceful, prosperous, and sustainable world
order. This year, as in years past, the Baha'i International Community addressed the UN Commission on Human Rights. Its
statement on the right to education was circulated as an official
UN document (E/CN.4/2000/NG0/13) in English, French, and

Spanish to the Fifty-sixth Session of the Commission, held March-
April 2000. 1 The BIC also joined other NGOs in signing joint
statements on violence against women, human rights defenders,
and the right to education. Preparations are also being closely
monitored for the next major UN human rights conference, the
World Conference against Racism, to be held in South Africa in
September 2001 .
Protecting the right of Baha'is throughout the world to practice their faith is also an important aspect of the work of the Baha'i
International Cotmnunity's United Nations Office, and a major
focus of the office in Geneva. With the help of its national affiliates, the BIC has, for more than twenty years, brought the perilous
situation of the Baha'is in Iran to the attention of the international
community, providing reliable information to national governments
and to the UN offices, co1mnissions, and committees that monitor
compliance with the various UN human rights agreements.
During the Commission's deliberations on human rights in Iran,
the BIC offered an oral update on the situation of the Baha'is in
that country. 2 It also monitored sessions of the ECOSOC and the
Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, where it
was anticipated that the issue of the Baha'is might be raised.
Advancement of women
Fifty-two national Baha'i communities now have Offices for the
Advancement of Women, and numerous others have committees
or task forces. These offices assist National Spiritual Assemblies
in their efforts to promote the full participation of women both in
the life of the Baha'i community and in the world at large. They
are kept abreast of initiatives at the UN, opportunities for regional
involvement, and projects being carried out by other national
communities through a newsletter circulated by the Baha'i International Community's Office for the Advancem'ent of Women.

For the Baha'i International Community's statement on the right to education , see pp . 295-300.
For the Baba ' i International Community 's statement on the current situation
of the Baha'is in Tran, see pp. 291 - 94. Fo r additional information, see the
artic le on pp. 157- 64 .

B AHA'I I NTERNATIONAL c os1M UNITY

Throughout this year, the Office has been engaged in a
variety of activities pertaining to women and girls. At the .request
of African Action on AIDS, an organization dedicated to providing for AIDS orphans in Africa, the Baha'i International
Community cohosted a program at its New York office entitled
"Celebrating Human Rights by Promoting the Rights of AIDS
Orphans." This program honored the president of the Fiftyfourth Session of the General Assembly, Dr. Theo-Ben Gurirab of
Namibia, and his wife for their support of this cause. In October
1999 a Millennium Young People's Congress was held in Honolulu, Hawaii, sponsored by Peace Child International, the State
of Hawaii, UNEP, and UNESCO. At the Congress, the Baha'i
International Community, which has become known as an advocate for the girl child, was invited to serve as one of several mentors
for teens from 110 countries. The Community also convened the
Advocates for African Food Security: Lessening the Burden for
Women, as it has since 1988.
At the March 2000 session of the Commission on the Status
of Women, the Baha'i International Community continued
to exercise leadership in the NGO community. It chaired two
important groups for the NGO Committee on the Status of Women:
the Planning Group for NGO Consultation Day and the Task Force
on National Mechanisms for the Advancement of Women. Speaking on a panel entitled "NGOs for Women 2000: Setting Targets
for Beijing + 5," which was organized prior to the Commission
by the UN Division for the Advancement of Women, the director
of the Office for the Advancement of Women shared her expertise
on national machinery for the advancement of women. After
surveying the progress various countries had made in establishing
mechanisms to ensure that the concerns of women would be taken
into account in decision making at every level of government, she
focused primarily on constructive examples of countries whose
national mechanisms are working. The issue of national mechanisms for ensuring equality was just one of the twelve issues
addressed during the eleven days of the March 2000 session
of the Commission on the Status of Women, during which

governments prepared for the upcoming special session of the UN
General Assembly. "Beijing+ 5," as the special session is called,
will evaluate progress in implementing the platform for action
adopted in 1995 at the Fourth World Conference on Women.
At the request of UNIFEM, the Baha'i International Community and the NGO Committee on UNIFEM cohosted two
receptions for the UN committee monitoring implementation of
the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination
Against Women (CEDAW). A number of UN officials and diplomats were among the approximately sixty-five guests who attended
the first reception and the eighty who attended the second.

Participants in the World Faiths Development Dialogue, held in
Washington, DC, November 1999.

Environment, development, and global prosperity
For the last two years the Baha'i International Community has
participated in the World Faiths Development Dialogue (WFDD),
sponsored by the president of the World Bank and the archbishop
of Canterbury. The second formal session of the Dialogue was
held in Washington, DC, in November 1999. Participants from
the first WFDD held at Lambeth Palace met at World Bank Headquarters to review progress made by the Dialogue since its
inception in February 1998. The historic Lambeth Palace gathering brought together development experts and spiritual leaders from
nine major religions for two days of consultation on the relationship between material and spiritual development. The Washington
conference drew many of the same high-level participants as the

B Al-lA' f I NTERNATIONAL COMMU NITY

Lambeth Palace event, as well as the executive director of the
International Monetary Fund (IMF), to consider an overview
of development work involving the World Bank and faith communities and to discuss the future of the Dialogue.
Consultations, which centered largely on spiritual values,
produced a remarkable consensus around many principles central
to the Baha'i understanding of development. Trustworthiness and
honesty were repeatedly mentioned as foundations for development. The need to work for global solidarity, for recognition of
the unity of the human family, and for a global ethic was highlighted again and again. Representatives of the World Bank and
the IMF, in their public remarks, also spoke of spiritual values as
being at the heart of development. Indeed, recognition of the need
to end the artificial separation between material and spiritual
development appears to be growing, as evidenced by the continued attention in development circles being given to the Baha'i
statement Valuing Spirituality in Development, which was prepared for the Lambeth Palace event. 3
Participants agreed that the Dialogue should continue for the
next five years at least and that the IMF should become a partner
in it. A team of independent advisors will make recommendations
to the cochairs and the WFDD executive committee regarding the
future coordinating structure of the Dialogue, and the high-level
group attending these first two meetings will meet again within
the next two years.
Yet another significant interfaith activity was the third session of the Parliament of the World's Religions, held in Cape Town,
South Africa, in December 1999. 4 A representative of the Baha'i
International Community participated in drafting A Call to Our
Guiding Institutions, the central document of the Parliament, and
was one of nine Baha'is accredited to the three-day high level
Parliament Assembly. The Baha'i International Community was
also represented in Amman, Jordan, at the Seventh World Assembly of the World Conference on Religion and Peace.

See Th e Baha 'i World 1997- 98, pp. 233- 59 for the ful l text.
For more information on the Parl iament, see pp. 105- 10.

THE B AHA:f W ORLD

Secretary -general o/
the BJC, Albert
Lincoln, greeting
Pope John Paul fl in
Tel Aviv, during the
pope :Sá historic visit to
Israel in March 2000.

Future of the United Nations
In preparation for the Millennium Assembly- as the year 2000
UN General Assembly session has been designated-and its
Millennium Summit of heads of state and government, the NGO
community has been organizing its own Millennium Forum to be
held at UN Headquarters in New York in May 2000. The goal of
the Forum is to give organizations of civil society the opportunity
to articulate a new vision for the future of the United Nations
and for ways whereby the peoples of the world can participate
effectively in global decision making. The Baha'i International
Community, as cochair of the organizing committee for the Millennium Forum, has been immersed throughout this year in a
process intended to bring as many as fourteen hundred representatives of NGOs and other groups of civil society to the United
Nations in May 2000.
Meetings
The Baha'i International Community chaired three NGO committees and task forces this year: the NGO committees on
UNIFEM, Freedom of Religion or Belief, and Human Rights; and
the NGO task force on National Machinery for Gender Equality.
Other meetings and UN sessions monitored by the Baha'i International Co1rununity this year included the Eighth Session of the
Commission on Sustainable Development; the Thirty-eighth
Session of the Cormnission for Social Development; the Twentyeighth Session of the Economic Commission for Latin America

B A I 1A' f I NTERNATIONAL C OMM UN ITY

and the Caribbean; the Substantive Session of the ECOSOC; the
Second Preparatory Committee for the Special Session of the General Assembly, "World Summit for Social Development + 5"; a
high-level meeting of the Economic and Social Commission for
Asia and the Pacific to review implementation in Asia and the
Pacific of the Beijing Platfonn for Action; the Fifty-fifth Session
of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination;
the Twenty-first and Twenty-second Sessions of the CEDAW; the
Fifty-second World Health Assembly; the first planning meeting
of the Fourth World Youth Forum of the United Nations System;
meetings of the UNICEF executive board; and the Executive Committee of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees' (UNHCR)
Program.
Public Information
Based at the Baha'i World Centre in Haifa, Israel, with a bureau
in Paris, the Baha'i International C01mnunity's Office of Public
Information coordinates and stimulates public info1mation work
throughout the worldwide Baha'i community.
During 1999- 2000 the Office facilitated more than two htmdred visits of some 2,500 people from eighty countries in its special
visits program . Among the visitors were ambassadors from Australia, China, Colombia, the Czech Republic, Ecuador, Hungary,
India, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Myanmar, Lithuania, Peru, the Philippines, South Africa, Sweden, Thailand, and Uzbekistan.
Also visiting were the first lady of Kazakhstan; a member
of Parliament from Spain; the titular archbishop of Belcastro; the

Members of the
Agritech '99 exhibition
visiting the Terraces of
the Shrine of the Bab
in f-laif'a , September
1999.

state secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Hungary; the
ministers of tourism from Jordan and Israel; Shimon Peres, former
prime minister of Israel; four of Israel's Knesset members; the
president and members of the Faculty Senate from the Hebrew
University in Jerusalem. The agriculture exhibition Agritech '99
brought a delegation of approximately 240 dignitaries, including
ministers and deputy ministers of Agriculture from more than
thirty-five countries.
Film crews, reporters, and photographers representing national and local media from Canada, France, Germany, Israel,
Japan, the Netherlands, Switzerland, the Ukraine, and the United
States visited. Resulting coverage included a thirty-minute documentary entitled "On the Way to the Land of Unity-the Baha' i
Religion,'' shown on German public television, channel Sudwestrundfunk; an article in Eden, a gardens magazine published
and distributed in Germany; a segment on Dutch television entitled "Y2K News"; brief segments showing images of the Baha'i
gardens for a millennium television program that was broadcast
throughout the world; and a program on Israel's National Geographic Channel.
The Baha'i World Web site, 5 now in its fourth year, has experienced a four-fold increase in visits since its launch, and at the
end of 1999 averaged approximately 25,000 visits per month. The
site is now available in five languages, with the addition of Arabic this year, and there are plans for additional languages.
The Paris branch of the Office of Public Information was
active in support of the Royaumont Process, which was initiated
by the European Union to promote stability and good relations
between countries in South Eastern Europe. 6 Training seminars
were held in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Macedonia (FYROM),
and Romania in 1999. Close and continuous communication was
maintained with the representatives of the government of Luxembourg and the office of the EU for the Royaumont Process. In

5 The URL for the Baha 'i World Web site is <www.bahai .org>
See The Bahri 'i World J998- 99, pp. 145- 50 for a full report on the Baha'i
International Comm unity's involvement in the Royaumont Process.

B AHA'f I NTERNAT IONAL C OMMUNITY

Jn September 1999,
participants in a
training seminar in
Sarajevo created and
~-. ,. . p e1./0r111ed a dr an1atic

sketch about inlerethnic
tensions.

October 1999, the Romanian Ministry of Education officially
adopted "The Happy Hippo Show" 7 as part of a pilot program
implemented in three school districts of Bucharest, with the possibility of extension to other cities.
The Baha'i community in the Netherlands and the European
Baha'i Youth Council, in collaboration with the Office of Public
Information in Paris, actively participated in The Hague Appeal
for Peace Conference held in The Hague, Netherlands, from 11 to
15 May 1999, marking the hundredth anniversary of the first conference held in the same city. The Baha'is made a presentation
that featured a short video highlighting the aims and purpose of
the project "Promoting Positive Messages Through the Media: The
Happy Hippo Show" and its implementation in Albania, Bulgaria,
Croatia, Hungary, Romania, and Slovenia. A young Croatian Baha'i
radio journalist, Robert Zuber, together with a representative
of OPI Paris, cohosted a live adaptation of his weekly radio
broadcast- a "Happy Hippo Show" devoted to the subject of
multiculturalism.
One Country, the quarterly newsletter of the BIC, reached an
estimated 50,000 subscribers in its eleventh year of operation. It
is published in six languages and is circulated in more than 180
countries, with an electronic edition available on the World Wide
Web. 8 Its coverage this year included a profile of the Kalimani

For more information on the Royaumont Process and "The Happy Hippo
Show," see The Bahri 'i World 1998- 99, pp. 145- 50.
The URL for the One Countl" y Web s ite is <www.onecountry. org>

Women's Group, which exercised skills of consultation and partnership to build a water storage system in an arid region of Kenya;
the Uganda Baha'i Institute for Development, which trained
community health volunteers and helped to significantly increase
immunization rates and raise awareness of basic hygiene in the
Kumi and Soroti regions of southern Uganda; the STAR project
in the United States, which offers a motivational athletic program
and after-school tutorial sessions aimed at empowering and uplifting African American youth; and the Oedi Sewing Club in
Botswana, a program that trains mostly poor single mothers in a
marketable skill. One Country also continued to profile Baha'i
involvement in major international conferences such as the Fortythird Session of the Commission on the Status of Women at the
United Nations, the Parliament of World's Religions, and the preparatory meetings for the Millenium Forum.
Conclusion
During 1999-2000, the Baha' i International Community continued to encourage national support of the UN Decade for Human
Rights Education around the world, promoted the advancement
of women, encouraged the application of spiritual principles in
development, and sought to promote the voice of civil society at
the United Nations. In its work with National Spiritual Assemblies around the world, the United Nations, and other NGOs, the
BIC continued to pursue its goal of the establishment of a just,
peaceful, and prosperous civilization for all humankind.

Establishment of the First
CHAI! ~OR
BAHA'I
STUDIES

'"l Jhile thousands of volumes have been written about the
V V Baha' i Faith during the first centmy and a half of its existence, the vast majority of them have fallen largely outside the
boundaries of formal institutional study. Furthennore, this body
of literature is primarily of two types: either produced within the
Baha'i community for a Baha' i audience, or written by opponents
of the Faith with the aim of discrediting and undennining it.
The establishment of the first academic Chair for Baha'i Studies at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem-with the mission of
promoting understanding of this new Faith and studying its history, its teachings, and its role in the modem world-represents a
significant step in the institutionalized study of the Baha'i Faith.
In the words of Professor Menachem Magidor, president of
the Hebrew University, the establishment of the Chair signifies
"interfaith, intercultmal, and interethnic discomse between people
of different convictions and different beliefs." And as he remarked
at the dedication of the Chair, "While we are definitely a Jewish

university, we should be an intellectual bridge between Jewish culture and other religions."
The establishment of the Chair was announced on 29 March
1999, 1 and an inaugural ceremony was held on the Mount Scopus
campus of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem on 7 June 1999.
Systematic study of the Baha'i Faith at the university began in the
mid-1990s, when Professor Moshe Sharon, the Chair's first incumbent, began teaching a class on the history and sacred literature
of the Baha'i Faith.2 Professor Sharon's own interest in and study
of the Baha'i Faith were the impetus for the creation of the Chair,
which was funded by an anonymous private donor.
In his inaugural address, Professor Sharon spoke briefly about
the history of the Faith and its adherents, naming ignorance as the
main enemy of the Baha' is and saying, "The aim of this Chair is
to fight ignorance, applying to the study of the Baha'i Faith the
strict rules of scholarship." He characterized the responsibility of
overseeing the Chair as both "heavy and exciting."
The Baha'i World Centre was represented at the function by
a delegation which included Albert Lincoln, secretary-general of
the Baha'i International Community, who spoke at the ceremony.
"The Baha'i Community welcomes the academic undertaking represented by this Chair," he said, "in full realization that the process
will not always be a comfortable one ... Whether we like it or not,
our understanding of our religion and our community will be
affected by the work of this Chair. .. " Mr. Lincoln lauded the university for its "academic values" and "freedom from prejudice."

See Th e Bahri 'i World 1998- 99, p. 35.
Professor Sharon earned a doctorate from the Hebrew University in 197 l
and currently teaches in the university's Is lamic a nd M iddle Eastern Studies
department, and has published works in Arabic, Hebrew, and Eng li sh. His
researc h interests includ e the early hi story of the Baha'i Faith , early Islamic
history, the hi story of the Holy Land under Islam , messianic thought in Islam,
Arab ic ep igraphy and papyrology, and the interaction between Judai sm, Christianity, and Is lam. Professor Sharon is currently at work on trans lating the
Kitab-i-Aqdas into Hebrew. He a lso has plans to translate othe r major wo rks
of the Baha'i Faith into Hebrew.

CHAIR FOl~ B AHA'f STUDIES

Professor Moshe Sharon
(center) and other members
of th e Hebrew University
delegation at the Seat of
the Universal House of
Justice.for the commemorative event in Haifa.
Secretary -general of the
B!C Albert Lincoln stands
to the leji.

He expressed hope that the creation of the Chair would have a
catalytic effect, sparking development at other universities.
Following the event at the Hebrew University, a second event
commemorating the foundation of the Chair was held on 25 June
1999 at the Baha'i World Centre in Haifa. This gathering focused
on the evolution of Baha'i scholarship and the unique nature of
the relationship between the Hebrew University and the World
Centre, particularly the Centre for the Study of the Texts. The
cooperation between these two institutions will allow the university access to historical documents crucial to the development of
Baha'i studies.
Albert Lincoln once again spoke on behalf of the Baha'i Comm~ity and during his speech read the text of a letter from fonner
president of Israel Itzhak Navon to the President of the Hebrew
University, congratulating him on the formation of the Chair. Mr.
Lincoln also elucidated the commitment of the Baha'i World Centre to working with the university in pursuit of its scholarly goals.
A large delegation from the Hebrew University attended,
including the president, vice-president, and rector of the university. It marked the first time that the university senate had ever
convened outside Jerusalem.
Menachem Ben-Sasson, the university 's rector, spoke about
the longstanding relationship between the Baha'i Faith and the
Hebrew University, which dates back to the founding of the school
in April 1925, when Shoghi Effendi wrote in a cable, " . ..B A HA ' 1s
HOPE AN D PRAY TH E ESTAB LI SHMENT OF TH IS SEAT OF LEA RN ING M AY
CON TRIB UT E TO TH E REV IVAL OF A L AN D OF HA L LOWE D MEM ORI ES FOR
US A LL AN D FOR WHI CH A BD U' L-BA HA CH ERI SHED TH E HI GH EST HOP ES ."

Dr. Peter Khan, member of the Universal House of Justice,
addressed the gathering on the topic of Baha'i scholarship, 3 pointing out that one goal of Baha' i scholarship was the search for
unity through study of the Faith and avoidance of the divisiveness
of opposing doctrines that has caused splintering in religious
thought throughout the ages. "We do not foresee our scholarly
activity reducing to a set of schools of thought centered around
prominent or charismatic individuals," he said, "rather, we see a
community in which there is a sense of equality, not a rigid or
stifling egalitarianism but a sense of a community of people searching for the truth, sharing it with each other, and providing mutual
encouragement an d supp01i. "
Professor Sharon gave a talk on the subject of Baha'i studies, emphasizing the importance of studying the sacred texts in
their original languages of Arab ic and Persian and highlighting
the cooperation between the Baba' i World Centre and the school.
He called the partnership "essential for the achievement of the
scholarly goals which lie ahead of us." He also noted the significance of this venture, saying, "There is no doubt in my mind
that. .. we are writing a chapter in the history of the Baha'i Faith ... "
In January 2000 an account of the proceedings both at the
Hebrew University and the Baha'i World Centre, was published
by the university.
By Professor Sharon's estimation, the research of the Chair
will require "a century, if not more" of effort on the part of both
the university and the Baha'is. The Chair faces the challenge of
studying not just a collection of writings and laws, but a vital and
ever-changing community that is emerging from obscurity but is
often surrounded by misunderstanding.
Baha'is are still in the early phases of the growth of their
own understanding about their religion and its community. The
establi shment of the Chair will enhance the understanding of the
Baha'i Faith not only in academic circles, but also by its practitioners around the world.

For an expanded ve rs ion of Dr. KJ1an 's views o n Baha ' i scholarship, see pp.
197- 221.

Brazil's Response to

WHO rs
WRITING
THE FUTURE?

n 1999 the Baha'i International Community's Office of Public
I Information released the statement Who is Writing the
Future?, 1 which offers a reflection on the twentieth century from
a Baha'i perspective. It opens with a description of the Brazilian
Chamber of Deputies' commemoration of the centenary of
Baha'u'llah's passing, during which one of the deputies asserted
that Baha'u'llah's writings constitute "the most colossal religious
work written by the pen of a single man." The statement comprises five sections on themes central to the development of
humankind, including the essentially spiritual nature of life, the
need for a social and intellectual evolution, and the creation of a
unified global society.
The Baha' is of Brazil, wishing to share the document
with their fellow citizens, initiated the publication of Quern esta
escrevendo o .futuro? 25 textos para o Seculo XX! [Who is
Writing the Future? 25 Texts.for the XX! Century]. The book is
a compilation of twenty-five essays contributed by Brazilian

1. For the text of thi s document, see Th e Baha 'i World 1998- 99, pp. 255- 68.

(From left to right)
Frei Beto, Luiz
Gushiken, Neissan
Monadjem, and
Jonas Resende
participate in a
~~C:=~;.;;::::__J... =--"- -:: panel discuss ion at
the release of Quern
esta escrevendo o
futuro? 25 textos
para o Secu lo XXL

philosophers, scientists, theologians, journalists, and politicians,
each of which offers a response to the vision of the twentieth
century proposed in the Baha'i International Community's statement. Though the authors were not Baha'is, Baha'u'llah's vision
still resonated with them. Twenty-one photographs by internationally known photojournalist Sebastiao Salgado illustrate the
essays.
The book was published as a joint venture between the
Baha'i community of Brazil and the Brazilian publishing firm
Letraviva Editorial, with the authors' rights to the material being
transferred to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF).
It was released in Rio de Janeiro on 8 December 1999, at a
seminar sponsored partially by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Ten of the authors participated in panel discussions and offered further views
on the book's themes and ideas to the audience of approximately
one hundred participants. Canal Futura, a Brazilian cable
channel, conducted interviews with the authors, and both the
launch of the book and the seminar received coverage in Brazil's
national newspapers.
Following are three essays from the book, translated from
the Portuguese.

Luiz Gushiken, labor leader and former
federal representative, talks about
paradoxes of the twentieth century and the
importance of morality in human
development as we progress into the next
centwy.

EDUCATION
AS RESISTANCE TO
FORCES OF
DISINTEGRATION

I

T he invitation to comment on the text Who is Writing the
Future? Reflections on the Twentieth Century is extremely disturbing. In addition to the very breadth of the issue, which mocks
us as we face the challenge of unveiling it, this is a document
whose vigor, depth, universality, and synthesis intimidate anyone
who attempts to expound on it.
What follows, then, are modest considerations or, perhaps,
concerns of a political militant who, at times, strove to raise some
issues relating to strategies for the future.
An old Eastern sage says that one of man's most complex
challenges is the act of breaking old habits and learning new ones.
This difficulty of our spirit in adopting new ways to act is, paradoxically, one of the dilemmas of today's world.
Paradoxical because the century that is now ending has
unleashed creative forces unheard-of in the history of humankind
but, at the same time, is not showing itself to be capable of providing adequate answers to old problems- the impoverished state
of huge numbers of people, the disproportionate wealth of certain

nations and individuals, the ravishment of nature, rampant individualism, various forms of fanaticism, etc.
What is even worse, however, is that instead of being reduced, these multiple problems are, on the contrary, expanding
and reaching dangerous and unbearable levels-in spite of the
vigorous and increasing mastery of our knowledge in the most
diverse areas of science and technology.
This seems to be the paradox of the late twentieth century:
man can master nature, but not his own nature.
In defining strategies that might countervail the evils that
assail the world today, this lag is clearly expressed in the preface
of this publication, the text of which says:

The task of delivering humankind .. .requires that we question some of the most deep-rooted assumptions deve loped in
the twentieth century regarding what is right and what is wrong.
What are these unquestioned assumptions? The most
obvious one is the conviction that unity is a distant, almost
unattainable ideal, to be sought only after we have solved-no
one knows exactly how- myriad political conflicts, material
needs, and injustices .

This comment raises the crucial issue of developing alternative strategies for the future and the foolishness of believing in
the primacy of old formulas and old mindsets, to the detriment of
the new, whose essence is a concerted effort to create broader and
broader social units-an effort based on the concept of humankind as a vital source.
This is an idea that was in the past evoked by visionaries,
but that has today become a necessity corroborated by the evidence of facts .
II
We belong to a privileged generation of politicians who always
ardently sought a "utopia," understood as an expression of a socially necessary and morally justifiable ideal that would promote
concrete action and vitalize the spirit.
In our political upbringing, of particular importance was the
influence of an internationalist ideal as conceived by a variant of

WHO lli WRITING TH E F UTURE?

revolutionary Marxism and which might be summed up in the
renowned phrase, "the proletariat is without nation." That is, only
within a worldwide-scale socialist organization would it be possible for humankind to shake off the fetters of capitalism and find
new bases to build a more just and humane society.
This internationalist ideal shaped our ideas about the future
and acted as a kind of strategic focus from which a new institutional, moral, and cultural concept might lead to concrete political
actions .
The text Who is Writing the Future? raises all these issues
once again, but on a higher and deeper level.
In 1992, I had the privilege of organizing in the House of
Representatives a solemn session honoring Baha'u'llah. On that
occasion, the considerations I made regarding our Honoree were
entirely relevant in terms of the strategies for the future and I therefore transcribe below an excerpt of my speech in the tribune of
the House: "The focal point in the writings of Baha'u'llah is the
unity of humankind, expressed in the celebrated phrase: 'The earth
is but one country and mankind its citizens."'
From this simple sentence derives the most ambitious political project ever conceived: a supranational state, accepted as
legitimate by the entire world, endowed with coercive power,
expressing the summit of a worldwide organization in which all
nations, races, and beliefs are united in a single body, free from
the warmongering influence of governments and peoples, with its
economic resources duly organized and exploited, its markets duly
coordinated and developed, and the distribution of products regulated by equitable principles. A federated system of nations, with
legislative, executive, and judiciary powers on a world level,
capable of deploying an international military force but allowing
for internal armed forces in each country, organized to maintain
and uphold the norms of a new international code based on the
principles of mutual cooperation, solidarity between peoples, and
the protection of humankind.
For Baha'u'llah, the great problems of the contemporary
world are rooted in social structures and their value systems.
A new covenant among nations-setting up new institutions,

ordering new and well-defined objective clauses on the rights and
obligations of each government, establishing frontiers and limits
for each country, and rigidly limiting and controlling the weapons
of each country-must become the supreme effort to which the
rulers of the world and the entire human race dedicate themselves
in order to usher a new age for humankind. As long as this does
not happen, according to the prophecies ofBaha'u'llah, it will be
impossible for the world to achieve serenity, and humankind will
not be able to avoid great tribulations.
This new world order, prescribed by Baha'u'llah as the only
remedy for the ills of humankind, does not derive from the belief
that men and nations are perfect in their moral behavior or devoid
of material interests. It does not seek any homogenization of
peoples or individuals; on the contrary, it takes into account
ethnic, cultural, and linguistic diversities as well as those of thought
and habit as natural expressions, and it nurtures the differences in
the human race. This new order will in no way conflict with noble
and intelligent sentiments of healthy patriotism, but nationalist rage
and racial hatred will definitely be abolished.
Thus, the imperatives of a world unified upon new bases will
increase the autonomy of countries while avoiding the excesses
of an exaggerated centralism.
The principle of the unity of the human race, the central axis
of Baha'u'llah's prophetic revelation, is not an emotional appeal
to principles of human fraternity, nor a mere idealist proposition,
but rather the objective expression of the current stage of humankind-now pleading for an organic unity on the political sphere,
seeing that in the realms of economics and communications
interdependence is now taken for granted.
The nation-state, bulwark of a certain stage in our development, has become exhausted as a means of organizing humankind.
National sovereign states must now evolve into a new system that
joins them in a worldwide federated body, whereby the concept
of "citizen of a nation" is extended to the concept of "citizen of
the world."
An issue that is always raised when one debates these matters, usually expressed as an argument to reject the propositions

WHO lli WRITI NG THE FUTURE?

mentioned above, runs like this: How can an ordinary citizen participate in the building of something as grandiose as a supranational
institution ifhe or she is far from the decision-making centers and
does not even have the minimum necessary knowledge for such
an endeavor?
This is a valid objection, albeit badly formulated.
A body politic organized on a worldwide basis is certainly
the ultimate expression of the principle of the unity of the human
species in its institutional form. Bringing it about must result from
a joint decision by the great representative leaders of all nations
and will constitute the synthesis of a multiplicity of efforts in
widely varied fields of human activity.
The principle of unity is, above all, a sentiment that, if apprehended by the human spirit-either by logical reasoning, a
moral sense, or the evidence of facts-may swiftly become an
active principle. This sentiment may be shown in multiple aspects
of our lives. In its propagation we will find the bases to teach new
values, and the new institutions will structure themselves and
acquire legitimacy.
When we rebel against all kinds of prejudice- racial,
religious, sexual, etc.-it is the principle of the unity of the humanity that pulsates in our hearts. When we exalt ecological values
to preserve nature as an attitude to be heeded by every
individual, regardless of where one lives, it is the feeling of unity
that is moving us. The moral indignation of a citizen from another
country in the face of ethnic prejudices that generate violence
(against the citizens of Bosnia, for instance) is a feeling that derives from the same principle. And when this very same citizen
demands an international force to sustain military action to
defend those citizens, he or she is expressing, in his or her own
way, the principle of unity in active form. Likewise, when we agree
that a certain tyrant, a former head of state such as Pinochet, should
be judged by an international court of law, we are expressing the
same principle.
Thus, the struggle for unity is a manifestation of the will to
open up increasingly broad areas in the vast universe of cultural,
economic, political, and social relations. It is a manifestation of

the will that, at times, expresses a merely bureaucratic view of
unity, acknowledging its functional effectiveness, but that, sooner
or later, will be adopted by most citizens of the world as a moral
imperative.
Whatever the reasons that compel individuals to struggle for
unity, and regardless of the importance they attribute to these acts,
they are certainly following the natural path to the future and are
thereby abbreviating the "time of suffering" of the birth of the
new world order.
III
Another strategic aspect of the future world order pertains to the
type of relationship between people in their collective processes, that is, the form by which people will get together to decide or settle issues within the scope of the social group to which
they belong- e.g., family, neighborhood association, or club of
friends--or even within the context of more complex groups, such
as public agencies and corporate enterprises.
According to an old tradition, the most appropriate form of
working in groups is that based on the principle of verticality, of a
superior authority, whereby those who are below usually do nothing but take orders emanating from above-offering, at the most,
opinions. This authoritarian method is one of the main
factors hindering the liberation of creative potentialities inherent
in each individual. Contemporary societies are being deprived of
a monumental source of human energy because of a pernicious
habit intent on perpetuating itself.
Many are becoming aware of this flawed model of human
relationships and are proposing other forms. The Worker's Party
[PT] in Brazil, for instance, has pioneered the principle of
"Participative Budgeting" as a distinctive element in its program.
This social and political mechanism enables us to increase the participation of people in the destiny of their cities, encouraging
popular organization and, through representation, opening up the
decision-making process whereby the use of public resources is
discussed. Many companies have similar approaches to ensure the
participation of all employees in defining products, marketing policies, etc.

WI-IO lli WRITING TI-IE F UTURE?

However, these extremely propitious initiatives seem to have
a major conceptual limitation. In politics, the method of group
consultation and participation is understood as an extension of the
concept of democracy, a kind of enhanced power sharing (no small
feat, actually). In companies, consultation and participation are
seen as mere instruments to leverage the organization.
As I see it, the framework for consultation and participation
should derive from other premises.
When we speak of direct participation, we are referring to
the direct involvement of ordinary citizens in issues that bear upon
them-in the places of actual social intercourse. This implies a
multitude of places and relationships in which human energy is
actually concentrated and from which a new creative and transforming force will be bred.
When different individual capabilities are brought together,
the result is more than the mere sum of these skills, for a doubleedged operation is set in motion. First, the faculty of perception is
enhanced, making for discoveries or understandings of realities
that had heretofore remained hidden or undiscovered. In other
words, the scope of our knowledge of increasingly complex
levels of reality expands and, therefore, we acquire greater control and command over the object of investigation or debate.
Second, the reciprocal influence between participation and
enhanced knowledge turns the consultation method into a dynamic,
progressive, and proactive factor endowed with synergistic capabilities-quite unlike pyramidal decision structures that are by
nature static. Thus, it is not hard to imagine the gigantic force that
might be extracted from a society if its members were allowed
greater freedom of consultation and participation in decisionmaking processes.
But the most important aspect in the consultation and participation method is that is promotes loyalty and commitment
among people, a feat that is achieved when individuals are
allowed to understand the meaning of what is right and wrong in
the issues with which they are involved.
Societies have long forgotten and forsaken an ongoing
pursuit of justice as an element to stimulate action and propagate

loyalty. The notion of justice has always been associated with
formal normative precepts (laws, regulations, etc.) and with the
institutions that enforce them-either those properly pertaining to
justice (the tribunals) or those of a punitive nature (police
stations, for instance). However, although fundamental for progress
and civilization, this concept of justice, which is predominantly
associated with concepts of restriction and punishment, does not
measure up to that feeling of "justice" we all have deep within
ourselves, telling us what is right and wrong in each concrete expenence.
Consultation and participation as elements of interactive
processes among people extend and liberate our primal perception of a sense of justice, an attribute inherent in the human spirit
that can promote infinitely more powerful forms of commitment
and loyalty-and, for this very reason, is also capable of stimulating action. That is why I believe it would not be altogether incorrect
to state that consultation is, in and by itself, an expression of
justice on the simplest operational level. In this manner, paraphrasing Baha'u'llah: if you base yourself on it, you will see with your
own eyes, and not those of others; you will know through your
own understanding and not through that of your neighbor.
Considering that the behavioral mien that predominates in
collective activities is the spirit of distrust and individualism, one
may question whether men are prepared to introduce the method
of consultation, as outlined above, in their day-to-day matters. This
is a cogent doubt and our response to it, as with other great issues,
will depend on a tremendous educational effort to make people
aware of something that exists potentially in their spirit and has
an incomparably superior transforming power over other social
mechanisms.
The method of consultation and participation, seen from this
perspective, is much more than a mere instrument of social
action; it is a veritable generative source that forms social units
capable of countervailing the dangerous process of social fragmentation that characterizes life in most contemporary societies.
As a last observation on the method of consultation, we must
stress that it achieves its maximum strength when individuals

WHO @WRITING THE FUTURE ?

participating in collective processes are imbued with feelings of
candor, honesty, and honorable intentions.
IV
A reflection on the matter of morals is another important aspect in defining the elements that comprise a strategy for the
future. Any diagnosis of the serious problems we are now facing
will come upon a worrisome phenomenon, namely, the increasing
fragility of the moral structure of individuals and contemporary
societies.
A clue to understanding this complex problem may be found
in the history of this century's great ideologies.
Capitalist ideology, in its desire to value individualist traits,
has in effect led us to neglect the social dimension as the fundamental goal of moral purpose. In capitalism, social problems are
seen not as results of specific policies engendered by those
who wield economic and political power, but as anomalies of an
abstract entity called "marketplace"- the regulation of which,
however, is generally abominated. These psychological mechanisms, on the one hand, dilute responsibilities for social ignominies
and, on the other, tend to lead us to see the unemployed more as
volunteers for idleness than as casualties of economic policies of
exclusion.
In capitalist ideology, the stimulus toward self-sufficiency and
individual competition is taken to such extreme degrees that values that inspire cooperation and solidarity very rarely find a place
in people's hearts. But while sophisticated forms of extolling individual values (which this system is prodigal in creating) may at
times camouflage its intrinsic perverse selfishness, in the end they
cannot but entangle people in the traps of hypocrisy and guilt.
It is undeniable that the exacerbation of individualism, which
seems to be reaching an apogee now, bears close relationship with
the increasingly swift social deterioration of our days and with
our enormous confusion regarding values such as liberty and mutual respect.
Socialist ideology, in turn, has encouraged people to blame
only society for the existing evils and deviations, ignoring individual responsibility and thus paving the way for upsurges of

authoritarian and arrogant feelings, and stifling emotions such as
respect and compassion. All the violence that has been committed against millions of people in the name of socialism
will remain indelibly imprinted on our perception of the twentieth
century as a tremendous paradox, whereby policies aimed at a supposed social good transformed the state into a veritable machine
of terror.
Realizing this particular moral vision certainly implies a new
strategy for the moral transformation of individuals. In this process, morality is to be understood not as reverence for human
virtues but as an operational principle that stimulates action and
is valued as a dynamic factor. In this manner, people will feel
impelled both toward their own individual progress and toward
the implementation of changes in their environment. Thus, we need
a dialectic capable of expressing this double objective: from the
personal point of view, it must seek to develop the talents and
qualities that distinguish human beings and that constitute their
natural gifts; from the social point of view, it must strive to
promote the well-being of the human species, assuming justice
and solidarity as essential values of social intercourse among
individuals and nations.
Only by availing themselves of strategic long-range supports,
including the perspective of educating future generations, will leaders at all levels, the media, and our various institutions be imbued
with convictions consistent enough to build a true civilization,
providing society with the skills it needs and counteracting the
disruptive forces that are being unleashed at the end of this
century.
The march of events in the historical stage we are now living
in is so vigorous that every gesture and every thought, from the
most trivial to the most complex, end up by disturbing and
putting our convictions to the test.
We must seek new paradigms.
For the time being, however, we are unfortunately being engulfed by the greatest of tragedies: our own banalization.

Leonardo Baff,' theologian, write1~ and
professor at Universidade Estadual do Rio
de Janeiro, discusses the crisis of
destruction fa cing humanity, and the
means by which it can be survived.

THE
DANGEROUS
PASSAGE TOA
WORLD REPUBLIC

' "} Then a tree has fulfilled its intrinsic potentialities, we say it
VV has attained its climax. It then dies and falls. When people
have spent their individual energy supply, they grow old and die.
When, over the next ten billion years, the sun exhausts its stock
of hydrogen and, later, of helium, it will become a shining star
and die, slowly turning into a white dwarf and, ultimately, a black
hole-but having earlier dragged into itself the entire solar system and our own planet earth. The entire universe and each one of
its beings, particularly the organic ones, fall under the law of entropy. They have limited potentialities: one day they will all
disappear.
Doesn't the same thing happen with social systems? Isn't our
system of social intercourse losing or wasting its potentialities and
on the way to dissolution? It is undoubtedly facing a major crisis.
The question is, is it a crisis of circumstance that, once overcome,
will usher in a new age of prosperity, or is it a structural crisis
paving the way for a terminal outcome in an intensive care unit?
I adopt the hypothesis that we are in the heart of a structural
and terminal crisis. It is structural because it affects every aspect,

as bacteria take over an entire organism, producing septicemia
and, eventually, death. And it is terminal because it represents
the depletion of a paradigm-of all energies, all dreams and all
strategies that might be able to cope with the system's own
internal contradictions. The system marches irrevocably towards
death. Nothing can stop this.
Is it the end of the world, then? Yes and no. Yes, because it
represents the end of this kind of world. No, because the world
will go on. The end will bring forth the opportunity for a new
world to emerge, that is to say, a new civilizing standard capable
of providing us with a new meaning to life and all the peoples of
the earth with a new horizon of hope for humankind.
This dual perspective of death and life is present in the original Sanskrit meaning of the word crisis. Crisis derives from kir or
krl-to cleanse and purify. There is an undeniable affinity between
crisis and crucible. The severe process of purification implies death
and rebirth: the death of worthless gangue, of aggregates, of contingency; and the rebirth of the gist, of essence, of necessity.
Whatever is put into the crucible of a crisis, and remains, acquires
the potential or virtuality of founding a new future . It is a catharsis we are undergoing at the present moment.
Two Mortal Crises in the Current System
Two crises have arisen from our current system of social intercourse, two crises that are unsolvable by the system's intrinsic
resources: the social crisis and the ecological crisis.
The social crisis plots the rich against the poor as never
before in the history of humankind. The production process, by
using automated technologies, can produce goods and services with
extreme swiftness and on an ever-increasing scale. However, these
goods are appropriated exclusively by a small elite of nations
or by the upper classes in poor, dependent countries. This logic
gives rise to an immeasurable injustice and a widening chasm
between the haves and the have-nots.
There is a very real risk of a bifurcation in humankind: on
the one hand, those benefiting from advances in biotechnology
who will live on to age 130, surrounded by every kind of amusement and delight; on the other, the great masses condemned to

W I-IO IB WRITING THE F UTURE?

suffer every type of want and deprivation, dying as they have
always died, before their time.
It is all the more serious not only because of the perverse
abyss between the ones and the others, but also the absolute lack
of humanitarian sensitivity. Our sense of solidarity and responsibility for our neighbors and fellow creatures has become extremely
meager. It is in keeping with the logic of the system to exalt the
individual, to reward his or her performance and to impose a
regime of private appropriation of goods that are produced by the
labor of all. This logic inevitably creates inequalities: accumulation on one side, destitution on the other.
Today we are moving from dependence to relinquishment.
We relinquish those who are dependent, condemned to being seen
and treated as economic and social nonentities. How long will
they accept the verdict of death hanging upon them? We should
not discard serious clashes between the North and the South,
between those who are inside and those who are outside the
reigning system, leading to unheard-of violence and devastation.
The second crisis is ecological. The current consumptionbased system is predatory. By extolling maximum consumption
of all natural and cultural goods, it submits all limited natural and
cultural resources to a systematic process of depredation. The
final result cannot but be the degradation of the quality of life for
humans and all other creatures of the biotic community. We have
assembled a poisoning machine that destroys and kills the air, the
land, the water, the living organisms, the ecosystems and the planet
itself. How much violence can earth's system of dynamic equilibrium withstand? What is the limit of its sustainability-which,
once disrupted, may bring disastrous consequences for the biosphere? In addition to being homicides and ethnocides, human
beings may well tum out to be ecocides and biocides as well.
The system is like a wolf, whose nature is to devour sheep. It
is of no avail to admonish mercy or to file down its teeth. Voracity is the wolf's intrinsic quality and nothing will stop it from
being voracious. Such is our current system of social intercourse,
implemented over the last four centuries for all of humankind,
that has today achieved worldwide integration. This system lacks

THE B ABA'f W ORLD

any internal value that might lead it to change its course, or even
limit its iniquitous and undesirable effects.
Over the next years, these two crises will give the global system an ultimatum. We are groping our way towards a worst-case
scenario. It's like an airplane about to take off. After it reaches a
certain critical point, it can no longer be stopped. If it does not
rise in flight, it will crash at the end of the runway. We are currently all smiles, content in our scientific knowledge, traveling
smugly along the broad highway of history, barely aware that up
ahead the end of the line and the abyss await us.
We hear the bells toll. They toll over the world system, today so arrogantly victorious and alienated from the gravity of the
disease that has taken hold of it and will lead to its death. Death
may come from the two crises mentioned above. It is highly probable that it will stem from the collapse of the world economic and
financial system that currently sustains our societies. The truth
will surface. But when it does, it will be too late. We will then see
productive capital (roughly 35 trillion dollars) breaking away from
speculative capital (about 80 to 100 trillion dollars-no one knows
for sure). The latter is solely paper, and pure image. In a major
crisis, it will evaporate like a soap bubble, with no sustainability
whatsoever, tumultuously dragging towards irrevocable disaster
millions of people who will perish like flies-while others will
seek refuge, surviving in preserved oases and envying those who
died before them.
Or perhaps the purifying crisis will arise from ecological
havoc. It is not impossible nor improbable that some important
link in the earth's systemic equilibrium will burst: the regime of
climates, seasons, and drinking water might break down; some
horrendous contamination of radioactive waste might spread; the
decline in human fertility might not stop (as seen in Central Europe); the outbreak of some deadly bacteria might decimate
millions and millions of living creatures, humankind included,
putting an end to the great adventure of the species homo sapiens
et demens- or most of its specimens. The terrific fall of some
low-flying meteor is not entirely avoidable, as has happened many
times throughout the history of earth- 67 million years ago just

WHO ill WRITING THE F UTURE ?

such a piece of flying debris destroyed the greater part of the biosphere and all the dinosaurs. The technical expertise to track an
approaching meteorite is still rudimentary.
Conclusion: the desolation of tribulation? Once again, yes
and no. Yes, because globalization (particularly in its economic
expression: competitive and noncooperative) has revealed the
interdependencies that exist among all of us and the system's
inability to solve humankind's collective problems and avoid the
imminent cataclysm. No, because such a cataclysm might pave
the way for a new rearrangement of the Earth and of what is left
of our tribes. A new kind of civilization will arise, more benevolent towards life, more integrative of differences, more spiritual
and more ecological.
In every conceivable form, we approach the new millenium
ashamed of ourselves, of our lust to subdue, attack, and destroy
everything that is not like us-as so many wars have given
witness, most recently those in Iraq and Kosovo. Ashamed of
the way we treat our children, millions of whom toil as slaves.
Ashamed of how we treat our elderly, abandoned in interminable
queues in hospitals and welfare agencies. And ashamed of how
we systematically prey upon and trample life on this planet, as if
it were not our only common home.
We are now approaching the dangerous threshold of a purifying Good Friday. But as we have said, it will not be the end
of the world. Only the end of this kind of world, worn out in
its regenerative capability and lacking in reproductive energy.
Another world will ensue. What will it be like? What may grow
amidst its ruins?
The whitest lilies grow on the darkest swamps. Amidst the
ruins of ancient Mayan cities grow the most luxuriant trees. Something similar will happen with the emerging civilization.
We are swiftly marching towards one single worldwide society-the first of a unified humankind. We're all arriving there from
a lengthy exile, where we have remained insulated in regional cultures in the frontiers of nation-states. We are slowly returning to
our common home, earth, and discovering ourselves as part of
the human family. But this phenomenon, that Pierre Teilhard de

Chardin saw as the emergence of the noosphere (one mind and
one heart united in diversity), must still enter human consciousness. To achieve this, we must supersede the current civilizing
paradigm-a paradigm that atomizes, divides and contraposesand accept the new one derived from quantum physics, from the
new biology, from cosmology, from ecology- in a word, from
the sciences of the earth-capable ofrelating, including, and composing everything with everything else. But this new paradigm
can become hegemonic only when the old one and the institutions
that support it are dismantled. Then, for the first time, we will
witness the collective management of the earth and the social administration of the demands of the peoples that inhabit the earth.
After World War I, the League of Nations emerged, the first
attempt to collectively think through the political problems of humankind. It failed. World War II gave rise to the United Nations.
It lingers on, tottering, until today, wholly incapable of coping
with the new challenges for which it was not created.
We are convinced that after the great and cathartic passing
that is to come, there will most certainly be an articulation of
peoples and civilizations, rather than of governments. The World
Republic will bring about a caring feeling for the earth and its
sons and daughters, and will learn to manage our limited resources
so that they minimally fulfill the needs of all creatures alive today
and of all those still to come.
Spirituality and Ethics, the Bases of the New World Society
The suffering caused by the collapse of the old world system will
convince everyone that it's not possible to establish a new world
covenant founded exclusively on human beings . The earth,
the ecosystems, and all creatures must be included in a greater
sociocosmic covenant of survival and fraternal intercourse. Such
a pact is untenable in a culture that has a single paradigm-and a
purely rational and material one to boot. The rainbow, symbol of
the cosmic alliance between God and the survivors of the Flood,
will act as common reference and inspiration. Diversities will coexist and converge into seeking the common good for all. A new
sensitivity is thus required, whose roots are to be found in the
logic of the heart and in mutual caring.

WHO 1S WRITI NG THE F UTURE ?

This new sensitivity will give rise to a profound spirituality.
Human beings will discover that the spiritual dimension is an
objective dimension of the cosmos and of each one of us-the
dimension of interiority and of each entity's inherent history, the
consciousness that feels itself part of a greater whole, aware of
the secret thread that interweaves everything, creating an unfathomable, dynamic, diverse, and converging unit. This living and
irradiating guiding thread will be deciphered as God, revealed in
our hearts as enthusiasm to live, struggle, create, and mould life
and nature in accordance with a purpose of wisdom, love, and
beauty.
This perspective founds a new ethic, erected on two fundamental values. Without these new values-namely, right measure
and essential caring-it will be impossible to preserve both life
upon our splendorous blue-white planet and the planet itself.
The right measure has assured that the living cosmos is still
here with us today and we with it. Cultures survive inasmuch as
they abide by this principle, known as the Golden Rule. By abandoning it, they become unstructured and die . Our culture is
absolutely devoid of measures in every field. Thus the proximity
of its dissolution.
And what is the right measure? It is a balance between the
more and the less. It is the optimum relative. It is the wisdom to
deal with limited resources, both natural and cultural, in such a
manner that they last as long as possible or can be regenerated
and reproduced. The sustainability of each being and ecosystem
depends on the right measure. It is the right measure that allows
us to defy the inexorable law of entropy, the unrestrained wear
and tear of all things. Without the right measure, everything ends
before it should and dies before its time. With the right measure,
everything is prolonged and lives longer.
The first paragraph of the new world constitution will begin
with a solemn proclamation of the holy principle of the right measure. Wasn't it the same with the Greeks and their meden agan
(nothing in excess)? With the Romans and their ne quid nimis
(nothing in excess)? With the Chinese and their wu-wi and yinyang (the perfect harmony)? Without the right measure, the planet's

limited resources will not suffice for all humans and other living
creatures. The new constitution will not decree, "Thou shalt not
consume"; rather, it will state, "Thou shalt consume with solidarity." It will not say, "Thou shalt not show violence nor the shadowy
dimension of human beings," but rather, "Thou shalt show it in
the right measure, in a constructive manner, the pathological as
pathological, so that it may be countervailed and cured by health
and wholeness."
Without the right measure, the planet will not withstand the
increasing rates of consumption. Without the right measure, the
peoples of the earth will not coexist in peace nor will they converge in diversity. Without the right measure, no creative synthesis
will be found between the symbolic and the diabolic in human
history and in the heart of each one of us. Without the right measure, we will not find the balance between flying upward towards
the divine Father/Mother and plunging downward towards the
social procurement of our daily bread. Only by joining "Our
Father" and "Our Bread" will we be able to truly say "Amen."
The second fundamental ethical value of a common future
for earth and humankind is essential caring. To care means to
enter into a loving relationship with reality and each created
being. It is to invest in the heart, in affection, in subjectivity. Things
are more than mere things-to-use. They are values we can appreciate, symbols we can decipher. To care means becoming involved
with people and things, paying them due attention, placing
ourselves close to them, feeling them within our heart, joining
them in communion, valuing them, and understanding them in
their interiority. Everything for which we care we also love. And
we love everything for which we care. When we establish a bond
of love between ourselves and people and things, we become
concerned for them and learn to feel responsibility for them.
As the ancients well taught and as has been repeated by one
of the greatest modern philosophers, Martin Heidegger, "the
essence of being human is caring." If human beings are not cared
for from the day they are born until the day they die, they will
become unstructured, wasting away and finally dying.

WH O IS WRITI NG THE f U TUl~E ?

More than thinking, loving, and creating, humans must know
how to care, a prerequisite for every other human expression.
Caring determines the minimum ethos for humankind. Caring is the appropriate ethical attitude towards nature and our
common abode, earth.
Caring will redeem love, life, social intercourse, and the earth.
The new millennium will only be ushered in when the ethic of
essential caring triumphs. Around the values of right measure and
essential caring, there will be woven the social and ecological covenants providing firm bases for the new emerging world society.
This new society is suffering labor pains right now, striving to be
born in all parts of the world. A little longer, just a little longer,
and it will come forth full of life and hope. With the Portuguese
poet Camoes, we may also say:

After blustery tempest,
Gloomy night and sibilant wind,
Morning brings forth serene clarity,
Hope of safe port and salvation.

Ricardo Young, national coordinator of
the Pensamento Nacional das Bases
Empresariais and foun der of the Brazilian
chapter of the World Business Academy,
outlines the need.for a spiritual evolution
in the fa ce of humanity s declining
morality.

DETACHMENT
SHALL LEAD
TO REDEMPTION

"\"I Then I read Who is Writing the Future?, I was overcome by
VV the pleasant feeling of having been thrust into one of the
most beautiful retrospectives of humankind's history, where grandeur and the ability to redeem more than offset weaknesses and
v1c10usness.
It has become a common theme in the late twentieth century
to take the part for the whole, the moment for the process, the fact
for history, reaction for reflection, the incidental for the norm.
Many times our vision is obscured by hopelessness that the complexity of the world seems to imply.
This text, however, affirms the opposite. It focuses on the
process that made the twentieth century the most challenging chapter in the history of humankind, wherein humanity, like a pendulum
movement, has oscillated from holocaust to awareness of its unity
and interdependence. The civilization that has evolved over the
last one hundred years represents a geometric progression
of achievements that make the preceding centuries pale, however emblematic they might have been. In this setting, the text
is extremely insightful, maintaining that social evolution and

technological evolution are actually instruments for the ultimate
fulfillment of human consciousness and human potential, and
establishing a causal relationship between these two aspects.
If it's true that humankind's ultimate achievement is consummated in the maximum expansion of its consciousness and
spirituality, together with a deep understanding of the meaning
of its journey in this cosmic fragment, it follows that we've
never been so close to an unprecedented leap in our comprehension of the meaning of life. The intense flow of events that
culminated with the technological revolution has eliminated
long-standing barriers of time and space, creating a proximity
among individuals and a complicity among peoples which, painful as it is, summons everyone to a new dimension of solidarity.
The planet no longer passively accepts the wars and abuses of
this or that government. The recent examples in Kosovo and
East Timor show that humankind is increasingly alert against
authoritarian ventures and the disrespect of human rights. In
the case of Kosovo, one could not but notice the concern of
allied forces to spare lives in their air raids-paradoxical as
this might seem. The so-called surgical war would have been
unthinkable a few decades ago.
We are living in extraordinary times that would have seemed
miraculous to our forebears. However, side by side with this,
human beings cannot dispel the threat of existential emptiness,
the absence of values, the evanescence of references. Paraphrasing Marshall Berman's book about the modem experience, "all
that is solid melts into air." In spite of all the revolutions we have
made, it seems we've reached the threshold of the twenty-first
century without having undergone a major transformation: understanding that the attainment of supreme happiness emanates from
within ourselves. What moves human beings closer to the divine
is not their ability to manipulate matter or control nature, but their
ability to love. Behind every great transformation undergone by
humankind, there is a story of faith, persistence, and detachment.
Heroic or simple feats spring forth from the detached search
for something one believes is essential. In this century, amidst
many horrors, we have also seen Gandhis, Mother Teresas, and

Mandelas affecting the destiny of millions and helping them
through painful passages in their search for dignity and a meaningful life. This is perhaps the last great challenge through which
humankind will find redemption from its sufferings in the next
century: detachment.
The now-global consumer society conjoins with the technological and communications revolution in a very perverse manner.
While notions of space and time disappear, local references, values, cultural traditions, and ethics appear to cede to the appeals
of a glamorized global consumer society. This is nothing new:
the consumer society is one of the landmarks of the twentieth
century. What is new is the scale on which this is happening.
The media try to lead us to believe that only news has valueand, at the same time, that any news is universal. The death of a
child becomes a global fact while violence is banalized, exaggerated ad nauseam by the media. What is the logic of this?
Sensationalism thrills people, vampirizes their energies, assures
that TV sets are kept on, quantified in ratings that translate simply
into greater visibility for advertisers. In the end, advertisers become accomplices to the exploitation of violence, even if their
first intention was to promise additional degrees of happiness to
spectators who consume their products.
A total change in mindset is called for. We must not mistake
the enormous material progress achieved by humankind in the
twentieth century on the material plane for attainments on the
moral, psychic, and spiritual planes. We must achieve an awareness capable of reflecting on the meaning of life, an awareness
that strives to sunder values from material security, prestige from
power, by seeking out those who may bring human beings into
contact with enduring philosophy-that which has existed and
guided human existence since time immemorial. Our education
must concern itself with this philosophy, with learning to think,
with the meaning oflife, with the interdependence of beings, with
the planet's systemic unity. We need to have citizens functioning
in the world who are aware of their limitations and fascinated by
the infinite possibilities of spaceship earth. We need to stimulate
a new solidarity that understands that a fairer distribution of the

planet's wealth and resources is not a charitable action, but a
necessity that imposes itself upon future generations. Financial
capital will sooner or later be seen as accumulation of wealth on
top of misery and, as such, something unsustainable that will lead
to ruin and waste on an unprecedented scale-as the successive
crises in Asia, Russia, Mexico, and Brazil have shown.
My intention in this article is not to proselytize but to highlight the fact that the "century of light" merely shows us a
fascinating course of possibilities: from deliverance from illness to longevity; from mobility throughout the planet to the
elimination of distances; from multicultural to intercultural;
from a connection between everyone to the integration of the
whole. However, these possibilities will be awesome or merely
ephemeral depending on how humankind evolves in bringing them
about. We must reflect deeply on the role of education and knowledge in building our tomorrow.
Citizens of the world are those who acknowledge as their
home any place on earth, who appreciate diversity by seeing in it
infinite manifestations of unity. Because they understand unity,
citizens of the world see the indissoluble role of synergic
relationships and of interdependence. Citizens of the world
perceive the relativity of the individual but know that only through
their own identity will they be able to contribute to a mosaic whose
richness is directly related to the multiplicity of manifestations.
The splendor of the stained glass in the main nave of Notre Dame
Cathedral is not in the evanescent colors of thousands of tiny fragments, nor in the indefiniteness of their shapes. It is the pattern
emanating from the thousands of pieces of glass that scintillate
when they refract sunlight that leads us to trances of unbelievable
beauty. The pattern of light and color emanating from Monet's
Water Lilies results from thousands of attempts, expressed in infinite brushstrokes, to reproduce the unique sensation produced by
light being reflected in the undulations of water in a small lake
in Giverny. The richness of unity is in direct proportion to the
richness of the multiples that compose it.

Thus, in the times to come, the more planetary the integration of the human species, the greater the need for cultural diversity,
for preserving traditions, for cultural identity.
When we reflect on education, we must consider two fundamental aspects : the speed with which information transforms
acquired knowledge, and the formation of an individual 's character. This means, in practice, teaching how to learn and stimulating
the development of critical and autonomous reasoning skills.
Domenico de Masi, the Italian sociologist, says the curriculum of
the school of the future will have only three disciplines: mathematics (logic), philosophy (perennial knowledge and cognitive
skills), and languages (cultural repertoire and the ability to understand and make oneself understood by others). Thus, while the
twenty-first century heralds stimulating perspectives, it will also
be a century during which humankind will have to reinvent itself
Reinventing oneself means gaining an in-depth understanding of
our interdependence and our planetary responsibility. Are we prepared for this? Are we intellectually up to this? Have we evolved
spiritually enough to attain an adequate awareness of what this
represents?
I believe that the next decades will be marked by a profound
revision of education and society. We know that, in spite of
numerous advances in technology, the future will not sustain
itself if it continues to be based on the unlimited expansion of the
consumer society, on the systematic dissolution of humanist
values, on the culture of individualism, and on the expansion of
extreme poverty and unemployment. It would be painfully ironic
if humankind, after struggling for centuries to free itself from
barbarism, were now to succumb to it. We will find a way outand we know it. However, this deliverance can be less or more
painful, according to our awareness of what must be done. It seems
to me that we must use progress in technology and communications to prepare ourselves for this tomorrow. The media, the
entertainment industry and the means of communication in
general should, instead of exploiting the darker side of our times
and the easy emotions and credulity of citizens, convey the
numerous silent and unseen ways by which millions of people

Tl-IE B AI-IA'f W ORLD

are transforming this planet, day after day, into a better place to
live.
Instead of trying to control violence through fear, we should
consider the causes of violence and demonstrate how to dismantle
all fonns of savagery in day-to-day actions. Are people who use
chugs, for instance, aware of the direct connection between addiction and organized violence? We must dispel the built-in fear in
sensationalism and nurture positive actions. We must stimulate
solidarity as a force of collective transformation. We must give
voice to the profound revolution now in progress, being carried
out by non-governmental organizations and by civil society. We
should stimulate voluntary work as a corollary to the increasing
idleness that technology creates through unemployment. We must
understand the deep changes in the very meaning of work at the
onset of the millennium.
We certainly have much to do, but nothing that we must do
is devoid of a greater meaning. Not for one instant should we
belittle the transforming role of education in forming the character of individuals. Nor should we ever scorn the incredible
resources that technology has now made available. The act of teaching is also that of learning. Thus, teachers must become the
new navigators of our age, disclosing the infinite possibilities of
this new world and transforming it in a laboratory of integrated
learning. Interdependence, unity, equality, life, justice, and other
concepts indispensable to forming the character of individuals must
pervade every nook and cranny where education occurs. And we
know that education is increasingly occurring everywhere, all the
time. Each and every experience has an educational aspect and
we are all summoned to become apprentices and teachers at the
same time. Are we prepared?
The future can be extraordinary. Humankind has not yet
awakened to the powers it has developed. Only now are we
beginning to perceive the extension of possibilities we have
created for our future. Will we be able to think as a unit that is
integrated with the planet and its ecosystem, elevating life to its
divine condition? The awakening of our consciousness depends
on this. We have never been so close to integrating everything in

WHO @ W RITI NG THE F UTURE ?

the whole- and, at the same time, never has everything seemed
so distant from the whole. Spirituality, planetary consciousness,
ethical values, an ordering vision, detachment, and loving care
are concepts of ultimate importance that will acquire an enhanced
sense of urgency in the next millennium.
Let us enter this fantastic age with open minds and peaceful
hearts. With our eyes focused on the world, let's get down to work,
because everything still remains to be done.

Update on
the Situation of the
BAHA'fS
INJRAN

ince the Islamic revolution in 1979, the approximately three
S hundred thousand members oflran's Baha'i community have
been the targets of judicial and extrajudicial executions and of
anti-Baha'i propaganda, propagated by both the government and
the clergy. They have endured severe restrictions on their work,
education, cultural and religious activities, and travel. More than
two hundred members of Iran's largest religious minority have
been killed simply for being Baha'is; thousands more have been
imprisoned and tortured. Baha'is are consistently denied pensions, visas, work permits, property rights, legal process, and the
prospect of education beyond high school. In the light oflast year's
attempted closure of the Baha'i Institute for Higher Education, 1
the authorities' execution of Mr. Ruhu'llah Rawhani, and the sentencing in February 2000 of three Baha'is to death, the situation
See The Baha'i World 1998- 99, pp. 15 1- 54 and 287- 93 for a complete report on the attack on the Baha' i Institute for Higher Education (BIHE) . Despite
the difficulties following the widespread confiscation of BIHE property and
the detention and harassment of its workers by the authorities in Iran, the BIHE
has resumed its activities for the new academic year.

of the Baha'is remains bleak, in spite of the much-praised ascendance
of certain "moderate" factions within the Iranian government.
The government's actions contrast sharply with the words of
President Khatami during a November 1999 press conference
in Paris, when he responded to a question about the Baha' is by
saying that no one should be persecuted because of his or her beliefs, and that he would defend the civil rights of all Iranians
regardless of their beliefs or religion.
Baha'is are regarded as "unprotected infidels" in Iran. The
Iranian constitution does not recognize the Baha'is as a religious
minority, and their rights can be ignored with impunity. Victims
have repeatedly been offered relief from persecution if they
recant their faith. The root policy of this sustained, carefully
calculated persecution has been given formal expression in a 1991
secret government document on "the Baha'i question," which was
acquired and published in 1993 by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. Written and approved by Iran's most senior
clerical and civil authorities, including the leader of the Islamic
Republic of Iran, Mr. Ali Khamenei, and adopted by Iran's Supreme Revolutionary Cultural Council, it directs not only that the
"progress and development" of the Baha'is within Iran's borders
"shall be blocked" but also that "a plan shall be formulated to
combat and destroy the cultural roots which this group has outside the country." In the face of such an explicitly discriminatory
policy, the worldwide Baha'i community continues to labor to keep
the case of its Iranian brothers and sisters in the consciousnessand conscience-of the governments and leaders of the world.
Recent changes in the situation
The most troubling recent development was the February 2000
reinstatement of death sentences on two Baha'is, Messrs. Sims
Dhabihi-Muqaddam and Hedayat Kashefi-Najafabadi, who had
previously had their sentences quashed twice by the Supreme
Court, and the sentencing to death of a third Baha'i, Mr. Manuchehr
Khulusi . Mr. Khulusi was arrested in the summer of 1999, and
Messrs. Dhabihi-Muqaddam and Kashefi-Najafabadi were arrested

BAJ-lA.'fS L I l<AN

in late 1997. All three were detained for their Baha'i activities
and given only twenty days to appeal their sentences. 2
The story of the reinstatement of the death sentences was
widely reported in the media, with several major news organs
around the world picking it up from the Associated Press newswire.
International condemnation came quickly. France and Canada
spoke out against the government's action, and in the United States
White House spokesman Joe Lockhart said on 11 February, "In
all three cases it is clear that the individuals were arrested, charged
and sentenced to death solely because of their religious beliefs.
Executing people for the practice of their religious faith is contrary to the most fundamental human rights principles." Lockhart
further stated that President Clinton was "deeply troubled" by the
sentences and "continues to hold the Iranian government responsible for the safety of the Baha' i community oflran."
At the same time that these death sentences were imposed, a
ten-year prison sentence was confirmed against Mr. Ata'u'llah
Hamid Nasirizadih, who was first arrested in 1997 for holding
"family life" meetings-the same charge brought against Messrs.
Dhabihi-Muqaddam and Kashefi-Najafabadi.
In other developments during this year, Baha'i students are
now able to attend the final, pre-university year of high school,
although they are still barred from attending university itself. Mr.
Farzad Khajeh, Dr. Sina Hakiman, and Mr. Habibullah Ferdosian,
who were arrested in the autumn of 1998 and sentenced on charges
connected with their participation in the activities of the Institute
for Higher Baha'i Studies, have been released. Nine other Baha' is
remain imprisoned, two of whom are on death row, making a total of five Baha'is under sentence of death.

The franian government, throu gh judici ary spokes man Mir-Mohammad
Sadeqi , gave a somewh at convo luted deni al of the death sentences, say ing,
" From the re li g ious and lega l point of v iew we beli eve that no one can be
punis hed mere ly for their beli ef, let alone be g ive n such a heavy sentence as
death ," but al so that the case in question " dates back to eight month s ago and
no new ruling has been iss ued in recent months and the ruling in thi s case is
not final. Thi s case has gon e through a long process. Death sentences were
issued but the Supreme Court rej ected th em and ordered a new hea rin g."

Actions by Governments and the United Nations
The international community is continually engaged in attempts
to persuade the Iranian government to respect its obligations as a
signatory to, among other human rights conventions, the International Bill of Human Rights. These demonstrations of international
concern have played a critical role in moderating the actions of
the Iranian authorities and providing a measure of security to the
Baha'i community.
A positive development related to the registration of marriages may reflect the success of international pressure on the
regime. In early 2000, registry offices throughout Iran were
informed that any couple appearing before registry officials to
acknowledge that they are husband and wife may be registered
without having to state their religious affiliation. Couples whose
unions have been validated in this way will now be able to legally
register their children.
Every year since 1980, the United Nations has expressed
its concern regarding Iran's treatment of its citizens. On 17 December 1999, sixty-one countries voted in favor of the United
Nations General Assembly resolution concerning the human rights
situation in the Islamic Republic oflran; forty-seven voted against
it, and fifty-one countries abstained. The resolution expresses the
General Assembly's "serious concern at the continuing violations
of human rights in the Islamic Republic oflran, as reported by the
Special Representative." The General Assembly also "remains
gravely concerned at the unabated pattern of persecution against
the Baha'is, including death sentences, arrests and the closure of
the Baha'i Institute for Higher Education."
A report submitted on 18 January 2000 by the Special Representative of the UN Commission on Human Rights devoted a
subsection and a separate appendix to the situation of Iran's
Baha'is, took note of the "prolonged imprisonment, confiscation
of holy places, and denial of the right to assemble" which the
community endures, and urged the government to "cease discrimination against Baha'is in all spheres of public life and
.
services. "

BAHA'fS IN IRAN

In its 10 April 2000 resolution, the UN Commission on
Human Rights expressed its concern at "the unabated pattern of
persecution against the Baha'is, including death sentences and arrests," and called upon the Iranian government to "implement fully
the conclusions and recommendations of the Special Rapporteur
on religious intolerance relating to the Baha'is and other minority
religious groups until they are completely emancipated."
The United States government has been forceful in its
defense of the Iranian Baha'is. The US secretary of state's Advisory Committee on Religious Freedom Abroad, in its annual report
for 1999, notes that "Although the [Iranian] Constitution states
that 'the investigation of individuals' beliefs is forbidden' and that
'no one may be molested or taken to task simply for holding a
certain belief,' the adherents of religions not specifically protected
under the Constitution do not enjoy freedom of activity. This situation most directly affects the 300,000 to 350,000 followers of
the Baha'i Faith in the country ... Historically at risk in the country, Bahi'is often have suffered increased levels of persecution
during times of political ferment. .. Broad restrictions on Bahi'is
appear to be geared to destroying them as a community." The Committee, composed of twenty prominent religious leaders and
academics, calls attention to problems of religious persecution
around the world and issues advice on how to address them. US
Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, in a landmark address to
the United Nations Commission on Human Rights on 23 March
2000, mentioned her government's "ongoing concern about religious discrimination in Iran against the Baha'i[s]."
A 26 August 1999 Voice of America editorial, broadcast in
Iran, called upon "Iran's rulers to respect the right to worship of
all the people of Iran, including Baha'is" and further stated that
the US government has "long protested" the "twenty years of
unrelenting persecution of Iranian Baha'is by the government of
Iran."
On 3 April 2000, thirty-eight members of the US Congress
and US senate wrote a letter to the chairman of the UN Commission on Human Rights expressing "deep concern over the

16 1
continuing denial of internationally recognized religious and civil
rights to religious minorities in Iran, including the Baha' i, Jewish, and Christian communities." Three paragraphs of the letter
dealt with the specific kinds of persecution enforced by the Iranian government against the country's Baha'i community, and the
letter concluded: "We ask that you share our concerns about the
repression ofreligious minorities in Iran with member delegations
to the Commission and urge the Commission to take the actions
necessary to promote the emancipation of the Baha'i community
in Iran, the release of Iranian Jews currently in prison and the
protection of Iranian Christians."
In the United Kingdom in August 1999, British parliamentarians formally established the "All Party Friends of the Baha'is"
group "in response to the continuing problems of persecution faced
by members of the Baha'i community in Iran and other states."
The first meeting of the group was held in December to decide on
its constitution and plan its official launch, which was held on 21
March. Thirty-nine parliamentarians have joined the group so
far. Membership is open to members of Parliament, peers, and
members of the European Parliament.
Types of persecution
The Baha'i Faith has no clergy. Throughout the world, its community organization and governance revolve around democratically
elected administrative councils. Since 1983, when the Iranian government outlawed these bodies, the Baha'i community in that
country has been denied the right to organize and function as a
viable religious community. While its members have developed
makeshift arrangements to worship in small groups, to conduct
classes for children, and to take care of other community needs,
authorities disrupt meetings and sometimes arrest teachers of the
children's or "family life" classes.
Numerous other restrictions have also been imposed. Baha'is
are consistently denied inheritance rights on the basis of their faith.
Many Baha'is have been summoned to security offices on various
specious pretexts, only to be insulted and belittled in the hope of
creating fear in their families and inducing them to recant their

B AHA'fS IN IRAN

faith. Travel outside and even inside Iran is often impeded or denied by authorities. Iranian Baha'is outside Iran often face similar
treatment at Iranian embassies when attempting to renew their passports or secure visas, except in countries where applicants are not
required to state religious affiliation on their forms.
The practice of arresting Baha'is on the basis that they do
not have work permits is another example of the ways in which
selective discriminatory treatment adversely affects the Iranian
Baha'i community. Requests by Baha'is for work permits are
almost always denied. While the law states that anyone who works
or is self-employed must have a work permit, it is rarely enforced
owing to the high unemployment rate.
Since the early years of the Islamic Revolution, Baha'i youth
have been barred from the regular institutions of higher learning.
Prior to the revolution, Baha'is had been among the best educated groups in Iran, and the erosion of the educational level of
the community, as outlined in the secret document on "the Baha' i
question," is obviously designed to lead to both its intellectual
and material impoverishment.
Properties held by the Baha'i community, including cemeteries, holy places, historical sites, administrative centers, and other
assets, were seized by the authorities shortly after the 1979
revolution and, to date, none has been returned. In fact, many have
been destroyed. Particularly distressing has been the seizure of
Baha'i cemeteries throughout the country. In 1993, for example,
some fifteen thousand graves were desecrated when the Baha'i
cemetery in Tehran was confiscated to make way for a municipal
cultural center. Baha' is have been reduced to using areas of wasteland for the burial of their dead and are not permitted to identify
gravesites.
Conclusion
For twenty-one years Iran's Baha'i community has suffered
repression under the Islamic revolutionary government. While official executions have abated under the glare of the international
spotlight, the government's recent actions demonstrate that Baha'is
are still being sentenced to death purely for their beliefs, that the

THE B AI-L' 'f W ORLD

arbitrary arrest and imprisonment of Baha'is is sanctioned, that
their property may be seized with impunity, and their civil rights
likewise disregarded. It is not the actions of the Baha'is but the
circumstances of Iranian history that have conspired to make the
"Baha'i case" a litmus test of sincerity for Iranian public figures
who represent themselves as voices of reform and progress.

EssAYS,
STATEMENTS,
PROFILES
Amatu 'l-Baha Rilhiyyih Khanum
(nee Mmy Maxwell)
1910- 2000
Violette NalsfJJavani shares a personal
portrait of the life ofHand of the Cause of
God Amatu 'l-Baha Ruhiyyih Khanum.

A Tribute to
AMATU'L-BAHA
RUHfYYIH
. KHANuM

M ary Sutherland Maxwell was born on 8 August 1910 in the
Hahnemann Hospital, later known as the Fifth Avenue Hospital, in New York City. She was the only child of May Bolles,
one of the foremost disciples of 'Abdu'l-Baha, and Sutherland
Maxwell, a distinguished Canadian architect, whose home in
Montreal had long been known as a place of culture and spiritual
vitality. When Mary was just seven months old, in March 1911,
'Abdu'l-Baha wrote a Tablet to her mother, saying, "In the garden
of existence a rose hath bloomed with the utmost freshness, fragrance and beauty. Educate her according to the divine teachings
so that she may grow up to be a real Baha'i and strive with all thy
heart, that she may receive the Holy Spirit." May took these injunctions to heart, striving to educate her precious, God-given
daughter according to the divine teachings.
She had a full, free, and happy childhood. Her only sorrows
at this time, which she would speak of until late in life, were the
periods of separation from her beloved mother. May Maxwell was
a devoted and dedicated servant of the Cause, a member of many

THE BAHA'f WORLD

Baha'i administrative bodies,
as well as one of the star teachers of the Faith. She suffered
greatly from the extreme cold of
Montreal and her ill health would
often keep her away from her
home for two or more months at
a time. She would go to New York
or Wilmette to attend meetings,
would become ill, and then could
not return home for several
weeks.
The physical attachment
and spiritual kinship that con-
May Maxwell and her
nected mother and daughter was
daughter Mary in Ram/eh,
Egypt, in 1923.
singular and strong. Ru}:iiyyih
Khanum often said, "If Baha'is
believed in such things as 'soul mates,' my mother and I would be
like that." Her mother's words in a letter to her underline this deep
bond between them: " ... however often I have been compelled to
leave you since you were a little child, for the sake of this great
Cause in which we are united, and however lonely you may have
often been, you never suffered alone, because I was always with
you, I felt for you more deeply than you can ever realize, and it is
out of the pangs of this mighty motherlove that my spiritual motherhood to you has been born."
'Abdu'l-Baha visited the Maxwell home for three days during the fall of 1912, when Mary was two years old. His words
upon arrival on the night of 30 August were recorded by May
Maxwell: "You are mine- your husband and child. This is my
home." There is an especially touching story about this visit, told
by 'Abdu'l-Baha Himself to His companions and recorded in the
memoirs of A. A. Nakbjavani. 'Abdu'l-Baha told them, "Today I
was resting on the chaise longue in my bedroom and the door
opened. The little girl came in to me and pushed my eyelids up
with her small finger and said, 'Wake up, 'Abdu'l-Baha!' I took

A MATU' L-BAI-IA RU I~IfYYIH KI-lANUM

her in my arms and placed her head on my chest and we both had
a good sleep." When Rul}iyyih Khanum repeated this story in later
years she used to say that once when her mother complained to
'Abdu ' l-Baha that she was naughty, the Master had said, "Leave
her alone. She is the essence of sweetness."
The traditional educational methods of the time tended to be
rigid and authoritarian, and May was concerned to provide her
daughter with the freedom which 'Abdu'l-Baha had prescribed.
For Mary's early training, May established the first Montessori
school in Canada in the Maxwell home. Mary also had a year of
schooling in Montreal, a few months in Chevy Chase Country
Day School in Maryland, another year in Weston High School
in Montreal, and was tutored at home by governesses and private teachers. Later she became a part-time student at McGill
University.
Despite these inconsistencies of education she was to become
a well-read and knowledgeable person, with a consuming interest
in a variety of subjects. Her thirst for acquiring knowledge was
insatiable, and throughout her life she clipped articles from the
daily papers which caught her attention because they reflected
Baba 'i themes or subjects of particular interest to her. And however arbitrary and independent her formal intellectual education
may have been, there are clear indications that her spiritual training was pursued with rigor and unrelenting discipline. It was a
training whose hallmark was love and whose main characteristic
was obedience to the Covenant.
As the years of 'Abdu'l-Baha's ministry were drawing to a
close with World War I, and as a precursor to His Will and Testament, He sent the Tablets of the Divine Plan to the Baha'is of the
West. Nine young girls were chosen to draw aside the curtains
covering the original handwritten Tablets of' Abdu'l-Baha. Mary
Maxwell and her best childhood friend, Elizabeth Coristine of
Montreal, were privileged to unveil the first and second of these
Tablets for Canada in a tableau vivant at the Hotel McAlpin in
New York on 29 April 1919. It was shortly before Mary's ninth
birthday and the end of the Heroic Age of the Faith ofBaha'u'llah.

The passing of ' Abdu'l-Baha, in November 1921 , devastated
the whole Baha'i community. May Maxwell was so shattered and
shaken in body and soul that she might have become a permanent
invalid had not Mr. Maxwell convinced her to visit the Shrines in
the Holy Land and meet the Guardian face to face. It was decided
that Mary should accompany her, and they set sail from New York
for the Holy Land on 29 April 1923. This first pilgrimage left an
indelible impression on twelve-year-old Mary, and in later years
she recalled, in a personal letter, how she was touched by "the
spirit of service" she discovered in Haifa, saying "a Queen or a
beggar woman would be met with the same loving sweetness. Indeed it was this divine normality that really confirmed me here as
a little girl of twelve years."
This was the first time she met the Guardian, and she often
described the meeting with a sweet pleasure in the remembrance.
She and her mother were installed in the Old Western Pilgrim
House at the end of Persian Street and May, who had not been
able to walk for over a year, was resting in bed. Since her mother 's
nights were frequently sleepless and her nerves delicate, Mary had
learned from an early age to protect her from intrusion. She was
in the hallway of the Pilgrim House when the door suddenly opened
and a young man stepped in, with a swift, deft movement, and
asked if he could see Mrs. Maxwell. Mary was a tall girl for her
age, fully grown and physically well-developed. She said she
pulled herself up to her full height and, looking him squarely in
the eyes with considerable dignity and aplomb, asked to know
who it was who wished to see Mrs. Maxwell. The young gentleman meekly replied, "I am Shoghi Effendi." Upon which she
turned tail and fled into her mother 's room in mortified embarrassment. Hiding her head, as she used to say "like a puppy,"
beneath her mother 's pillows, she could only point to the door
and gasp, "He- he- is there! " when her mother asked her what
the matter was. And when May Maxwell found out who it was
behind the door, she said, "Pull yourself together, Mary, and go
and invite him in."

AMATU' L-BAI-IA R UHIYYII-I KI-IANUM

When May returned to North America almost a year later,
she was filled with joy and restored to health, redoubling her
efforts in the teaching work and educating the friends in the Baha'i
administration, in which Shoghi Effendi had carefully instructed
her.
Two years later, Mary made a second pilgrimage, in the company of two of her mother's friends. Back in Canada afterwards,
she threw herself eagerly into all kinds of youth activities, both
within the Baha'i administration and elsewhere. Shortly before
she was sixteen, she became a member of the executive committee of the Fellowship of Canadian Youth for Peace, serving as its
treasurer. From then on she was continuously involved in membership on committees and in her efforts to promote the cause of
racial amity. Soon after she turned twenty-one, she was elected to
the Local Spiritual Assembly of Montreal.
Her training in oratory and public speaking began when she
was almost sixteen. Increasingly, she began to accompany her
mother on teaching trips, during which she had occasion not only
to observe her mother's manner of giving Baha'i talks but also to
learn how to lecture herself, in the Baha'i spirit. Just before her
nineteenth birthday, she spoke at the national Baha'i convention
in a manner that touched many people's hearts and minds. Soon
after, Mary received her first letter from the beloved Guardian,
dated 29 May 1929 and written in his own hand: "I am much
pleased to learn of your growing activities in the Cause & I will
supplicate from the depths of my heart in your behalf at the holy
Shrines that the Beloved may graciously guide you & assist you
to render inestimable services to His Cause in the days to come."
At the age of twenty, she delivered a lecture at the Friends'
Meeting House in New York City on "Mysticism in the Baha'i
Religion." The other speakers at this congress were all seasoned
lecturers and famous orators, including Syud Hossain, the editor
of The New Orient, who was billed as an "incomparable lecturer
on the Orient, world peace and international relations." After her
lecture she received a standing ovation, and on that same day
was given the following cable: "HEARTY CONGRATULATIONS ON YOUR

BEAUTIF UL CONSC IENTJOUS AND ABLE PRESENTAT ION OF A GREAT AND
DIFFICULT THEME I AM HAPPY AND PROUD OF YOU-SYUD HOSSAIN."
In addition to lecturing, she wrote books and plays and poetry, developing that diversity and range of skills that would serve
to make of her a perfect instrument of service in the hands of her
beloved Guardian, who noted her progress with keen interest. Her
highest hope was to one day become an author. Her study of the
translation of Nabil's Narrative, The Dawn-Breakers, which was
encouraged by Shoghi Effendi, resulted in the article entitled "The
Re-florescence of Historical Romance in Nabil," later published
in The Bahri 'i World, Volume V (1932-3 4). The ardent, youthful
enthusiasm that it reveals must have informed the lectures she gave
on the Heroic Age of the Cause in Montreal, Green Acre, Louhelen,
and Esslingen in Germany.
Shoghi Effendi closely followed the development and spiritual training of this remarkable young woman, writing to May
Maxwell:

I feel that she should, while pursuing her sh1dies, devote
her energies to an intensive study of, & vigorous service to,
the Cause, of which I hope & trust she will grow to become a
brilliant and universally honoured exponent. I am sure, far from
feeling disappointed or hu1i at my suggestion, she will redouble
in her activities & efforts to approach & attain the high standard destined for her by the beloved Master. Your plan of
travelling with ber throughout Canada in the service of the
Cause is a sp lendid one & highly opportune. Kindly assure
her & her dear father of my best wishes & prayers for their
happiness welfare & success.
Your true & affectionate brother,
Shoghi

In May 1933, Mary spent several weeks in Washington, DC,
teaching the Faith and concentrating her efforts on finding ways
to draw the two opposing races together, for the cause of racial
unity was close to her heart and the rights and responsibilities of
both races was a subject that touched her keenly throughout her
life. She also attended official functions with her father in Montreal
during her early twenties, meeting the governor-general of Canada

AMATU'L-BAHA RUHJYYIH KHA.NUM

at events such as the Royal Canadian Academy's Fifty-fourth
Exhibition. This balance between her obligations to the Baha'i
community in particular and society at large served her well in
later years. She always had the ability to mingle with officialdom
and humble folk with equal ease; her support oflocal Baha'i teaching work as well as social issues at the international level was
equally enthusiastic throughout her life.
She very much wanted to learn Spanish, but when, in 1935,
civil war threatened her plans to go to Spain, she was induced to
accompany her cousins Jeanne and Randolph Bolles to Germany,
where she taught and helped the Baha'is for the next year and a
half, while May spent most of her time in France and Belgium.
May became enamored of Germany and learned the language with
fluency.
At the end of their extended stay in Europe, she and her
mother received a warm invitation to come to the Holy Land.
In a letter addressed to May Maxwell in late January 1936 the
Guardian's secretary wrote: "The Guardian is very much encouraged & gratified to learn of the progress & success of your dear
daughter's activities in the teaching field. He wishes you to congratulate her most heartily upon the success that has attended her
work in Munich ... " and a week later, a letter was written to Mary
herself on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, stating:

Before your coming to Haifa Shoghi Effendi would advise
you to visit the centers in Germany and if possible to extend
your trip to Austria and the Balkans where we have now a
chain of active and prosperous communities that link the Western with the Eastern part of Europe. He would even suggest
that you follow that route when you come to Haifa, as this
would be of great interest to you , and of invaluable encouragement to the friends in these new and somewhat isolated
centers .

Shoghi Effendi added, in his postscript:

Dear and valued co-worker:
I wish to assure you in person of a hearty welcome to visit
the Ho ly Land and lay your head on the sacred Threshold after

having rendered valuable services in th e Faith in both America
and Europe. For those you have asked me to pray, in your
letters, I will supplicate the blessings of Baha'u ' llah. Rest assured.
Your true brother,
Shoghi

Mary Maxwell fulfilled the Guardian's injunctions, travelling to every community in Germany and meeting every isolated
believer, group, or Assembly. By the time she had accomplished
this task, a year had passed and the rumblings of war were upon
them. It was impossible now to travel through the Balkans or Austria, and she and her mother were urged by Shoghi Effendi to come
to the Holy Land directly.
It was during this pilgrimage, which began on 12 January
1937, that Shoghi Effendi told May Maxwell that her daughter
now had the spiritual foundation on which she could be "moulded
and disciplined," stating:

She has clear perception and sound judgement and is very just.
Her judgements and attitudes are correct- sound- as I told
her in regard to her attitude toward the government in
Germany. You must be very happy- hopeful and assured. Remember all I have written you and Mary about her future- it
will al l be fulfilled- and attained. She has many years before
her. You will be very happy- very proud of her- so will her
Father.

And it was during this pilgrimage that another chapter opened
in the life of Mary Maxwell, when the mother of Shoghi Effendi
told May Maxwell of Shoghi Effendi's offer of marriage to her
daughter.
The wedding took place on 24 March 1937, in Haifa, and it
was on this occasion that the beloved Guardian gave her the name
Ru}:iiyyih Khanum. In The Priceless Pearl, she described her wedding day, when she went with Shoghi Effendi to Bahji, saying, "I
remember I was dressed, except for a white lace blouse, entirely
in black for this unique occasion, and was a typical example of
the way oriental women dressed to go out into the streets in those

A MATU'L-B AI-IA R Dl:;!IYYII-1 KI-JANUM

days, the custom being to wear black." The ring, which was a
simple Baha'i ring in the shape of a heart, had been given to her
the day Shoghi Effendi proposed. He had asked her then to wear
it on a chain around her neck, and on the day of their marriage, in
the Shrine of Baha'u'llah, he took it from her and put it on her
finger himself. It was a ring that had been given to Shoghi Effendi
by the Greatest Holy Leaf, and Ru}fiyyih Khanum later had one
made exactly like it for the beloved Guardian. They were both
buried with their rings on their fingers. After the recital of the
marriage vow in the room of the Greatest Holy Leaf, the mother
of Shoghi Effendi placed RU}fiyyih Khanum's hand in the hand of
her son, according to the old Persian tradition of dast be dast.
News of the marriage electrified the Baha'i world, both in
the East and the West. Cables composed by the Guardian and
signed by his mother were sent to the National Spiritual Assembly of Iran and the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States
and Canada. The one to the West, dated 27 March 1937, read as
follows:

ANNOUNCE ASSEMB LI ES CE L EB RAT ION MARRIAGE BELOVED GUARD IAN
STO P INES T IMABLE HO NOU R CONFE RR ED UPON HANDMA ID OF
BA ll /\'U' LLA H RUl-l l YY IH Kl-IANU M M ISS MARY MAXW ELL STOP UN ION
OF EAS T AN D WEST PR OC L A IMED BY BAHA' I FAIT !! CEMENTED .
[signed] Z IA IYYI H, MOTH ER OF Tll E GUARDI AN

For RU}fiyyih Khanum the period of adjustment that followed
her marriage was a training time that could not have been easy.
She was parted from her beloved parents, living a great distance
from her familiar life in Montreal, and plunged into an oriental
household together with all her in-laws under one roof. This must
have been difficult for a young woman raised with a degree of
freedom that was unusual even in the West at that time. Another
difficulty was the language. Although the members of 'Abdu'l-
Baha's family all spoke English, they communicated with each
other in Persian. It was only natural, when comments were passed
and jokes were shared which she did not understand, that she would
have felt left out. Were it not for Shoghi Effendi, RU}fiyyih Khanum
may well have been bereft.

But there were greater tests than mere loneliness and far
greater trials than cultural isolation. In those early years of her
marriage, the Guardian's family fell away from faithfulness one
by one, until she was alone in that house at the side of her beloved. "Shoghi Effendi held me tight under his protective arms,"
she used to say, and she, in tum, became his shield and his sole
support. It was also during this turbulent period that Shoghi Effendi
pulled her up short one day and, gesturing to her hand, said, "Your
destiny is in the palm of your own hand." This was a great shock
to her and made her realize that she was not immune to her own
tests of faith. "When Shoghi Effendi married me," she used to
say, "I felt safe and snug and thought I had nothing more to worry
about, my destiny was in his hand. But when he said that, there it
was, back in my own hand." She would always make us laugh
when she finished this very serious tale .
Her firmness in the Covenant, a manifestation of her deep
faith, was her greatest protection in those early years of marriage.
Perhaps the outpouring of her heart years later, in her poem "This
is Faith," written on 4 April 1954, best exemplifies the depth of
her understanding of this subject.

This is Faith
To walk where there is no path
To breathe where there is no air
To see where there is no li ght-
This is Faith.
To cry out in the silence,
The silence of the night,
And hearing no echo believe
And believe again and again-
Th is is Faith .
To hold pebbles and see jewels
To raise sticks and see forests
To smile with weep ing eyes-
This is Faith.
To say: "God, I believe" when others deny,
"I hear" when there is no answer,

A 1"1ATU 'L-B AHA R UijfYYIH KHANU/vl

"I see" though naught is seen-
This is Faith .
And the fierce love in the heart,
The savage love that cries
Hidden Thou aii yet there!
Veil Thy face and mute Thy tongue
Yet I see and hear Thee, Love,
Beat me down to the bare earth,
Yet I rise and love Thee, Love!
This is Faith.

Of her devotion to the Faith, the beloved Guardian had asserted to
her mother: "She is imbued with the Baha'i spirit, not confused
or mixed with other matters---or subjects extraneous to the Cause .. .
She is wholly devoted to the Faith-extremely attached."
A year after her marriage, Rul;iiyyih Khanum wrote to her
mother, "If anyone asked me what my theme was in life I should
say, 'Shoghi Effendi."' It is clear from this that she had thrown
herself with heart and soul into her destiny, and her task required
a rigorous discipline. Under Shoghi Effendi's strict tutelage she
applied herself to conscientious study. Although she was an
autodidact by nature and preferred to teach herself rather than receive instruction-a habit she applied to many subjects in later
life-he was, in effect, her principal teacher.
The reciprocity between Rul;iiyyih Khanum and her parents
was preserved despite the difficulties of distance and separation.
She believed that service to the Cause performed by any one of
them was a shared blessing for them all and of direct consequence
to each, a theme echoed by May Maxwell in December 1939, when
she wrote, "It is not only thru my passionate love for this great
Baha'i Faith, but thru my love for her, and yearning to be more
worthy of her, that I have considered going to South America to
teach." And so it was that May Maxwell, seventy years old, with
a weak heart and in very poor health, decided to make her supreme sacrifice. She arrived in Buenos Aires at the end of February,
accompanied by her young niece, Jeanne Bolles, and the next day,
on 1 March 1940, she died of a massive heart attack.

This was a terrible shock to Rul).iyyih Khanum. She received
the devastating news from the Guardian, who told her, "Now I
will be your mother," and comforted her with infinite compassion
and patience. To Sutherland Maxwell, he cabled:

GRIEV ED PROFOUNDLY YET COM FORTED AB IDI NG REA LI ZATION BEF IT-
TI NG ON E SO NOBLE SUCH VALIANT EXEMPLARY SERV ICE CAUSE
BAH A'U' LLAH STOP RUl-llYYIH THOUGH ACUTELY CONS CIOUS IRREPA-
RABLE LOSS REJO ICES REVE RENTLY GRATEFUL IMMORTAL CROW N
DESE RV EDLY WON HER ILLUSTRIOUS MOTHER STOP ADV ISE INTERME NT
BUENOS A IRES STOP HER TOMB DESIGN ED BY YOURSELF ERECTED BY
ME SPOT SHE FOUGHT FELL GLOR IOUSLY WILL BECOME HISTORI C
CENTRE PIONEERS BAHA '1 ACTIVITY STO P MOST WELCOME AR RANGE
AFFAIRS RESID E HA IFA STOP BE ASSURED DEEPEST LOV ING SYMPATHY.

On 4 March, Rul).iyyih Khanum cabled the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States and Canada,
saying: HUMBLY GRATEFUL BELOVED MOTHER ANSWERED GUARD IAN'S
CALL TURNED SOUTHWARD SACRJF ICED LlFE HOLY FAITH . BEG PRAYERS

DAUGHTER MAY FOLLOW HER FOOTSTEPS.

Mr. Maxwell joined the Guardian and Rul).iyyih Khanum in
Rome in the summer of 1940, but their return to Palestine was
prevented by the war. They did, however, manage to reach France
and cross over to England on the last boat before the German army
closed the borders. Eventually they were able to sail to South
Africa and then travel north to the Holy Land via Egypt.
The war years were filled with activity and great achievements at the World Centre. During this period Shoghi Effendi
commissioned Sutherland Maxwell to make the drawings for the
superstructure of the Shrine of the Bab, and their love and collaboration was the greatest source of joy to Rul).iyyih Khanum.
She used to say, "I really learned to know and appreciate my
father through Shoghi Effendi." Also during this time, Rul).iyyih
Khan um assisted the beloved Guardian in the proofreading of his
masterpiece, God Passes By.
One of the most outstanding services performed by Rul).iyyih
Khanum during her twenty years at the side of the Guardian was
her role as his secretary, a task she undertook almost immediately

AMATU'L-BAJ-I.A RDBfYYII-TKEANUM

after her marriage. From 1941, when she became Shoghi Effendi's
principal secretary in English, until 1957, she wrote thousands of
letters on his behalf. She frequently described how Shoghi Effendi
trained her to be a good secretary. In the early years, he would
write down the points he wanted her to incorporate in pencil at
the bottom of the letter he had received, but later on, when he saw
how well she wrote, he would just tell her what to answer verbally. However, she always stressed the fact that he read every
single letter she wrote for him before appending his own postscript. In later years, she wrote not only his personal letters
but also his official correspondence with Spiritual Assemblies.
RuJ:iiyyih Khanum told us that Shoghi Effendi encouraged
her to write, and once, as she was copying her own favorite poems in a book, he asked to see them for himself. The next day he
gave her book back saying, "I read them all. They are beautiful,
they made me cry." At Shoghi Effendi's suggestion she wrote an
article on the interment of the remains of the Purest Branch and
his mother, Navvab, on Mt. Carmel next to the resting-place of
the Greatest Holy Leaf, which was published in volume VIII of
The Baha'i World. His encouragement was also the main reason
she wrote the book Prescription For Living. She often said she
felt so sad for the young men who returned, confused and disillusioned, from World War II to a changed and unfamiliar world, she
wanted to give them some light, some direction, and a way to see
hope for the future.
In The Priceless Pearl RuJ:iiyyih Khanum refers to the war
in the Holy Land prior to the formation of the State of Israel, as
gunfire echoed between sea and mountain, while she remained
calm in the heart of the storm with Shoghi Effendi as her example.
After the formation of the State in 1948, the situation changed
and RuJ:iiyyih Khanum enjoyed a degree of freedom that had not
been possible for her before. Her social life became more varied
and lively, and she gave wonderful dinner parties and soin~es for
the dignitaries of Haifa.
During the 1940s her father became severely ill, and in 1950
it was decided that Mr. Maxwell should go to Canada with his

Swiss nurse until the situation improved in Israel. When they parted
at the end of that summer, it was the last time Rul).iyyih Khanum
saw her dear father. He died two years later in Montreal.
When the first International Baha'i Council was formed in
1951, Rlli~iyyih K.hanum was a member and its chosen liaison with
the Guardian. In 1952, after the passing of Sutherland Maxwell,
Shoghi Effendi sent a cable dated 26 March to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States announcing that "MANTLE HAND
CAUSE NOW FALLS SHOULDERS HIS DISTINGUISHED DAUGHTER AMATU'L
SAHA RUHIYYlH WHO ALREADY RENDERED ST ILL RENDER ING MAN IFOLD
NO LESS MERITORIOUS SELF SACRJFIC ING SERVICES WORLD CENTRE FAITH
BAHA'u'LLAH." The following year, the Maxwell home in Montreal
was declared a Shrine, marking not only the great gift bestowed
by 'Abdu'l-Baha on the Canadian Baha'i community but also the
unique services of William Sutherland, May, and Mary Maxwell.
On 15 December 1952, the beloved Guardian announced that
five intercontinental conferences would be held during the course
of the Holy Year, 1953, and designated Rul).iyyih K.hanum as his
representative at the one in Wilmette. She was, in his words, to

DELIVER MY OFFICIA L MESSAGE ASSEMB LED BELIEV ERS ELUCIDATE
CHARA CTER PURPOSES IMPEND ING DECADE LONG SPIR ITUAL WORLD
CRUS ADE RALLY PA RTI CIPANTS ENERGET IC SUSTAINED EN Tl-I US IASTI C
PROSECUTION COLOSSAL TASKS AHEA D.

She was also delegated by him to dedicate the Temple in North
America on his behalf and

UNVEIL OCCAS ION COM PLETION CONSTRUCTION MOTHER TEMPLE WEST
PRIVILEGED ATTENDANTS WILMETTE CONFERENCE MOST PRI ZED REMEM-
BRANCE AUTHOR FA ITl-1 NEVER BEFORE LEFT SHORES I IOLY LAND TO BE
PLACED BENEATH DOME CONSECRATED ED IFICE STOP MOREOVER AS -
SIGN ING HER TASK ACT MY DEPUTY HISTORI C CEREMONY MARK ING
OFF ICIAL DEDICATION HOLIEST MASHRIQUL-ADHKAR BAHA'I WORLD
REARED EVERLASTI G GLORY HONOUR MOST GREAT NAME HEART NORTH
AME RI CAN CONTINENT [signed] SHOGHI

A MATU'L-BAJ-jj R LlijfYYIH KHANUM

She had left North America eighteen years before,
when she was a young Baha'i
and was known as the daughter of May Maxwell. Now
she was returning as Amatu'l-
Baha Rul;.iyyih Khanum, the
consort of the beloved Guardian and a Hand of the Cause
of God. In Wilmette, she rose
to speak like the queen she
was, her delicate, gauzy mantilla framing her lovely young
face , and even from the
photographs it is easy to see
Amatu '/-Baha Ru~iiyyih Kluinum
how she would have made representing the Guardian at the Allan unforgettable impression America Intercontinental Co nfe rence in
on the Baha'is, as well as on Wilmette, Illinois, in 1953.
the non-Baha'i seekers and
distinguished speakers. After attending the 1953 forty-fifth annual
convention, the Baha'i dedication of the Temple in Wilmette, and
the public dedication the next day, she attended the All-America
Intercontinental Conference from 3 to 6 May.
Then, accompanied by Amelia Collins, a Hand of the Cause
and vice-president of the International Baha'i Council, Rul:iiyyih
Khanum went to Montreal to visit her father's resting-place. A
memorial gathering was held at the graveside on 10 May and that
evening she spoke at a public meeting at the Ritz-Carlton Hotel.
While in Montreal, she also sorted out her parents ' belongings
and, with Shoghi Effendi's consent, shipped her personal furni -
ture to the Master's House in Haifa, where she created an exquisite
library, which she used for special dinner parties, and a beautiful
drawing room. In an act that pleased the Guardian immensely, she
gave her Montreal home to the Faith, and it is now registered in
the name of the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada.

In 1952, when some degree of safety and order was restored
to Israel, Shoghi Effendi reopened the opportunity for pilgrimage.
Small groups of pilgrims, from both the East and the West, began
to arrive. To welcome them, cater to their needs, and respond to
their concerns was a task that consumed not only many hours of
the Guardian's time but those ofRul).iyyih Khanum, who planned
and prepared the pilgrims' meals in the face of great shortages of
all kinds of essential foods in the postwar years.
In 1957, the beloved Guardian and Rul).iyyih Khanum left
Israel together for their summer vacation for the last time. The
Guardian was very tired. As usual, he maintained all his correspondence and carried with him all his notes for his map of the
Ten Year Crusade, which was approaching its midway point.
In August that year he thrilled the Baha'is of the world with a
twofold message. The first part was the announcement of five intercontinental conferences to celebrate this midway point of the
Crusade, and the second was his appointment of eight more Hands
of the Cause in different continents. Everyone was filled with anticipation. Everyone looked forward to jubilation and celebration
ahead. We in Uganda were thrilled beyond belief, for we had
learned with awe and excitement that our precious Amatu'l-Baha
Rul).iyyih Khanum had been designated by the beloved Guardian
to represent him at the African conference in Kampala. She was
going to come to us!
And then, on 4 November, the cataclysmic news of Shoghi
Effendi's passing rocked the Baha'i world. He had died in London, we heard in disbelief. The community that had for thirty-six
years looked to him for guidance, for encouragement, for leadership and, above all, for his encompassing love, was bereft. There
was no one to tum to but Amatu'l-Baha, although she was the
most forlorn of all at that time. It was up to her to take the next
step to ascertain what should be done.
During their last summer in London, Shoghi Effendi had on
one occasion told her, "I don't want to go back to Haifa, you go
alone, you know what to do." At the time she had attributed this
statement to his extreme tiredness and despondency, as he was ill

_AMAT U'L-BAHA RD I~IIYYII-1 KI-ll\i\JU M

with severe influenza. But later when she remembered his words,
it gave her courage and self-assurance. The fulfilment of all the
Guardian's hopes and aspirations for the Ten Year Crusade became of uppermost importance to her. His good pleasure became
the goal and object of her existence. From that moment to the end
of her life her priorities never wavered.
In the face of her own immeasurable personal loss, it is
remarkable to consider with what self-abnegation her heart turned
to her fellow believers at that critical time of trial. All around her,
friends were prostrate with grief, helpless with sorrow, leaving
her to rise alone to the painful tasks in front of her, for the sake of
her beloved Shoghi Effendi. She had to infonn the Hands of the
Cause and the Baha'i world of this tragic event in a manner that
might lessen as much as possible the shock waves it was bound to
cause. She had to tell the heartbroken believers to come to his
funeral and bid their Guardian a last farewell. She went around
London looking for a befitting burial ground and found it. She
searched for a shroud and chose the casket and bought it. She saw
to every detail in the sad days that followed. And the day after the
funeral, when she was driving away from the graveside, she saw
in her mind's eye a vision of a column, an eagle, and a globe, and
she conceived the monument above his grave. She remembered
how fond Shoghi Effendi had been of beautiful columns, and how
he had said it was a pity that in his gardens there was no place for
a single column. With this thought in mind, she designed the graceful column rising over his grave and placed the globe on it,
surmounted by the symbol of his victories: the majestic eagle, with
its wings open.
On 15 November Rul:iiyyih Khanum arrived in Haifa, and
three days later the first conclave of the Hands of the Cause
began in Bahji. They searched for the will of Shoghi Effendi but
did not find it, and so the Hands of the Cause informed the community that they must tum to the explicit directives in The Dispensation of Baha 'u 'llah to complete the goals of the Ten Year
Crusade and to arrange for the election of the Universal House of
Justice at the end of that period.

The Hands of the Cause were strong individuals from both
the East and the West whose primary aim was to direct and hold
together the affairs of the Cause of God. Amatu'l-Baha played a
vital role in their early conclaves, serving as a bridge between
cultures and languages- a Westerner imbued with Eastern understanding, whose horizons had been widened and stretched by
Shoghi Effendi. Her deep sense of fairness and her ability to see
clearly both sides of an argument facilitated the narrowing and
negotiating of the gaps between the different Hands.
During that first year after Shoghi Effendi's passing, Rlli;iyyih
Khanum spent most of her time in Bahji and slept in the Mansion.
Apart from carrying out all her heavy administrative duties, she
threw herself into physical work, cleaning the Shrine and working in the gardens. She could not bear the emptiness and the
loneliness of her apartment in Haifa. The next five or six years
were perhaps the saddest and hardest in her entire life. But she
demonstrated her own commitment to service when she accepted
to attend the first of the series of the Intercontinental Baha'i Conferences called by the beloved Guardian to mark and celebrate the
midway point of the Ten Year Crusade. Initially, her grief was so
intense that she did not want to go, but her fellow Hands convinced her that since it had been the wish of Shoghi Effendi, she
must do so.
Although Rlli;iyyih Khanum was in mourning and wore black
for one year after Shoghi Effendi's passing, she altered this custom for the duration of her trip to Africa. She told me afterwards
that all her clothes for that conference had been seen and approved
by the Guardian the previous summer, and this was one of the
reasons why she did not come to Kampala in mourning clothes.
She also wanted to create a sense of jubilation during this conference, the way Shoghi Effendi had anticipated it should be.
More than nine hundred people stood up in sorrowful awe as
she entered the conference hall in Kampala on 24 January 1958.
And then, four hundred African Baha'is raised their voices
and began to sing "Allah-u-Abha," softly and spontaneously.
The air was so charged with love, so pent-up with emotion as

AMATU'L-BAI-IA R Ol:IIYYIH KI-!Ai !U M

Amatu'l-Baha walked up the central aisle, that we were all shaken.
When she stood before us to address the conference, her voice
broke and tears came to her eyes several times. But the waves of
deep love and sympathy in that audience were tangible; they enveloped and caressed her, and at the end assuaged her sorrow. Her
love for the Africans and their continent became a permanent part
of her life afterwards. She brought to that conference a wider perspective, a global outlook, an all-embracing point of view that we
had been lacking, and she went back from it recharged with hope
and courage to continue, travelling to different conferences and to
the dedications of both Mother Temples of Africa and Australasia
during the custodianship of the Hands.
In 1961, the election of the International Baha'i Council took
place. This precursor of the Universal House of Justice greatly
assisted the Hands in the preparations for that first international
Baha'i convention, and Rlli).iyyih Khanum, who had been asked
by the Hands to complete the interior of the International Archives
Building, turned for assistance to the Council's younger members.
Beautiful Chinese and Japanese furniture purchased by Shoghi
Effendi during the last year of his life for the purpose of decorating and displaying the holy relics, had to be carefully arranged
and meticulously prepared for their precious contents. Artistry, a
sense of proportion, a strict adherence to the placement of the objects according to the priority of their importance-all these guided
Amatu'l-Baha in her task. These words written to her by the Hands
of the Cause in the Holy Land on 28 August 1961 express the
significance and results of her efforts:

We were so impressed by the effect that has been achieved in
the Arch ives Building that we fee l we should write to express
to you our appreciation ... The interior is truly worthy of the
purpose for which the building was designed. Many generations of Baha'is will be grateful for the cumulative
backbreaking eff01ts which were put into making the Archives
Bui Iding a fitting place for the holy relics it will contain, though
they may not be aware of the difficulties and strains under
which the result was achieved.

The conclusion of the Ten Year Crusade in April 1963 was
crowned by the election in Haifa of the long-awaited Universal
House of Justice. The election took place in the House of' Abdu'l-
Baha, which had played such a significant role in the unfoldment
of the administrative order of Baha'u'llah. To befittingly honor
the occasion, RulJiyyih Khanum had ordered thousands of roses
and carnations to carpet the inner rooms of all three Shrines. She
opened that international Baha'i convention and every successive
one until that of April 1998. Then, after the election of the Supreme Body, RulJiyyih Khanum and the Hands of the Cause of
God rejoiced with seven thousand Baha'is in the Royal Albert
Hall in London, England, at the first Baha'i World Congress.
Amatu'l-Baha invited a number of indigenous Baha'is from Africa, South America, and Australia to attend this historic event as
her personal guests. Her deeply moving and thought-provoking
talk on Shoghi Effendi's life was a masterpiece of eloquence and
poignancy, as we brought his Ten Year Crusade to its triumphal
close.
RulJiyyih Khanum 's systematic travels around the globe
began in 1964. Many times she talked about the genesis of these
unique trips, recounting an incident in the lifetime of Shoghi
Effendi. One day, as he was passing by her desk, he stopped and
looked at her and said, "What will become of you after I die?"
She was shattered by this unexpected remark and began to weep,
saying, "Oh, Shoghi Effendi, don't say such terrible things. I don't
want to live without you." He paid no attention, however, and
after a pause continued, "I suppose you will travel and encourage
the friends." She said that this was the only remark he ever made
about what she should do with her life after his passing. And so it
was that, when she was somewhat freed from her arduous administrative duties and the affairs of the Cause were placed under the
infallible guidance of the Universal House of Justice, she took
these words as his last instructions to her and did her utmost to
fulfil his hopes.
One is reminded of May Maxwell's words written to and
about her beloved daughter many years before: "I really feel, Mary,

AMATU 'L-BMIA RD I~Ii YYIH KI-vllillM

that the great spiritual blessings which are coming to you in
guiding so many souls to the Blessed Cause, are not only due to
the power of spiritual attraction which 'Abdu'l-Baha gave you,
but also to your strict obedience to the instructions of Shoghi
Effendi."
In the course of her long life she travelled to 185 countries,
dependencies, and major islands of the globe. While she visited
just 31 countries in her first 54 years, she travelled in all the rest
between 1964 and 1997. When I tried to count the number ofterritories she visited in these thirty-four years, I came up with the
astounding figure of 154. Many of these countries were visited
more than once, and some, like India, were honored by her presence as many as nine times. Her trips were of such a variety that
the best way to look at them is through the range of activities that
they involved.
Her role as ambassador of the Baha' i Faith, for example, was
remarkable in itself. Everywhere she went she met with heads of
state and high-ranking authorities at the national, local, or even
village levels, moving with complete ease from one class of society to another. Although she herself was in every way queenly
and worthy of honor and respect, she always approached these
emblems of material power and political authority with deference
and a natural humility. She would explain that her visit was in the
nature of a courtesy call, and nothing more, stating that she had
come from the World Centre of the Baha'i Faith and was visiting
the Baha'is in that country, who were a strictly apolitical and nonpartisan people, well-wishers of the government and obedient to
its laws. In all her encounters, she strove to be positive and looked
for every opportunity to offer praise and appreciation in her dealings with state officials, even if very little was called for.
In Africa alone she met with seventeen heads of state and
was instrumental in helping the Baha'is achieve many of their legal goals. The highest in rank and the leader she most valued
meeting in all her travels was Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia.
She greatly admired his nobility, his courage, and his uprightness.
The head of state whose meeting brought her the greatest

joy and pride was His Highness Malietoa Tanumafili II of Western Samoa, the first ruling monarch to embrace the Cause of
Baha'u'llah.
She always maintained a high standard of propriety, and when
she shared the platform or sat at dinner with such people as Prince
Philip of Great Britain or the archbishop of Canterbury, with
governors-general and ambassadors, she invariably won their admiration and respect, not only for herself but most importantly
for the Cause of Baha'u'llah. This was her ultimate concern.
RuJ:iiyyih Khanum truly had no personal ambition; she was not in
the least interested in meeting or moving in such company for its
own sake or her pleasure. It was only for the Cause that she would
accept any appointments and invitations of this kind.
Another activity which she undertook in the course of her
many travels was contact with the representatives of the media.
She must have had hundreds of newspaper, radio, and television
interviews in the capital cities around the world as well as in the
large and small towns of every country she visited. Before going
to meet a journalist or to be filmed in a studio she would always
pray and ask for God's guidance, His assistance, and, above all,
His protection. She used to tell the friends that when they met the
representatives of the media, their principal aim should be to create a good impression of the Faith. "If these people only remember
one thing, that the word 'Baha'i' means something good, you have
achieved your purpose," she used to say.
Another vital service rendered by Amatu'l-Baha in the course
of her many travels was her role as the representative of the Universal House of Justice at national and international Baha'i
conferences across the planet. Standing on platforms on behalf of
the sacred institution she served, in the course of Baha'i conventions at Ric;lvan, at youth conferences and native gatherings, at
inaugurations of Baha'i temples and other great historical events
to which the Baha'is streamed from all the quarters of the globe,
she was erect and regal and forever memorable, the essence of
dignity and beauty. Her mastery of just the right word on each of
these occasions, her ability to draw out her audience and touch

A JVlATU'L-B AHA RUI:IIYYII-I K HANUM

people's hearts, her clear and simple logic, and, above all, her wit
and her bewitching sense of humor-these qualities endeared her
to and charmed her audiences. When asked, she attributed her
power of public speaking to the fact that at the beginning of her
marriage Shoghi Effendi had recommended that she memorize the
beautiful prayer of 'Abdu'l-Baha that begins, "O Lord, my God
and my Haven in my distress! My Shield and my Shelter in my
woes!" and which concludes with the poignant sentence, "Loose
my tongue to laud Thy name amidst Thy people, that my voice
may be raised in great assemblies and from my lips may stream
the flood of Thy praise." She also attributed it to the advice given
by 'Abdu'l-Baha to May Maxwell, to turn her heart to Him, pray,
and then speak, for RuJ:iiyyih Khanum herself followed this
advice faithfully. She gave talks with the same degree of resourcefulness in French, German, and Persian.
One of the most memorable services in the course of Amatu'l-
Baha 's many travels was the time she spent and the attention she
gave to perfectly ordinary people on the peripheries of society.
When asked what was the place she had enjoyed most in all her
travels, she would often say that it was in the villages and jungles
of the world. She rarely missed the opportunity to validate people
in far-flung and remote places of whom few had heard and whose
simple actions none might ever know.
How often in the course of these forty years by her side did I
witness shy, unsure, sometimes dejected human beings uplifted
~

Amatu '/-Baha Rilh iyyih
Khanum helping
Baha 'is in Gbendebou,
Sierra Leone, clean
vegetables, in 19 71.

Amatu 'L-Baha
Ruhiyyih Khanum
presenting prizes to
students of the Baha'i
school in Gangtok,
Sikkim, in 1971.

by her genuine kindness, her praise and patience. Her instinct was
to approach people with an open, candid heart, simply and unselfconsciously. It was to look for positive qualities in people and
verbalize these. But though she was the perfect diplomat in some
respects, she was also very direct and often said things frankly
and outspokenly. The driving impulse in all her encounters with
the Baha'is was to stir them to action and rouse them up so that
they would teach the Faith. And often, even when she was critical
of individuals, her intent was to protect the Cause. If her manner
may at times have appeared abrupt, and initially formidable to
those who approached her, it was often the result of her own innate shyness, which few people guessed, for she was disconcerted,
to the end of her life, by effusiveness and adulation.
Seldom did RulJiyyih Khanum travel, especially on her longer
trips, without a pet. Her love for animals was such that she would
gladly accept the extra hardship of tending and cleaning her pets
for the simple joy of their company. Her motto was, "You only
live once; why not get clean joy out of it?"
RulJiyyih Khanum was one of the most hardworking human
beings that I have ever met, and she never asked anyone to do
anything that she had not or could not also have done herself.
Much of her hard work was centered on her home in Haifa,
which was the hub of continuous activity until the last two and a
half years of her life. She kept a regular entourage around her as
busy as herself and trained them rigorously in the arts of practical maintenance.

.AMAT Ll'L-B A HA R L! I~IfYY IJ-1 Kl lANU. I

Her first and foremost concern was always the upkeep and
care of the Shrines. Her constant reminder was to keep these precious holy Shrines exactly the way Shoghi Effendi had arranged
them. "This is not a place of innovation, but preservation" was
her advice to all. She also undertook periodically to inspect and
keep all the holy places in order, framing pictures, replacing the
frayed and worn out fabrics, keeping an eagle eye on any deviation from the Guardian's ways. The renovation and furnishing of
the House of 'Abdu'llah Pasha engrossed her interest for several
years.
One of Amatu'l-Baha's important social roles in Haifa was
as hostess. She loved setting a beautiful table, arranging flowers,
and overseeing every detail of the event. Apart from formal
dinners, she would also give many informal parties. After returning from India, every now and then she would be so homesick for
that country that she would throw an "Indian Night" party. She
would dress the few ladies working at that time in Haifa in her
beautiful saris, trace the floors with exquisite patterns made of
colored flour, play Indian music, and we would all enjoy delicious, spicy Indian food under her hospitable roof. And also do
the cleaning up with her afterwards! Or there were her exciting
"African Nights" when all the friends who were either African or
connected to the work in Africa were invited to her home, usually
outside in her beautiful garden, and after a scrumptious dinner
would drum and sing to their hearts' content. How exhilarating
were her dinner parties for the new Counsellors, too, where the
guests, numbering over ninety at times, were squeezed into the
main hall, as she would say, "with a shoe horn." Many hundreds
of the friends who met Amatu'l-Baha on her travels enjoyed her
delightful hospitality and loving attention when visiting Haifa.
There was, of course, a stream of regular nine-day pilgrims
with whom she also met, twice a month for nine months of the
year. This was a custom and responsibility which went back to
her earliest years at the side of Shoghi Effendi, and which she
dutifully maintained until the last years of her life. She met with
about two thousand pilgrims each year in the main hall of the

Master's House, giving talks that provided guidance and inspiration for many. She also kept up a voluminous correspondence,
encouraging institutions and individuals and responding to questions and requests. Two particular events at the World Centre stand
out, during which many hundred of pilgrims flocked through the
doors of the Master's House. In 1968, the centenary of the arrival
ofBaha'u'llah in the Holy Land brought two thousand Baha'is to
Haifa and Acre, and in 1992 three thousand Baha'is came for the
commemoration of the centenary of the passing of Baha'u'llah.
On the afternoon of 28 May at Bahji, they witnessed Amatu'l-
Baha place the cylinder containing the Roll of Honor of the
Knights of Baha'u'llah at the entrance of the Most Holy Shrine.
On the night of Baha'u'llah's ascension, after a devotional program in the I:Iaram-i-Aqdas, we all circumambulated the Shrine,
which Rulfiyyih Khanum had carpeted with thousands of rose buds
and carnations.
When one contemplates the fullness of her days and years,
many of which were spent in travel, one is filled with wonder at
how she managed to do so much writing. Throughout the years
Amatu'l-Baha penned The Priceless Pearl, A Manual for Pioneers,
The Desire of the World, and Poems of the Passing, an outpouring
of her broken heart after the death of Shoghi Effendi, which was
printed in 1996. Furthermore, her legacy also includes the compilation of the messages of the Hands of the Cause during the
interregnum period, 1957- 1963, entitled The Ministry of the
Custodians, and the production of two important films. The first,
her two-hour documentary film "The Green Light Expedition,''
was the fruit of her six-monthjourney in 1975 through the Amazon Basin, the Peruvian and Bolivian altiplano, and to the Bush
Negroes of Suriname. Her second film, "The Pilgrimage," offers
a visual pilgrimage to the Baha'i Holy Places in Haifa and Acre,
withAmatu'l-Baha as guide.
Rulfiyyih Khanurn touched and filled the lives of numerous
people everywhere around the world, but the primary source of
her comfort and happiness in the last decades of her life was her
love for the Universal House of Justice and her bond with this

A MATU'L-BA1-1A RD I~IfYYIH KH.ANUM

institution and its individual members. When all nine members of
the Universal House of Justice came to her home for the last time
three weeks before her passing and paid their respects, when she
was quite frail and in bed, such a deep sense of happiness and
contentment enveloped her that it was tangible, like sunlight, in
the room after they left. She lingered quietly in that light a
moment and then said, "I felt their love; they are my closest
friends ." This bond, which symbolized her total dedication to the
Covenant throughout her life, was strong and vibrant to the endand always reciprocal.
Her funeral was held in the central hall of the Master's House.
The two Hands of the Cause were present, together with members
of the Universal House of Justice, the Counsellor members of the
International Teaching Centre, and twenty-four Continental Counsellors from all over the world. Also attending were her family
members and representatives from seventy-six National Spiritual
Assemblies, senior officials from the Canadian and United States
embassies, representatives of the Israeli government, the mayors
of Haifa and Acre, other prominent Israeli citizens, and special
invited guests.* Following the readings and the chanting of the

*Editor s note: Messages of condo lence were received from many leaders and
dignitari es, including HM King Michae l of Romania; HRH The Prince Philip,
Duke of Edinburgh ; US President Bi ll C linton ; Jacques Chirac, President of
Fran ce; Pres ident Ezer Wei zman and Prime Min ister Ehud Barak of Israe l;
Governor-G eneral Adrienne C larkson of Canada; Head of State of Samoa
Ma li etoa Tanum afili 11 ; as well as dip lomats from various coun tries. ln Brazi l,
a pro nouncement was made in homage to Rt'.1hiyy ih Khanum in the Chamber
of Federal Deputies. News wire serv ices such as AP and AFP and major newspapers and other media around the world carried the story of her passing. These
includ ed the New York Times, the Los Angeles Times , the Washington Post , the
Atlanta Journal- Constitution, and many other US newspapers, the British Broadcastin g Corporation , l e Monde, the Sy dney Morning Herald, Afienposten
(Norway), the Voice of America, and the Jerusalem Post. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation and newspapers across the country, inc luding the Globe
and Ma il, the National Post, th e Toronto Star, the Ottawa Citizen, the Montreal
Gazette, the Vancouver Sun , and the Calga1y Herald also covered the story.
Albanian nati onal television transmitted a thirty-minute program about the passing of 'Amatu ' l-Baha by satellite throughout Europe and the Middle East. Baha ' i
communiti es around the world held memorial services in her honor.

Prayer for the Dead, she left for
the last time that house which
she had entered as a bride sixtythree years before. Her coffin
was carried out by members of
the Universal House of Justice,
then borne across the street and
lowered into its vault by believers representing a variety of
ethnic origins. Almost one thousand people, including pilgrims
and volunteers serving at the
Baha'i World Centre, stood outside her home, in the closed-off
street and in the garden where
Members of the Universal House of her grave had been prepared.
Justice bearing the coffin of The interior of the grave was
Amatu 'l-Bahci Riihiyyih Khanum at carpeted on all sides with hunher fimeral.
dreds of roses and carnations,
just as she had arranged for her beloved Shoghi Effendi forty-two
years before. And as the rain poured down, more prayers were
recited and chanted before her casket was lowered into the ground.
The rainstorm that began the night she passed away finally subsided to a drizzle as her precious remains were laid to rest.
I think, to sum up such a life, there are no adequate words
but those expressed in the message of the Universal House of
Justice to the Baha'i world after her passing:

19 January 2000

To the Baha' is of the World
In the early hours of this morning, the soul of Amatu'l-
Baha Rul,iiyy ih Khanum, beloved consort of Shoghi Effendi
and the Baha' i world's last remaining link with the family of
'Abdu'l-Baha, was released from the limitations of this eaiihly
existence. In the midst of our grief, we are sustained by our
confidence that she has been gathered to the glory of the
Concourse on High in the presence of the Ab ha Beauty.

A NlATU'L-BAI-rA RUI:IiYYII-I KHANUM

For all whose hearts she touched so deeply, the sorrow that
this irreparable loss brings will, in God's good time, be assuaged in awareness of the joy that is hers tluáough her reunion
with the Guardian and with the Master, Who had Himself
prayed in the Most Holy Shrine that her parents be blessed
with a child. Down the centuries to come, the followers of
Baha' u'llah will contemplate with wonder and gratitude the
quality of the services- ardent, indomitable, resourceful- that
she brought to the protection and promotion of the Cause.
In her youth, Amatu'l-Baha had already distinguished herself through her activities in North America, and later, both
with her dear mother and on her own, she had rendered valuab le service to the Cause in Europe . Her twenty years of
intimate association with Shoghi Effendi evoked from his pen
such accolades as "my helpmate," "my shi eld," " my tireless
collaborator in the arduous tasks I sho ulder." To these tributes
he added in 1952 his decision to elevate her to the rank of
Hand of the Cause of God, after the death of her illustrious
father.
The devastating shock of the beloved Guardian 's passing
steeled her resolve to lend her share, with the other Hands of
the Cause, to the triumph of the Ten Year Crusade, and subsequently to undertake, with characteristic intrepidity, her historic
worldwide travels.
A life so noble in its provenance, so crucial to the preservation of the Faith's integrity, and so rich in its dedicated,
uninterrupted and selfless service, moves us to call for befitting commemorations by Baha'i communities on both national
and local levels, as well as for special gatherings in her memory
in all Houses of Worship.
With yearning hea1ts, we supplicate at the Holy Threshold
for infinite heavenly bounties to surro und her soul , as she
assumes her rightful and we ll-earned position among the
exalted company in the Abba K ingdom.

The Un iversal House of Justice

Peter J. Khan examines some distin ctive
f eatures ofBaha 'i scholarship, including
basic concepts, approach to scholarly
activity, and range ofstudy.

Some Aspects of
BAHA f

SCHOLARSHIP

T he acquisition of insight and illumination must surely rank
among the highest aims of the adherents of any religion. This
pursuit takes a variety of forms, including scholarly endeavors.
Baha'i scholarship, defined here as scholarly activity carried out
by members of the Baha'i community, is a distinctive component
of Baha'i studies. This broader range of scholarship occupies anyone, irrespective of religious affiliation, who is investigating topics
that pertain to aspects of the Baha'i Faith and its teachings or their
relevance and application to the wider society.
A close examination of the distinctive features of Baha'i
scholarship is useful and timely for three main reasons: the spread
of the Baha'i Faith to all comers of the earth, the diversification
of its community to embrace people of differing cultural, ethnic,
and educational backgrounds, and the growing interest in its
achievements and potential by academics and other leaders of
thought. While this article does not aim to provide a comprehensive treatment of the subject, it does seek to highlight some of
the most significant elements of Baha'i scholarship and draw

attention to those aspects in which the Baha' i approach to scholarly activity is distinct from that prevalent in the wider society.
Basic Concepts
Worldview
Baha'is engaged in any form of intellectual activity begin with
belief in the validity of Baha'u' llah's teachings. They perceive
the universe as having spiritual as well as material dimensions.
They accept the existence of God, described in the Baha'i writings as an "unknowable Essence," 1 as an article of belief rather
than a matter of conjecture or debate. They regard human beings
as each having a nonmaterial entity identified as a soul, which
exists after death in a state beyond the comprehension of those
dwelling in this world, transcending space and time.
The implications of this worldview are extensive. Baha'i
scholars consider forms of religious activity, such as prayer and
meditation, and processes such as those that prompt motivation,
innovation, and inspiration, which are usually examined from the
standpoint of present-day psychology, from a wider and more
inclusive perspective. Their approach not only affirms the validity and relevance of conventional psychological insight, but also
recognizes that human beings have a spiritual nature and are thus
amenable to spiritual influences.
According to the Baha' i worldview, the forces operating in
the world are not confined to those associated with the material
realm and studied by disciplines such as physics. The enlarged
view encompasses spiritual forces that operate through laws
and processes described in the Baha'i writings and have certain
features directly analogous to those studied in the world of physics, such as action at a distance, nonlocality, and nonlinearity in
the relationship between cause and effect.
The novelty of the Baha'i perspective has, in recent years,
raised some problems for those engaged in scholarly endeavor in
both an academic setting and the wider society. Responding to

Baha' u ' llah, Th e Kitab-i-lqan (Wilmette: Baha' i Publi shing Trust, 1974),
p. 98.

B AI-IA'f S CHOLARSHIP

requests for guidance on these issues, the Universal House of
Justice has provided a number of useful insights into the implications of the Baha'i worldview, some of which are presented here.
A number of problems arise from the dissonance between
the Baha'i approach to scholarship and the approach based on
materialistic interpretations of reality adopted in most Western
academic circles. In a recent letter written on its behalf, the
Universal House of Justice referred to "the implications for the
study of religion of certain assumptions about human nature and
the process of civilization that a purely materialistic interpretation of reality has imposed on scholarly activity of every kind, at
least in the Western world." The letter continues:

A related paradigm for the study of religion has gradually
consolidated itself in the prevailing academic culture during
the course of the present century. It insists that all spiritual
and moral phenomena must be understood through the appli -
cation of a scholarly apparatus devised to explore existence in
a way that ignores the issues of God's continuous relationship
with His creation and His intervention in human life and
history. Yet, from a Baha'i point of view, it is precisely this
intervention that is the central theme of the Teachings of the
Founders of the revealed religions ostensibly being studied.
As a result of this insistence, opinions that should have
remained matters of learned speculation have tended to
assume the character of dogma. Equally regrettable is an
intolerant attitude toward other perceptions of reality, which
too often characterizes the expression of these opinions. In the
context of historical circumstance, this development is
understandable. The rigid intolerance exhibited in the past by
much of organized religion, together with the domination of
scholarship long exercised by theological elites, could not but
arouse strong negative reactions. From a Baha'i point of view,
however, bigotry is retrograde and unacceptable in whatever
form it chooses to present itself.2

issues related to the Study of the Baha 'i Faith: Extracts fi"om Letters
Written on Behal/ of the Universal House of Justice (Wilmette: Baha' i Publi shing Trust, 1999), pp. 32- 33.

In another letter, the Universal House of Justice stated:

Although the reality of God's continuous relationship with His
creation and His intervention in human life and history are the
very essence of the teachings of the Founders of the revealed
religions, dogmatic materialism today insists that even the nature of re ligion itself can be adequately understood only through
the use of an academic methodology designed to ignore the
truths that make religion what it is. 3

The Universal House of Justice also referred to the problems
that would arise "if an attempt is made to impose, on the Baha'i
community's own study of the Revelation, materialistic methodologies and attitudes antithetical to its very nature." 4 While it was
natural that some Baha'i authors, seeking acceptance from their
academic colleagues and from editors of academic journals, would
attempt to write articles from a perspective similar to that of
non-Baha'is, the Universal House of Justice pointed out that, in
following such an approach,

they have inadvertently cast the Faith into a mold which is
essentially foreign to its nature, taking no account of the
spiritual forces which Baha'is see as its foundation. Presumably the justification offered for this approach would be that
most scholars of comparative religion are essentially concerned
with discernible phenomena, observable events and practical
affairs and are used to treating their subject from a Western, if
not a Christian, viewpoint. This approach, although understandable, is quite impossible for a Baba' i, for it ignores the fact
that our worldview includes the spiritual dimension as an
indispensable component for consistency and coherence, and
it does not beseem a Baha'i to write ... about his Faith as if he
looked upon it from the norm of humanism or materialism. 5

The Universal House of Justice, message to all National Spiritual Assemblies,
7 April 1999.
Issues Related to the Study of the Saha 'i Faith, p. 33.
Scholarship: Extracts fi'om the Writings of Saha 'u 'llah and 'Abdu 'l-Baha
and jiwn letters of Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House o.f Justice,
prepared by the Research Depatiment of the Universal House of Justice, Baha ' i
World Centre (Mona Vale: Baha'i Publications Australia, 1995), p . 37 .

B AHA' f S CHO LARSHIP

Such an approach

leads to these authors' drawing conclusions and making
implications which are in conflict with the Baha'i teachings
and with the reality of the Faith. A good Baba 'i author, when
writing for such a publication, should be fully capable of adopting a calmly neutral and expository tone, without falling
into the trap of distorting the picture by adopting what is, in
essence, a materialistic and localized stance. 6

Baha' is may sometimes find themselves accused of ignorant
fanaticism, or of having closed minds, by basing their scholarship
upon acceptance of the Baha'i worldview. Such accusations are
logically inconsistent. One of the fundamental principles of the
Baha'i Faith is independent investigation of truth. The Universal
House of Justice emphasizes:

not only the right but also the responsibi lity of each believer
to explore truth for himself or herself are fundamental to the
Baha' i teachings. This principle is an integral feature of the
coming of age of humankind, inseparable from the social transfom1ation to which Baha ' u' llah is calling the peoples of the
world. It is as relevant to specifically scholarly activity as it is
to the rest of spiritual and intellectual life. Every human being
is ultimately responsible to God for the use which he or she
makes of these possibilities .. . 7

Baha'is independently investigate the claim of Baha'u'llah
to be a bringer of truth, a Manifestation of God, and having concluded that this claim is valid, they freely choose to identify
themselves with this religion. The means by which this investigation is carried out, or the length of time required, is a matter of
personal choice, and what constitutes conclusive evidence to one
individual may not suffice for another. However, acceptance of
Baha'u'llah as a Manifestation of God is the crucial element
distinguishing Baha'is from those who admire the Baha'i teachings or regard Baha'u'llah as a very wise man and a source of

Scholarship, pp. 37- 38.
issues Related to the Study of the Baha 'i Faith , p. 39.

profound insight. As a direct corollary to this acceptance, Baha'is
regard the teachings ofBaha'u'llah as statements of truth-a view
reflected in their scholarly endeavors. For Baha'is to write about
the Baha'i teachings in any other way would be inconsistent or
deceptive.
The Universal House of Justice has affinned:

The Baha'i community is an association of individuals who
have voluntarily come together, on recognizing Baha'u'llah's
claim to be the Manifestation of God for this age, to establish
ce1iain patterns of personal and social behavior and to build
the institutions that are to promote these patterns . There are
numerous individuals who share the ideals of the Faith and
draw inspiration from its teachings, while disagreeing with
ce1iain of its features , but those who actually enter the Baha'i
community have accepted, by their own free will, to follow
the Teachings in their entirety . .. 8

This distinctive characteristic of the Baha'i community is evident
in all aspects of its functioning, not least of which is its consistency in the expression of belief that Baha'u'llah is a Manifestation
of God.
Authoritative writings
Central to Baha'i scholarly activity is the authority ofBaha'u'llah's
writings, which are much more voluminous than those of any other
of the world's major religions. The greatest care is taken to establish the authenticity of that which is accepted as part of the
revelation of Baha'u'llah. No credence is given to any oral statements that are unsupported by an authentic written text. The
documents of that text are analysed rigorously, using modern
techniques when necessary, to confirm their authenticity, and appropriate measures are taken to ensure their preservation.
To a Baha'i, the Manifestation of God has a nature intrinsically distinct from that of others, and perhaps no phenomenon is
more intriguing or mysterious in the study of the Baha'i Faith
than that of the process of revelation, by which the Word of God

lssues Related to the Study of the Baha 'i Faith , p. 27.

B AHA' I S CHOLARSHIP

is transmitted to humanity, often at great speed in a torrent of
words, through the Manifestation.
It is clear therefore that Baha'i scholars approach the study
of the writings of Baha'u'llah differently from colleagues who
do not share their belief. In addressing issues raised by Baha'i
academics, the Universal House of Justice urged them

to apply to their work the concept which they accept as Baha' is:
that the Manifestation of God is of a higher realm and has a
perception far above that of any human being. He has the task
of raising humankind to a new level of knowledge and behavior. In this, His understanding transcends the traditions and
concepts of the society in which He appears. As Baha'u'llah
Himself writes in the Hidden Words:

0 Son of Beauty! By My spirit and by My favor!
By My mercy and by My beauty! All that I have
revealed unto thee with the tongue of power, and have
written for thee with the pen of might, hath been in
accordance with thy capacity and understanding, not
with My state and the melody of My voice.9

Baha'u'llah's writings address a wide range of subjects that
are directly relevant to the activities of Baha'i scholars. The Universal House of Justice has referred recently to

the statements in the Baha'i writings which disclose the
relationship between th e Revelation of Baha'u'llah and the
knowledge which is acquired as a result of scholarly endeavors. Baha ' u ' llah asse1is that:

Unveiled and unconcealed, this Wronged One hath,
at all times, proclaimed before the face of all peoples
of the world that which will serve as the key for
unlocking the doors of sciences, of arts, of knowl -
edge, of well-being, of prosperity and wealth . . .

It is evident that the Baha ' i Writings illuminate all areas of
human endeavor and all academic disciplines. Those who have

Issues Related to the Study of'the Baha'i Faith , pp. 38- 39.

been privileged to recognize the station of Baha ' u' llah have
the bounty of access to a Revelation which casts light upon all
aspects of thought and inquiry, and are enjoined to use the
understanding which they obtain from their immersion in the
Holy Writings to advance the interests of the Faith. 10

A unique aspect of the Baha'i Faith is the Covenant of
Baha'u'llah. Adherence to its provisions is essential for the successful pursuit of Baha'i scholarship. It is a powerful agent in
promoting creativity and freedom of thought, since it constrains
individual believers from claiming authority for their own views.
Through the provision of authoritative interpretations, it offers a
productive avenue for Baha'is to explore the meaning and implications of the teachings and a means for them to avoid contention.
Since this Covenant has no parallel in religious history, its
novel features require careful consideration, and the implications
of its provisions merit thorough study by Baha'is embarking on
scholarly endeavors. In a document calling for greater impetus to
be given to fostering Baha'i scholarship, the Universal House of
Justice called for Baha'i institutions to render valuable services
"by promoting within the Baha'i community an atmosphere of
tolerance for the views of others. At the same time," the House of
Justice continued, "the fundamental core of the believer's faith
should be strengthened by an increasing awareness of the cardinal
truth and vital importance of the Covenant, and an ever-growing
love for Baha'u'llah." 11
The essential feature of the Covenant is that Baha'u'llah, in
clear and unambiguous writing, designated His eldest son 'Abdu'l-
Baha as having the power and authority to provide an authoritative
interpretation of His writings. In accordance with the explicit provisions of the Covenant, this authority was conferred subsequently
on 'Abdu'l-Baha's eldest grandson, Shoghi Effendi, who was designated as the Guardian of the Cause. Neither 'Abdu'l-Baha
nor Shoghi Effendi is regarded as occupying a station even remotely approaching that of the Manifestation of God, but their

issues Related to the Study a/the Baha'i Faith, p. 13.
Scholarship, p. 40.

B AHA'f S CHOLARSI-IIP

interpretations are accepted by Baha'is as statements of religious truth with an authority derived directly from statements of
Baha'u'llah. As Shoghi Effendi wrote:

The fact that the Guardian has been specifically endowed
with such power as he may need to reveal the purport and
disclose the implications of the utterances of Baha'u ' llah and
of 'Abdu'l-Baha does not necessarily confer upon him a
station co-equal with those Whose words he is called upon to
interpret. He can exercise that right and discharge this
obligation and yet remain infinitely inferior to both of them in
rank and different in nature. 12

The Covenant also establishes the institution of the Universal House of Justice, the supreme legislative body of the
Baha'i Faith, one of the functions of which is, as specified by
'Abdu'l-Baha, to "deliberate upon all problems which have caused
difference, questions that are obscure and matters that are not
expressly recorded in the Book. Whatsoever they decide has the
same effect as the Text itself." 13 The difference between this function and that of interpretation has been discussed in some detail in
the Baha'i writings.
Baha'i scholars thus have access to a wealth of guidance
through the authoritative Baha'i writings and the elucidations of
the Universal House of Justice. These writings provide a stimulus
to their intellectual activities and are a source of new insights that
give additional impetus to their studies. Individual expressions of
opinion and understanding can proceed freely as a necessary part
of the creative endeavor without any apprehension that these
diverse views will impair the unity of the Baha'i community.
In almost every instance, the Universal House of Justice observes
this process with pleasure, as an indication of the community's intellectual vitality. However, in an extreme case, where

Shoghi Effendi , Th e World Order o.fBa hit 'u 'llith: Selected l etters , I st pocket
sized ed. (Wilmette : Baha ' i Publishing Trust, 1991), p. 151.
Th e Universal House of Justice, compiled by the Research Department of
the Uni ve rsal Ho use of Ju stic e, Baha ' i World Centre (Oakham: Baha'i Publishing Tru st, 1984) , p. 14.

differences arose over a fundamental issue of Baha'i belief and
gave rise to contention between those involved, the Universal
House of Justice commented:

the resolution of differences of opinion on such fundamental
questions is not to be found by continued discussion, but in
referring to the Universal House of Justice itself, as you have
done. Prolonged, unresolved, public discussion of these fundamental questions can do nothing but breed confusion and
dissension. 14

The acquisition of knowledge
One of the most unusual features of the Baha'i Faith is the strong
emphasis it places on the effort to acquire knowledge from all
sources. The Baha'i principle of the independent investigation of
truth derives its origin from explicit statements ofBaha'u'llah Himself, such as the following:

Knowledge is as wings to man's life, and a ladder for his
ascent. Its acquisition is incumbent upon everyone . .. Great
indeed is the claim of scientists and craftsmen on the peoples
of the world ... In truth, knowledge is a veritable treasure for
man, and a source of glory, of bounty, of joy, of exaltation, of
cheer and gladness unto him . 15

'Abdu'l-Baha reinforces this principle when He tells Baha'is:
"Make every effort to acquire the advanced knowledge of the day,
and strain every nerve to carry forward the divine civilization ... " 16
He further admonishes that Baha'is should

make every effort, as much as lieth within their competence,
along these lines. The harder they strive to widen the scope of
th eir knowledge, the better and more gratifying will be the
result. Let the loved ones of God, whether young or old,
whether male or female, each according to hi s capabilities,

Issues Related to the Study of the Baha'i Faith , p. 30.
Scholarship, p. I.
Scholarship, p. I.

BAI-IA'f S CHOLARS HIP

bestir themselves and spare no efforts to acquire the various
cu1Tent branches of knowledge, both spiritual and secular, and
of the arts. 17

To Baha'is, the effort to acquire knowledge is a spiritual duty
and an integral part of their worship of God. It is also necessary
for the realization of the Baha'i aim to contribute to the process
of building a new civilization and creating a society in which all
people can find the means to fulfill their potential. 'Abdu'l-Baha
emphasizes this spiritual perspective when He says, "All blessings are divine in origin, but none can be compared with this power
of intellectual investigation and research, which is an eternal gift
producing fruits of unending delight." 18 He has also written:

There are certain pillars which have been established as the
unshakeable supports of the Faith of God. The mightiest of
these is learning and use of the mind, the expansion of consciousness, and insight into realities of the universe and the
hidden mysteries of Almighty God. To promote knowledge is
thus an inescapable duty imposed on every one of the friends
of God. 19

The pursuit of knowledge takes many diverse forms, one of
which is through Baha'i scholarship. Its significance for Baha'is
is described in the following excerpt from a letter written on behalf of the Universal House of Justice: "The Universal House
of Justice ... regards Baha'i scholarship as of great potential importance for the development and consolidation of the Baha'i
community as it emerges from obscurity ... " 20
Some religious systems look with suspicion upon immersion
in the secular pursuit of knowledge and encourage their followers
to remain aloof from academic studies, apprehensive that such an
endeavor will weaken the faith of their adherents or give rise to
irreconcilable differences between the findings obtained from

Scholarship, pp. 1- 2.
Scholarship, p. 2.
Scholarship, p. 9.
Scholarship, p. 16.

religious and those from scientific sources, eroding belief. In
contrast, Baha'is are strongly encouraged to participate in
academic studies, if circumstances allow. As the Universal House
of Justice has clearly stated:

Those believers with the capacity and opportunity to do so
have repeatedly been encouraged in their pursuit of academic
studies by which they are not only equipped to render muchneeded service to the Faith, but are also provided with the
means to acquire a profound insight into the meaning and
implications of the Baha ' i Teachings. They discover also that
the perceptions gained from a deeper understanding of the
Revelation ofBaha'u'llah clarify the subjects of their academic
inquiry. 21

The potential for constructive interaction between academic
studies and the Baha'i teachings is illustrated in two letters written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi in March 1944. In the first, he
encouraged young Baha'is who were so inclined to give special
attention to such subjects as history, economics, and sociology
in their academic program, writing that these subjects are "all
related to the teachings and aid in understanding the Faith." 22
A second letter referred to these subjects as "fields in which Baha'is
not only take a great interest but also cover subjects which our
teachings cast an entirely new light upon." 23 Baha'i students can
thus approach their academic studies eager to learn, confident that
they will obtain new and beneficial insights into the Baha'i teachings and that, as their knowledge increases, they may well be able
to contribute to their academic field of endeavor through their understanding of these teachings.
With the prospect for such mutual reinforcement between academic studies and the Baha'i teachings, it can hardly be surprising
that another letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi states: "What

issues Rela1ed to the Study a/the Baha'i Faith , p. 13.
Baha'i Youth: A Compilation, prepared by the National Spiritual Assemb ly
of the Baha ' fs of United States: (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1973),
p. 15.
Baha 'i Youth , p. 15.

B AHA'f S CH O LARSHIP

he wants the Baha'is to do is to study more, not to study less. The
more general knowledge, scientific and otherwise, they possess,
the better. Likewise he is constantly urging them to really study
the Baha'i teachings more deeply." 24
The very strong encouragement of scholarship is allied with
a call to Baha'is to honor and respect distinguished accomplishment in any form. Such respect should be unstinting and
genuine, but no form of priestly authority should be conferred on
Baha'is who have acquired academic expertise in any field which
relates to an aspect of the teachings. Responding to a question on
this subject, the Universal House of Justice has written:

In the study of the Revelation of God, an individual's profi -
ciency in one of the physical or social sciences , in law,
philology, or other fields of specialization will often throw valuable light on issues being examined, and such contributions
are greatly to be appreciated. The field of Near East studies,
mentioned in your letter, is one that can assist in this way.
However, no one specialization among the many branches of
scholarly research can confer upon its practitioners an authoritative role in the common effort of exploring the implications
of so staggering and all-encompassing a body of truth.
Collateral with His summons to the pursuit of knowledge,
Baha'u'llah has abolished entirely that feature of all past religions by which a special caste of persons such as the Christian
priesthood or the Islamic 'ulama came to exercise authority
over the religious understanding and practice of their fellow
believers.25

In these early days of the Baha'i Faith, it is especially important that no actions be taken to give unwarranted authority to
those believers who have achieved academic eminence, lest the
seeds be sown inadvertently for the later creation of a quasi-priestly
caste, contrary to the explicit provisions of the Covenant of
Baha'u'llah.

Scholarship, p. 7.
i ssues Related to the Study of the Baha 'i Faith , p. 20 .

Baha'i Approach to Scholarly Activity
In the wider society, those planning to embark on scholarly activity are advised to pursue a subject in which they have a keen
interest and a strong desire to contribute to its advancement.
Further, they are encouraged to prepare by acquiring a thorough
familiarity with their subject matter. Preparation also includes the
development of a well-trained mind and mastery of research
techniques relevant to their field of inquiry. Little attention, if any,
is paid to personal qualities and values, as they are regarded as
totally irrelevant to scholarly pursuit. What does it matter whether
scholars are arrogant or modest, contemptuous of the achievements
of others or respectful toward their contributions, rude or well
mannered?
Much more is expected of Baha'is embarking on scholarly
endeavors. They have access to guidance within the authoritative
Baha'i writings which is specifically applicable to them, and which
they are expected to strive to follow. In carrying out their work
they must remember that they are not exempt from the responsibility laid on all Baha'is to strive continually to develop their
spiritual nature and to follow the laws and principles of their
religion. They are also reminded that the mysterious spiritual
powers animating their Faith are a source of energy and inspiration for those who sincerely wish to use them. These inspirational
powers are central to the creative process that lies at the heart of
discovery and the acquisition of new insights.
Much emphasis is placed on the spiritual virtues of humility
and modesty about one's accomplishments, which the Universal
House of Justice has related to the inspirational process:

[Baha' i scholars] are urged to be modest about their accomplishments, and to bear in mind always the statement of
Bahit'u' llah that: The heati must needs therefore be cleansed
from the idle sayings of men, and sanctified from every earthly
affection, so that it may discover the hidden meaning of
divine inspiration, and become the treasmy of the mysteries
of divine knowledge. 26

Scholarship, p. 25.

BAHA'I S CHO LARSHIP

The practice of such virtues confers many benefits, among
which are the role it plays in the creation of a new kind of
scholarly community that is distinguished by respect for accomplishment, mutual encouragement among all members, kindness
and consideration to those who are struggling to acquire an
understanding of any subject, and a spirit of unity in the quest for
truth. It is far removed from the divisiveness, arrogance, and
posture of superiority found in some quarters of the scholarly
community at the present time.
So important is this subject that Baha'u'llah addresses it in
His weightiest work, the Kitab-i-Aqdas, saying: "Amongst the
people is he whose learning hath made him proud, and who hath
been debarred thereby from recognizing My Name, the Self-Subsisting; who, when he heareth the tread of sandals following behind
him, waxeth greater in his own esteem than Nimrod." 27 Here
Baha'u'llah refers symbolically to those who derive inordinate satisfaction from a following of devotees who hang upon their every
pronouncement and who take their views as authoritative. His condemnation is trenchant and poetically evocative: "Say: 0 rejected
one! Where now is his abode? By God, it is the nethermost fire." 28
In the same book Baha'u'llah calls attention to the hypocrisy
and false modesty of those who pretend to be self-effacing and
humble, while inwardly regarding themselves as entitled to the
highest honors. He writes, "Amongst the people is he who seateth
himself amid the sandals by the door whilst coveting in his heart
the seat of honor," 29 and "And among the people is he who layeth
claim to inner knowledge, and still deeper knowledge concealed
within this knowledge." 30 The essential poverty of such an attitude is conveyed vividly in His words, "What thou dost possess is

Baha'u'llah, The Kitab- i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book (Haifa: Baha' i World
Centre, 1992), K 41 . The main text of the presently pub I ished version of the
K itab-i-Aqdas has sequentially numbered paragraphs, indicated here by the
letter "K" followed by the relevant number.
Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 41.
Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 36.
°Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 36.
naught but husks which We have left to thee as bones are left to
dogs." 31
While Baha'is with capacity and opportunity are encouraged
to pursue academic studies, they are advised not to regard academic accomplishment as an essential prerequisite for Baha'i
scholarship. The Universal House of Justice has called for Baha'i
scholarship to include within its embrace "those believers who
may lack fom1al academic qualification but who have, through
their perceptive study of the Teachings, acquired insights which
are of interest to others"32 and has warned Baha'is who are engaged in scholarly activities against the "assumption that only a
person equipped with conventional academic training is capable
of an unbiased attitude and of truly understanding the points at
issue, leading to disdain of questions raised by 'unqualified' individuals."33 In the wider society, such attitudes have been barriers
to the advancement of knowledge and a source of the denigration
of valuable insights from those who approach a topic of study
with a fresh perspective.
The Baha'i code of conduct must govern all interactions between Baha'i scholars and others having similar interests, whether
those interactions occur through personal contact or by electronic
means. While this code does not inhibit the fo1ihright promulgation of an individual 's views, it does require that courtesy and
consideration for the feelings of others inform all scholarly discussion by Baha'is. In this regard, the Universal House of Justice
has commented:

As believers with various insights into the Teachings
converse-with patience, tolerance and open and unbiased
minds-a deepening of comprehension should take place. The
strident insistence on individual views, however, can lead to
contention, which is detrimental not only to the spirit of Baha'i
association and collaboration but to the search for truth itself. 34

Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 36.
Issues Related to the Study of the Ba hit 'i Faith , p. 16.
Issues Related to the Study of the Baha'i Faith, p. 5.
Issues Related to the Study of the Bahit 'i Faith, p. 38.

BAI-IA.'f S CHOLARS HIP

If creative interchange and discussion of differing views
are replaced by contention, to the extent that the unity of the
community is disrupted, the institutions of the Faith can be
expected to call for restraint and moderation.
The Baha' i worldview is the bedrock of the approach to be
adopted by all Baha'is engaged in scholarly activities. It challenges
believers studying subjects related to the Baha'i Faith to pursue
an approach that, as stated by the Universal House of Justice,
combines "absolute loyalty to the Manifestation of God and His
Teachings, with the searching and intelligent study of the Teachings and history of the Faith which those Teachings themselves
enjoin."35 However, this approach also provides Baha'i scholars
with the opportunity to make a notable contribution to the
advancement of knowledge and understanding through taking "advantage of the divine Revelation for this Age, which
shines like a searchlight on so many problems that baffle modern
thinkers." 36
The Range of Baha'i Scholarship
One of the objectives of the Baha'i Faith is to stimulate the intellectual life of humanity, and its teachings provide an impetus to
studies in all fields. The Universal House of Justice has stated:

... the Baha' i Writings illuminate all areas of human endeavor
and all academic disciplines. Those who have been privileged
to recognize the station of Baha'u'llah have the bounty of access to a Revelation which casts light upon all aspects of
thought and inquiry, and are enjoined to use the understanding
which they obtain from their immersion in the Holy Writ-
.
mgs ... 37

This broad definition of the range of endeavors falling within
the scope of Baha'i scholarship stands in sharp contrast to the
nan-ow definitions of legitimate scholarly activity in some disciplines within the academic community. The Baha'i Faith seeks to

Scholarship, p. 23.
Scholarship , p. 30.
Issues Related to the Study of the Baha 'i Faith, p. 13.

establish respect and amity between those engaged in a wide range
of approaches and endeavors. In guidance given to an Association
for Baha' i Sh1dies, the Universal House of Justice advised:

Your aim should be to promote an atmosphere of mutual
respect and tolerance within which will be included scholars
whose principal interest is in theological issues as well as those
scholars whose interests lie in relating the insights provided
by the Baha' i teachings to contemporary thought in the arts
and sciences. A similar diversity should characterize the endeavors pursued by Baha'i scholars, accommodating their
interests and skills. 38

Commenting on the diversity of interests which should be
accommodated in Baha'i scholarly work, the Universal House of
Justice has stated that " there should be room within the scope of
Baha'i scholarship to accommodate not only those who are interested in theological issues and in the historical origins of the Faith,
but also those who are interested in relating the Baha'i Teachings
to their field of academic or professional interest."39
It appears that the range of scholarly pursuits can be divided
into the following five broad categories, described briefly below.
Historical origins
The early days of the Baha'i Faith were a time of great drama,
due to the magnitude of the claims made successively by the Bab
and Baha'u'llah, and the fierceness of the reaction which these
announcements provoked. The martyrdom of the Bab and of many
of His followers and the prolonged incarceration and confinement
of Baha'u'llah rank as the principal features of this turbulent
period in Baha'i history.
Much scholarly work is required to clarify these events and
to assess their significance. A historian investigating this period is
challenged by a multih1de of factors, including the fragmentary
eyewitness accounts which have survived, the conditions of emotional stress under which these documents were prepared, and the

s Issues Related to the Study of the Bah6 'i Faith, p.15.
Issues Related to the Study of the Bahll 'i Faith , p. l6.

BAHA'I S CHOLARSHIP

inevitable divergence of the various eyewitness accounts set down
some time later. This lack of clarity is further complicated by
the actions of antagonists of the Faith who maliciously prepared and widely circulated false reports designed to discredit
or malign the central figures of the Faith or their adherents. A
contemporary historian who is unable to comprehend the degree
of animosity the Cause of the Bab and Baha'u'llah aroused within
fanatical elements and who makes an uncritical synthesis of this
material can be expected to reach grossly incorrect conclusions.
Scholars might also give attention to the progressive growth
in the early followers' understanding of the magnitude of the Bab's
mission in terminating the dispensation of Muhammad, and the
station of Baha'u'llah as the Inaugurator of a vast new cycle of
human history destined to extend over untold millennia into the
future. The early followers only dimly perceived the dimensions
of the processes being set in motion and the revolutionary nature
of the teachings being propounded. The gradual emancipation of
the Baha'i Faith from its Islamic matrix and its emergence as an
independent religion are important aspects of the relationship
between the Baha'i religion and Islam to which scholars might
profitably direct their attention.
Studying historical facts, historians who are not Baha'is are
likely to make inferences and come to conclusions quite different
from those of their Baha'i colleagues, regarding the motives and
the sources of information accessible to the Bab and Baha'u'llah.
Their views must, of course, be respected; however, Baha'is cannot be expected to agree with materialistic interpretations of reality
that ignore what believers hold to be the central issue-the intervention of God in human life and history through the appearance
of the Manifestations of God. It is unfortunate that this legitimate
divergence of viewpoint should have, on occasion, given rise to
contention, with some Baha'is being subject to criticism for their
intellectual honesty in writing from a perspective which reflects
what they believe to be true. The Universal House of Justice
warned the Baha'is about the intolerance of those who maintain

THE BAJ-IA'i W ORLD

that the only way to attain a true understanding of historical
events and of purport of the sacred and historical records of
the Cause of God is through the rigid application of methods
narrowly defined in a materialistic framework. They have even
gone so far as to stigmatize whoever proposes a variation of
these methods as wishing to obscure the truth rather than
unveil it. 40

To be intellectually honest, Baha'i historians must include
within the scope of their inquiry into trnth the evidence which has
led them to conclude that the claims of the Bab and Baha'u'llah
to be Manifestations of God are valid.
Textual analysis
A vast arena of activity stands before Baba' is whose interests and
accomplishments draw them to the scholarly investigation of many
issues associated with the sacred texts of the Baha'i Faith.
As a religion that makes a sharp distinction between authoritative texts and unsubstantiated oral statements, the Baha'i Faith
attaches great importance to the authentication of documents that
record these texts. In some instances this will require prolonged
study of the documents and their provenance. Issues of accuracy
of transcription, the characteristics of the various amanuenses, and
publication history may also have to be considered. Attention must
also be given to interpolations in some of the texts made by malicious elements bent on deviating the Cause of Baha'u'llah from
its intended direction and advancing their own personal interests.
Both the context in which a passage was revealed by the
Manifestation of God and the time sequence of the various components of the revelation are of great interest to the Baba' i scholar,
as the progressive disclosure of Baha'u'llah's mission and the
gradual unfoldment of His laws and principles are clarified through
study of the time sequence. 41 Of historical interest in itself,
the context helps to clarify references and allusions occuning
within the text. Caution is required, however, to avoid reaching

Issues Related to the Study of the Baha 'i Faith, p. 37.
Janet A . Khan and Peter J. Khan , Advancement of Women, A Baha 'i Perspective (Wi lm ette: Baha'i Publishing Trust 1998), pp. 98-102.

BA1-IA:f S CHOLARSHIP

misleading conclusions through attaching excessive importance
to the circumstances under which a book or tablet was revealed;
the Manifestation addressed a far wider audience than that immediately at hand. The Epistle to the Son of the Wolf, for example,
has an impo1tance and relevance far beyond that of an appeal addressed to an inveterate opponent of the Faith who is no longer of
any significant historical interest.
Another avenue of textual analysis lies in the quotations from
distinguished poets and philosophers, references to historical
figures and events, allusions to a variety of trends of thought,
and the novel use of existing literary forms that are all found
in Baha'u'llah's writings, which will all attract the attention of
scholars for centuries to come.
The translation of the Baha'i writings from Arabic and Persian into English and other languages raises many challenging
issues, since the translation process necessarily implies a degree
of interpretation. The definitive work of Shoghi Effendi as authorized interpreter will continue to be the central reference in this
process, which will no doubt be advanced through breadth of
scholarship, mastery of the languages involved, and the gradual
development of a comprehensive translation theory.
Study of religious concepts
Through a combination of profound faith in the validity of
Baha'u'llah's revelation and use of the power of intellectual
inquiry, Baha' is can make a unique contribution to the understanding of intrinsically religious concepts that are illuminated through
examination of the Baha'i teachings.
Thorough and careful study of the concept of the Manifestation of God and of the historical details of Baha'u'llah's life that
bear upon this theme would contribute much-needed illumination
in scholarly circles. The existence of a Manifestation of God is
foreign to everyday experience, and His claim must inevitably be
treated with suspicion by a society that has seen the great harm
wrought by those deluded and megalomaniac leaders who have
attracted, for a time, a mass of followers prepared to follow blindly
wherever they might lead.

Analytical study of the process of revelation, by which the
Manifestation transmits the Word of God as the basis for the religion, is also needed. Muslim scholars have carried out useful work
in exploring the revelatory process of the Qur'an, but the material
available for this kind of study in the context of the Baha'i Faith
is greatly augmented by historical accounts of those who were
with Baha'u'llah when revelation came to Him, and by references
to the revelatory process in His own writings.
Concepts such as the nature of creation, the relationship of
matter and spirit, the process of evolution, the nature and role of
the human spirit, and immortality are a few areas in which Baha'i
scholars find much to engage their interests and skills. Such
philosophic issues as hermeneutics and epistemology are also
illuminated through reference to the Baha'i writings.
Another frnitful area of Baha'i scholarship is the relationship between the Baha'i Faith and the other religions of the world,
including subjects such as the concept of progressive revelation;
prophecies and their fulfilment; the evolution of concepts of law,
society and worship; the status of women; forms of organization;
and the handling of divergences of opinion and dissent.
Application of the Baha'i teachings to contemporary issues
From the earliest days of the Faith, Baha'is have been urged to
apply its teachings to the issues and needs of society and to relate
these precepts to contemporary thought. Thus, ' Abdu'l-Baha called
upon Spiritual Assemblies to encourage the members of their communities "to deepen themselves by attentive study of the sacred
Texts, and to apply the divine guidance they contain to the circumstances, needs and conditions of society today." 42
Shoghi Effendi expressed the hope that Baha'i students would
"be led to investigate and analyze the principles of the Faith and
to correlate them with the modem aspects of philosophy and science" 43 and advised the believers "to be au courant with all the

Scholarship, p. 10.
Issues Related to the Study of the Baha'i Faith , p. 14.

BAHA'I S CHOLARSHIP

progressive movements and thoughts being put forth today .. . so
that they could correlate these to the Baba' i teachings. " 44
Baba' is who achieve experiise in a field of knowledge could
well find it fruitful to pursue the relationship between issues and
concepts in that field and the Baha'i teachings in areas such as the
following : the dynamics of group decision-making, and the
principles of conflict resolution and of mediation, related to the
Baha'i approach to consultation and group truth-seeking; the
principles of social organization and governance, considered
through the theory of Baha'i administration and the Baha'i
approach to world order; psychological theories of personality,
motivation, and creativity, related to the Baha'i teachings on the
nature of human beings and their development of spiritual
attributes; approaches to law enforcement, the punishment of
lawbreakers, and the rehabilitation of criminals, considered in the
light of the Baha'i concepts of law, penalties for the violation of
law, rehabilitation, and behavioral change; marriage guidance, family development, and the principles of child education, related to
the Baha'i teachings on these subjects; the developing field of
peace studies, considered with the Baha' i approach to both the
attainment of world peace and its maintenance in the face of
aggression.
Baha'is with expertise in economics can find ways of contributing to their field, drawing on Baha'i insights about the role
of values in economic activity and the necessity for a global
perspective. Physicists can draw upon Baha' i insights to contribute to aspects of their work such as field theory, cosmology, and
astrophysics. Baha' i biologists, environmental scientists, chemists, and medical scientists can also apply insights from their Faith
to their work. In fact, the Baha' i teachings can provide an impetus to the entire range of human thought.
The Baha'i community
At this time when, after decades of sustained effort coordinated
through a series of plans, the Baha' i Faith has spread to all parts

Issues Related to the Study of the Baha 'i Faith, p. 14.

THE BAHA'I WORLD

of the world and has penetrated almost all strata of society, the
Baha'i community itself has become a topic for scholarly study.
It would be useful to investigate the Baha'i community's progress on a national, regional and global scale, in the implementation
of Baha'i teachings on such subjects as the growth of worldmindedness, the breakdown of class barriers, the achievement of
interracial unity and genuine fellowship, the advancement of
women and their full participation in Baha'i community and administrative functioning, and the long-term effect of the Baha'i
commitment to education.
Dispassionate observers regard the growth of the Baha'i community in size, geographical spread, and cohesion as without
parallel. The means by which this has been accomplished, including the community's approach to planning and the deployment
of meager resources, is worthy of scholarly study. The effects of
opposition, misrepresentation, and calumny from its antagonists
on the growth of the community also merit analysis. Dynamic
modelling, leading naturally to a forecasting model, is another area
for scholarly study. While the growth factors for a belief system
such as the Baha'i Faith necessarily include unquantifiable characteristics and the growth modelling will be approximate, it should
be sufficient to provide useful conclusions.
Baha'i social and economic development initiatives are
multiplying rapidly in all parts of the globe, yielding impressive
results and a wealth of experience. Studies of the achievements of
long-term projects aimed at social advancement might examine
the influence of the spirihial component that distinguishes these
projects and is manifested in such characteristics as enduring
attih1dinal change, cooperation, altrnism, and unity.
Historical studies, including biographies ofBaha'is who have
played a distinctive role in the progress of the Faith and accounts
of events and processes related to the Faith, constih1te another
area suitable for scholarly work, especially if considered within
the context of the social, political, and economic milieu in the
wider society.

BAHA'I S CHOLARSHIP

In assessing progress achieved and needs yet unmet, those
investigating Baha'i community functioning and achievement must
be realistic and intellectually honest. If they retain a process
orientation, setting the present state within a perspective of
evolutionary movement toward the ultimate attainment of the goals
of the Faith, they should have no fear that their assessment and
conclusions will have a discouraging effect on implementation
endeavors. In so vast and fundamental a process of change, there
will be some setbacks and reverses along the way, and some
barriers to progress will prove stubbornly resistant as age-old prejudices and ingrained habits are encountered and ultimately
overcome.
The Future
These are the earliest days in the development of Baha' i scholarship, and the future is rich with promise as the Baha'i Faith grows
and advances along the path of stimulating the development of a
world civilization during the course of the Baha'i dispensation
and beyond. Shoghi Effendi provides some indication of the
fuhire that lies ahead in his description of the feahires of the unified world that humanity is destined to attain. He refers to the
consecration of the energies of the people of the world

to such ends as will extend the range of human inventions and
technical development, to the increase of the productivity of
mankind, to the extermination of disease, to the extension of
scientific research, to the raising of the standard of physical
health, to the sharpening and refinement of the human brain,
to the exploitation of the unused and unsuspected resources of
the planet, to the prolongation of human life, and to the furtherance of any other agency that can stimulate the intellectual,
the moral, and the spiritual life of the entire human race.45

World Order ofBaha 'u 'llcl/1, p. 204.

Roshan Danesh examines the relationship
between law and religion in the Bahri 'f
Faith and analyzes related issues in
reference to contemporary debates.

BEYOND
INTEGRATION
AND SEPARATION
The Dynamic Nature
of Baha'i Law

contemporary legal scholar has observed that law and religion
A "cannot maintain their vitality independently of each other." 1
History supports this statement. An integration of law and religion
has predominated in most human societies throughout the ages. "The
differentiation between the religious and the secular," one commentator writes, "is itself a comparatively modem development in the
evolution of human society." 2
The historical reality of integration makes all the more significant the conscious experiments with the separation oflaw and
religion that had their genesis in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries and have come to dominate political and social discourse
in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. While there have been
examples of separation throughout human history, the contemporary world bears witness to the ascendancy of separation, and the

Harold J. Berman , prefac e to Faith and Order: The Reconciliation of Law
and Religion, ed. John Wi tte Jr. (Atl anta: Scholars Press, 1993) , p. x.
Leo Pfeffe r, Church, State, and Freedom (Boston: The Beacon Press, 1953),
p. 3.

related but distinct idea of secularism, as legitimate controlling
nonns. 3 As one observer comments:

Either implicitly or explicitly, there appears to be a modem consensus among legal scholars and philosophers that the world has
been disenchanted. The world can no longer be v iewed as an
integrated, meaningful whole under a comprehensive religious
or metaphysical worldview, and law can no longer be legitimized
by its religious or metaphysical foundations. 4

Central to this movement from integration to separation as a
framework for political and social order is the experience of the
United States. In the colonial period religion was in the foreground
of the legal enterprise-it was a central animus for the American
experiment. The neo-Calvinist congregational form of the Massachusetts Bay Colony was explicitly theocratic. The Puritan mind
recognized no distinction between religion and politics, and called
for rule by the holy. 5 In the postrevolutionary period, with the ideas
of the free exercise and nonestablishment of religion entrenched
in the Constitution, religion remained a framework in which
American democracy operated. 6 But a shift began as the religious

_, Literature on the rel ationsh ip between law and reli gion is mired in confusing
terminology. In this paper the terms "separationism" and " in tegration ism" are
employed as general categories. The central implication of separation ism is
that religious norms, institutions , and practices should have no controlling
influence over political and lega l order. In contrast, integrationism implies that
religious norms, institutions, and practices may have influence over political
and legal order. Both categories could have a number of institutional variations .
Whi le these categori zation s are overly broad, they refl ect the general connotations and meanings the author wishes to convey. A more comprehensive critique
of terminological usages in law and religious scholarsh ip is not possible in this
brief study.
Mark Modak-Truran, "Habermas's Discourse Theory of Law and the Relationship Between Law and Reli g ion ," Capital University la w Review 26 ( 1997),
p. 461.
For an excellent discussion of theocracy in colonial Massachusetts, see Perry
Miller, "Pu1itan State and Society," in Perry Miller, Errand into the Wilderness
(Ca mbridge: Harva rd University Press, 1956).
A lexis de Tocquevill e is the most famous chronicler of the American vis ion of
religion as providing the tools of a moral character and mentality w ithout (cont'd)

B EYOND I NTEGRATION AN D SEPAl0-\TION

assumptions that were to guide legal and political institutions
gradually moved to the background-assumed but often unstated.
In the post-Civil War period, and in particular since the 1940s,
this has changed. A preoccupation of some sectors of the legal
community has been to articulate clearly the principles of separation of law and religion and to adopt a stance that law must be
secular in its orientation.
"If we had nothing else to boast of," one American jurist has
written, it is sufficient that America first implemented "the greatest achievement ever made in the cause of human progress ... the
total and final separation of church and state." 7 However, the
issue of religious influence in law remains unsettled despite the
influence of this American myth of an achieved separation. There
exist, within the United States and globally, competing models of
integration and separation, and a concommittant increasing tension between the advocates of these models. In an age when the
elements of a global society are being clarified, the unsettled nature
of this relationship also remains, as it has always been, potentially
dangerous.
On the one hand, separationism frequently inspires movement towards a destructive form of integrationism. The resurgence
of Hindu nationalism in India, the growth of the so-called religious right in the United States, and the Islamic Revolution in
Iran are only a few examples of the recent emergence of political
movements with integrationist intentions. 8 On the other hand,
integrationism in the contemporary world has often taken on a
fundamentalist form that distorts the motivating religious doctrine.
The doctrine of vilayat-i-faqih (rule by the clerics) in the Islamic
Republic oflran and the rise of the Taliban Islamic Movement of

which American democracy would fail. See his Democracy in America, trans.
Henry Reeve (New York: G. Dearborn and Co., 1838).
David Dudley Field, "American Progress" in Jurisprudence (New York: Martin B. Brown, 1893), p. 6.
Perhaps the best examp le has been pol itical movements attempting to reestablish the authority of the shari' a in many Mus lim societies in the twentieth
century. For an excellent discuss ion of Islam and politics, see Bernard Lewis,
Th e Political language offs/am (Ch icago: Uni versity of Ch icago Press, 1988) .

Afghanistan both contain substantive innovations in the light of historical, political, and legal practice in Muslim societies. In addition,
in countries with a recent history of ideological hostility towards
religion-such as Russia and China-religion is increasingly a destabilizing force, as witnessed in recent legislation limiting the
definition of "legal" religious groups in Russia and the rise and suppression of the Falun Gong movement in China.
On this terrain, where there is both an enduring relationship
between law and religion and an enduring skepticism concerning
that relationship, the claims of Baha'u'llah, the Founder of the
Baha'i Faith, must be examined. At first glance, His central claims
concerning law and religion position us on familiar territory and
raise all of the conventional concerns of integrationism. "[T]he
precepts laid down by God," 9 Baha'u'llah writes, are "to build
anew the whole world." 10 These precepts "constitute the highest
means for the maintenance of order in the world and the security
of its peoples." 11 Further, He cautions us, "Weigh not the Book of
God with such standards and sciences as are current amongst you,"
as the "Book itself is the unerring Balance." 12
Within these statements one recognizes the divine aim to order all of human life and a claim of universal relevance. In its
broad outlines this presents nothing unique- the Jewish halakhah
and Islamic shari 'ah make similar claims. There is also a claim of
epistemological distinction, of a higher ordering of reasoning
rooted in the transcendent, against which all law is to be measured. The concerns this raises, if applied as a basis for social
order, are obvious: exclusivity, the creation of a notion of "otherness," the use of the coercive force oflaw to implement a particular
moral vision, and the possibilities of interreligious unrest.

Baha' u' Jlah , the Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 2. The mai n text of the presently published
vers ion of the Kitab-i-Aqdas has sequentially numbered paragraphs, indicated
here by the letter " K" fo llowed by the relevant number.
°Cited in introduction to the Kitab- i-Aqdas (Haifa: Baha ' i World Centre,
1992), p. 1.
K itab-i-Aqdas, K 2.
Kitab-i -Aqdas, K 99.

BEYOND I NTEGRATION AND SEPARATION

But one should be cautious about making any substantive
assumptions from this formal claim that the source of legal norms
and rules is the divine alone. If there has been one lesson from
twentieth-century developments in American legal philosophy, it
is to recognize the characteristic embeddedness of law. 13 One must
look at the law in action, the ends it pursues, and its links to power,
change, and tradition in order to reveal its true character.
The Kitab-i-Aqdas, the central text of the canon of Baha'i
scripture and its book of laws, explicitly recognizes the embedded
quality oflaw. The Kitab-i-Aqdas is also titled the Ummu 'l-Kitab, or
"Mother Book," implying that within it one finds the entirety of the
Baha'i revelation-including not only its legal but also its social,
theological, and philosophical dimensions. This inseparability of
law from other methods of inquiry and experience is similarly
found in the history, structure, institutions, and reasoning of Baha'i
law. It is these patterns of interaction and integration that must be
examined if the content of claims to a divine law in the Baha'i context are to be uncovered.
There are three steps to such a task. First, we must review
the current tradition of separationism and ask whether there is any
merit to examining anew the possibilities of integrationism. Second,
we must identify a framework for a Baha'i approach to issues related
to the relationship between law and religion so as to clarify elements
of separationist and integrationist thinking. Such a framework requires
an explicit historical consciousness-it must take into account the
age of the Baha'i Faith and its stage of development, as well as
the possibility that elements of the framework and the operation
of Baha'i law are subject to change over time. Third, we must
position a Baha'i approach to the tensions between integration and
separation in relation to contemporary approaches and debates, so
as to gain a critical perspective on the Baha'i approach and its
potential implications.
This approach refers primarily to legal realism and its descendents such as
CLS (critical legal studies) . For a comprehensive introduction to legal realism
and some of its central works, see William W. Fisher Ill, Morton J. Horowitz,
and Thomas A. Reed, American legal Realism (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1993) .

THE BAHA'f WORLD

The Tradition of Separation and
Contemporary Legal Crises
In 1975, a report submitted to the Harvard Law School and Harvard
Divinity School raised the concern that the "implicit interaction
oflaw and religion is no longer adequately or systematically treated
on the level of academic study or interprofessional discourse." 14
This conclusion mirrors the more pointed observation that within
American legal culture, and particularly in law schools, "it is not
difficult to discover a palpable distrust of, and sometimes deepseated animosity toward, religious belief and practice." 15 This bias
ranges from "the complete metaphysical denial of spiritual reality,
usually accompanied by atheistic and materialist philosophies, to
interpretations of rationalism expressed in logical positivism and
psychological determinism." 16
In the twenty-five years since that report, debates concerning law and religion have intensified within American legal culture.
The dominant position, both in terms of philosophical sophistication and practical reality, argues against both the desirability and
possibility of religious influence. The dissenting voices argue that
law and religion should not, and in some cases cannot, be divorced.
By examining these arguments in the American context, we gain
an understanding of the tradition of separationism and its current
dilemmas. To date, legal literature has largely ignored the potential contributions of new religious movements and voices for
resacralization. 17 If Baha'i experience and scholarship have any
contribution to make, they will have to engage successfully with
these contemporary arguments and concerns.

Frank S. Alexander, Religion and Law: Opportunities.for Creative Dialogue
(Cambridge: Harvard Law School, 1975), p. I.
Randall Rainey, " Law and Re ligion: ls Reconc il iation Sti ll Possib le?" Loyola
al Los Angeles law Review 27 (1998), p. 153.
Ra iney, p. 153.
For a discussion of th i's point, see Rebecca R. French, " Lamas, Oracles,
Channels and the Law: Reconsidering Re ligion and Socia l Theory," Yale Journal of Law and the Huma nities (Summer 1998) , p. 533 .

BEYOND I NTEGRATION AN D SEPARATION

The law must be separate:
arguments against religious influence
Until the twentieth century the main voices arguing for some sort of
separation between religion and law were religious ones, and the
central rationale was the protection of religion from state influence.
In the debates surrounding the drafting of the First Amendment
religion clauses, a central justification for disestablishment of religion was that it was favorable to religion. It "is adverse to the
diffusion of the light of Christianity," James Madison wrote, and
"not requisite for the support of the Christian religion" to have
laws that require public support ofreligious teachers. 18
Today the most potent arguments against religious influence
come not from religious voices, but from nomeligious ones. Where
once religion was viewed as a necessary backdrop to the political
enterprise, the policy minded now perceive it as a threat. At the same
time, religious voices, and in particular, elements reflecting a fundamentalist Christianity, 19 have introduced the possibility of restoring
some form of religious state, ignoring the benefits, especially in
the Christian tradition, of separation. Contemporary arguments
commonly made against religious influence in law are based on
political realities and the expediencies of social order.
These arguments are reflections of the liberal state. Pluralism, it is argued, requires that government, and in some respects
individuals, wear blinders concerning notions of the good when
engaged in public decision making and the ordering of the public
sphere. This neutrality is to prevent both imposition and coercion,
and the fracturing of society along sectarian lines. Epistemologically, this minimizing of religious influence is supported by a rigid
distinction between faith and reason, and the characterization of
religious ways of knowing as both distinct and unsuitable for public

These quotations are excerpted from Madison's famous Memorial and Remonstrance Against Religious Assessments written in 1785 , one of the central
texts in the hi sto ry of the relationship between law and re li g ion in the United
States.
The popular term for these movements in the United States has been "the
religious right."

debate and decision making. These arguments for the exclusion
of religious influence are expressed in a larger debate within legal
academia that has been ongoing since the Supreme Court of the
United States began defining the religion clauses in earnest in the
1940s. Central to this debate is the desirability of the movement
from the hegemony of a republican vision in which the preservation of liberty requires participation and sharing, and thus the
cultivation of certain virtues, to a liberalism in which the "central
idea is that government should be neutral toward the moral and
religious views its citizens espouse." 20
Religion and law are inseparable:
voices in favor of religious influence
Against the backdrop of these dominant positions there are a growing number of arguments within American legal culture that
separationism is a failed experiment and that contemporary legal crises, particularly in an age of increasing globalization, are deepened
by the marginalization of religious influence. The best way to map
the arguments in favor of religious influence is to view them against
the backdrop of two interrelated contemporary legal crises: the weakening or loss of the internal and external fidelity of the law.
Crises of internal.fidelity
Internal fidelity refers to the faithfulness of any particular legal
rule or standard to a preexistent generative frame. "Law" is thus
understood not only as positive rules but also as a relationship
between rules and standards and the architecture of beliefs, traditions, and texts that support and give meaning to those rules.
A crisis of internal fidelity exists when legal rules and the
institutions that create and interpret them have become unmoored
from any generative aspirative frame. The result of such a crisis,
it is feared, is legal hedonism. Separationism, it has been argued,
raises dilemmas of internal fidelity. Many contemporary legal
systems, whether currently separationist or integrationist, existed

° For the best example of thi s analys is, see Michael J. Sandel, Democracy 's

Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy (Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, l 996) . See particularly pp. 3- 54.

B EYOND I NTEG RATION AND S EPARATION

at the time of their founding within a frame that was explicitly
religious. The evolution towards separationism has thus often
required the displacement of the frame of reference for law. It is
often argued that to restore the law's vitality, a rejuvenation of its
religious roots is needed. 21
Humanity has had little experience with legal systems that are
explicitly separationist, let alone secular, from the outset. As we currently struggle to refine legal systems to meet the challenges of
globalization, this is an important cautionary note. Constructs for
internal fidelity of the law are needed to ensure that law remains
properly constrained. Historically, religion has been the prime provider ofthis constraint, and separationism has not provided a suitable
alternative.
As the displacement of religion has weakened bonds of
internal fidelity, legal culture has increasingly lost its ability to
talk about the transcendent, as well as about values. As a result,
there has been a weakening of legal and political discourse. To
achieve consensus and harmony within society, the orientation religious faith provides towards the ultimately unknowable Divine
reality is fundamental. "It has the vital role of keeping the argument
open" by carving out "a narrow ridge between the two abysses of
nihilism and idolatry." 22 An orientation towards the transcendent
prevents the appearance of either nihilism or idolatry, both of which
"refuse the authority of political argument"-nihilism by reducing all of life to a selfish contest, and idolatry by fixing one set of
truths and expecting conformity to it. 23
A paradigmatic example of an interpretive theory that would rejuvenate
the religious roots of American law is origina lism , which has , s ince the
1980s, become common in the decisions of the United States Supreme Court.
Originalism argues that constitutional interpretation must be bound by strict
fidelity to the meanings understood by the drafters at the time the Con stitution
was written. Original ism calls for the law to show internal fidelity to a particular historical period and a patiicular document, thus reestablishing an internal
fide !ity of legal rules to the original vision of the American constitution. This
was and is seen as a way to constrain a tendency towards legal hedoni sm.
C harles Davi s, "Religion and the Making of Society," Northwestern University
l aw Review 81 (19 87), p. 729.
Davis, p. 729.

Crises of external fidelity
Any notion of a crisis of internal fidelity is incomplete without an
account of external fidelity of the law. Commonly discussed in
relation to the idea of "legitimacy," external fidelity refers to the
relationship of faithfulness shown to the law by those subject to
it. Ultimately, legitimacy is the authority a law is perceived to
have and exert when it adheres to and resonates with a belief or
recognized norm that is able to justify action.
External fidelity can be eroded in many ways. The perception that the internal fidelity of law no longer exists can lead to a
questioning of the authoritative nature of legal rules. More destructive, however, is the erosion that occurs when the aspirative frame
of the internal fidelity of the law has either been lost or is deemed
obsolete by those subject to the law. If either of these conditions
prevails, the law loses the functional ability to order society because
individuals no longer recognize within the law the prerequisites
that would determine adherence.
An increasing number of powerful arguments are being made
that law in the contemporary West is beset by a legitimation crisis.
This crisis, some have argued, has occurred because of misunderstandings concerning the historical, nonnative, and anthropological
relationship between law and religion. 24
Writing in the 1970s and 1980s, the noted legal historian and
philosopher Harold J. Bennan identified a crisis of external fidelity.
Calling it an "integrity crisis," Berman wrote that "our whole culture
[the United States of America] seems to be facing the possibility
of a kind of nervous breakdown," the symptoms of which include
"the massive loss of confidence in law." 25 The "primary cause of
the crisis," he argued, is "the disintegration of its [the law's] religious

Another response has been to deny the validity of talking in terms of legitimacy altogether. "The concept of legitimation," one critic has written , " has no
clear operational meaning, nor agreed upon empirical referent ... we would be
better off abandoning the concept." Alan Hyde, "The Concept of Legitimation
in the Sociology of Law," Wisconsin Law Review (1983), p. 426.
Harold J. Berman, The Interaction ofLaw and Religion (London: Abingdon
Press, J 974), p. 21.

BEYOND I NTEGRATION AND S EPARATION

foundations. " 26 His conclusion is premised on the historical fact
of the "dialectical interdependence" oflaw and religion, in which
religion provides a consciousness of the ultimate meaning and purpose of life to the law, and law lends religion a medium to facilitate
the expression of its ultimate values.
Law, Berman contends, is "an active, living human process"
that involves "man's whole being, including his dreams, his passions,
his ultimate concerns."27 Reason, will, and memory, as capacities
of human beings, exist in a state of constant interaction and interpenetration with one another. Within God-and as reflected within
human beings-they are not in oppositional relationships with each
other, but rather are different aspects of one reality. When concretized into law, they similarly comprise aspects of one law, not three
ideas in conflict.
This integrative dimension of law is both realized and understood through religion. According to Berman, law and religion have
in common four elements: ritual, tradition, authority, and universality. Both law and religion require these four elements to maintain
their mutual integrity, but the crucial point is that law and religion
share their symbology in these four categories. Law employs these
symbols to connect the legal order to beliefs about the purpose
and meaning of life, to indicate legitimacy. "In every society,"
Berman writes, "these four elements ... symbolize man's effort to
reach out to a truth beyond himself. They thus connect the legal
order of any given society to that society's beliefs in an ultimate,
transcendent reality." 28 The integrity crisis of which Berman writes
can be recast as the product of a "secular-rational" model of law
that veils "those elements law shares with religion," especially
those elements that "transcend rationality."29 Berman's solution to
this legal crisis is to reestablish the authentic relationship between
law and religion.
Harold J. Berman, " The Religious Foundations of Western Law," in Faith
and Order: Th e Reconciliation of Law and Religion , ed. John Witte Jr.
(Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1993), p. 45.
Berman, The Interaction of Law and Religion, p. 31.
Berman, Th e Interaction of law and Religion, p. 25.
Berman, Th e Interaction o/law and Religion , p. 3 l.

How can this reestablishment occur in conditions of increasing
social, religious, ethnic, and cultural diversity? Berman acknowledges that "our intended destination is global integration-not
global homogenization, not diminution of cultural differences and
territorial allegiances, but a bringing together of the diverse constituencies of the world into a transcendent human family. " 30 He
believes that we are entering into an "age of synthesis" in which
"'either-or' gives way to 'both-and"' and we recognize that "the just
is sacred or it is not just [and] the sacred just or it is not sacred." 31
By necessity, this requires a new logos or interface of spiritual
faith rooted in our consciousness of the divine with the larger experience of the life of society as a whole. This demands that legal
discourse be reoriented towards patterns of religious determinism
in its own history, that religious thinking be allowed to influence
the movement towards an integrative jurisprudence, and that the
project of articulating generalizable norms based on this history
and the relationship between law and religion occur. At the same
time the revitalization of religion must occur, as the emergence of
a "new law" and that of a "new religion" are inseparable. 32
Is Religion Relevant?
A Framework for a Baha'i Response
The Baha'i Faith is a young religion, and history suggests that there
is typically a lengthy period between the formation of a religion and
the appearance of any legal system heavily influenced by that religion. In the evolution of Sunni Islam, for example, it was not until
more than two centuries after the death of the Prophet Muhammad
that the great ninth-century legal systematizer Muhammad ibn Idris
al-Shafi 'i subsumed numerous localized schools of law into a
method and set of sources rooted in Islamic norms and the experiences of Muslim societies. In the case of Christianity, it was not
until the renaissance of the twelfth century-which witnessed the
appearance of Gratian's Decretum, continued struggles between the

Harold J. Berman, "Law and Logos," DePaul law Review 44, p. 161.
Berman, Th e interaction oflaw and Religion , p. 114.
Berman, Th e In teraction a/Law and Religion, p. 125.

B EYOND I NTEGRATION AN D S EPARATION

regnum and sacerdotum, and a focus on the autonomy of the churchthat a legal system with deep roots in Christianity began to develop.
In regard to this interregnum between the birth of a religion
and the appearance of a legal system bearing its name, the Baha'i
Faith is no exception. Today, 150 years after the founding of the
Baha'i Faith, there is no identifiable Baha'i legal system. There exist
only fragments of a Baha'i procedural and substantive law, and no
country whose legal system is heavily influenced by a Baha'i legal
philosophy or method. However, important patterns have developed,
providing a framework for understanding and analyzing the foundations of Baha'i law, the operations of a Baha'i legal system, and
possible future patterns of development. By identifying this framework, possible Baha'i responses to contemporary questions of law
and religion and the crises of fidelity can be identified.
Origins: agitation in nineteenth-century Iran
The immediate prehistory of the Baha'i Faith is of an Iran in a state
of increasing agitation. Political, religious, and social fracturing
and dissent- particularly around whether to modernize- contributed to periodic upheavals . In the political sphere, the formation
of an increasingly separate and independent hierocratic order created an informal check on the exercise of government power.
Manifestations of this political dualism included episodes of protest instigated or inspired by the 'ulama '. On the external front
the Qajar Dynasty was besieged by another fonn of dualism: the
increasing awareness and impact of Europe. Russia and England
both harbored hegemonic aspirations over Iran, whose political and
economic life was forced into a consistently reactive stance. One
manifestation of these pressures within the structures of Iranian
government itself was irrational fluctuations between the dominant patrimonial forms of government and attempts at constructing
a modem bureaucratic state. 33

The hi story of po litica l refonn in nineteenth-century Iran could be interpreted as a standoff between the conservati ve elements among th e 'ulama ',
reformi st mini sters, and th e Shah. Yet, w hile attempted reform s were often
und ermined or stall ed, it is cl ear tha t reformi st tendencies did take root, one
c ul m in ation of this process being th e Const itutional Revo lution of (cont ' d)

These forces of political disquietude were intensified by an
intellectual and social climate characterized by new and more
potent voices of dissent. Shiah Islam-the state religion of Iran
since the early sixteenth century34-is a dissentist sect, formed in
the nascent days of Islam as a reaction against the failure of 'Ali ibn
Abi-Talib to be confirmed as the successor of Muhammad. These
dissentist roots did not, however, translate into a history of active
political resistance. Rather, due to complex forces including the occultation of the Imamate, 35 the expectation of the Mahdi and the
practice of taqiyyih (voluntary dissumulation), Shiah dissent, while
religious and intellectual, was less often political and social.
In the nineteenth century this changed. 36 There was an emergence of political and social dissent divorced from religious moorings.

l 906- 11. For a di sc ussion of political reform in Qajar Iran, see Hamid A lgar,
Religion and State in Iran, 1785- 1906: The Role a/the Ulama in the Qajar
Period (Los Angel es: University of California Press, 1969).
Tt was during the Safavid Dynasty ( 1501- 1722) that Twelver Shi ism became the state religion of Iran.
Twelver Shiism professes that upon the passing of the Prophet Muhammad
political and religious authority legitimate ly rested in an imam , the first such
imam being 'Ali ibn Abi -Talib. Twelver Shiism is so -called becau se it
acknowl edges that a line of twelve imams were specifica lly des ignated as such ,
with the Twelfth Imam- Muhammad al-Mahdi- disappearing into a state of
occultation circa 873 . The real ity of the early history of Islam , which saw
three caliphs assert political authority prior to 'A li , and th e fact that no
imam afte r ' Ali held effective political authority, resulted in a substantial
conceptua lization and evo lution in the concept of the imamate. Genera ll y, the
unique station of the Imam came to rest on two factors: that he was specifically designated by hi s predecessor and that he alone was invested with personal
qualities that set him apart from the community of believers, in particular the
qualities of 'Ifm (knowledge) a nd 'l!fmah (infallibi Iity). The im am's authority
did not come to rest on his possess ion of political authority. However, the
effect of this, both when there was a visible imam and in the period of occ ultation, was to challenge the legitimacy of all po li tica l authorities. In so me
respects, this resu lted in the maintenance and appeal to pre-Islamic forms of
legitimacy, political quietism, and tensions among the various actors positioned
to assert authority during th e occultation.
For a discussion of dissent in the Qajar period see Mango! Bayat, Mysticism
and Dissent: Socio-religious Thought in Qajar Iran (Syracuse: Syracuse Univers ity Press, 1982).

BEYOND INTEGRATION AND SEPARATION

At the core of this intellectual program was a conviction that free
inquiry and religion were incompatible. Traditional religious modes
of learning were not rejected outright but were seen as unable to
respond adequately to changing cultural and social conditions. An
Islamic worldview was gradually subordinated to Perso-nationalist
ideals of identification.
At the same time, religious dissent became politicized and
explicitly focused on transforming not only religious thinking but
also social, economic, and political structures. This development
was linked generally to Shiah messianism and the expectation of
the appearance of the Mahdi, 37 and specifically to ideas of renewal
and regeneration that intensified in some circles in the early nineteenth century. Shaykhism38 began to speak of revelation in terms
of cycles-with the idea that religious law must be transfonned
to meet particular stages of human growth and development.
Within this emphasis on progression, a religious doctrine often
characterized by political passivity was gradually forming an
orientation towards the possibilities of political and social change
in the near future.
These various strands of dissent form the backdrop for the
appearance of the Baha'i Faith. In 1844 Siyyid 'Ali-Mul).ammad,
the Bab, 39 a merchant from Shiraz, claimed to be the recipient of
divine guidance. While this claim at first appeared as an extreme
and revitalized form of Shaykhism, it became readily apparent that
it was in many respects sui generis as a form of dissent. This was
made apparent by three claims of the Bab. First, while completing the Islamic hajj (pilgrimage) in late 1844, He made a claim of
The Mahdi, who is also referred to as the Qa 'im, is a central figure of
fulfillment in Twelver Shii sm, and is expected to be the appearance of the
Twelfth Imam from occultation.
Shaykhism refers to the movement fo unded by Shaykh A l~mad-i -A l~ sa'i
( 1756- 1825), which served as a philosophical and religious precursor to the
emergence of the Babi religion. For a study of th e relation ship betwee n
Shaykhism and the Babi religion, see Abbas Arnanat, Resurrection and Renewal: The Making of the Ba bi Movement in Iran 1844- 1850 (Ithaca: Corne ll
University Press, 1989).
For a discussion of the roots and evo lution of the Babi religion , see A bbas
Amanat, Resurrection and Renewal.

messianic fulfillment when He publicly pronounced, "I am that
Qa 'im whose advent you have been awaiting." 40 Second, while
on trial in 1848 the Bab was unequivocal concerning His station
as the Mahdi and the authority of his writings as the Word of God
for the times . Third, by the time of His execution in 1850 the Bab
had clearly established in the Bayan and elsewhere that He was in
effect a precursor to Man -yu?hiruhu 'llah (He Whom God shall
make manifest), for Whom all past divine revelations had prepared the way.
The Babi movement was thus both religious and political. It
challenged religious ways of thinking but also aimed at political,
social, and economic reform. It was future oriented but did not
forsake religion. Not surprisingly, therefore, it led to often violent
convulsions in the 1840s as this religiopolitical program sought
to transform Iranian society.
Within this context of nineteenth-century agitation, and in
particular the Babi movement, the Baha'i Faith was born. Baha'u'llah
had become a Babi in the early days of the movement and upon
the death of the Bab rapidly became one of the movement's leaders.
While imprisoned in 1852, Baha'u'llah received His first intimation that He was the expected Man-yu?hiruhu 'llah, the bearer of a
new revelation from God. As He describes this event, "I was but a
man like others, asleep upon My couch, when lo, the breezes of
the All-Glorious were wafted over Me, and taught Me the knowledge of all that hath been."4 1 In 1863, while in exile in Baghdad,
He made this claim public for the first time, and the notion of the
"people of Baha," as distinct from both Babis and Muslims, was
born.
Whereas the Babi movement had convulsed the internal
dynamics oflranian society, the religion ofBaha'u'llah employed
a different method and orientation. Enunciating the concept of unity
as the pivotal construct of His religious, social, and political program,

° Cited in H. M. Balyuzi, The Bab, the Herald o/ the Day a/Days (Oxford:
George Ronald, 1975), p. 7 1.
Baha'u ' ll ah, The Proclamation of Bahil 'u 'llah (Haifa: Baha' i World Centre,
1972), p. 57.

BEYON D I NTEGRATION AN D SEPARATION

Baha'u'llah's revelation revolved around the integration and fundamental harmony of material and spiritual reality, reason and faith,
and science and religion. His teachings were global, universal, and
progressive in their outlook and spoke of the unification and collective maturation of the human race. Baha'u'llah taught that there
is one God, one religion, and one human family, and that "[t]he
earth is but one country, and mankind its citizens." 42 The expectation
was of the emergence of a peaceful world through effective means
of education and social and economic development, the establishment of racial and gender equality, the end of religious and spiritual
hierarchy and elitism, the deepening of democratic tendencies, the
end of hardened nationalism, and the spiritualization of public and
political life. In this scheme, individual loyalty and orientation
were not to the faithful but to all humanity, and the aim was not to
regenerate Iran but to "build anew the whole world."43 In fact, the
regeneration of Iran and the regeneration of the world were not
conceived by Baha'u'llah as exclusive projects. The pronouncement "Pride is not for him who loves his country but for him who
loves the world" was not intended by Baha'u'llah to be, as E.G.
Browne thought, "a fine sentiment."44 It was actually the locus of
Baha'u'llah's political and legal program.
The early legal history of the Baha'i Faith
The inclusive nature of Baha'u'llah's overall message poses a legal dilemma from the outset. Many contemporary approaches to
law have argued that law is innately exclusive. Such approaches
claim that legal reasoning cannot avoid being consequentialistfocused on ends and outcomes-and, as such, is determined by
the realities of power, class, and ideology within society. By articulating a global vision of social change, with implications for a
global law, it appears that Baha'u'llah's vision is caught between

Baha'u ' ll ah , Gleanings .fi'om the Writings of"Baha 'u '!!ah , 2d ed. (Wilmette:
Baha'i Pub Iish ing Trust, 1994 ), 117, p. 250.
Baha ' u ' ll ah, cited in introduction to the Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 1.
Edward G. Browne, cited in H. M. Balyuzi, Edward Granville Browne and
the Baha'i Faith (Oxford : George Rona ld, 1970), p. 88 .

two competing approaches to social change. On the one hand,
Baha'u'llah speaks of His law as the "highest means for the maintenance of order in the world and the security of its peoples."45
Yet, if law is indeed innately exclusive of some members of society, then attempting to achieve Baha'u'llah's vision of global unity
through legal-rational modes would be self-defeating. On the other
hand, Baha'u'llah refers to His laws as a "choice wine" and writes
that the rationale for obedience to them is the "love of [His] beauty. " 46
Thus, Baha'u'llah's vision of social change could perhaps be seen
as antilegalistic, relying on a more diffuse moral-ethical mode of
transformation. Yet when accompanied by the banning ofreligious
hierarchy and authority, the demand that individuals search out
truth for themselves, and the assertion that science and religion are in
harmony, reliance on such informal dynamics makes Baha'u 'llah's
universal vision unlikely ever to be achieved. History has shown that
while the dissemination of a dynamic moral-ethical vision can have
a transformative impact, it inevitably remains limited in scope and
application.
Underlying these variant approaches to social change are the
fundamental issues of religious influence in law. Contemporary
arguments that religion is obsolete as a force for change challenge
Baha'u'llah's global vision as unattainable and dangerous both in
relation to method (legalistic or antilegalistic) and content (what
role will His religious vision play in His legal program?).
A pattern of response to these dilemmas is found in Baha'u'llah's
response to I:Iaji Siyyid Javad-i-Karbila'i, a Baha'i anxious for the
dissemination and implementation of the laws of the Kitab-i-Aqdas.
Baha'u'llah writes:

Indeed, the laws of God are like unto the ocean and the
children of men as fish, did they but know it. However, in
observing them one must exercise tact and wisdom . .. Since
most people are feeble and far-removed from the purpose of
God, therefore one must observe tact and prudence under all

Baha'u' ll ah, Kitab-i -Aqdas, K 2.
Baha'u' ll ah, K itab-i- Aqdas , K 4.

B EYON D I NTEGRATION AND SEPARATION

conditions, so that nothing might happen that could cause disturbance and dissension or raise clamor among the heedless.
Verily, His bounty hath surpassed the whole universe and His
bestowals encompassed all that dwell on earth. One must guide
mankind to the ocean of true understanding in a spirit oflove and
tolerance. The Kitab-i-Aqdas itself beareth eloquent testimony
to the loving providence of God. 47

In this statement, Baha'u'llah claims to bear a new and independent revelation from God and to fulfil past religions. Implicit
within this claim is the role of divine Lawgiver. Indeed, the Kitabi-Aqdas opens with a clear statement of divine law being made
known through a prophetic intennediary and the necessity of
humanity's obedience to such law. "The first duty prescribed by
God for His servants," Baha'u'llah writes, "is the recognition of
Him Who is the Dayspring of His Revelation and the Fountain of
His laws [i.e., Baha'u'llah]."48 Further, "It behoveth every one who
reacheth this most sublime station ... to observe every ordinance
of Him Who is the Desire of the world." 49 Yet, in His response to
I:Jaji Siyyid Javad, Baha'u'llah refuses to disseminate and implement His own laws despite the fact that they have already been
revealed in the form of the Kitab-i-Aqdas.
Within Baha'u'llah's response we find a clear distinction
between the act of lawmaking and the implementation of law-a
common legal practice in many parts of the world today. Laws
are often accompanied by legislated delays in implementation to
allow preparation time for those who administer and those who
are affected by the law. This delay is qualitatively different with a
claimed divine law, however, inviting inquiry into the absolute and
normative character of that law. How can it be the "highest means"
for the ordering of the world's affairs, but not immediately applicable? Why is I:Jaji Siyyid Javad warned to be so cautious in
relation to the law? Given that the laws of the Kitab-i-Aqdas reach
the realm of 'ibadat (ritual observances) in addition to the realm

Baha'u'llah, cited in introduction to the Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 6.
Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-Aqdas, KI.
Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 1.

T I-IE B AI-IA.'f W ORLD

of mu 'amalat (societal relations), isn 't I:Iajf Siyyid Javad's own
spiritual health and status as a believer potentially threatened by a
failure to follow the laws in as complete a manner as is practicable at the time? It seems that the imposition of divine law on
humanity is not justified simply because God possesses the power
to impose it.
Thus, the first foundation of our framework for understanding Baha'i law is that divine legal will is not positivist. God's
sovereignty alone does not legitimize His law. Divine precepts are
to be mediated in their application to human beings, not applied
absolutely and immediately solely due to the sovereign nature of
their source.
Underlying this distinction between legislation and implementation in Baha'i law is a more general pattern of delay.
Indigenous Baha'i laws were rarely, if ever, publicly promulgated
by Baha'u'llah until the completion of the Kitab-i-Aqdas in 1873.
In the period after Baha'u'llah's first intimation (1852) and before
His public declaration ( 1863) this is not surprising. There was an
absence of both a legal authority (Baha'u'llah had not yet declared
Himself to be the bearer of a new revelation) and a subject community (the "people ofBaha" did not yet exist). Baha'u'llah's legal
silence is thus expected in this period.
After 1863, however, there was no question ofBaha'u'llah's
legal authority in light of both Babi legal theory and the claims of
Manifestationhood ofBaha'u' llah. Two basic legal propositionssupremacy and evolution- may be derived from the Babi religion.
The Bab positioned divine law, like religion, as historically relative. He stated, "The process of the rise and setting of the Sun
of Truth [of a Manifestation of God bearing a new revelation]
will ... indefinitely continue ... " 50 A new Manifestation, with a new
revelation and full legal supremacy over past Manifestations, is required at periodic intervals. This progressive orientation generated
the Bab's abrogation of the Qur ' an and His promulgation of new

The Bab, quoted in Shoghi Effendi , Th e World Order of Baha 'u 'llah: Selected Letters, I st pocket sized ed. (Wilm ette : Baha' i Publi shing Tru st, 199 1).
p. 11 7.

BEYON D I NTEGRATION AN D SEPARATION

laws in the Persian Bayan. Divine law thus evolves as each Manifestation possesses the authority to abrogate past divine legislation.
After 1863 Baha'u'llah was such a legal authority. However,
for ten years He remained fundamentally silent on legal issues,
even in the face of repeated requests for legislation or clarification. Historical evidence suggests that while Baha'u'llah was in
exile in Adrianople, from 1863 to 1868, petitions were sent to
Him requesting the enunciation of laws. Baha'u'llah reportedly
revealed a Tablet in Persian that included laws, but He decided
not to release it. He wrote, "For a number of years petitions reached
the Most Holy Presence [Baha'u'llah] from various lands begging
for the laws of God, but We held back the Pen ere the appointed
time had come," 51 and within the Kitab-i-Aqdas itselfBaha'u'llah
alluded to these earlier petitions, saying:

Various petitions have come before Our throne from the
believers, concerning laws from God, the Lord of the seen and
the unseen , the Lord of all worlds. We have, in consequence,
revealed this Holy Tablet [the Kitab-i-Aqdas] and arrayed it
with the mantle of His Law that hap ly the people may keep
the commandments of their Lord. Similar requests had been
made of Us over several previous years but We had, in Our
wisdom, withheld Our Pen until, in recent days , letters arrived
from a number of the friends , and We have therefore responded,
through the power of truth, with that which shall quicken the
hearts of men.52

The dynamics of revelation, social and historical realities,
and legal reasons factor in this delay, but two important features
may be noted. First, Baha'u'llah made a conscious choice to delay
lawmaking. According to the Baha'i concept ofManifestationhood,
the bearers of divine revelation are not mere channels or mouthpieces of God. 53 Manifestations have volition over the social

Baha ' u' ll ah, "Notes" in the Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 219.
Baha'u ' ll ah , Kitab-i -Aqdas , K 98 .
For a discussion of the concep t of the Man ifestation in the Baha'i writings,
see Juan R. I. Co le, " The Concept of the Manifestation in the Baha ' i Writings," Baha'i Studies 9 ( 1982).

expression of revelation. Thus, when Baha 'u' llah chooses to withhold His "Pen," one contributing factor is social contingency.
Second, Baha'u'llah's motivation to create laws is a response to
the requests He has received from His followers, suggesting that
law is in a relationship with a larger reality to which the decision
to create laws must be responsive.
In delay, therefore, we see a second element of a pattern for
understanding Baha'i law-a stress on the relational aspects of
law. The process of divine lawmaking, as described by Baha'u'llah,
has an element of timeliness which depends upon the relationship
between the lawmaking authority and the subjects of that law.
Our exploration of the early legal history of the Baha'i Faith
has focused so far on two somewhat fonnal legal observationsthe distinction between legislation and implementation, on the one
hand, and the timing of lawmaking, on the other. The third observation, seen explicitly in Baha'u'llah's response to I:Jaji Siyyid
Javad, takes us into a discussion oflegal policy. Baha'u'llah emphasizes "love and tolerance" and the avoidance of anything that
would "cause disturbance and dissension." These are potential
substantive rationales for the distinction between legislation and
implementation and for the pattern of delay identified earlier.
The first draws a link between law and social harmony or unity.
Baha'u'llah, a realist, recognizes that, as He states, most people
are "far-removed from the purpose of God." Given this reality,
Baha'u'llah appears to argue that the application of divine law
could potentially have destructive consequences. The possibility
that such application might lead to social agitation and disturbance
would undermine the cardinal Baha'i principle of unity.
Divine law, in the Baha'i conception, has thus been intimately
linked to social realities. More explicitly, the interface between
social meanings and revelation becomes the determining force of
when, or whether, a particular divine law should be applied. Divine
law gains the potential to operate within human society only when
social meaning allows for some clarity concerning the "purpose
of God." Baha'u' llah rejects, however, the possibility of effecting
such changes in social meaning through either social engineering or
coercion, either of which would cause the disturbance and dissension

B EYOND I NTEGRATION AND SEPARATION

He is seeking to avoid. Rather, He views these changes in social
meaning in aspirational tenns: humanity innately desires the "ocean
of true understanding" and has the capacity to attain it. He writes,
"The supreme cause for creating the world and all that is therein
is for man to know God,"54 and, as such, "All blessings are divine
in origin but none can be compared with this power of intellectual
investigation and research which is an eternal gift producing fruits
of unending delight." 55 This suggests that changes in social meaning should be accomplished through education and dialogue, and
inclusiveness is to be facilitated through "love and tolerance."
This positioning oflaw in relation to social meaning has some
startling implications and creates many potential problems. On
the one hand, the conscious linking of law with changes in social
meaning is often conceived of as liberating. Arguing in general
terms that law must respond to changes in how a particular society understands reality is an effort to allow the law to be creative
amid changing attitudes concerning issues of race, religion, gender,
and ethnicity.
On the other hand, this positioning suggests the possibility
of law without any absolute principles; law which is ever changing at both the normative and practical levels, just as "the times
never remain the same, for change is a necessary quality and an
essential attribute of this world, and of time and place." 56 But
Baha'u'llah clearly does not intend such a malleable concept of
law, ordering that the laws He has legislated Himself remain unalterable until the coming of the next Manifestation of God.
Although there are only approximately one hundred such laws,
they touch on a wide range of legal topics including religious
obligations, family, criminal law, property, sexual behavior, inheritance, torts and contracts, and government administration.
Baha'u'llah describes His laws in absolute and universal tenns.

Baha ' u ' llah , Tablets of Baha 'u '!Lah Revealed Afier th e Kitab-i-Aqdas
(Wilm ette : Baha ' i Publi shing Trust, 1994), pp . 267- 68.
' Abdu ' l-B aha, Foundations al World Unity (Wilmette: Baha ' i Publishing
Trust, l 979) , p . 60.
'Abdu ' l-B aha , cited in introduct ion to the Kitab-i-Aqdas, pp. 4- 5.

"Whenever My laws appear like the sun in the heaven of Mine
utterance," He writes, "they must be faithfully obeyed by all,
though My decree be such as to cause the heaven of every religion to be cleft asunder." 57 The metaphors Baha'u'llah employs
in reference to law reinforce the controlling normative dimension
of His laws. Responding to I:Iaji Siyyid Javad, He states, "the laws
of God are like unto the ocean and the children of men as fish, did
they but know it." The implication is that positive law is potentially the social expression of greater and absolute laws of creation.
In the context of the late nineteenth century, Baha'u' llah's
universalist message, while certainly progressive, was by no means
unique. There were many theories and movements at the time that
echoed Baha'u' llah's call for a universal auxiliary language and
world government accompanied by greater social and economic
justice. But Baha'u'llah articulates His vision within a framework
that, as described by the Universal House of Justice, views "[t]he
human race, as a distinct, organic unit, [which] has passed through
evolutionary stages analogous to the stages of infancy and childhood in the lives of its individual members, and is now in the
culminating period of its turbulent adolescence approaching its
long-awaited coming of age." 58 This view of the collective maturation of humanity rests on three basic postulates.
First, collective social maturation is seen as a reflection of the
patterns of unity that underlie creation itself. "[R]eality," one Baha'i
scholar has argued, "is an integrated whole but ... this wholeness is
a unity in diversity, not a uniformity."59 Within this integrated whole
there exist four distinct levels of being-God, the Manifestations
of God, the human soul, and material reality. Human beings represent yet another pattern of unity in diversity, integrating spiritual
reality (the human soul) and material reality (the human body) within

Baha' u' llah , Kitab-i-Aqdas, K 7 .
The Universal House of Justice, The Promise of World Peace (Wilmette:
Baha ' i Publish ing Trust, 1985), p. 16.
Wil liam S. Hatc her, "The Kitab-i-Aqdas: The Causality Principle in the World
of Being" in Th e law of Love Enshrined, John S. Hatcher and William S.
Hatcher (Oxford : George Ron ald, 1996), p. 114.

BEYON D I NTEGRATION AND S EPARATION

a single organic unit. In this vision, every created thing is seen as
constructed according to patterns of unity in diversity and dependent
on such integration. Unity in diversity is thus the organizing principle
of life and existence.
This view of reality argues that society needs to evolve to reflect more fully the reality of unity in diversity so as to maximize its
potential for social order and organization. Human social life is
ever advancing. The social life of humanity has become more complex and integated, and thus humanity must develop its ability to
organize in patterns of unity in diversity.
Second, human society is not naturally in such a state of unity
in diversity. Society is a human construct and, as such, can be
reformed and changed. The Baha'i writings argue for a specific
analysis of how free will has acted to construct human social
organization: "Unification of the whole of mankind is the hallmark of the stage which human society is now approaching. Unity
of family, of tribe, of city-state, and nation have been successively
attempted and fully established. World unity is the goal towards
which a harassed humanity is striving." 60
There exists a third dimension to this idea of collective maturation. If unity in diversity is the necessary pattern for social evolution
but human free will determines the ultimate course of social organization, there exists no guarantee that humanity will rise to the
challenges of social order. Religion becomes relevant here. The
dynamic interplay between the Divine and humanity is the motivating force of maturation. Progressive revelation posits that through
religion God speaks to humanity in terms relative to the degree of
its maturation. Thus, religion provides the mindset and historical
consciousness needed to meet the challenges of further maturation. Baha'u'llah draws a crucial nexus between the capacity for
positive social change and the processes of divine revelation when
He writes:

And now concerning thy question regarding the nature of
religion. Know thou that they who are truly wise have likened

Shoghi Effendi , The World Order o.fBahit 'u 'lfith , p. 202.

the world unto the human temple. As the body of man needeth
a garment to clothe it, so the body of mankind must needs be
adorned with the mantle of justice and wisdom. Its robe is the
Revelation vouchsafed unto it by God. Whenever this robe
hath fulfilled its purpose, the Almighty will assuredly renew
it. For every age requireth a fresh measure of the light of God.
Every Divine Revelation hath been sent down in a manner
that befitted the circumstances of the age in which it hath
appeared. 6 1

In the light of this controlling vision of unity in diversity,
Baha'u'llah's linking of social meaning and law becomes clearer.
Religious law must operate according to the degree of unity in
diversity that humanity has achieved, and it must act only to deepen
social meanings that reflect unity in diversity. Divine law does not
only react to social meaning, which could evolve in any direction,
but also must help in the creation of particular social meanings
that reflect unity in diversity.
Baha'u'llah specifically legislated approximately one hundred laws. Their normative and absolute character represents
a template for future laws, to be applied if and when configurations of social meaning are appropriate. This explains both why
Baha'u'llah's laws are stated in such binding tenns and why
they are often not applied because of social conditions. Thus,
Baha'u'llah's laws are socially contingent in reference to the
macrocosmic shifts in worldview engendered by the reappearance
of a revelation from God, but they are normative for a society
growing beyond the "adolescent" phase of humanity's collective
development.
The delay between legislation and implementation may now be
reread as resulting from humanity's inability to understand the implications of that law, animated by a lack of development in social
meaning and advancement in society. Implementation of the law could
only have destructive consequences, such as the questioning of
the authority who promulgated the law, rebellion, and nullification
of the law's potential benefits. Thus, the laws remain out of force

Baha'u'llah, Cleanings, 34, p. 81 .

BEYOND I NTEGRATION AND S EPARATION

until such understanding and consciousness can be cultivated. The
relationship between law and religion is viewed as relative and
open to change as maturation and changes in social meaning
occur. Separationism and integrationism, in a Baha'i perspective,
will have to be read in this light.
Baha'i public law: fidelity and legislation
Because any discussion of Baha'i law must occur within the progress
and process orientation of the Baha'i Faith, caution is necessary in
drawing conclusions. The wisdom and meaning of this cautious approach is evident when we look at Baha'i public law or the law of
government institutions and their relationship with society.
Perhaps the most striking feature ofBaha'u'llah's legal writing
is the attention He pays to public law. Baha'u'llah's writings clearly
outline a particular system of government. In the Kitab-i-Aqdas
He speaks of "houses of justice" playing a role in inheritance,
family, criminal, tax, and education matters. More explicitly, these
"houses of justice" are legal authorities to which "[i]t is incumbent
upon all to be obedient," and "All matters of State (umur-i-siyasiyyih)
should be referred to the House of Justice .... " 62 Baha'u 'llah also
goes into detail about other public institutions including tax authorities (the institution of I:Iuququ'llah) and centers of worship and
community social service centers (the institution of the Mashriqu 'l-
Adhkilr).
Baha'u'llah's emphasis on public law is not limited to a
description of desired future institutions. He also goes into detail
about how these institutions are to come into being and to function. Bah a 'u' llah envisions the development of these institutions
in evolutionary terms. Patterns of community growth and development will dictate when and where these institutions evolve. In
His own lifetime very little institution building occurred. It began
in earnest-primarily at the local (or municipal) level-under His
appointed successor, 'Abdu'l-Baha. National houses of justice
came into being under 'Abdu'l-Baha's successor, Shoghi Effendi
Rab bani, the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith. The 1963 election of

Baha ' u' llah, Tablet oflsluáaqat, the Eighth Ishraq, in the Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 91.

the international ruling body, the Universal House of Justice,
marked the completion of a movement from individual authority
to government by elected corporate bodies. The current system of
elected decision-making bodies operating at local, regional, national, and international levels reflects themes and directions rooted
in the writings of Baha'u ' llah Himself. It was Baha'u'llah Who
advocated for government by consultation, praised elections and
democracy, and emphasized the need to move away from autocratic or oligarchic forms of government.
This public-law focus within divine revelation is historically
distinct. The amount of public law in the Bible and the Qur'an, for
example, is negligible. For Islam, especially, this has been a source
of tension. The Qur'an clearly contemplates a public authority to
exist after the Prophet and potentially renders some public institutions as legitimate. "O you who have attained to faith!" the
Qur'an states, "Obey God and obey the Apostle and those from
among you who have been entrusted with authority." 63 There is even
some discussion of consultation as the method of functioning of such
institutions. 64 However, ambiguity and an absence of discussion
of the placement of power in such institutions renders any discussion oflslamic public and constitutional law highly problematic. 65
Beyond the public-law focus, Baha'u' llah's explicit grant of
lawmaking authority to this system of institutions, and in particular

Qu'ran (4:59).
For example, Qu'ran (42:38) states, "And those who respond to th eir Lord
and keep up prayer, and their rule is to take counsel among themse lves, and
who spend out of what We ha ve given them."
In the Sunni world it was not until the e leventh-century thinker Ab(1
al-Hasan al-Mawardi that we find systematic attempts by Muslim scholars to
th eorize about pub lic law. Not surpri singly, al-Mawardi 's important but late
contribution The Ordinances of Government (Kitab al-Akham al-Sultaniyyih)
cannot be separated from bis need both to rationali ze hi stori ca l practice and
to man age and exp lain the inconsistencies of government practice in hi s lifetime. Among Shiites it was through the notion of the imamate as a politica ll y
and religiously constituted authority that the ambigu ities of public law were
met. However, qu estion s among the predomi nant Twelver Shiites concerning
the line of the Imams resulted in the doctrine of the Occultation of the Twelfth
Imam that in some respects has confined the scope of pub lic-law thinking.

B EYOND l NTEGl<ATl ON Al~ D SEPAl<ATION

to the Universal House of Justice, is significant. "Inasmuch as for
each day there is a new problem and for every problem an expedient solution," He writes, "such affairs should be referred to the
House of Justice that the members thereof may act according to
the needs and requirements of the time." 66 'Abdu'l-Baha clarifies:

Those matters of major impo1tance which constitute the
foundation of the Law of God are explicitly recorded in the
Text, but subsidiary laws are left to the House of Justice. The
wisdom of this is that the times never remain the same, for
change is a necessary quality and an essential attribute of this
world, and of time and pl ace. Therefore the House of Justice
will take action accordingly ... 67

Analyzing the theory of legislation that supports this grant
of power to the Universal House of Justice takes us one step closer
to the core issues related to religious influence in law. Questions
of the relationship between revelation and law, religion and legal
reasoning, and the dangers of a religiously motivated law are all
encompassed by Baha'i legislative theory.
Let us start with a conclusion that could logically be drawn
based on our discussion of the social-meaning approach to law
and the above statements about the powers of the Universal House
of Justice: that all legislation of the Universal House of Justice is
purely utilitarian, dictated by the needs of society at any particular time. If this is so, then while the Universal House of Justice
ensures society's smooth and efficient functioning, it does not seek
to impose or implement a particular normative or moral vision.
Support for this view may be found in Baha'u' llah's and 'Abdu'l-
Baha's statements that link the powers of the Universal House of
Justice to the needs of changing times. This reasoning gives
Baha'u'llah's often misunderstood division of interpretive authority
(given to 'Abdu'l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi) and legislative power
(given to the Universal House of Justice) a degree of clarity. 68

Baha ' u' llah, Tablet oflshraqat, the Eighth Ishraq, in the Kitab-i-Aqdas, p. 91.
'Abdu'l -Baha, cited in introduction to the Kitab-i- Aqdas, pp. 4- 5.
For a di scuss ion of the relationship between the Uni ve rsa l House of Justice
and Shoghi Effendi, see letter of the Universal House of Justice, 9 March 1965.

If legislation is utilitarian, legislators should not be tied to the
normative vision ofrevelation when regulating and, in fact, should
not have the authority to claim that their legislation has nonnative
legitimacy as religious statements.
One stark counterversion to this utilitarian reading of Baha'i
legislative theory is rooted in experiences of Muslim societies. In
general terms the Qur'an and Sunna are the foundation upon which
lawmaking occurs, thus importing a degree of textualism into
Islamic legal science. In the face of this textualism, the place of
human reason within legal interpretation and the generation of
legal rules has been a source of contention among legal schools.
A general concern has been to maintain the primacy of the texts,
as they provide the greatest degree of certainty. In some schools,
however, and in particular Twelver Shiism, which is heavily influenced by rationalist mutazilite theology, reason and revelation
are said to correlate in the creation of law. Within Islamic law
generally, a predominant orientation remains towards textualism
and the related idea of intentionalism. "The muslim jurists," one
scholar writes, "always thought of texts as carriers of meanings
intended by their authors. The decisive author ... is, of course,
God." 69 Further, "the widely accepted contemporary notion that a
text has a life of its own apart from its author, that the meaning
may continually evolve and change," was a foreign one. 70 Thus,
one predominant orientation of the law was towards finding absolute, divinely intended meanings.
What we have seen of Baha'i law so far would not necessarily contradict a textualist and intentionalist methodology. Divine
revelation is positioned within the Baha'i Faith as the standard,
the "unerring Balance" against which all things are to be measured. It forms the template, which, by challenging and expanding
the consciousness of humanity, allows for humanity's development to the next stage of collective maturation. A law that fails to

Bernard G. Weiss, The Spirit o/1slamic Law (Athens: Un ivers ity of Georgia
Press, 1998), p. 53.
Weiss, p. 53 .

BEYON D I NTEGRATION Ai'\TD SEPARATIO N

seek out divine intention within the text would seem poised to fail
as an aid to this development.
There are ample reasons, however, to be cautious with legal
intentionalism. It often narrows definitively the body oflegitimate
lawmakers and establishes a stark opposition between valid and
invalid legal claims. The tensions this narrowing creates may be
seen within the history oflslam. Intentionalism positions the religiously learned as central legal actors, as learning is a prerequisite
to identifying divine meanings properly. This has sometimes resulted in a fractured public sphere and contributed to tensions in
political life. 71
The potentially destabilizing effects of narrowing the foundations of legal legitimacy are increased by the epistemological
dilemmas that accompany intentionalism. How do we discover
divine meanings with certainty? Response from within Islamic law
has been multifaceted. The sources of Islamic law in their orthodox Sunni fonn remain tightly bound to the texts and are employed
as interpretive tools of the Qur'an and Sunna as opposed to
independent sources of law. At the same time, the religiously
learned recognized that questions of certainty may threaten an
individual's status as a true follower of the Prophet. To forestall
such violations of God's law, a distinction could be drawn between the degree of certainty needed for action versus belief. As
well, the diversity of Islamic schools (madhhab) of law which
emerged after the passing of the Prophet and in response to the
growth of the Islamic empire, allows for a degree of flexibility
and fluidity to counter claims of certainty that could potentially
be socially disruptive among Muslim peoples. This diversity was
necessary, not only to forestall more serious forms of social
fracturing but also given the uncertainties and fluctuations in the
process of humanity's reading of texts for divine intentions.
It was the 'u/ama ' who developed a textually bound and intentionalist legal
methodology-u~á i// al-fiqh- partially as a response to a struggle with the
Caliphate and other rulers over control of the legal enterprise. T he relationship
between the legal rules and methods of the 'ulama' and the lega l and political
powers of the Ca liph ate and other rulers has been a so urce of frequent tension
and explo itation throughout the history of Mus li m soc ieties.

Skepticism of an intentionalist approach to Baha'i law is
rooted within its writings. We have already noted the emphasis on
utility. The limitation of the interpretive authority of the Universal House of Justice also questions intentionalism. More broadly,
given the future-oriented nature ofBaha'u'llah's thinking and His
emphasis on the relationship between law and social meaning, one
would expect some deviation from an intentionalist and textualist
focus. Indeed, 'Abdu'l-Baha premises his explanation of the Baha'i
concept of lawmaking power on a critique of the historical evolution of Islamic law. He sets up the legislative authority of the
Universal House of Justice in direct opposition to historical practice in Islam:

Briefly, this is the wisdom of referring the laws of society
to the House of Justice. In the religion of Islam, similarly, not
every ordinance was explicitly revealed; nay not a tenth part
of a tenth part was included in the Text; although all matters
of major importance were specifically referred to, there were
undoubtedly thousands oflaws which were unspecified. These
were devised by the divines of a later age according to the
laws of Islamic jurisprudence, and individual divines made
conflicting deductions from the original revealed ordinances.
All these were enforced. Today this process of deduction is
the right of the body of the House of Justice, and the deductions and conclusions of individual learned men have no
authority, unless they are endorsed by the House of Justice.
The difference is precisely this, that from the conclusions and
endorsements of the body of the House of Justice whose members are elected by and known to the worldwide Baha'i
community, no differences will arise; whereas the conclusions
of individual divines and scholars would definitely lead to
differences, and result in schism, division, and dispersion. The
oneness of the Word would be destroyed, the unity of the Faith
would disappear, and the edifice of the Faith of God would be
shaken n

This statement has a familiar theme. The authority of the Universal House of Justice as a legislative body is founded upon
the necessity to maintain unity and avoid "schism, division, and

' Abdu'l-Baha, cited in introduction to the Kitab-i-Aqdas , p. S.

BEYOND I NTEGRATION AND SEPARATION

dispersion"-an echo of the idea that Baha'i law must act to reinforce patterns conducive to unity in diversity within society.
'Abdu'l-Baha also points us in important analytic directions. First,
He denies any claim that the text of revelation contains within it all
the laws required for human society. This argument is rejected in both
of its possible forms: that all the laws required are those explicitly
stated as laws, and that all the laws required are to be found in complete, but often hidden, fonn within the text. Second, the process of
the Universal House of Justice legislating is referred to as one of
"deduction" from the "original revealed ordinances." This raises the
possibility of a nonintentional approach to lawmaking that employs
human reason as a device to move beyond narrow textual interpretation.
At the same time, however, it is now clear that a completely
utilitarian reading of thr powers of the House of Justice is inappropriate, as the institution operates with reference to and in the
shadow of the text of revelation, with the normative and moral
implications that such operation demands.
Of more importance, however, is the fact that the nature of
Baha'i legislation is slowly being clarified with a particular Baha'i
understanding of revelation as a relative text. Revelation is a complete statement of truth, but it is also relative in two important
ways. First, it is relative in its art. While its truth is not contingent
on time and place, the manner in which Baha'u'llah expressed and
organized the truth was dictated to some degree by His circumstances, the questions He was asked, and the society around Him.
Second, revelation is relative because it operates within human
history. Shoghi Effendi stated that "[t]he fundamental principle
enunciated by Baha'u'llah .. .is that religious truth is not absolute
but relative ... " 73 As one scholar has argued, this statement means
that any knowledge or understanding we have of reality or the
structure of being is relative because we are only able to understand it in relative terms. 74 The language of revelation, which is
Shogh i Effendi, Guidance for Today and Tommorro w: A Selection from the
Writings of Shoghi Effendi, the First Guardian of the Baha 'i Faith (London:
Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1953), p. 2.
Moojan Momen, "Relativism: A Basis for Baha ' i Metaphysics" in (cont'd)

often metaphorical, allegorical, and imprecise, is, in fact, an agent
for this relativism. It allows revelation to be both absolutely true
and relative, capable of new meanings as the human capacity to
understand evolves.
Applied to law, this understanding of relativism provides a clear
framework in which the Universal House of Justice operates. The
progressive nature of human society, as we have already seen, demands a law capable of change. If revelation is to play a role in
the evolution of this changing law, then it must, in a sense, change
as well. The relative nature of revelation allows for this . By effecting new understandings of revelation, it allows for the law to
react to changes in social meaning.
The legislative act in the Baha'i Faith thus occurs at the meeting point of the spiritual and the social, of revelation and reason. A
legal rule will only be legislated and brought into force when the
meanings society attaches to such a law reinforce the objectives
of Baha'u'llah's revelation, as deduced by the Universal House of
Justice. When this nexus is not present, legislation and the implementation of laws will not occur. Otherwise, the effect would be
division and dissension, undermining the central objective of the
revelation of Baha'u'llah.
The progressive orientation of the Baha'i Faith allows us to
go even further. Social meanings and the understanding ofrevelation change, as both are relative, but they also change in the context
of the collective maturation of humanity. Thus, any fonn of traditionalism or fundamentalism in the reading of revelation must be
avoided if the Universal of House Justice is to remain legitimately
within its scope of authority. Logically, the Universal House of
Justice cannot assert any particular reading of revelation to be authoritative without undermining and destroying its legislative power
by preventing the law from evolving in conjunction with changes in
social meaning.
We began our discussion of a framework for understanding
Baha'i law by noting two dichotomous positions on the process

Studies in the Babi and Baha 'i Religions, vol. 5, Studies in Honor of the Late
H. M. Balyuzi Series, Moojan Momen , ed. (Los Angeles: Kalimat Press, 1988).

BEYOKD l NTE Ol(t\TION AND SEPARATION

of social change: the ethical-diffuse mode and the legalistic mode.
Both are found in the Baha'i definition oflegislation: the Universal
House of Justice has the legislative power to advocate for the necessary changes in social meaning that it thinks may be essential
for the collective maturation of humanity, but it is prevented from
legitimately employing the coercive force of law to effect the
change prior to such changes in social meaning. Thus, the link
between law and social meaning has resulted in a fundamental
change in the meaning of legislation itself; it is not just the creation of generally applicable rules, it is also an informal mechanism
to lay the foundation for these rules.
This changed notion of legislation also results in a changed
notion oflegitimacy. The legislation and application of Baha'i law
are only to occur after the prerequisite construction of social
meaning, implying that the Baha'i system contemplates and legitimizes other legal systems and sources of law. Current Baha'i
practice reflects this practice. Baha'u'llah made it incumbent upon
His followers to obey the laws promulgated by legal authorities.
While often interpreted as political quietism, this injunction also
reflects the legal logic that the religiously motivated legislation of
the Universal House of Justice legitimately has the coercive force
of law only when certain preconditions are met. In the interim,
existing legal systems are not only legitimate but also actually
fundamental to the movement towards a time when the Universal
House of Justice will legislate. In this context, Baha'u'llah's inclusion within the Kitab-i-Aqdas and elsewhere of messages to
the leaders of the United States, Queen Victoria, Napoleon III, the
Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, the Shah oflran, and the
Ottoman Sultan, as well as His writings to other world leaders
individually and collectively, and the Universal House of Justice's
contributions to international political discourse, all make sense as
efforts to encourage the development of social meaning in particular
directions. 75 Moreover, substantial areas of behavior that could be

There are excellent historical and contemporary examp les of the centra l
authorities in the Baha ' i Faith presenting arguments for a change in understanding of contemporary practices and concepts. Baha'u ' llah, in (cont'd)

subject to legislation are left to individual conscience. The formal
explanation frequently given for this is that the time is not right. 76
There is one last concern. What prevents the Universal House
of Justice from acting out of step with changes in social meaning?
Any link between law and social meaning is ultimately a theory
of institutional integrity as well. For a lawmaking institution to
preserve its institutional integrity-its ability to act effectively in
relation to its audience-it must not enunciate laws on issues that
are highly contested within the public sphere. To the degree that it

His letter to Queen Victoria, states the following:
We have also heard that thou has entrusted the reins of counsel
into the hands of the representatives of the people. Thou, ind eed,
hast done well, for thereby the foundations of the edifice of thine
affai rs will be strengthen ed, and the hearts of all that are beneath
th y shadow, whether high or low, will be tranquillized. Tt behoveth
them, however, to be trustworthy among His servants, and to regard
themse lves as the representatives of all that dwe ll on earth. (The
Proclamation of Baha 'u 'llah , p. 34)
Ba ha 'u ' II ah is affirming the positive aspects of parliamentary democracy.
Of much more importance, however, is the fact that He is arguing for a reinterpretation of the meaning of democracy. He does this in two ways . First, by
emphasizing trustworthiness He links democracy to a political ethic that has
been ignored historically and in contemporary discourse about democracy.
Second, He calls for political actors within democracy to adopt a global
orientation. For an analysis of trustworth iness within the hi story of political
ethics and Baha' u' llah 's discussion, see Ariane Sabet-Sobhani, Die politischen
Botschaften des Religionsgruenders Bahaullah: Ethik und Politik im Weltordnungsmodell der Bahai (St. Gallen: 2000), pp. 116- 30 .
The best contemporary examp le of this process is the Universal House of
Justice's 1985 contribution of Th e Promise of World Peace to global efforts
towards peace. Within that document the Universal House of Justice argues
for a redefinition of the meaning of peace and specifically the relation ship
between gender, race, or economic disparity and peace.
There are many examples of this in the letters and statem ents of the Universal House of Justice covering a wide range of issues, including personal worship
practices , the consumption of a lcohol, abortion, and sex ual relations. For
examples of the letters and statements of the Un iversal House of Justice, see
the Universal House of Justice, Messages fi'om the Universal House o,[Justice
1963- 1986: The Third Epoch of the Formative Age, comp. Geoffery A. Marks
(Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1996).

BEYOND I NTEGRATION AND SEPARATIO N

does speak on such contested issues, the audience for that institution becomes fractured, and the ability of the institution to speak
effectively slowly erodes. It can only speak effectively when social meanings allow for the form and mode of speech of the
legislating institution so as not to have a fracturing effect. To maintain their integrity, such institutions must advocate in the interim
for the necessary changes in social meaning that would empower
them. Baha'u'llah's concern that the implementation of law must
not be a source of discord and dissension is not only to protect the
polity from disturbance. He recognizes it as a functional necessity
for the successful and enduring operation oflegal institutions themselves. Without a clear understanding and responsiveness to the
likely reception of their acts oflegislation, lawmaking bodies will
undermine and ultimately destroy themselves. If the Universal House
of Justice acts out of step with the process through which social
meaning is constructed, it ceases to be an effective legal body.
A Relative Relationship: Law and Religion Revisited
Existing literature on the relationship between law and religion in
the Baha'i Faith is limited. Popular Baha'i belief and literature
generally assume that the future will witness patterns of integration
of law and religion in which Baha'i law will predominate, that this
integration will be benign and a benefit to all humanity, and that
Baha'u'llah intended this. 77 These assumptions are not without basis.
Shoghi Effendi explicitly discusses the likely appearance of the
Baha'i Faith as a "state religion," the creation of a "Baha'i state,"
and the formation of a "Baha'i theocracy"-all within a vision of
unity in diversity that must be established without force or coercion. 78
Recent academic literature, however, has taken the form of a nascent Baha'i modernism. 79 This approach argues that Baha'u'llah
See Christopher Sprung, "Baha'i lnstih1tions and Human Governance" in
Law and International Order (London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1996), p. 15 l.
For a discussion of these possibilities, see Shoghi Effendi, Messages to the Baha'i
World 1950- 1957, comp. Gertrude Garrida (New Delhi : Baha'i Publishing Trust,
1973), pp. 78- 79.
Juan R.J. Cole, Modernity and Millennium : The Genesis of the Baha'i Faith
in the Nineteenth-Century Middle East (New York: Columbi a University Press,
1998).

intended a rather conventional model of separationism. "They
surely were among the first major religious figures in the region [the
Middle East]," one scholar has argued, in reference to Baha'u'llah
and 'Abdu' l-Baha, to "embrace ... the principle of the separation
ofreligion and state." 80 In this vision the Baha'i Faith embodies a
political philosophy of "formative republicanism" which, as discussed earlier, is in contrast to the "procedural liberalism" that
has dominated much of the twentieth century. 81
These strands of literature are both problematic-ironically,
for similar reasons. As our discussion of Baha'i legal history illustrated, ingrained within Baha'i social and legal thought is a
philosophical foundation that gives primacy to the process of
becoming as opposed to being. The pattern of delay, the divorce
of lawmaking from interpretation, the rooting of social theory within
the category of maturation, the linking oflaw and social meaning,
and the emphasis on the progressive and relative nature of religion all reflect Baha'u'llah's insight that the social life of humanity
can be authentically analyzed and understood only through a framework that emphasizes the dynamism and fluidity of that reality.
Thus, what Baha'u'llah offers to debates concerning law and religion is not a fixed institutional architecture but a framework that
seeks to explain anew the historical realities of law and religion
and to indicate directions in which future thought, experimentation, and institutional development should occur. As such, literature
that fixates on identifying elements of integrationist or separationist
intentions in Baha'u'llah's writings negates the most essential and
exciting aspect of Baha'u'llah's vision: its process orientation. In a
sense, both the integrationist and separationist approaches to law
and religion in the Baha'i Faith could be characterized as weak
apologetics. They attempt to present and sometimes to defend the
Baha'i Faith by arguing that its social role will be distinct from that
of other religions-either by being capable of creating a benign and
healthy form of integrationism or by being wise enough to be
separationist in the first place. But both approaches accomplish this

°Co le, p. 46.

Cole, p. 19 1.

B EYOND l NTEGlMTION AN D SEPARATION

at an extreme cost: the obfuscation of the core of Baha'i social philosophy itself.
Baha'u'llah's insistence that we attempt to discuss issues
surrounding the relationship between law and religion within the
framework of changes in social meaning, the category of maturation,
and the understanding of movement towards unity as the predominant expression of maturation, offers some important insights.
A central dilemma within contemporary debates over religious influence in the law is that there are typically incompatible
historical narratives on either side of the debate. The rhetoric of the
mythology ofAmerican separationism often views legal history as a
movement towards freedom of religion buttressed by the separation of church and state. As liberty has now been secured, this
struggle for liberation has reached an end time. Thus, religious
influence in the law is a threat to return to the past, to legal orders
that, as we have learned, inevitably oppress.
Opposed to this narrative are ones that seek to return to an
integrationist past, usually in a quest to reestablish the internal
fidelity of the law. As this vision of history has difficulty affirming the appearance of separationist and ultimately secular legal
systems, there is often no alternative for religious voices but to
challenge these developments and, by consequence, the legitimacy
of existing norms and structures.
Religion and law are positioned as antinomic in one narrative
and inseparable in the other. Baha'u'llah offers a way out of this
quagmire by arguing that the internal fidelity of the law must be
dynamic, not static, and that fidelity is given to the process in
which change occurs and not to an absolute state. Thus, law should
change to reflect developments in social meaning that will advance
the collective maturation of humanity by solidifying its movement
to more sophisticated and inclusive patterns of unity in diversity.
The fidelity of the law is therefore always forward looking and
progressive. It denies attempts to recover the past or claim that an
end time has been reached.
This approach provides a degree of legitimacy and defense
for both separationism and integrationism, as conventionally

understood. Depending upon humanity's maturation and the configuration of social meanings within a particular culture at a
particular time, either of these general models may or may not be
legitimate. Baha'u'llah Himself was scathing in His criticisms of
religiously dominated political and legal orders, particularly in
Muslim societies He observed personally. At the same time, He
praised the advances in human freedom made by the founding of
the American Republic. This does not, however, make Baha'u'llah
a Jeffersonian, as some have suggested. 82 Baha'u'llah legitimates
a separationist model within His vision of the process of social
change and evolution, but while it is a necessary stage in the evolution of social meanings towards His global vision, it is not the end
time of this evolution.
Baha'u'llah has also created a new approach to the external
fidelity of the law by refusing to effect the authority oflaw through
coercion. Legitimacy in the Baha'i scheme rests upon the relationships among revelation, law, and social meaning as well as
upon whether a legal rule will advance the cause of unity. It also
rests upon a conscious voluntarism-the educated choice of people
who are aware of the meanings of those laws and who agree to be
bound by them. This approach is reflected in the Baha'i theory of
legislation, which empowers the Universal House of Justice to
advocate for changes in social meaning but does not grant it the
coercive power of law to effect those changes.
Underlying this reasoning, however, is Baha'u'llah's expectation that religion must gradually assert a greater influence on the
law. He is a harsh critic of tendencies towards secularization, which
are unable to meet the challenges of humanity as processes of globalization accelerate. The creation of a global society, Baha'u'llah
argues, entails the cultivation of individual and group ethics that
are other-centered. Dichotomous notions of "us" and "them" must
be abandoned. Baha'u'llah argues that an orientation towards discussing the transcendent and metaphysical, which religion often
provides, can best accomplish this. But this necessary inclusion
of religion in legal discourse is not unconditional. Religion may

Cole, p. 190.

B EYOND I NTEG RATION AND SEPARATION

be an animating force in humanity's collective maturation, but only
in its progressive and growth-inducing dimension. As 'Abdu'l-
Baha states, "if religion is only to be a cause of disunion it had
better not exist." 83 In this framework, religious influence does not
redeem a fallen humanity or correct our errors where we have
gone astray. Rather, religion is a worldview that provides both the
tools and, potentially, the substance for people to engage in discourse about the foundations of social unity. If religion fails to
make this contribution, it should be ignored.
Bahci'u'llah is, in a sense, calling humanity to experiment
with new institutional structures and modes of social organization. In His argument, social life will increasingly require religious
influence, and so new forms of inclusive legal architectures must
be attempted. His own adminstrative order is a template for such
developments and should be studied and examined in this light. 84
Within Baha'u'llah's legal thinking, we thus find the attitude
that the relationship between law and religion is relative, necessarily
changing as social meanings, individual orientation and mindset,
and understandings ofrevelation change. In Baha'i thinking, religion is the generative force behind humanity's progression, but
the social expression of this relationship is conditional and intimately
linked to the state of society. Any claims of certainty concerning
the future institutional relationship between law and religion must
be treated with skepticism. Such a static worldview violates
the dynamic core of Baha'u'llah's social philosophy. Inviting us
to engage fully in the visionary process, Baha'u'llah advocates a
discursive relationship between these two social institutions in
which both the fear of the past-coercion, oppression, and unrest-and the idealization of it are subordinated to the process of
creating a future in which law, religion, and society, acting relative to one another, may develop patterns that avoid the struggles
of past and present.
' Abdu ' l-Bah a, Paris Talks: Addresses given by 'Abdu '/-Baha in Paris in
1911- 1912 (London: Baha ' i Publishing Trust, 1995), p. 123.
There exi sts to date very little secondary literature analyzin g the Baha ' i
system of government. A good starting point among the primary literature is
the writings of Shoghi Effendi, in particular, The World Order o/Baha 'u 'llah.

creating a future in which law, religion, and society, acting relative to one another, may develop patterns that avoid the struggles
of past and present.

Ann Boyles looks at advances made and
challenges that lie ahead in the field of
interreligious dialogue.

wr.WORLD
w'ATCH

C onflict rooted in the opposing claims of the world's religions
has sparked bloody wars throughout the ages, and yet the desire to find solutions to what appear to be irreconcilable differences
has almost as long a history. The thirty-fourth Psalm, for example,
urges followers to "seek peace, and pursue it." But perhaps one of
the most heartfelt pleas for interreligious understanding was penned
by Nicolaus Cusanus, who wrote in 1453:

Thou art He, 0 God, who is sought in the different religions in
different ways and is named with different names, for Thou
remainest as Thou art, incomprehensible to all and ineffable.
Be Thou gracious and reveal Thy countenance .. . If Thou
wouldst be so gracious, then the sword, envious hatred, and
all evil will cease and all will realize that there is but one religion in the variety of the religious customs. 1

Nicolaus Cusanus, from De pace fidei; cited by Udo Schaefer in Beyond the
Clash ofReligions, trans . Geraldine Schuckelt (Prague: Zero Palm Press, 1995),
p. 150.

For four and a half centuries after that prayer was penned,
religious cooperation was seen as an unapproachable ideal and
religious conflict as the norm, but in the past hundred years significant changes have occurred. The peoples and cultures of the
world have been drawn into closer and closer proximity through
advances in communications, cultural and scientific interchange,
economic necessity, and vastly greater knowledge about the world.
This increased awareness of other peoples and their cultures has
challenged theologians and religious thinkers to reconsider their
own faith communities' long-held claims as the sole source of absolute truth. 2 Such reconsideration has, in tum, led to increased
interreligious dialogue and collaboration.
The World's Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893
is generally viewed as the beginning of the "modem" era of
interfaith dialogue and "the first time East met West religiously
on a formal platform."3 The Parliament was organized in conjunction with the World's Columbian Exposition, which marked the
five hundredth anniversary of Christopher Columbus' discovery
of America. Representation was overwhelmingly Christian (in fact,
100 of the approximately 170 speakers were Protestant), but
Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, Confucians, Jains, and Zoroastrians
were also present. 4 While it is clear from their speeches that the
majority of Christian speakers saw the Parliament as an opportunity to advance their campaign to convert peoples of other faiths,
the gathering had an unexpected result. One writer refers to it as
"an ecumenical breeze stirring America's evangelical atmosphere,"5
sparking interest in and respect for comparative religions among

Catholic theologian Paul Knitter, for examp le, has described Christianity as
"a rnonocu ltural religion" which must become a '"world religion ' that is genuinely present in various world cultures." See Knitter, Jesus and the Other Names :
Christian Mission and Global Responsibility (Oxford: Oneworld Publications,
1996), p. 148.
3 See the Web site of the Council for the Parliament of the World's Religions ,

at <www.cpwr.org> .
See Robert H. Stockman , The Baha 'i Faith in America: Origins 1892- 1900,
Vo l. I (Wilmette: Baha'i Publi shing Trust, 1985), p. 32.
Stockman, p. 32.

W O RLD W ATCH

members of the public-and fuelling hope for a more harmonious
future. 6 In his closing address at the Parliament, Charles Bonney
voiced the conviction of many participants that "Henceforth the
religions of the world will make war, not on each other, but on the
giant evils that afflict mankind. " 7 The spirit of brotherhood and
openness that prevailed left a powerful impression on North American public opinion.
Unfortunately, no permanent organization arose to continue
the dialogue begun at the Parliament, and the twentieth century
certainly did not witness the cessation of religious strife as the
Parliament's organizers had hoped. Groups drew upon religious
ideologies in the cause of war throughout the century. Nevertheless, the Parliament gave impetus to the interfaith adventure and
stands as a landmark in this work, which eventually saw the
formation of many large interfaith organizations, including the
International Association for Religious Freedom, the World Congress of Faiths, the Temple of Understanding, and the World
Conference on Religion and Peace. 8
On the centenary of the first gathering, in 1993, Chicago
hosted a second Parliament of the World's Religions, which was

The event also occasioned the first public reference to the Baha'i Faith in the
Western hemisphere, which occurred , ironically, during a talk by a Christian
clergyman on "The Re ligious Mission of the English Speaking Nations" in
" civilizing" the world's peoples through conversion to Christianity. See Stockman, pp. 32- 33 .
Cited in Marcus Braybrooke, " The Interfaith Movement in the 20th Century," p. I , in the Library of Interfaith Articles and Surveys on the
Web site of the North American Interfaith Network, <www.nain.org>; also
published in Faith and lnter/aith in a Global Age (Grand Rapids and Oxford:
CoNexus Press and Braybrooke Press, 1998).
Marcus Braybrooke, Chair of the World Congress of Faiths and Trustee of
the International Interfaith Centre at O xford , contends that while dialogue
between clergy and other " official" representatives of various faith groups
has certainly been significant, it has been the pioneering work of lay people
who have joined together to form unofficial interfaith organi zations that has
smoothed the way for more formal in terchange among religious communities
through the years. See Braybrooke, "The Interfaith Movement in the 20th
Century," p. 3.

much more representative in scope than the first, and, indeed,
served as a reflection of society itself. Throughout the twentieth
century, many forces worked to undermine people's attachments
to traditional religious dogmas, and by the time of the centenary
event the interfaith climate had warmed to the point where organizers were able to propose the adoption of a shared global ethic
aiming to give voice to the common values underlying all religions. The Declaration of the Parliament of the World's Religions
marks a new stage in interfaith work. It clearly reflects a respect
for religious pluralism and a commitment to the belief that in the
religions' essential spiritual teachings is enough common ground
for the development of an ethic that can lead humanity further
along the path towards peace and the preservation of the planet.
The success of the 1993 gathering prompted the holding of a
third Parliament of the World's Religions in December 1999 in
South Africa. At its opening, impressive images of some 10,000
followers of various faiths marching together flashed around the
world via satellite, showing the spectacle of Muslims, Hindus,
Christians, Buddhists, Baha'is, and members of many other religious groups walking arm in arm as a demonstration of their hope
for the future. While the procession was visually impressive, the
Parliament's core document, entitled A Call to Our Guiding Institutions, was what gave real substance to the gathering. The Call,
which draws upon the 1993 Declaration, advances the work by
offering an "invitation to a process of 'creative engagement,' in
which religious and spiritual communities, groups, and individuals find new modes of interaction, dialogue, and collaboration with
the other guiding institutions." It states:

Unique to this moment is the possibility of a new level of
creative engagement between the institutions of religion and
spirituality and the other powerful institutions that influence
the character and course of human society. What is needed
now is a persuasive invitation to our guiding institutions to
build new, reliable, and more imaginative paitnerships toward
the shaping of a better world. 9

Introducti on, A Ca ll to Our Guiding Institutions, <www.cpwr.org>.

WORLD WATCH

In effect, the foci of the 1993 and 1999 Parliaments reflect
two major aspects of interreligious work. The first is conceptual
and rooted in ethical considerations. It attempts to find connections and build bridges across ideological chasms between religious
groups, as seen in the 1993 Declaration. The second is more
practical, involving collaboration among different religious groups
to address the pressing needs and problems facing the human
family. Building on the consensus previously established, the 1999
Parliament focused more heavily on this aspect.
In a world of religious diversity, one of the first steps toward finding connections and building bridges across ideological
chasms must be the acquisition of accurate knowledge. This may
sound obvious, but even in regions where such information can
be easily accessed, often it is not. Diana Eck, director of the Pluralism Project at Harvard University, has found that in the United
States there is a high degree of "religious identity" but a much
lower rate of "religious literacy." 10 While knowledge does not
necessarily create sympathy, as Marcus Braybrooke has pointed
out, 11 the hope is that it will lead to greater tolerance, and dialogue plays an important role in such movement forward.
The emphasis on tolerance can been seen in the gradual broadening of approaches to interreligious work that occurred during
the twentieth century, as described in a Christian context by
theologian John Hick:

It has become common in Christian discussions to distinguish
three main responses to the problem presented by the spiritual
reality of the other great world faiths: exclusivism (salvation
is exclusive to Christians), inclusivism (all salvation is Christian salvation, but the benefits of Jesus' atoning death are
available in principle to all people, whether Christian or not),

Diana L. Eck, "Challenge of Pluralism," Nieman Reports "God in the
Newsroom" 47: 2 (Summer 1993); see "The Pluralism Project" Web site at
<www.fas.harvard.edu/~plura l sm/>.
Marcus Braybrooke, "The Interfaith Movement in the 20th Century," p. 2.

and pluralism (the great world faiths , including Christianity,
are different and independently authentic spheres of revelation and salvation). The majority of theologians have moved
in recent decades from exclusivism to inclusivism. But a growing minority now think this insufficient, seeing it as a milder
and less obvious form of the religious imperialism of the old
exclusivism. 12

The "exclusivist" approach, or the claim that one's religious
group possesses the ultimate, final truth, is problematic for honest
interreligious dialogue, because interactions with non-believers
have mostly been seen as occasions on which to attempt to
convert others to one's "true" faith. The "inclusive" approach has
led to greater tolerance, but tolerance in itself is not sufficient in a
pluralistic world. As Diana Eck writes:

Tolerance is a deceptive virtue. In fact, tolerance often stands
in the way of engagement. Tolerance does not require us
to attempt to understand one another or to know anything about
one another. Sometimes tolerance may be all that can be
expected. It is a step forward from active hostility, but it is a
long way from pluralism. 13

In fact, there is a need to move beyond tolerance along a
continuum towards greater understanding and the achievement of
authentic relationships with the "other,'' resulting in greater unity.
Creative fellowship among diverse religious adherents is the ultimate expression of this idea.
An example of the challenges faced by organized religions
in a pluralistic world is evident in the shifting response of the
Roman Catholic Church to non-Christian religions during the latter part of the twentieth century. Moving from an exclusivist
doctrine, the Church's Declaration on the Relationship of the
Church to Non-Christian Religions, made at the end of the Second Vatican Council in 1965, affirmed that it "rejects nothing which
is true and holy" in non-Christian religions and "looks with

12 John Hick, preface to the 1993 re issue of God and the Universe of Faiths

(Oxford: Oneworld, 1993).
Eck, " Challenge of Plurali sm. "

sincere respect" on their teachings and standards of conduct that
"often reflect a ray of that Truth which enlightens all men." 14 Such
a statement of tolerance opened the way to increased official interreligious dialogue, but it nevertheless posited that full salvation
would come only through full recognition and acceptance of
Christ. 15 Thus, the Church stopped short of validating the pluralist stance.
While pluralism represents a major step forward in interreligious understanding, it posits that in this post-modernist world,
no "meta-religious" standpoint is possible. As theologian Hans
Ki.ing has written, "Humanity is weary of unified ideologies, and
in any case the religions of the world are so different in their views
of faith and 'dogmas,' their symbols and rites, that a 'unification'
of them would be meaningless, a distasteful syncretistic cocktail." 16
Nevertheless , he contends, "there can be no new world order
without a world ethic," 17 and in this statement lies the basis of the
Declaration of the Parliament of the World's Religions, drafted

Cited in John Hick, God and the Universe a/Faiths, p. 126.
In the years since, Catholic theologians have advanced other approaches to
greater reconciliation. Hans Kl.ing, for example, has proposed that all the world
religions are the " ordinary" way to salvation and the Catholic Church is the
"extraordinary" way, and that people of other religious faiths should be
regarded as "pre-Christian" but directed towards Christ. Paul Knitter has called
for recognition of Jesus as "truly" but not " solely" the sav ior of humanity and
has advocated the discarding of adjectives such as "fu ll," "definitive," and
"unsurpassable," while reaffirming the adjectives "universal ," "decisive," and
"indispensable" (Knitter, pp. 72- 76). In his view, "particularity does not
exclude universality. " The recognition of Jesus as "Kingdom centered" rather
than "church centered" offers Christians a way to move beyond "christocentric"
perceptions of other re ligion s, creating centrifugal rather than centripetal
energy flow and allowing for fruitfu l collaboration w ith people of other faiths
(Knitter, pp . 89- 92). Neither Kl.ing 's nor Knitter 's approaches have been officially endorsed by the Roman C atholic C hurch ; in fact , they are regarded as
highly controversial.
Hans Kl.ing, introduction , A Global Ethic and Global Responsibilities : Two
Declarations, ed. Hans Kung and Helmut Schmidt (London: SC M Press, 1998),
p. 41.
Kl.ing, "Don ' t Be Afraid of Ethics! Why we need to ta lk of responsibilities
as well as rights ," in Kl.ing and Schmidt, p. 105. ln thi s regard, (cont'd)

by Ki.ing, which says, "By a global ethic we do not mean a global
ideology or a single unified religion beyond all existing religions,
and certainly not the domination of one religion over all others.
By a global ethic we mean a fundamental consensus on binding
values, irrevocable standards, and personal attitudes." 18
The challenges inherent in finding such common ground are
evident in the drafting of the Declaration. Theological positions
and issues upon which it was clear there could be no consensus
were avoided from the outset, and some groups initially refused
to endorse it because they felt that they had not been adequately
consulted prior to the document's release at the Parliament. In spite
of the controversy, however, the 1993 Declaration is historically
significant in that it represents the first time that a joint statement
of ethic has ever been produced as representative of all the world's
religions. It begins:

We are women and men who have embraced the precepts
and practices of the world's religions. We affirm that a common set of core values is found in the teachings of the religions,
and that these fonn the basis of a global ethic. We affirm that
this truth is already known , but yet to be lived in heati and
action. We affirm that there is an irrevocable, unconditional
nonn for all areas of life, for families and communities, for
races, nations, and religions. There already exist ancient guidelines for human behavior which are found in the teachings of
the religions of the world and which are the conditions for a
sustainable world order. 19

The Declaration, which was signed by some 6,500 religious
representatives, affirms: "The spiritual powers of the religions can

theologian Paul Knitter argues that in a "globally responsible" or "correlation al"
dialogue of religions, " religious persons seek to understand and speak with
each other on the basis of a common commitment to human and eco logica l
well-being." (Knitter, p. 17)
The Declaration of the Parliament of the World 's Religions , in Ki.ing and
Schmidt, pp. 11 - 13.
Declaration, in Kung and Schmidt, p. 3.

offer a fundamental sense of trust, a ground of meaning, ultimate
standards, and a spiritual home." And yet it also cautions, "Of
course religions are credible only when they eliminate those conflicts which spring from the religions themselves, dismantling
mutual arrogance, mistrust, prejudice, and even hostile images,
and thus demonstrate respect for the traditions, holy places, feasts,
and rituals of people who believe differently. " 20
At the same time that the Parliament was moving along in
its process of interreligious dialogue, a number of other significant advances were made in the field. For example, the relationship
between world peace and the achievement of peace among religious groups was discussed at a UNESCO forum in Paris in 1989
and then at the 1990 World Economic Forum in Davos, and a
group called the InterAction Council took up an initiative that was
separate from but complementary to the development of the
Parliament's Declaration. The Council, a group of former heads
of state and government founded in 1983 by former Japanese prime
minister Takeo Fukada, analyzes and encourages international
collaboration on issues surrounding peace and security, the global
economy, development, population, and the environment. Following consultations involving religious and intellectual leaders in
1987, Fukada wrote, "I have long felt that world peace and the
welfare of mankind concern religious groups as much as political
figures. I felt that an understanding could be obtained from
religious groups and that a certain common denominator might
be found ." 2 1 The result, in 1997, was the Council's proposal of
the text of a Universal Declaration of Global Responsibilities,
which was submitted to the United Nations for consideration as
an adjunct document to the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights.

Declaration, in Kung and Schmidt, p. 15.
Documentati on of the Inter Action Council : Peace, Development, En vironment, Population: Spiritual Leaders Meet Political Leaders (Rome, 1987),
Preface, p. 2; cited in Johannes Friihbauer, "From th e Decla ra tion of th e
Reli g ion s to th e Declaration of the Statesmen," in Kung and Schmidt, p. 86.

On more of a grassroots level, "the United Religions Initiative," initiated by the Rev. William E. Swing, produced a charter
that gave expression to the same hope voiced in many of the other
declarations and documents produced by various groups during
the 1990s. It begins, "We, people of diverse religions, spiritual
expressions and indigenous traditions throughout the world, hereby
establish the United Religions Initiative to promote enduring, daily
interfaith cooperation, to end religiously motivated violence, and
to create cultures of peace, justice and healing for the Earth and
all living beings." Some three hundred people, representing thirtynine different spiritual traditions and forty-four countries, gathered
to sign this charter in June 2000.
All of these initiatives represent positive steps forward in
interreligious dialogue, but they generally go no further than the
pluralist position. While the religious groups advocate tolerance
and respect for the "other" and on occasion commit to joint action, they also insist on the validity of their own theologies,
dogmas, and practices. In effect, they regard each other as "separate but equal." The question then arises: Is further movement along
a continuum towards unity possible or not?
According to John Hick, it is. He compares the paradigm of
"exclusivity" to the way that Ptolemaic science positions the earth
at the center of the universe and points to the need for a theory
more in keeping with our broadened understanding:

... having noted that Ptolemaic theo logies tend to posit th eir
centres on the basis of the accidents of cultural geography,
one can scarcely avoid seeing one's own Ptolemaic conv iction
in a new light. Can we now be content that our own religion
should be a kind of spiritual horoscope read off from the time
and place of our birth? And can we be so entirely confident
that to have been born in our particular part of the world
can-ies with it the privilege of knowing the full religious truth,
whereas to be born elsewhere involves the likelihood of having only pa1tial and inferior truth? Is there, one asks oneself,
some vestige here of the imperialism of the [C]hristian west in
relation to 'lesser breeds without the law?' It remains possible
to retain the Ptolemaic point of view; but when we are

conscious of its historical relativity we may we! I feel the need
for a more sophisticated, comprehensive and globally valid
theory. 22

In response to this need, Hick calls for a "Copernican revolution" in religious thought, in which the different faiths recognize
that they are "encounters from different historical and cultural
standpoints with the same infinite divine reality and as such they
lead to differently focused awarenesses of that reality. " 23 In this
paradigm, God-not the religion-is the center of the universe,
and the religions are seen as the planets circling around one
indivisible Reality. Hick asks, "Why not simply accept that
the transformation of human existence from destructive selfcentredness to a new centring in the ultimate transcendent Reality
that we call God is taking place in and through all the great world
traditions?" In this paradigm, the boundaries between the religions
become more blurred. However, Hick does not stop there . He
writes:

... now that the religious traditions are consciously interacting
with each other in the ' one world' of today, in mutual observation and di alogue, it is possible that their future developments
may be on gradually converging courses. For during the next
few centuries they will no doubt contin ue to change, and it
may be that they will grow closer together, and even that one
day such names as 'C hristianity,' ' Buddhism,' 'Islam,' 'Hinduism ,' wi ll no longer describe the then current configuration s
of men 's religious experience and be! ief. .. The future I am
thinking of is accordingly one in which what we now call the
different religions wil l constitute the past history of different
emphases and variations within a g lobal religious life . . .. the
discoveri es now taking place by men of different faiths of central common ground, hitherto largely concealed by the variety
of cultural fonns in wh ich it was expressed, may eventua lly
render obsolete the sense of belonging to rival ideological
communities. 24

Hick, p. 132 .
H ick, p. 141 .
Hick, p. 146.

TH E B AI-IJ-\'f W ORLD

Hick uses the analogy of the religions as different planets
circling around one sun, God-a familiar concept to Baha' is from
their own sacred writings, in which the Founders of the world's
great religions (or Manifestations of God) are often referred to as
"rays of one Sun," an image conveying the idea of their essential
unity.
Baha'is believe that their understanding of the relationship
between the various religions and of the purpose of interreligious
dialogue represents yet another step forward on the continuum
leading towards unity. The foundation of the Baha'i approach arises
from a conviction that "the religion of God is one religion, but it
must ever be renewed." 25 Baha'u'llah writes: "There can be no
doubt whatever that the peoples of the world, of whatever race or
religion, derive their inspiration from one heavenly Source, and
are the subjects of one God." 26 Further, He states: "These principles and laws, these firmly-established and mighty systems, have
proceeded from one Source, and are the rays of one Light. That
they differ one from another is to be attributed to the varying requirements of the ages in which they were promulgated. " 27 Thus,
from the Baha'i perspective, the intent of the Founders of the
world's great religions- Moses, Buddha, Zoroaster, Krishna,
Christ, Muhammad-was not to create different faith systems but
rather to progressively awaken a wider range of spiritual and moral
capacities.
Now humanity stands at the outset of a cycle of fulfillment,
when we are capable ofrecognizing the essential unity of the truth
found at the heart of the religions of the world. Baha'u'llah affirms: "That the divers communions of the earth, and the manifold
systems ofreligious belief, should never be allowed to foster the
feelings of animosity among men, is, in this Day, of the essence

'A bdu'l-Baha, Selections/i"Oln the Writings of 'A bdu 'l-Baha (Haifa: Baha ' i
World Centre, 1978), p. 52.
<' Baha ' u'llah, Gleaningsfro m the Writings ofBaha 'u 'I/ah , 2d ed. (Wilm ette:
Baha' i Publishing Trust, 1976), 111 , p. 217.
Ba ha' u' llah, Gleanings, 133, pp. 287- 88 .

W ORLD W ATCH

of the Faith of God and His Religion. " 28 In 1912, while visiting
North America, His son 'Abdu'l-Baha told audiences:

You are blessed with men oflearning, men who are well versed
in the comparative study of religions. You realize the need of
unity and know the great harm which comes from prejudice
and superstition ... We must bestow commendation upon all
people, thus removing the discord and hatred which have
caused a li enation amongst men. Otherwise, the conditions of
the past will continue, praising ourselves and condemning others; religious wars will have no end, and religious prejudice,
th e prime cause of this havoc and tribulation, will increase.
This must be abandoned, and the way to do it is to investigate
the reality which underlies all the religions. This underlying
reality is the love of humanity. For God is one and humanity is
one, and the only creed of the Prophets is love and unity. 29

Such statements clearly indicate that rather than a pluralistic
approach, the Baha'i view represents a "unity paradigm," which,
in the words of the German Baba' i scholar and jurist Udo Schaefer,
"constitutes a positive basis for the study of religions: they are
taken seriously, revered and portrayed in a sympathetic light." 30
Schaefer continues:

This is not mere indifference, an " anything goes" approach
(which Kung rightly criticizes), but the acknowledgement that
that which has developed over long historical periods and is
testified to in frequently interrupted tradition originates from
the same Source: the revelation of the li ving God. It is the
realization that the sometimes major differences, even stark
conháadictions, in doctrine, societal order and fon11S of worship are historically conditioned. 3 1

With regard to interreligious dialogue, the practical implications of this paradigm are evident in the following statement of
Baha ' u' ll ah, Gleanings, 133, p. 287.
'A bdu ' 1-Baha, The Promulgation of' Universal Peace, Talks Delivered by
'Abdu 'l-Baha during his Visit to the United States and Canada in 1912, 2d
ed. (Wilm ette: Baha' i Publishing Tru st, 1982), p. 410.
Schaefer, p. 144.
Schaefer, pp . 144- 45.

Shoghi Effendi: "Its [the Baha'i Faith's] declared, its primary purpose is to enable every adherent of these Faiths to obtain a fuller
understanding of the religion with which he stands identified, and
to acquire a clearer apprehension of its purpose." 32 The Baha'i
commitment to interfaith amity is thus doctrinal in nature-and
therefore perhaps unique among the world religions.
A discussion of religious conflict as a barrier to the achievement of peace features prominently in a statement of the Universal
House of Justice, titled The Promise of World Peace, which was
released on the occasion of the United Nations International Year
of Peace in 1986. It says:

Religious strife, throughout history, has been the cause of
innumerable wars and conflicts, a major blight to progress,
and is increasingly abhorrent to the people of all faiths and no
faith. Followers of all religions must be willing to face the
basic questions which this strife raises, and to arrive at clear
answers. How are the differences between them to be reso lved,
both in theory and in practice? The challenge facing the
religious leaders of mankind is to contemplate, with hearts filled
with the spirit of compassion and a desire for truth, the plight
of humanity, and to ask themselves whether they cannot, in
humility before their Almighty Creator, submerge their theological differences in a great spirit of mutual forbearance that
will enable them to work together for the advancement of
human understanding and peace. 33

Surely this passage speaks to one of the great challenges facing
religious groups in the closing years of the twentieth century.
While consensus on many theological issues remains elusive
and constitutes a great ongoing challenge in interreligious dialogue, religious groups have begun to address the second aspect
of interreligious work- practical action to address the problems
facing humanity. The central document to emerge from the 1999

Shoghi Effendi, Th e World Order ojBaha 'u '!Lah: Selected Letters, 1st pocket
ed. (Wilmette: Baha ' i Pub! ishing Trust, 1991 ), p. 58.
The Universal House of Ju stice, The Promise of World Peace (Haifa: World
Centre Publications, 1985), p. 7.

W ORLD W ATCll

Parliament of the World's Religions in South Africa, titled A Call
to Our Guiding Institutions, reflects this concern:

We find ourselves at a moment when people everywhere are
coming to recognize that the world is a global village. Un ique
to this moment is the possibility of a new level of creative engagement between the institutions of religion and
spirituality and the other powerful institutions that influence
the character and course of human society. What is needed
now is a persuasive invitation to our guiding instituti ons to
build new, reliable, and more imaginati ve partnerships toward
the shaping of a better world. 34

Throughout the Parliament, discussions between secular and
religious leaders focused on the means to increase collaboration,
and the event also saw the unveiling of "Gifts of Service to the
World," which comprise hundreds of service projects initiated by
participating religious groups.
Interfaith efforts are now springing up to address issues of
vital importance to humanity, including peace, human rights, the
environment, sustainable development, the education and advancement of women, health, social justice, and the eradication of
poverty. Organizations such as the World Conference on Religions
and Peace and the Alliance for Religions and Conservation, and
initiatives such as the World Faiths Development Dialogue have
also brought faith groups together to develop common strategies
for tackling specific issues.
The Interreligious Council of Sierra Leone, for example, was
convened by the World Conference on Religion and Peace in 1997
to promote human rights and advance the growth of a culture of
democracy. In a country ravaged by years of civil war, the Council is generally seen as one of the most trustworthy and effective
advocates of peace, using its moral clout to establish peace talks
among warring factions. Combining the resources of the country 's
religious communities for the first time, the Council speaks with
one voice to articulate a shared ethical vision upon which the nation can rebuild. The WCRP is also involved in a number of other
Introduction, A Call to our Guiding Institutions.

interfaith activities in countries such as Indonesia, Bosnia, and
Kosovo.
The World Faiths Development Dialogue arose from a 1998
conference of religious representatives that was jointly chaired
by James Wolfensohn of the World Bank and George Carey, archbishop of Canterbury. It has engaged representatives from a number
of the world's religions in discussions that have resulted in a common understanding of poverty and development. This vision is
now being translated into action through interfaith projects in several countries, and similar work in connection to post-conflict
reconstruction is in the planning stages. The goal is to contribute
substantively to policy, design, and implementation of World Bank
programs. 35
It is clear that dialogue among faith groups is an important
mechanism for weaving the moral fabric of an increasingly interdependent world and a means of fostering the development of
shared value structures that can lead to the establishment of new
and peaceful patterns of community life. A major challenge that
lies before official institutions of the various religions is to provide opportunities for greater grassroots interaction among their
adherents, so that the results of what has been achieved through
years of interreligious dialogue can bear fruit in the actions of
rank and file believers. In this way, coming together to engage in
interfaith activities, serving humanity and discovering the common bases of their beliefs, they can cultivate deeper and more
meaningful personal relationships with each other.
The value of such contact has been noted by Leonard Swidler,
editor of the Journal ofEcumenical Studies and professor of Catholic Thought and Interreligious Dialogue at Temple University, who
has identified three phases in interreligious dialogue. First, he
writes, "we unlearn misinformation about each other and begin to
know each other as we truly are. In phase two we begin to discern
values in the partner's tradition and wish to appropriate them into
our own tradition .. . If we are serious, persistent, and sensitive

For more on these proj ects, see pp. 11 6- 17 and the World Fa ith s Deve lopment Dia logue Web site, at <www.wfdd.org.uk> .

enough in the dialogue, we may at times enter into phase three.
Here we together begin to explore new areas of reality, of meaning, and of truth, of which neither of us had even been aware
before." 36 Thus, dialogue can open the way to individual spiritual
transformation and a deepening of faith.
A powerful example of one project that is promoting this
kind of understanding is "Pontanima," an interfaith choir in
Bosnia-Herzegovina. The initiative of "Face to Face Interreligious
Service," a voluntary organization promoting interreligious dialogue, the choir has brought together Muslim, Serbian
Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Protestant and Jewish members to
"sing the songs of our neighbors and interact together," in the words
of lvo Markovich, the Franciscan priest who heads the project.
He continues, "Our goal is that we can sing in worship with Christian, Islamic and Jewish communities. During worship services,
we sing only the songs of that religion-the songs that can be
integrated into worship. Those of us from that particular religion
will participate in worship, and others will be there in respect-as
guests who are with their friends in the most important part of
their lives." When the choir began in 1996, some members had

To safeguard an atmosphere of tolerance, respect, and courtesy during interrel igious encounters in this "separate but equa l" pluralistic world, Swidler has
formulated a set of widely disseminated "commandments" for dialogue
participants. According to Swidler, the "ten commandments" of interre ligious
dialogue are as follows: the primary purpose of such dialogue is to learn- to
change and grow in one's understanding and to act accordingly; the dialogue
must be a two-sided project; participants must be completely hon est and
sincere; idea ls must be compared to idea ls, and practice to practice; participants must define themselves (rather tha n people of other groups defining them);
participants must set aside assumptions regarding points of disagreement;
dialogue must take place between equa ls; dialogue must be based on mutual
trust; participants must be minimally self-critical of themselves and their own
religious traditions; participants must strive for an interior experience of the
other's religion . See "The D ia logue Deca logue: Ground Rules for lnterreligious, Interideological Dialogue" in the Journal of Ecumenical Studies
20: I (Winter 1983). These are worthy guidelines, but participants' practice of
self-criticality is not necessarily the norm- as in perceptions of the treatment
of women, for example.

THE B AJ-]j\'f W ORLD

great difficulty singing religious songs that had been co-opted as
military anthems used to tum ethnic groups against each other.
Markovich notes, "Many people were killed, tortured and terrorized by these sacred songs that were misused as instruments of
war. By singing these songs, together with people of various ethnic groups, we restore the songs to their intended purpose-to
praise God." 37 In this way, participants have experienced the power
of reconciliation, a potent interfaith experience that reaches
beyond mere intellectual appreciation and challenges them to
look beyond their own groups to gain a deeper appreciation
for others ' points of view and deeply felt commitments.
From these many and varied examples, it is clear that a
momentum towards interreligious understanding has been building throughout the final decade of the twentieth century. Significant
progress has been made, but much remains to be done. On one
hand, for example, the 1993 and 1999 Parliaments of the World's
Religions concerned themselves with the search for common moral
or ethical foundations-and managed to generate a widely accepted
statement of such common ground. On the other hand, admittedly
difficult theological terrain still remains to be explored. How can
we investigate and approach common areas of understanding in
connection with the Eternal Reality-whether the Trinity, or the
Buddhist denial of divinity? What about different understandings
of the meaning and means of salvation? How do we reconcile various conceptions of the afterlife and their implications for human
behavior? While possible threads of theological unity among the
major religions have been explored from time to time, such deep
inquiries have not yet occurred in a systematic way among religious thinkers. To the extent that such substantive exploration
occurs, overall interreligious collaboration will be enriched. It
can only be hoped that the recent focus on common universal
principles has laid the foundation for a deeper exploration of
the underlying theological tenets of the world's faiths. Building
conceptual or philosophical bridges between the Abrahamic and

Interview: lvo Markovich on the role of interreligious dialogue in Bosnia.
Press re lease of the Mennonite Central Committee (3 March 2000).

W ORLD W ATCH

Vedic faiths, for example, is one such challenging-but beneficial-undertaking.
Another challenge faced by interfaith movement participants
pertains to human rights. While it is heartening that faith groups
are finding commonalities, it is rare for religious leaders to address the human rights issue of freedom of conscience in the matter
of religious belief-including the freedom of an individual to
change his or her belief. Frank discussion of this matter will mark
a milestone in interreligious work. After all, if people of religious
faith truly believe that the Creator is eternal and the center of all
existence, then they must also believe that unfettered and sincere
investigation will lead to the truth, which has many facets and
shelters all of our diverse expressions of faith.
These are some of the many challenging areas that remain as
we prepare to enter a new century. The next major occasion on
the interfaith calendar is scheduled for August 2000, when the
largest gathering of religious leaders ever held will occur immediately prior to the Millennium Summit at the United Nations.
The event will be doubly significant; first, because the United Nations has recognized, by its provision of a venue for the meeting,
that the world's religions cannot be excluded from discussions and
meaningful action pertaining to the well-being of the world's
peoples; and second, because an unprecedented number of leaders and representatives of the world's faiths are gathering to pray
together and to consult on matters relating to world peace. There
appears to be recognition that, in the words of 'Abdu'l-Baha, "a
power above and beyond the powers of nature must needs be
brought to bear, to change this black darkness into light, and these
hatreds and resentments, grudges and spites, these endless wrangles
and wars, into fellowship and love amongst all the peoples of the
earth." 38 At this auspicious moment, the world's religious leaders
have the opportunity to raise a compelling collective call for peace.
They have made significant progress in achieving greater interreligious understanding. Will it be enough for them to rise to the
occasion?

'Abdu'l -Baha, Selections, p. 53 .

This article incorporates material
previously published in One Country,
the quarterly newsletter of the Baha 'i
International Community, I 0:4
(January-March 1999).

PROFILE: MONGOLIAN
DEVELOPMENT
CENTER

I n the summer of 1993, the Mongolian Ministry of Education
granted pennission for several Baha'is to create an organization devoted to providing education in social and economic
development. Inspired by a holistic view of social progress, the
organizers believed that the path to rural well-being begins with
the individual, upon whose enthusiasm, expertise, and commitment the future of any development project ultimately rests. Not
content with providing only material expertise, the organizers
hoped to integrate material, intellectual, social, and spiritual
education, with the aim of helping participants develop their
latent capacities for service to the family, the community, and
society. The project was dubbed the Mongolian Development
Center (MDC).
Eight students enrolled in the Center's first courses of
commercial English and basic economic theory. By November
1993 the MDC had assumed status as a subdepartment of the Mongolian Technological University, and less than one month later
the Chamber of Commerce and Industry officially recognized the

A sem inar on vegetable
production in
Erdenbulgan, sponsored
by the Mongolian
Development Cente1'.

Certificate in Economic and Business Studies, awarded by the
Center to students upon successful completion of both the
commercial English course and the introductory economics course.
Tuition fees and subsequent sponsorship by a Swiss corporation
enabled the Center to maintain itself and expand into other areas
of social and economic development.
Since its inception, the Center has gradually modified and
expanded its range of activities. Its participation in the First
International Symposium on the Development of Appropriate Technology resulted in public recognition of the Center's achievements
in the area of agriculture, and it began an agricultural project in
the district of Baganuur. MDC also became actively involved
in the promotion of the United Nations' Convention on the Rights
of the Child, which enhanced and strengthened its relationships
with the government and with NGO officials. In 1995, the Center
collaborated with UNICEF to sponsor a conference for all Mongolian NGOs focusing on the rights of children. On 11 June 1998,
MDC was registered as an NGO by the Ministry of Justice, and in
1999 it achieved tax-free status.
By April 2000, the Mongolian Development Center's activities were focused on three main areas: child development, capacity
building and community development, and character development.
The Center's child development initiative involves various exhibitions, competitions, lectures, and teacher training-all related
to the rights of children. A community gardening project in
Erdenbulgan, Hovsgol Province, and the Integral Human Development project (which involves a demonstration garden plot at

M ONGO LIAN D EVH OPMENT c ENTER

Charity School in Darkhan Province as well as tree planting on
the school grounds and Charity School itself) fall under the heading of capacity building and community development. Finally, in
connection to character development (or moral education), the
MDC has translated a curriculum on character development previously developed by the Badi Foundation in Macau and teachers
have been trained in it, allowing for the incorporation of the curriculum into six kindergartens in four provinces during 2000.
One of the Mongolian Development Center's main initiatives
has been the establishment of projects aimed at stimulating the
production of vegetables. A very strong rural culture of herding
animals exists throughout Mongolia, and greens are generally
absent from the traditional diet. As a result, health specialists see
signs of vitamin deficiencies and growth stunting. A child nutrition survey conducted by UNICEF in 1992-1993 documented a
growing problem of malnutrition among children. In particular,
deficiencies in vitamins A and D were identified as the main causes
of several widespread health problems.
These circumstances make the changes taking place especially encouraging. The coordinator of the Poverty Alleviation Study
Center reports, for example, that between 1990 and 1996, the

Children in a pumpkin patch in an area ofMongolia where, until 1993,
vegetables were not generally gro wn or consumed.

number of families in Ulaanbaatar growing vegetables increased
from 850 to 21 ,000.
Contributing to this change, the MDC has initiated a number
of agricultural development projects in different districts of the
country. The first was a systematic training program in a small
district called Gachuurt, begun in August 1993, that introduced
appropriate agricultural technology to allow people to improve
the nutritional value of their diets by growing fruits and vegetables.
A pilot gardening project in the Erdenbulgan region and a demonstration garden established on the grounds of MDC's Charity
School in Darkhan Province have also been successful in this regard.
The Erdenbulgan vegetable project was initiated in 1996 by
a small group of Baha' is with the help of a small loan and the
donation of seeds. It has provided an opportunity for local people
to grow a greater variety of vegetables, thus improving their nutrition and supplementing their income through the sale of excess
seedlings. The Erdenbulgan project's success is reflected in the
words of one participant, sixteen-year-old Amartuvishin, who says,
"I now like vegetables very much. Vegetables are very important
for good health, because they contain many vitamins and other
nutrients." Amraa, as he is known, is engaged in learning as much
as he can about the process of preparing, growing, and cooking
vegetables.
But even more important than its nutritional benefits, the
project provides an avenue for participants to learn about- and
put into practice-sound principles related to their own social and
economic development. Families have joined together in groups
to maintain their gardens, and their consultation and reflection on
their actions have increased their capacity for collective action.
As Davaadulam, a teacher in Erdenbulgan and a member of the
local Baha'i community, says, "Many people such as the elderly,
children and youth have been involved in this project. The project
has helped people to learn how to consult together, to work in
harmony and to be united with one goal."

M ONOOLIAl\I D EVELOPMENT c ENTER

For the Bahri 'i
community of
Erdenbulgcm,fi'esh
salads have become a
regular treat at
gatherings. '

While the projects are small (only four families in Erdenbulgan and sixteen families in Darkhan are involved in this
ongoing process oflearning based on study, action, and reflection
on action), they are having a positive impact on their communities . The participants' improved decision-making skills, which
contribute to the creation of unity of vision and action within the
group, have attracted the attention of the wider community and of
government organizations. To help sustain the project and to share
what has been learned through it with other groups, the MDC conducts training programs for farm workers and seminars for the
public.
Maitar Tsend, the director of the Mongolian Horticultural
Society, an independent NGO which has also launched its own
campaign to encourage small-scale vegetable gardening, has noticed how the Erdenbulgan project has educated and empowered
local people, who, during the Communist period, were prohibited
from having gardens because they were considered private initiatives. "The whole Erdenbulgan population is much encouraged
by the successful implementation of the project. And this is very
important because it reflects a deep psychological change that is
going on," he says.
Charity School, another MDC-sponsored project, is located
six hours by train from Ulaanbaatar and has an enrollment of three
hundred students, one hundred of whom are disabled, poor, or
orphaned. The project began in 1996 and has received funding
from the Australian Agency of International Development at the

Australian Embassy in Beijing. Moral education classes are offered as well as courses on nutrition and agriculture. As part of an
effort to promote moral education, the school has opened a "Child
Rights and Virtues Resource Room." A demonstration garden is
situated on the school grounds, and a tree-planting project has been
initiated in an effort to beautify the property. The local
government has taken note of the progress being made by the
sixteen families and the student group from the school that are
involved in the various educational programs and gardening
projects. Twenty students from Beijing have also toured the project,
in a visit facilitated by the Australian Ambassador. Charity School
has networked with a number ofNGOs, including the Red Cross
of Mongolia, Peace Winds Japan in Mongolia, World Vision,
Oyuntulhkuur Fund, Youth Union, and the Mongolian Association of World Peace, to enlist support for orphaned children and
the Child Rights and Virtues Resource Room. Charity School is
also used as a site for training programs conducted by MDC; the
first courses on gardening and the social enterprise program were
offered there in April 1999.
MDC's achievements in social and economic development
and its decentralized operations run by provincial project facilitators-recognized by both government officials and NGOs-are
known to the public as a result of television and radio news broadcasts. By making education the centerpiece of their development
plan, the organizers of the Mongolian Development Center hope
that the people it serves will be able to sustain and direct their
own process of change, and by building relationships with likeminded organizations, government, and the public, MDC hopes
to stimulate dialogue about the nature of development, education,
and social progress.

The Baha 'i International Community
presented this statement to the Fifty-sixth
Session of the United Nations Commission
on Human Rights, held in Geneva,
20 March- 28 April 2000.

CURRENT
SITUATION
OF THE
BAHA'fS
rNJRAN

F or twenty years, the Baha'i International Community has taken
the floor to share with the Commission information about the
plight of the peace-loving Baha'i community in Iran.
The situation of the Baha'i community is now at an important crossroad. Although we are beginning to see signs of positive
developments in the Islamic Republic, we are, as yet, unable to
document any improvement in the actual situation of the Baha'is.
They are still targets of overt atrocities, and they continue to
suffer under the burden of more subtle forms of discrimination
such as economic strangulation and denial of access to higher
education.
Imprisonments and Death Sentences
As of 1 March 2000, twelve Baha'is are being held in prison because of their religious beliefs; five of those have been sentenced
to death. It is clear that the charges brought against all twelve
prisoners-including those awaiting execution- are based solely
on their membership in the Baha'i community.

Although the Iranian Government has stated on numerous
occasions that the situation in Iran has improved, we have recently
been informed of three more death sentences imposed on Baha'is
in the city of Mashhad.
On 3 February 2000, two prisoners, Mr. Sirus Dhabihi-
Muqaddam and Mr. Hedayat Kashifi-Najafabadi, were informed
orally that their death sentences had been confinned. At the same
time Mr. Ata'u'llah Hamid Nasirizadih was informed that his sentence of ten years' imprisonment had also been confinned. All
three sentences were upheld despite assurances to the contrary
given by the Iranian Government to the Special Representative
on Iran, Mr. Maurice D. Copithorne.
The third death sentence was imposed by the same court on
Mr. Manuchehr Khulusi, who was arrested in Birjand some eight
months ago and subsequently transferred to the prison in Mashhad.
It is not known what charges were brought against Mr. Khulusi,
but it is clear that he was arrested because of his Baha'i activities.
Requirements for the Restoration of the Baha'i Community
As you can see, the situation of the Baha'i community has not
improved and "remains of serious concern," to use the terms of
the Special Representative in his last interim report to the General
Assembly in 1999.
In light of the facts we have shared in this brief statementall of which are amply documented in Mr. Copithorne's report to
the current session of the Commission- we must once again call
upon the Commission to intercede on behalf of this beleaguered
community. Mr. Abdelfattah Amor's report (E/CN.4/ 1996/95
I Add.2), issued after his visit to Iran in 1996, describes with clarity the situation of the Baha'is and specifies a comprehensive set
of measures that the Government should take to remedy that situation.
Mr. Amor calls on the Government oflran to grant the Baha'is
the following:
• freedom to bury their dead
• freedom of movement
á no impediment to access to education or employment

• security of the person and physical integrity
• civil rights and, in particular, the freedom to manifest their
belief
• the review and setting aside of the death sentences (we
call also for the release of these prisoners)
• return of community properties and compensation for the
destruction of places of worship
• equal treatment by the judiciary
• equal rights for all, regardless of their beliefs or the community to which they belong
á reestablishment of Baha'i institutions.
We would like to emphasize that reestablishment of Baha'i
institutions is particularly critical, as they constitute the core around
which Baha'i community life revolves . Because the Baha'i Faith
has no clergy, the arbitrary dissolution of these institutions, ordered by the Government of the Islamic Republic oflran in 1983,
was equivalent to abolishing cardinals, bishops, and parish priests
in Christian communities. These institutions not only guide the
community and nurture the individual members, but they perform
such canonical functions as marriages and burials.
In our view the Government of the Islamic Republic oflran
is able, if it wishes, to find ways within existing Jaws and regulations, to accord Baha'is the same freedoms enjoyed by all other
Iranian citizens. For example, measures were recently taken by
the Government oflran which make it possible for married Baha'i
couples to be registered as husband and wife. This step should
also allow such couples to register children of their marriage.
Appeal to the Commission
We now appeal to the Commission to look into ways of assuring
that all of the recommendations of the Special Rapporteur on Religious Intolerance and the Special Representative on Iran are
systematically implemented. In this respect, it may be helpful to
develop a timetable for monitoring purposes, in consultation with
the Government of the Islamic Republic oflran. We are convinced
that a speedy implementation of these recommendations is the key

to the full emancipation of the Baha'i community in the land of
its birth.
We would like to remind the Commission that the Baha'i
community poses no threat to the Iranian authorities . The principles of the Baha'i Faith require that Baha'is, wherever they reside,
be obedient to their government and avoid partisan political involvement, subversive activity and all forms of violence. Moreover,
the Baha'i community in Iran is not and will not be aligned with
any government, ideology, or opposition movement.
The Baha'is seek no special privileges. They desire only their
rights under the International Bill of Human Rights, of which Iran
is a signatory, including the right to life, the right to profess and
practice their religion, the right to liberty and security of person,
and the right to education and work.

Th e Baha 'i International Comm unity
presented this statement to the Fifty-sixth
Session of the United Nations Commission on
Human Rights, held in Geneva,
20 March- 28 April 2000.

THE
RrGHTro
EDUCATION

T he right to education is, in the view of the Baha'i International Community, one of the most important rights set forth
in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. So important is
the right to education that it is elaborated in both the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights . Indeed, the very
mission of the founders of the great religions throughout history
has been to educate humankind. Education is critical to the development of each individual's potential and to his or her enjoyment
of the full range of human rights. At the same time, education
must serve society as a whole by instilling in individuals an unwavering respect for the rights of others and a desire to uphold
and defend those rights.
The Baha'i International Community is, therefore, pleased
that in 1998 the Commission on Human Rights accepted the
recommendation of the Committee on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights to appoint a Special Rapporteur whose mandate
"will focus on the right to education." 1 We are also pleased that
Commiss ion on Human Rights resolution 1998/33, para. 6 (a).

the Special Rapporteur's mandate addresses implementation "of
the principle of compulsory primary education free of charge for
all" 2 and that it takes into account "the situation and needs of the
girl child. " 3
While we agree that access to education is a matter that must
be given serious attention by governments and non-governmental
organizations alike, we feel that the content of education is of
primary importance. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
states that the goal of education is not only "the full development
of the human personality and the sense of its dignity" but also the
promotion of "understanding, tolerance and friendship among
all nations, racial, ethnic, or religious groups ... " 4 To accomplish
these broad and lofty goals, education must address the whole person, that is, it should seek to develop the full range of human
capacities-intellectual, social, physical, and spiritual.
In the minds of many, the aim of education is limited to
empowering the person to achieve material well-being and prosperity, with little regard for his or her responsibility toward others
and humanity as a whole. Such a materialistic approach to education will continue to exacerbate the disparity between the wealthy
few and the impoverished many-perpetuating the injustices of
social stratification and contributing to the increasing instability
in the world. If, however, material education goes hand in hand
with spiritual education and moral development, it will be the
means for ensuring the well-being and prosperity of humanity as
a whole. Instead of emphasizing competition, education would do
well, at this point in history, to foster the attitudes and skills necessary for cooperation; for the very survival of humankind now
depends on our ability to cooperate and on our collective commitment to justice and human rights for all. The ability to cooperate
with others will also ensure that increasing numbers of people will
benefit from the right to education.

Comm iss ion on Human Rights resolution, para. 6 (a) (ii) .
3 Commission on Human Rights resolution, para. 6 (a) (iii).
Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Soc ial and C ultural
Rights; article 26 of the Un iversal Declaration of Hurn an Rights.

RIGHT TO EDUCATION

The recent conflicts in Europe demonstrate the failure of
material education alone to foster respect for human rights. The
Baha'i Faith, as a matter of principle, accords priority to spiritual
and moral education over the other aspects of education. "Good
behavior and high moral character must come first," say the Baha'i
writings, "for unless the character be trained, acquiring knowledge will only prove injurious. Knowledge is praiseworthy when
it is coupled with ethical conduct and a virtuous character, otherwise it is a deadly poison, a frightful danger." 5 The function of
moral and spiritual education is to guide the use of human capacities for the good of all. We submit, therefore, that the goal
of education should be not only the acquisition of knowledge,
but also the acquisition of spiritual qualities such as compassion,
trustworthiness, service, justice, and respect for all.
At the heart of the report of the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization, Learning: The Treasure
Within, 6 is the notion put forth in the Convention on the Rights of
the Child that education should enable the individual to develop
fully his or her potentialities.7 "Regard man as a mine rich in gems
of inestimable value," Baha'u'llah urges, "Education can, alone,
cause it to reveal its treasures, and enable mankind to benefit therefrom." 8 These treasures must be consciously developed, drawn out
and cultivated because although the capacity for good is innate,
human beings can fall prey to equally innate corrupt inclinations.
"Man is even as steel," states Baha'u'llah, "the essence of which
is hidden: through admonition and explanation, good counsel and
education, that essence will be brought to light. If, however, he be

Bahti 'i Education: A Compilation ojExtractsjiáom the Baha'i Writings (Lon -
don: Baha ' i Publishing Trust), 1987, p. 29, para . 74.
Report to UNESCO of the International Comm ission on Education for the
Twenty-first Century: learning: The Treasure Within (Paris: UNESCO Pub-
]ish ing, 1996).
See the Convention on the Rights of the Ch ild , artic le 29 (a).
Baha 'u ' llah , Gleanings of the Writings of Bah a 'u '/!ah (Wi lmette: Baha'i
Publishing Trust, 1982), pp . 259- 60.

allowed to remain in his original condition, the corrosion of lusts
and appetites will effectively destroy him." 9
Because every child stands in need of education, particularly
in moral values, it is essential that education be provided for girl
children, who will be the mothers and first educators of succeeding generations. Educating mothers is the most efficient way of
ensuring that the benefits of education are diffused into society as
a whole. Providing women and girls equal access to education
will also make possible their full participation in society, which
Baha'is believe will be the catalyst for the creation of a just
society and the establishment of lasting peace in the world. We,
therefore, endorse the resolution's recommendation that the
Special Rapporteur "promote the elimination of all fonns of discrimination in education." 10
In considering the content of education, it is important to remember that the prejudices separating the peoples of the world
and, at times, erupting into conflicts and wars are not just the
result of ignorance but are sometimes the product of a biased education. The development of and adherence to a universal set of
educational principles, based, perhaps, on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, could provide a unifying framework within
which to cultivate an understanding of the diversity of human experience. The strength of such a framework will derive from its
basis in the principle of the oneness of humanity. Acceptance of
that one principle will make possible the cultivation of unity among
the diverse elements of the human family, recognizing common
human aspirations in the varied cultures, habits, and temperaments
that exist in every country and throughout the world. The oneness
of humanity and the universality of human rights should be taught
in every classroom in the world, along with skills in consultation
and conflict resolution.
Education should be universal, compulsory, and free of
charge. We acknowledge that such a goal can be accomplished
only when the responsibility is shared. "Everyone, whether man

Baha 'i Education, p. 3, para. I 0.
°Commission on Hum an Rights reso lution 1998/33, para . 6 (a) (iii).

RIGHT TO EDUCATION

or woman, should," according to Baha'i scripture, "hand over. .. a
portion of what he or she eameth through trade, agriculture or
other occupation, for the training and education of children." 11We
commend the Special Rapporteur on the right to education, Ms.
Katarina Tomasevski, for having included "Financial obstacles
impeding access to primary school" as part of her preliminary report. 12
Even where governments provide educational services, some
groups still encounter obstacles. The experience of the United Nations agencies and the Member States in the fields of literacy and
public health has shown that certain segments of the population
in various countries remain unable to benefit from such public
services owing to political, cultural, ethnic, language, or geographical situations. We, therefore, submit that special provision be
stipulated for the protection of the right of education for such deprived groups. We look forward to the Special Rapporteur's
planned collection and analysis of "the existing quantitative and
qualitative information on the pattern of the lack of access to education in order to map out obstacles to the realization of the right
to education." 13
Finally, while we agree that priority should be given to universal compulsory education in childhood, we also believe that
everyone benefits when education becomes a life-long process.
UNESCO states that education should instill a thirst and a desire
for knowledge, 14 and we would add that it should also foster
a desire for excellence. Such aspirations acquired in childhood,
coupled with life-long possibilities for furthering education, are
the bases for an ever-advancing civilization. The Baha'i International Community will continue its efforts to support education
that develops individual capacity and instills respect for the

Baha'u' ll ah , Tablets ofBaha 'u 'llah (Wil mette: Baha' i Publ ishing Trust, 1997),
p. 90.
E/CN.4/1999149 , para. 32- 41.
E/CN.4/1999149, para. 59.
Report to UNESCO of the Internationa l Commiss ion on Education for the
Twenty-first century. One of the fo ur pi ll ars of education is "learning to know."

human rights and fundamental freedoms of every person. In this
regard, it is pleased to pledge its full support and cooperation to
the Commission's Special Rapporteur for the preservation and universal implementation of the right to education.

INFORMATION
REsOURcEs
OBITUARIES

Qudsiyyih Amin-Amin Ala'i
O n 27 September 1999 in Vancouver, g hani stan, although they were de-
British Columbia, Canada. Qudsiyyih ported a year later. In 1955, they left
Am in-Amin was born on 22 Sep- for Western Samoa, where she helped
tember 1909 in Tehran , Iran. Her to estab lish the first Local Spiritual
fathe r was the second Trustee of Assembly of Ap ia. Three years la-
E:£uqt'.1qu'llah. Early in her youth she ter, the family left Samoa for New
declared her belief in the Baha 'i Zealand, eventually returning to Iran
Faith. Defying the traditions that kept in 1963. Her husband died in 1968,
women as an underclass in lran, she and the following year she went back
was resolute in li ving according to to Western Samoa. From there she
the teachings of the Baha'i Faith, went to Malta in 1972 and for the
despite opposition and scorn from next few years traveled between
much of the public. She served as a Malta and Western Samoa until she
member of the Baha'i Committee for finally settled in Canada. During the
Education and the Committee for the years she lived in Toronto, she vis-
Advancement of Women in Iran. She ited native reserves on a regular basis,
married Nemat A la'i in 1925, and and throughout her life service to the
they had six children. In 1945 she Baha ' i Faith was her first priority.
and her husband pioneered to Af-

Peter Boddy Josephina Camacho
On 2 January 2000 in Escondido , On 9 September 1999 , 111 Miami ,
California, United States. Dr. Peter Florida, United States . Josephina
Boddy was born 15 February 1947 Camacho de la Nuez was born 23
in Massachussets , United States. He March 1908 in San Antonio de los
completed his pre-med education Banos, Havana, Cuba. In addition to
and received bachelor's degrees in earning a doctorate in education from
anthropology and psychology from the University of Havana, she worked
the University of California at Davis as an educator for fifty years, and
before establishing a school on San wrote the book Injlu encia de la
Andres Island in the Caribbean. Religion en la Filo sofia d e la
After completing a nineteen-month Educaci6n. S he married Jesus
tour of duty as a lab technician in Martinez and had three children with
Vietnam, he moved to Peru for the him, although the two later divorced.
dual purpose of Baha'i pioneering After becoming a Baha' i in Cuba she
and attending medical school. After served as a member of that country 's
grad uating and serving an internship National Spiritual Assembly. In 1970
in Peru, he earned a master 's degree her family moved to Puerto Rico and
in public health in California in 1985 . in 1972 sh e was elected to the first
Dr. Boddy used his degree to develop National Spiritual Assemb ly of
community health education pro- Puerto Rico.
gra ms to help estab li sh a health
education and preventive medicine Ted Cardell
department in California. At the same On 2 June 1999 in California, United
time he worked in AIDS education States. Edmund John (Ted) Cardell
in Ca lifornia , Arizona , Hawaii, was born 8 September 191 8 in St.
and New Mexico. In late 1989 , Neots, England , and during his life
he returned to Latin America and worked as a farmer, a photographer,
worked in th e public health field and a businessman. He became a
there, in Egypt and in Mozambique. Baha' i in l 948 in Canada and three
In Bolivia he played a key role in years later became the first Baha'i
founding the country's first gradu- to pioneer to Kenya. In 1953 , he also
ate program in public health. Dr. became the first to pioneer to
Boddy had set up a national health Namibia, an act for which he was
project for Nicaragua and, at the time named a Knight ofBaha ' u'llah. He
of hi s passing, was in the process married Alicia Ward in 1957; they
of doing the same for other regions. settled in Kenya in 1959. He was
During his adu lt years, he served on elected to the first National Spiritual
the National Spiritual Assemblies of Assembly of the Baha' is of South
Honduras, Nicaragua, and Peru . West Africa in 1955 and also served

QBITUAl~IE S

on the National Spiritual Assemb ly children's activities , ass is ting for
of East and Central Africa. The many years in the development of a
Cardells retmned to England in 1963 , Baha'i children's camp in Cuicocha
when they were forced to leave Af- she a lso wrote Baha ' i so ng s in
rica owing to the changing political Span ish and Quechua.
situation. In 1974 Mr. Carde ll was
Shoghi Ghadimi
elected to the National Spiritual As-
On 22 November 1999 in Brussels,
sembly of the Baha'is of the Un ited
Belgium. Mr. Ghadim i was born
Kingdom, on which he served until
l January 1910 in Ashgabat, Turk-
1980, when he and his wife settled
menistan , to a Baha'i family .
in the United States.
He married Molouk Khamsi in
November, 1940, and they had two
lsabel Pavon de Calderon
children. His service to the Baha'i
On 30 March 2000, in Ibarra,
Fa ith included pioneering to Iraq,
lrnbabura, Ecuador. Isabel Pavon
T uni sia, and Belgium , where he
Mejia Leonila was born on 25
settled in 1958. He served on the
October 1929 in the Imbabura prov-
Local Assembly of Liege, and for
ince of Ecuador. She declared her
s ixteen years was a member of the
belief in the Baha' i Faith in 1961 and
National Spiritual Assembly of
served on many Baha ' i institutions,
Belgium . As a member of that
includin g the National Spiritual
institution in 1963 , he participated
Assembly of Ecuador for thirteen
in the election of the first Univeryears, beginning in 1964. Before her
sa l House of Justice. He traveled
tenure as a Continenta l Co un se llor
extensively to teach the Faith, includfor th e Americas, she served as a
ing trips to Asia, Canada, the Antilles,
membe r of the Auxiliary Board and
Africa, and Europe.
traveled extensively throughout the
country teaching the Baha'i Faith, Rose Jones
espec iall y to the indigenous people On 14 February 2000 in London ,
of Ecuador. She also undertook teach- England. Rose Le Grey, born on 23
ing trips throughout South Ameri ca Jan uary 1906, first hea rd of the
and Spa in . In 1991 she was again Baha'i Faith around the age of ten
elected to the Nationa l Assemb ly of and by her own account believed im-
Ec uador and served on that insti- mediately. She was th e first Baha' i
tution until her passing. She was to settle in Cardiff, Wales, where she
involv ed in setting up the first also served on the first Local Spiri-
Radio Baha ' i in Otavalo, Ecuador. tual Assembly. She married Mathew
In 1974, he married Gonza lo Elias Oswald Jones in 1939. They had two
Cader6n Encalada and was widowed ch ildren before he died in 1948.
in 1980 . A lthough the two had no She traveled internationall y and
children, she was very involved with visited many Baha'i communities,

including Uganda, Zamb ia, Bot- Engineering in Addis Ababa. ln 1970
swana, South Africa, Nigeria, lndia, he married Almaz Mitiku , and toand the Un ited States. gether they raised three children. He
Lee Cheng Hiong (Mrs. George served the Baha ' i Faith throughout
Lee) his life and was a member of the
On 24 August 1999, in Singapore. Loca l Spiritual Assembly of Addis
Tan Cheng Hiong was born 2 May Ababa and the Nationa l Asse mbly
I 904 in Singapore, to a wealthy and of Ethiopia until he was appointed
traditional Chi nese fami ly. She mar- to the Continental Board of Counried George Lee, and the two had sellors for Africa in 1995 , on which
eight children. From 1952 to 1963, he served until his passing. In I 996
she served as president of the he was also appointed a Tru stee of
Singapore Council for Women , }:Iuququ' llah. He was well-known for
which was responsible for passing his wi llin gness to host trav e ling
the Women's Charter in 1961 in Baha'is and opened his home for
S ingapore. She became a Baha ' i in many Baha' i events.
I 958 and traveled to Malaysia many
'Abdu'llah Mogharrabi
times to share the Baha'i teachings.
On 24 September I 999 in Dushanbe,
Because of her work to advance the
Tajikistan. Mr. Moghaii-abi was born
status of women in Si ngapore, she
in Isfahan , Iran, on 15 November
was invited by the Ch ina National
1911 and was raised as a Baha ' i. He
Women's Federation to inspect
served with distinction in the Iranian
various women's activities in China
army and attained the rank of
in 1959. Jn 1964, she became a
general. After hi s retirem e nt , he
member of the first National Spirimoved to a suburb of Tehran with
tua l Assembly of Malaysia and
his wife, Homayoun Firuzrnand. He
served in that country for two years .
served on the National Pioneering
She was a lso a member of the first
a nd Communication Committee
National Spiritual Assembly of
beginning in 1974. Followin g the
Singapore, formed in 1972.
lslamic revolution in 1979, his home
Abaineh Merhatsion was attacked and his belon g ings
On 9 February 2000 in Addis Ababa, confiscated . Reali zing that hi s life
Ethiopia. Mr. Merhatsion was born was at risk because of his Baha'i
on 12 September 1939 in Arbegona, activities and his former position in
Sidamo , Ethiopia, and became a the army, he left th e country and
Baha'i in 1959. He occup ied vari- eventua lly settled with hi s daughter
ous positions, both in the private and in England. In 1991 , soon after he
the public sector, as a civil engineer, became a British citizen, he moved
in c ludin g a post at the Ministry to Taj ikistan , to fulfil his lifelong
of Urban Development and as dream of pioneering. He served on
Head of the Department of Civil the Local Spiritua l Assembly of

QBITUARl ES

Dushanbe, the cap ital c ity, and on they li ved un ti l 1966 , when they
the Regional Teaching and Admin- moved to Canada. After the passing
istrative Committee. In 1994, he was of his w ife in 1978, Mr. Monaj em
elected to the first Nationa l Spiritual pioneered to Nigeria and Jamaica and
Assembly of Tajikistan. Even at hi s often traveled to the Un ited States.
advanced age, he was stil l ab le to He moved to Swaz il and in 1987 and
travel all over th e country, teaching spent most of his time writing, transthe Baha'i Fa ith . On th e afternoon lating, and teaching. He wrote a book,
of 25 September 1999, Baha'is in Sto ries in th e L(fe of Mu hammad,
Tajikistan rece ived word that Mr. several articles, and was popular with
MoghaITabi had been murdered some youth everywhere he lived , often oftime during the night. He had been fe ring a week ly study c lass in his
shot in the back, and there was evi- home to yo ung Baha' is.
de nce of torture on many parts of
Mildred Mottahedeh
his body. His hands had been tied
O n 17 February 2000, in New York
behind hi s back and a piece of cloth
C ity, United States. Mi ldred Root was
stuffed in hi s mouth . No money or
born in Seabright, New Jersey, o n 7
belongings in hi s hom e had been
Aug ust 1908. She became a Baha'i
to uched , and the police concluded
in l 929 and that same year married
that his murder was not the work of
Rafi Y. Mottahedeh , with whom she
thieves. Mr. MoghaITabi 's name had
had two children . With her husband,
prev iou s ly been menti o ned in a
she fo unded Motta hedeh and Co.,
popular Irani a n newsp ape r, which
a prest igio us firm specia li z in g in
id e nti fied him as a Baha ' i and
the reprod uctio n of porce lain and
c laimed th at the Baha'is we re tryother decorative materials. The firm
in g to d ece ive the p eop le a nd
produced work for a variety of indconvert them to the ir "cu lt."
iv iduals and institutions, includ ing
Jamshid Monajem severa l US pres idents and the Met-
On 14 Jun e 1999 in Mbabane, ropol itan Museum of A rt. S h e
Swaziland . Ja ms hid Monajem was succeeded her husband as president
born 29 April 19 12 in Tehran , Iran, of the company after his death in
to a Baha ' i fam il y. He married 1978 and remained involved even
Zarindokht Modabber, w ith whom after the company was so ld, until she
he had four children. Mr. Monajem retired in 1998 . Mrs. Mottahedeh had
pioneered briefly to Iraq and then to representing the Ba ha'i Fa ith at the
Ethiopia from 1954 to 1964, during s ign ing of the United Nations charwh ich time he was a member of the ter, and became the first offici a l
National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'i re presentative when the
Baha'is of North Africa a nd a mem- Ba ha' i Inte rn at iona l Com munity
ber of th e A uxi li ary Board. T he was recognized as an NGO in 1948.
fami ly then retu rned to Iran where She fou nded the Speakers Research

Committee for the United Nations and international levels. At the same
and served the UN in various other t ime s he ma intai n ed a rigorous
capacities for twenty years. In 1958, sched ul e as a businesswoman, a
she founded Mottahedeh Develop- contributor to the arts, and a promoter
ment Se rv ices, Inc., a fo undation of hum anita ri a n works. To these
dedicated to advanc ing socia l and man ifo ld tasks, sh e brought the
economic conditions in developing combined resources of a selfless
countri es. In addition, she and her spir it , a compassionate heart, a
husband founded and maintained creative mind , a practi ca l sense, and
a numb e r of primary and sec - a leonin e w ill tempered by humilondaiy schoo ls in Uganda and started ity, candor and wit."
vill age improvement programs in
lndia that trained people in agricul- Meherangiz Munsiff
ture, hea lth , and the development of O n 21 June 1999 in Lo ndon, Enlocal handicrafts. In 196 1, she was gland. Meherangiz Irani was born 23
elected to the International Baha ' i November 1923 in Bombay, Ind ia,
Council , an admin istrative body that to Baha'i parents. At the age of fourassisted in preparation fo r the estab- teen, she trave led w ith Martha Root
lishme nt of the Universal House of during the latter 's travels through-
Justice. Throughout her life she out north ern India and Bombay. In
received various awards, including this, she followed the examp le of her
the Order of Commander of Prince mother, who, at the instruction of
Henry the Navigator, presented by 'Abdu ' l-Baha, had accompanied Lua
the Portuguese government in 1987, Getsinger during her Indian travels.
the International Tab letop Award in [n 1945, she married Eruch Munsiff,
1990, the United Nations Woman of and they had one daughter. Mrs .
Honor award in 1993 , and in 1994 Munsiff worked in broadcasting,
the Mildred R. Motta hedeh Hum- often with the BBC. After a meeta nita ri an Award was es tablished ing with Shoghi Effendi that inspired
in her honor by the International her to háavel to teach the Baha' i Faith,
Furn ish ings and Design Educational she visited more than 150 co un tries,
Foundation. After her passing, the both teaching and ass istin g in the
Universal House of Justice wrote, development of Baha'i communities.
"With her departure from this earthly She pi oneered for many years to
life the Baha' i world community has Madagasca r a nd was named as a
lost an o utstanding figure of the Knight of Baha' u'llah for opening
open in g epochs of the Formative French Cameroon to the Baha' i Faith.
Age of the Baha'i Dispensation . Her She was known as a lectu rer and acmore than half a century of tireless tivist not onl y among Baha'is, but
endeavor in its service invo lved her also among the international humaniin teach ing and administrative activi- tarian community. She was received
ties at the local, national, continental by royalty in Thai land and England,

OBITUARIE S

was granted special honors by the sellors for Europe , from 1980 to
Red Cross and the Maryland State 1990.
Legislature, and was a member of Peggy Ross
the United Kingdom Executive Co- On 24 January 2000 , in Toronto,
mmittee for Human Rights. Canada. Margaret (Peggy) Mac-
Leo Niederreiter Gregor was born 9 January 1909,
On 17 September 1999 in Tyrol, in Dundee, Scotland. She graduated
Austria. Leo Niederreiter was born from Morgan Academy in Dundee
22 September 1920 in Austria. In and soon moved to Canada. She
1944 he married Waltraud Beeg. married John Ross and the two had
From 1948 to 1953 he worked as three children. Mrs. Ross became
a doctor at the ge neral hospital in a Baha'i in 1948, along with her hus-
Vienna. ln 1953 , Dr. Niederreiter band. She was widowed in 1973 .
and his wife set sail from Italy in She served on several Local Spiria homemade boat for the Seychelles tual Assemblies in Canada and in
w ith the intention of studying tropi- 1953 was elected to the National
cal diseases . When his boat broke Spiritual Assembly of Canada, of
down off the coast of what is now which she was a member for four-
E ritrea, Dr. Niederreiter was invited teen years. During her ti me on the
by Haile Sellasie , Emperor of National Assembly, she represented
Ethiopia, to practice medicine in that body at various national Baha ' i
that country. He and his wife even- conventions, including Singapore,
tually settled in Asmara. In 1956, Finland, and the United States. She
the couple met two Baha'is who was appointed as an Auxilia1y Board
introduced them to their Faith. Soon member in 1957 and served in that
after declarin g his belief, Dr. capacity until I 986 . Her greatest
N iederreiter was elected to the Lo- love was the teaching work among
cal Spiritual Assembly of Asmara. the native peoples of Canada and
He was a member of that institu- Greenland. For several years in the
tion and the National Spiritual 1970s, she and her husband ser-
Assembly of Northeast Africa and ved as the custodians for the Fort
Ethiopia until 1978 , when bandits Qu 'A ppelle Baha'i Institute in Sasser iously wounded him and his katchewan. She also traveled to
wife in a nighttime raid. Feeling Australia, Europe, and Southeast
compelled to return to Europe, the Asia and attended the dedications
N iederreiters moved to Austria of the Houses of Worship in the
after which Dr. Niederreiter wa~ United States, Samoa, and India.
e lected to the National Spiritual Abbas Rushdy
Asse mbly. He served on this body On 10 June 1999, in Reading ,
until he was appo inted a member England. Abbas Abdel - Rahman
of the Continental Board of Coun- Rushdy was born in Cairo, Egypt,

on 22 January 1922, into a Baha ' i Regional Spiri tual Assemb ly of Arfamily. Mr. Ru shdy was a certified gentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Chile,
public accountant and worked as a and Bolivia, and then later on the
civil servant for various government Sp iritu al Assem bl y of Argentin a for
offices throughout hi s 1ife. H is ser- nearly thirty years. In add ition to hi s
vice on Baba ' i institution s began in work on these in stituti ons, Mr. Saeed
hi s early twenties , w hen he was a lso carried out public relations
elected to the Local Spiritual Assem- du ties for th e Bah a ' is. He worked
bly of Alexandria and later to the at the Iranian e mbassy in Argentina
National S piritu a l Asse mbl y in fo r twelve years, under five differ-
Egypt. In 1950 he married Mariam ent ambassadors, before he was fired
Hussein-Ruby, and together they had becau se he was id entified as an
four children. He a nd hi s fami ly active Baha ' i in hi s community. He
moved to Kuwait in 1958, and dur- and his wife had fo ur c hildren.
ing th eir time there he served on that
Mercedes Sa nchez
National Assembly as well. Between
O n l A ugust 1999, in Lima, Peru.
1966 and 19 69, in the Un ited
Mercedes Sanchez was born in Lima,
Kingdom, he served on the Local As-
Peru, on 11 September 19 12. Despite
sembl y of Reading. The fami ly
being stri cke n w ith poliomyelitis
return ed first to Kuwait and from
w hile very young, she began her cathere went to Oma n, where once
reer as a dressmaker at age twelve .
again Mr. Rushdy served on the na-
She declared her belief in the Baha'i
tional Baha'i governing body. He also
Fa ith in 1948 and shortly afterward
pioneered for one year to Libya and
traveled to Chile as a delegate to the
for another to Burundi. In its mes-
Secon d So uth American Baha'i
sage after hi s passing,the Universa l
Congress. She served on the National
House of Justice wrote, " HIS DED I-
Sp iri tual Assemb ly of South Ame1ica
CATED LABORS IN EGY PT, KUWA IT
a nd the Regional Assem bl y of
AN D OMAN WERE CHARACTERIZED
Brazil, Peru, Co lomb ia, Ecuador, and
BY COURAGE, WI SDOM AND PERSE-
Venezue la. In 196 1, she was elected
VERANCE ."
to the new ly-establi shed National
Shapoor Saeed Assembly of Peru, un ti l she was ap-
On 23 July 1999, in Buenos A ires, pointed to the A ux ili ary Board in
Argentina . Roohollah Shapoor Saeed 1964, an institution she continued to
was born into a Baha'i family in serve until 1999. She trave l ed
Tehran, Iran , on 2 1 June 1923. In extensively throughout Peru to teach
195 l he marri ed Parvin Namdar. He t h e Baha ' i Fait h , was the first
left Iran in 195 3 to pion eer to Baha ' i in the towns of A req uipa and
Argentina, as part of the Ten Year C hicl ayo, and worked to establish
Crusade. He remained in Argentina and consolidate Baha'i comm unities
fo r the rest of hi s li fe, serving on the throughout the country. Her heart

OBITUARIES

condition did not lessen her Baha'i lished more than one hundred tutoactivities, in spite of many hospi- rial schools in Uttar Pradesh, directed
tal stays. In its message after her Baha ' i training institute programs,
passing, the Universal House of Jus- wrote on the subject of agricultural
tice said , " Present and future development, and initiated and orgagenerations of Peruvian believers ni zed many Baha'i activities in the
will warm ly remember her kindness, region . He marri ed Shanta Singh in
her love, and her nurturing spirit. " 1958, and th ey had five children.
Harvansh Singh Adib Taherzadeh
On November 6 1999 in Malhausi , On 26 January 2000 in Haifa, Israel.
Uttar Pradesh, India. Harvansh Singh Ad ib Taherzadeh was born 29 April
was born 1 October 1938 in Luck- 192 l in Yazd, lran, to Tahir and
now, Uttar Pradesh. Popularly known Legha'iyyih Malmiri and was raised
as Rajah Saheb of Ma lh aus i, he as a Baha' i. During his youth in Yazd,
became a Baha ' i in 1962 and he was subjected to persecution and
welcomed hundreds of others to ridicul e because of his religion, even
the Baha' i community throughout his to th e point of being pelted with
life. As a rajah, he was the first mem- stones. Mr. Taherzadeh studi ed
ber of the Indian nobi lity to accept the electrica l engin ee rin g at the Un i-
Baha' i Faith and subsequently took versity of Tehran a nd pursue d
its message to several others of his postgrad uate studi es in Cove ntry,
social rank in India and Nepal. Mr. England , befo re pioneering to
Singh was a professional manager of Ireland, where in 1950 he was hired
schools, poultry fa1111s, and other ag- by an electrical firm , Messrs Hughes
ricultural and educational proj ects. and Coy le, Ltd. He eve ntu a lly
He served on the National Spiritual beca me chief engin eer and stayed
Assembly of the Baha' is oflndia for with the company until his retirement
seven years, was an Auxiliary Board in 1984. Mr. Taherzadeh served on
member for eighteen years, and a th e National Spiritual Assemb ly of
member of the Local Spiritual As- the Baha'is of the British Isles from
sembly ofMalhousi. Mr. Singh was 1960 to 197 l and was elected to the
also a member of several committees National Spiritual Asse mbly of
for teaching, Baha' i schools, training Ireland upon its formation in 1972.
programs, and agricultural develop- That same year he married fe ll ow
ment projects, and was an active Assemb ly member Lesley Gibson,
supporter of many Baha ' i projects with whom he had two children,
throughout India. He was the host of in addition to hi s two children from
Amatu ' l-Baha Rt'.1hiyyih Khanum a previous marriage. He served as
during her visit to Malhausi in 1967, a member of th e Co ntin ental Board
where she inaugurated the first Baha'i of Coun sellors of Europe from 1976
center in rural India. Mr. Singh estab- un ti l hi s election to th e Uni versa l

House of Ju st ice in 1988. Mr. in g the Ten Year Plan , the Wa lters
Ta herzadeh wrote seve ral Baha 'i fami ly left their hom e in A lbuqu erworks: Trustees of the Mercifid, The q ue , New Mexico , to pioneer to
Covenant ofBaha 'u 'llah , and a four- French Morocco, an act which earned
vo lume stud y of the hi story of the them the title Knights of Saha 'u' Ilab.
writings ofBaha'u' ll a h entitl ed The T hey arri ved in Tangiers after four-
Revelation of Bahri 'u 'llah. He had teen days of travel and soon moved
just comp leted a seventh book at the to Casab la nca to he lp fo rm that
time of his passing. T he Un iversal country's first Local Sp irit1ia l Assem-
House of Justice wrote of its sorrow bly. Mr. Walters suppo11ed bi s fami ly
at the passing of a "dearly loved co- by work ing as a carpenter for the
worker," recalling "with admiration American government. The tense
hi s devoted and unremitting services political situation m ade speak ing
to the Cau se of God for over half a abo ut religion ve ry difficult, but,
century. His exe mpl ary enthusiasm tluáougb bi s know ledge of and respect
for the teaching work and his capacity for the Prophet M ubammad and the
to insp ire the believers endeared him Qur'an, Mr. Walters was ab le to esto a ll that knew him . .. be evinced tab li sh lastin g fr iend ships with his
comp lete consecration, un shakeab le Muslim cowo rkers. T he first native
fa ith , and un yieldin g resolve. " Casab lancan declared bis fait h in
Richard Harding Walters Baba' u ' ll ah two years late r. Jn 196 1
12 May 1999 in Arkansas, United the fam il y pioneered to Portugal.
States. Richard Wa lte rs was born 7 Afte r his passing, the Un iversa l
Septe mbe r 1913 in Meriden, Co n- Ho use of Ju st ic e e ul ogized hi s
necticut, United States. He married "WHOLEHEARTED DEVOT ION, SACRI-

Evelyn Bohl , and together they raised FIC IAL, HISTORI C SERVICE" to the
two c hildren. In Marc h 1954, dur- Baha'i Fa ith .

STATISTICS
General Statistics

Worldwide Baha'i population more than 5 million

Countries/dependent territories where 190 countries/
the Baha'i Faith is established 45 territories

Continental Counsellors 81

Auxiliary Board members serving 990
throughout the world

National/Regional Spiritual Assemblies 181

Local Spiritual Assemblies 12,591

Localities where Baha'is reside 129,949

Indigenous tribes, races, and ethnic groups 2, 112
represented in the Baha'i community

Languages into which Baha'u'llah's 802
writings have been translated

Publishing Trusts 32

Geographic Distribution of Local Spiritual Assemblies
by Continent

Africa 3,716

Australasia 877
Europe 946 Americas 3,330

Growth in the Number of Localities Where Baha'is Reside

140,000 ,- - á - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - á - á á - - - - á - - - - - - - á - - á á - ,

120,000 1-------------------~~

100,000 ,___ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ ___,

80 ,000 ,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___,

60,000 1 - - - - - - - - - - - j

40,000 .___ _ _ _ _ _ _...,,..,

20,000 ]"

o a,JJ..anJLD H.11.0fl.il ~ .. . .. ,

STATISTICS

Growth in the Number of National and
Regional Spiritual Assemblies

20 1nli
.111m1e1lllnnnnnn1mu101mlllllll
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~*
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Social and Economic Development
Baha 'i development activities are initiated either by Baha 'i administrative institutions or by individuals or groups. Toget/1e1~ these acti vities
contribute to a global process o.l learning about a Baha'i approach to
social and economic development. Th ey presently fa// into three general
categories.

Activities of Fixed Duration
Most Baha ' i social and economic deve lopment efforts are fairl y
simple activities of fix ed duration in which Baha ' is in vill ages
and towns around the world address the problems and challenges
faced by their loca li ties through the application of sp iritual princ ipl es. These activities eitherori ginate in the Baha'i communities
themselves or are a response to the invitation of other organi zations. It is estimated that in 1999- 2000 there were more than 1,500
e nd eavors of this kind , including tree-p lanting and clean-up
projects, health camps, workshops and sem inars on such themes
as race unity and the advancement of women , and short-term train-
111g courses.

Sustained Projects
The second category of Baha'i social and econom ic development
consists of approximately 331 ongo ing projects. The vast majority are academic schoo ls, while others focus on areas such as literacy, basic health care, immunization, substance abuse, child care,
agriculture, the environ ment, or microenterpri se. Some of these
projects are adm ini stered by nascent developmen t organizations
wh ich have the potenti al to grow in comp lexity and in their range
of influence.

Organizations with Capacity to Undertake Complex Action
Certain Baha ' i development efforts have ac hieved the sta ture of
development organizations with relatively complex programmatic
structures and signifi cant spheres of influence. T hey systematica lly train human resources and manage a number of Iin es of
action to address probl ems of loca l communities and reg ions in a
coordinated , interdi sc iplinary manner. A lso included in this category are severa l institutions- especially large schoo ls- which,
although focusing onl y on one fie ld, have the potenti al to make a
significant impact. In thi s category there are currently 45 such
organizations.

DIRECTORY

Associations for Baha'i CHILE
Asociacion de Estudios Baha'is
Studies
Cas ill a 3731, Santiago 1
ARGENTINA C hil e
Centro de Estudios Baha'is E-mail: uninet@ chil epac.net
Otamendi 2 15
COLOMBIA
1405 Buenos Aires
Asociacion de Estudios Baha'is
Argentina
Apartado Aereo 5 1387
AUSTRALIA Santa Fe de Bogota 12
Association for Baha ' i Studies Co lombia
c/o Colin Dibdin , Secretary E-mai l: bahaicol @ colombianet.net
P.O. Box 319
EAST, CENTRAL AND
Rosebery, NSW 2018
SOUTHERN AFRICA
Austra li a
The Baha'i Studies Association
E-m ail : abs@ bahai.org.au
c/o Dr. C. Rouhani, Secretary
CAMEROON P.O. Box 82549
Association for Baha'i Stud ies Mombasa, Kenya
c/o Mr. Enoch Tanyi
ECUADOR
B.P. 4230
Asoc iacion de Estudios Baha'is
Yaounde
c/o Apartado 11 42
Cameroon
Quito
E-mail: camabs@ hotmail.com
Ecuad or

ENGL/SH-SPEAKING EUROPE JAPAN
Assoc iat ion for Baha ' i Studies Association for Baha ' i Studies
27 Rutland Gate c/o Sandra Fotos, Secretary
London, SW7 1PD Tokyo Baha ' i Center
Un ited Kingdom 7-2-13 Shinjuku
E- mail: Shinjuku-ku
seena. faze l@psyc h iatry.ox ford .ac. uk Tokyo 160
Japan
FRANCOPHONE EUROPE
E-mail : sfotos@go l. com
Comite de I' Assoc iation
europeene francophone pour les MALAYSIA
etudes baha' ies Assoc iation fo r Ba ha' i Studies
c/o Diane Ala 'i, Secretary 4 Lorong Titiwa ngsa 5
24 Rou te de Malagnou Setapak 53000
CH-120 8, Geneva Kua la Lumpur
Sw itzerland Malaysia
E-mail: dalai@geneva.bic.org E-mail: nsa_sec@nsam .po.my
GERMAN-SPEAKING EUROPE NEW ZEALAND
Gese ll schaft fi.ir Baha ' i Stud ien Assoc iation for Ba ha' i Sh1d ies
fi.ir das deutschsprachige Europa c/o Paul Friedma n
Paul -Ehrli ch-S tr. I 9a Quadra nt Road
D-41540, Dorm agen Onehunga
Germany New Zea land
E- ma ii : b.mclell an@auck land .ac. nz
GHANA
Association for Baha'i Stud ies NORTH AMERICA
P.O. Box 7098 Assoc iation fo r Ba ha' i Studi es
Accra-North 34 Coperni cus Street
Ghana Ottawa, Onta ri o K IN 7K4
Canada
HAWAII
E-mai I: abs-na@ istar.ca
Association for Baha'i Studi es
clo Robert McClelland PHILIPPINES
2 142 Aluk a Loop Assoc iation for Ba ha' i Studies
Pea rl C ity, HI 96782-1 3 17 20-D Macopa Street
USA Basak Engi neering
E-mail: ramabm@aloha.net 6000 Cebu C ity
Phi li ppines
INDIA
Assoc iat ion for Baha' i Studi es PUERTO RICO
C- 12, Vidyanagari Asoc iac ion de Estudi os Baha'is
Mumbai Un ivers ity Chem is try Dept.
Sa ntacruz (East) Un iversity of Puerto Rico
Mumbai 400 098 Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00708
Indi a USA

DIRECTORY

RUSSIAN FEDERATION Baha'i Publishing Trusts
Association for Baha'i Studies
ARGENTINA
P.O. Box 55
Ed itorial Baha ' i
Moscow 129515
Indolatinoamericana (EBI LA)
Russia
Ota mend i 2 I 5
E-mail: secretari at@bnc.glasnet.ru
l 405 Buenos Aires
SINGAPORE Argentina
Association for Baha'i Studies E-ma il: eb ila@ciud ad.com.ar
c/o Dr. Anjam Khursheed AUSTRALIA
B, #09-02, Kent Vale
Baha'i Pub Iications Austra li a
I 05 Clementi Road 173 Mona Vale Road
Singapore 129789
Ingleside NSW 210 I
E-mail: khur@po.pacific.net.sg Austra li a
SPAIN E-mai l: bpa@bahai.org.au
Asociaci6n de Estud ios Baha ' is de BELGIUM
Espana Maison d'Editions Baha'ies
c/o Rima Sheermohamadi 205 rue du Trone
Cl Padilla 3 12 2 2 B-1050 Brussels
Barcelona 08025 Belgium
Spain E-mail: centre.bahai@s kynet.be
E-mail: du7202@cc.uab.es
BRAZIL
TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Ed itora Baha'i do Brasil
Associat ion for Baha'i Studies Ca ixa Postal 198
c/o 3 Petra St. 13800-000 Mag i Mirim , SP
Wood brook Brazi l
Trinidad, West Indi es E-mai l: editbahai @mogi.com.br
E-mai l: hfarabi @carib-link.net
CAMEROON
VENEZUELA Baha ' i Publishing Agency of
Association for Baha'i Studies Cameroon
Apartado 934 P.O . Box 145
Barquisimeto, Edo. Lara Lim be
300 I- A Cameroon
Venezuela E-mail:
E-mail: dwitzel @sa.omnes.net n iazbus hru i@compuserve.com
WEST AFRICA COTE D'IVOIRE
Assoc iation fo r Baha'i Studies Maison d'Editions Baha'ies
c/o P.O . Box 2029 08 B.P. 879
Marina-Lagos Abidjan 08
Nigeria Cote d'Ivoire

FIJI ISLANDS KENYA
Baha'i Publishing Trust Baha ' i PublishingAgency
P.O. Box 2007 P.O. Box 47562
Government Bui ldings Na irobi
Suva Kenya
Fij i Islands E-mail: bpakenya@ hotmail.com

GERMANY KOREA
Baha'i-Verlag Baha ' i Pub li shing Trust
Eppsteiner Strasse 89 249-36 1-Juam-Dong
D-65719 Hofhe im Yo ngsan-ku
Germany Seo ul 140-1 90
E-mail: office@ bahai-verlag.de Korea
E-mai l: nsakorea@nuri.net
HONGKONG
LEBANON*
Baha'i Pub li sh ing Trust
MALAYSIA*
C-6, 11th Floor, Hankow Centre
l C Middl e Road , Tsim Sha Tsui NETHERLANDS
Kow loon Stichting Baha ' i Literatuur
Hong Kong R iouwstraat 27
E-mail: bahaihk@ asiaon lin e.net NL-25 85 GR The Hague
The Netherlands
INDIA E-mail: nsaneth@ tref.n l
Baha'i Publi shing Trust
Post Box no. 4488 NIGER
Kalkaji Post Office Ma ison d ' Editions Fada' il
New Delhi - 110 019 B.P. 12858
India Niamey
E-ma il : bptindia@del3.vs nl.n et.in Niger
E-mai l: parvine@ intnet.ne
ITALY
NIGERIA
Casa Editrice Baha ' i
Baha'i Publish ing Trust
Via Filippo Turati , 9
P.O. Box 2029
l-00040 Ariccia (Rome)
Marina-Lagos
Italy
Nigeria
E-mai l: ceb.ital ia@ pcg.it
E-ma il : ngrbahai@
JAPAN beta. I inkserve.com
Baha'i Publ ishing Trust NORWAY
7-2-13 Shinjuku Baha'i Forlag
Shinjuku-ku Drammensveien 110 A
Tokyo 160-0022 N-0273 Oslo
Japan Norway
E-mail: nsajpn@tka.att.ne.jp E-ma il : bahaiforlag@c2i.net

*Address communication to Baha ' i World Centre, P.O. Box l 55 , Haifa 3 100 I, Israe l.

DIRECTORY

PAKISTAN* SPAIN
Editorial Baha'i de Espana
PHILIPPINES
Bonaventura Castellet 17
Baha ' i Publishin g Trust
ES-08222 TeITassa
P.O. Box 4323
Spain
1004 Manila
E-mail: edibahai@ arrakis.es
Philipp in es
E-mail: nsaphil@skyinet.net SWEDEN
Baha'i FOrlaget AB
POLAND
Box 60
Baha'i Publishing Trust
S-1 94 2 1 Upplands Vasby
ul. Barbackiego 93
Sweden
33-300 Nowy Saez
E-mail: forlaget@bahai .se
Po land
E-mail: bahainsa@ medianet.com.pl TAIWAN
Baha'i Publishing Trust
PORTUGAL
Ta Hsueh Road, Lane 18, No. 26
Editora Baha'i de Portugal
Tainan, 701
Avenida Ventura Terra, No . 1
Taiwan
1600-780 Lisboa
ROC
Portugal
E-mail: bahaiptt@pristine.com.tw
E-mail: aen@bahai .pt
UGANDA
ROMANIA Baha'i Publishing Trust
Casa de Editura ~ i Tipografia P.O. Box 2662
Baha' i
Kampala
C. P. 124 O.P. 1
Uganda
3400 Cluj-Napoca
E-mail: bahai@starcom.co.ug
Romania
E-m ail: bahai @ mail.soroscj.ro UNITED KINGDOM
Baha'i Publishing Trust
RUSSIAN FEDERATION 4 Station Approach
Unity Baha'i Publishing Trust Oakham
P.O. Box 288 Leicestershire
198 013 St. Petersburg LE I S 6QW
Russia England
E-mail: unity@ mail.wplus.net E-mail: bpt.enquiries@bahai.org.uk
SOUTH AFRICA UNITED STATES
Baha ' i Publishing Trust Baha'i Publishing Trust
P.O . Box 902 4 15 Linden Avenue
Worcester Wi lmette, IL 60091
South Africa USA
E-mail: bpt@ bahai.org.za E-mail: bpt@usbnc.org

Miscellaneous Addresses Baha'i International Community,
New York Offices :
Association medicate baha'ie • United Nations Office
• Office for the Advancement of
c/o Mirabell e Weck
Women
26 rue de Paris
F-78560 Paris • Office of the Environment
866 United Nations Plaza, Suite 120
France
New York, NY 10017- 1822, USA
Bahaa Esperanto-Ligo (BEL) E-Mail: bic-nyc@ bi c.o rg
P.O. Box 500133 Web: <www.onecoun try.org> and
D-60391 Frankfurt <www. bic-un .bahai.org>
Gennany Baha'i International Community,
E-Mail: bahaae li go@ bahai.de Geneva Office:
• United Nations Office
Baha'i Association for the Arts
Ro ute des Morill ons 15
Dintel 20
CH-1 218 Grand -Saconnex, Geneva
7333 MC
Switzerland
Ape ldoorn
E-Mai l: bic@geneva.b ic.org
Netherlands
E-Mai l: abuys@wxs.n l Baha'i International Community,
Paris Office :
Baha' i Computer and • Office of Pub li c Information
Communications Association 45 rue Pergolese
c/o New Era Commun ications F-75 11 6 Paris, France
attn: Don Dav is E-Ma il: opiparis@c lu b-i nternet.fr
5 Ravenscroft Drive
Baha'i Justice Society
Asheville, NC 28801
P. 0. Box 79684
USA
Houston, TX 77279
E-Mail: bcca-cc@ bcca .org
USA
Baha'i Health Agency E-ma il :
27 Rutland Gate info@bahaijusticesociety.org
London Web: <www.bahaij ust ice.org>
SW7 l PD Baha'i Medical Association of
United Kingdom Canada
E-Mail: baha i.health@ alton.com 931 Beaufort Ave
Baha'i International Community, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3X8
Haifa Offices: Canada
•Secretariat E-Ma il : joanne.lang ley@dal. ca
•Office of Pub lic Information Baha'i Office of the Environment
P.O. Box 155 for Taiwan
3 1 00 1 Haifa 149- 13 Hsin Sheng South Road
Israel Section I , Taipe i I 0626
E-Mail : opi @ bwc.org Taiwan, ROC
Web: <www.bahai.org> E-Mail: tranboet@ as iaon lin e.net.tw

DIRECTORY

European Baha'i Business Forum Hong Kong Baha'i Professional
c/o George Starcher, Secretary Forum
35 avenue Jean-Jaures C-6, 11th Floor, Hankow Centre
F-73000 Charnbery Midd le Road, Tsim Sha Tsui
France Kowloon
E-Mail : ebbf@ebbf.org Hong Kong
Web: <www.ebbf.org>
Landegg Academy
European Baha'i Youth Council CH-9405 Wienacht/AR
c/o Neissan Besharati, Secretary Switzerl and
14 Briar Close E-Mail: info@ landegg.edu or
Palrners Green, rector@ landegg .org
London N 13 5NL
Mottahedeh Development Services
United Kingdom
Baha'i Unity Center
E-Ma il : ebyc@ dawn.joensuu.fi
2370 Wesley Chapel Road
Health for Humanity Decatur, GA 30035
467 Jackson Avenue USA
G lencoe, IL 60022 E-M ai l: rndssed@msn.com
USA Web: <www.rndssed@rnsn .org>
E-Mail: health@usbnc.org
World Community Foundation
International Environment Forum 315 West 70th Street
c/o Sylv ia Karlsson Suite 14C
Grasloksgatan 18 New York, NY 10023
SE-75446 Uppsala USA
Sweden E-mai l: bonniefs@ ix.netcom.com

Selected NEW
PUBLICATIONS

Assisting the Traumatized Soul: Healing the Wounded Talisman
Phyllis K. Peterson. Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1999. 222 pp .
Drawin g on personal experience as a victim of abuse, the author shares
adv ice on using th e Baha ' i writings to overcome the trauma of sexual
abuse, both for victims and people who wish to ass ist them.

Birds of the Heart
Galya Gunderson. Oxford: George Ronald, 1999. 112 pp.
Suggest ions on how to enhance appreciation, reco ll ection, use, and
app li cation of the Baha' i writings. It provides a se lection of verses
centerd on the fundamental principles of the Faith, including oneness of
humankind , se lfl essness, service, the need for personal transformation,
and justice.

A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baha 'i Faith
Ed. Peter Smith. Oxford: Oneworld, 2000 . 408 pp.
Conta in s entri es on al l aspects of the Fa ith , covering its hi story, centra l
figures , scripture, doctrine, practices, soc ia l teachings, and organ ization.

Creating a New Mind
Paul Lamp le. Riviera Beach: Pala bra Publications, 1999. 148 pp.
An examination of the respons ibiliti es and roles of each of the three
human components of the Baha ' i Faith: individuals, institution s, and
communities . Looks at the capacities and capabilities, as well as new
ways of thinking, that are needed for building a new civilization.

Impacting Social Problems: Writing and Evaluating
International Development Projects
Robert K. Walker. Brasilia: Baha ' i Office of the Environment and
Development, 2000. 154 pp.
Exa mines ways to write and eva luate socioeconomic development
projects, particularly in developing countries, where projects must
produce concrete results in order to benefit those in need . It offers both a
critical analysis of current practices and perceptions and guidance for
those responsible for development projects.

Kitab-i-Aqdas
Baha'u'llah. Hellerup: Dansk Baha'i Forlag, 1999. 272 pp.
The Kitab-i-Aqdas, the Most Holy Book, is Baha'u'llah's charter for a
new world civilization. Written in Arabic circa 1873 , this is the volume's
first authorized Danish tran slation.

Der Kitab-i-Aqdas
Baha'u'llah. Hofbeim: Baha' i-Verlag, 2000. 357 pp.
The Kitab-i-Aqdas, the Most Holy Book, is Baha'u ' llah's charter for a
new world civili zation. Written in Ara bic circa 1873 , this is the volume's
first authori zed German translation.

El Kitab-i-Aqdas
Baha'u'Jlah. Barcelona: Editorial Baha'i, 1999. 346 pp.
The Kitab-i-Aqdas, the Most Holy Book, is Baha'u'llah's charter for a
new world civ ili zation. Written in Arabic circa 1873 , this is the volume's
first authorized Spanish translation.

Making the Crooked Straight: A Contribution to Baha'i
Apologetics
Udo Schaefer, Nicola Towfigh, and Ulrich Gollmer. Trans. Geraldine
Schuckelt Oxford: George Ronald, 2000. 862 pp.
Written as a response to a widely disseminated monograph on the Baha ' i
Faith by Francesco Ficchia which characterizes the Faith as an authoritarian cult. It refutes Mr. Ficchia's claims and has been instrumental in
changing the perception of the Faith in German-speaking Europe.

NEW P UBLICATIO NS

My African Heart
Bonnie Fitzpatrick-Moore. Foreword by Kiser Barnes. Johannesburg:
Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1999. 188 pp.
The story of an African-American Baha' i who pioneered to Africa in the
1970s and eventually settled in South Africa. It recall s the troubles and
victories of li ving there during apartheid and offers insights into the role
that Africa can play in world development.

The Saddlebag
Bahiyyih Nakhjavani. London: Bloomsbury, 2000. 258 pp.
Set on the road from Mecca to Medina in the nineteenth century, this
novel takes as its starting point an episode from The Dawn-Breakers and
tells the tale of nine travelers, each of whom encounters a sadd lebag and
is affected by its mysterious contents.

Shoghi Effendi in Oxford, and Earlier
Riaz Khadem. Oxford: George Ronald, 1999. 173 pp.
An exam ination of Shoghi Effendi 's institutional education, from early
yo uth through his days at Oxford. It draws on hi s own letters as we ll as
the recollections of his fellow students, illuminating a 1ittle-known period
of Shoghi Effendi's life.

Spinning the Clay into Stars: Bernard Leach and the Baha'i Faith
Ed. Robert Weinberg. Oxford: George Ronald, 1999. 134 pp .
A collection of writings by internationally known British potter Bernard
Leach. This volume, published twenty years after his passing, deals with
Leach's art, life, philosophy, and his desire to play a part in uniting East
and West.

Under the Divine Lote Tree: Essays and Reflections
J. A. McLean. Oxford: George Ronald, 1999. 188 pp .
A co ll ection of eighty-five short essays reflecting on the li fe of the human
spirit. It offers a synthesis between academic and creative thinking on
topics such as love, time, humor, death, science, and spiritual growth.

Without Syllable or Sound: The Baha'i Faith and the World's
Sacred Scriptures
Michael Sours. Los Angeles: Kalimat, 2000. 208 pp.
Explores the sacred scriptures of the world's religions from a Baha'i
perspect ive.

THE BAI-IA'f WORLD

Writings and Utterances of 'Abdu'l-Baha
'Abdu'l-Baha. New Delhi: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 2000. 1364 pp.
An ex haustive co llecti on of the Engli sh translations of'Abdu'l-Baha 's
writings and talks.

Years of Silence: Baha'is in the USSR, 1938-1946
Asadu ' llah ' Alizad. Trans. Baharieh Rouhani Ma'ani. Oxford: George
Ronald, 1999. 195 pp.
Asad u ' ll ah 'Alizad 's memoirs ofreligious persecution ofBaha'is in
Russia and hi s ex il e to Siberia during World War II.

A Basic BAHA' f
READING List

The fo llowing list has been prepared to provide a sampling of works conveying
the spiritual truths, social principles, and history ofthe Baha'i Faith. it is by no
means exhaustive. For a more complete record of Baha 'i literature, see
Bibli ography of Engli sh-language Works on the Babi and Baha' i Faiths, 1844-
1985, compiled by William P Collins (Oxford George Ronald, 1990).

SELECTED WRITINGS OF BAHA'U'LLAH

The Kitab-i-Aqdas
Th e Most Hol y Book, Baha'u ' ll ah's cha11er for a new world civi lization. Written
in Ara bic in 1873, the vo lume's first authorized Eng lis h translation was re leased
in 1993.

The Kitab-i-iqan (Book of Certitude)
T he Book of Certitude was written prior to Baha' u' ll ah 's declaration of His mi ssion as an exp la nati on of progressive revelation and a proof of the station of the
Bab.

The Hidden Words ofBaha'u 'llah
Written in the form ofa com pilation of moral aphori sms, these brief ve rses di still
the spiritual gu idan ce of all the di vine Revelations of th e past.

Tablets of Baha'u 'llah revealed after the Kitab-i-Aqdas
A co mpilati on of Tabl ets revealed between 1873 and 1892 wh ich enunciate important principles of Bah a ' u' ll ah 's Reve lation, reaffirm truths He previously proclaimed, elaborate on so me of His laws , reveal further prophecies, and esta bli sh
subsidiary ordinances to supplement th e provi sions of the K itab-i-Aqdas.

Gleanings from the Writings of Baha 'u'llah
A selection of Bah a ' u ' ll ah 's sacred writin gs translated and compi led by the Guardian of the Baha ' i Faith to convey th e spirit of Baha ' u' llah 's life and teachings.

WRITINGS OF THE BAB

Selections from the Writings of the Bab
The first co mpil ati on of the Bab's w ritings to be tra nslated into Engl ish.

SELECTED WRITINGS OF 'ABDU'l-BAHA

Paris Talks : Addresses given by 'Abdu'l-Baha in Paris in 1911-1912
Addresses g iven by' Abdu ' l-Baha to a w ide va riety of audiences in Paris in 19 11 -
1912, explainin g the bas ic principl es of the Baha'i Fa ith.

The Secret of Divine Civilization
A message addressed to the rul ers and people of Persia in 1875 illuminating the
causes of the fall and ri se of civili zation and elu cidating th e spiritua l character of
true civili za tion.

Selections from the Writings of' Abdu 'l-Baha
A compilation of selected letters from ' A bdu ' l-Baha 's ex tens ive co1Tespondence
on a wide va ri ety of topics, including the purpose of life , the nature of love, and
the deve lopment of character.

Some Answered Questions
A tran slation of ' Abdu'l-Baha 's answers to a seri es of questio ns posed to Him
during interviews w ith Laura C lifford Barney between 1904 and 1906. The topics
covered include the influence of the Prophets on th e evo lution of humanity, the
Baha'i perspective o n Chri stian doctrine, and the powers and conditions of the
Manifestations of God.

B AI-lA'f R EADl NG LIST

SELECTED WRITINGS OF SHOGHI EFFENDI

God Passes By
A detailed history of the first one hundred years of the Baha'i Fa ith.

The Promised Day Is Come
A commentary on Baha ' u' llah's letters to th e kings and rulers of th e world.

The World Order ofBaha'u'llah: Selected Letters
An ex positi on on th e relat ion between the Baha'i community and the entire process of soc ial evolution under the di spensation of Baha ' u' ll ah, in the form of a
seri es of letters from the G uardi an of th e Baha'i Faith to the Baha' is of the West
betwee n 1929 and 1936.

INTRODUCTORY WORKS

Baha'u'llah
Baha' i International Comm uni ty, Office of Public Information , 199 1.
A brief statement detai ling Baha' u' ll ah's life and work iss ued on the occasion of
the cen tenary of His passing.

Baha'u'llah and the New Era
John Ess lemont. 5th rev. pape r ed. Wilmette: Baha'i Publ ishing Trust, 1980.
The first comprehensi ve account of the Baha ' i Faith, written in 1923 and updated
for subsequent ed itions.

The Baha'i Faith: The Emergin g Global Religion
W illi am S. Hatcher and J. Douglas Matiin. Rev. ed. Wilmette: Baha' i Publi shing Trust, 1998.
Textbook providing an overvi ew of S aha ' i history, teachings, adm inistra tive structure, and co mmunity life.

All Things Made New
John Ferraby. 2d rev. ed. London : Baha 'i Publishing Trust, 1987.
A comprehensive outline of the Saha ' i Faith.

Most ofthe books listed above have been published by various Saha 'i Publishing Trusts and are available in bookshops, libraries, or fi'om the Trusts. Please
see the Directory for addresses.

GLOSSARY

'Abdu'l-Baha: (1844- 1921) Son ofBaha'u'llah, designated His successor and authorized interpreter of His writings. Named ' Abbas after
His grandfather, ' Abdu ' l-Baha was known to the general public as
' Abbas Effendi. Baba ' u' llah gave Him such titles as "the Most Great
Branch," "the Mystery of God," and "the Master." After Baha'u'llah's
passing, He chose the name ' Abdu'l-Baha, meaning "Servant of
Baha'u'llah."

Administrative Order: The system of administration as conceived by
Baba 'u ' l lah, fo1mally established by 'Abdu 'l-Baha, and realized during the Guardianship ofShoghi Effendi . It consists, on the one hand,
of a series of elected councils, universal , national, and local, in which
are invested legislative, executive, and judicial powers over the Baha'i
community, and, on the other hand, of eminent and devoted Baha'is
appointed for the specific purposes of propagation and protection of
the Faith under the guidance of the Head of that Faith, the Universal
House of Justice.

Amatu'l-Baha RuJ.iiyyih Khanum: (1910- 2000) Mary Sutherland
Maxwell , an eminent North American Baha'i who became the wife
of Shoghi Effendi Rabbani, Guardian of the Baha ' i Faith, in 1937,

after which she became known as Rul_iiyyih Khanum Rabbani.
(Amatu ' l-Baha is a title meaning "Handmaiden ofBaha'u'llah.") She
served as the Guardian's secretary during his lifetime and was appointed a Hand of the Cause of God in 1952. After Shoghi Effendi's
passing in 1957 she travelled extensively to teach the Baha'i Faith,
consolidate Baha' i communities, and serve as a representative of the
Universal House of Justice at major events.

Arc : An arc cut into Mount Canoe! in Haifa, Israel, along which the
international administrative buildings of the Baha' i Faith are being
built.

Auxiliary Boards: An institution created by Shoghi Effendi in 1954 to
assist the Hands of the Cause of God. When the institution of the
Continental Boards of Counsellors was established in 1968 by the
Universal House of Justice, the Auxiliary Boards were placed under
its direction.

Bab, the: The title, meaning "Gate," assumed by Siyyid 'Ali-Mul_iammad, who was the Prophet Founder of the Babi Faith and the
Foreru1rner ofBaha'u'llah. Born 20 October 1819, the Bab proclaimed
Himself to be the Promised One of Islam and announced that His
mission was to alert the people to the imminent advent of"Him Whom
God shall make manifest," name ly, Baha'u' llah. Because of these
claims, the Bab was executed by order of Na$iri'd-Din Shah on 9
July 1850.

Baha'i Era: The period of the Baha' i calendar beginning with the Declaration of the Bab on 23 May 1844, and expected to last until the
next appearance of a Manifestation (Prophet) of God after the expiration of at least one thousand years.

Baha'i International Community: A name used generally in reference
to the worldwide Baha'i community and officially in that community's external relations. In the latter context, the Baha'i International
Community is an association of the National Spiritual Assemblies
throughout the world and functions as an international non-governmental organization. Its offices include its Secretariat at the Baha' i
World Centre, a United Nations Office in New York with a branch in
Geneva, an Office of Public Information , an Office of the Environment, and an Office for the Advancement of Women.

GLOSSARY

Baha'i World Centre: The spiritual and administrative center of the
Baha 'i Faith, located in the twin cities of Acre and Haifa, in Israel.

Bah:i'u'llah: Title assumed by Mirza}:Iusayn- 'Ali, Founder of the Baha'i
Faith. Born on 12 November 1817, He declared His mission as the
Promised One of All Ages in April 1863 and passed away in Acre,
Palestine, on 29 May 1892 after forty years of imprisonment, banishment, and house arrest. Ba ha 'u' llah 's writings are considered by
Baha ' is to be direct revelation from God.

Consultation: A form of discussion between individuals and within
groups which requires the subjugation of egotism so that all ideas
can be shared and evaluated with frankness , courtesy, and openness
of mind, and decisions arrived at can be wholeheartedly supported.
Its guiding principles were elaborated by 'Abdu'l-Baha.

Continental Boards of Counsellors: An institution created in 1968 by
the Universal House of Justice to extend into the future the work of
the institution of the Hands of the Cause of God, particularly its appointed functions of protection and propagation. With the passing of
Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Baha ' i Faith, there was no way
for additional Hands of the Cause to be appointed. The duties of th e
Counsellors include directing the Auxiliary Boards in their respective areas, advising and collaborating with National Spiritual
Assemblies, and keeping the Universal House of Justice informed
concerning the conditions of the Faith in their areas. Counsellors are
appointed for tenns of five years.

Convention: A gathering called at a regional, national, or international
level for consultation on matters affecting the welfare of the Baha'i
community and for the purpose, respectively, of electing delegates
to a National Convention, electing members of a National Spiritual
Assembly, or electing members of the Universal House of Justice.

Hands of the Cause of God: Individuals appointed first by Baha' u' ll ah,
and others named later by Shoghi Effendi , who were charged with
the specific duties of protecting and propagating the Faith. With the
passing of Shoghi Effendi there was no further possibility for appointing Hands of the Cause; hence, in order to extend into the future
the important functions of propagation and protection, the Universal
House of Justice in 1968 created Continental Boards of Counsel !ors

and in 1973 established the International Teaching Centre, which
coordinates their work.

Holy Days: Eleven days commemorating significant Baha'i anniversaries, on nine of which work is suspended.

l;luququ'llah: Arabic for "the Right of God." As instituted in the Kitabi-Aqdas, payment to "the Authority in the Cause to whom all must
turn" (at present, the Universal House of Justice) of nineteen percent
of what remains to one's personal income after one's essential
expenses have been covered. Funds generated by the payment of
I;Iuququ ' llah are used for the promotion of the Faith and for the welfare of society.

International Teaching Centre: An institution established in 1973 by
the Universal House of Justice to bring to fruition the work of the
Hands of the Cause of God in the Holy Land and to provide for its
extension into the future. The duties of the International Teaching
Centre include coordinating, stimulating, and directing the activities
of the Continental Boards of Counsellors and acting as liaison between them and the Universal House of Justice. The membership of
the Teaching Centre comprises the surviving Hands of the Cause and
also nine Counsell ors appointed by the Universal House of Justice.
The seat of the International Teaching Centre is located at the Baha'i
World Centre in Haifa, Israel.

Knight ofBaha'u'llah: Title initially given by Shoghi Effendi to those
Baha ' is who arose to open specified new territories to the Faith
during the first year of the Ten Year Crusade (1953- 1963) and subsequently applied to those who first reached the remaining unopened
teJTitories on the list at a later date.

Lesser Peace: A political peace to be establi shed by the nations of the
world in order to bring about an end to war. Its establishment will
prepare the way for the Most Great Peace, a condition of permanent
peace and world unity to be founded on the spiritual principles and
institutions of the World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah and signalizing humanity 's coming of age.

Local Spiritual Assembly: The local administrative body in the Baha'i
Faith, ordained in the Kitab-i-Aqdas. The nine members are directly

GLOSSARY

elected by secret ballot each year at Ri<;lvan from among the adult
believers in a community.

Monument Gardens: Beautifully landscaped gardens at the heart of
the Arc on Mount Ca1111el where befitting monuments have been
erected over the graves of the daughter and the wife of Baha'u'llah,
His son who died in prison in Acre, and the wife of ' Abdu'l-Baha.

Mount Carmel: The mountain spoken of by Isaiah as the "mountain of
the Lord. " Site of the Baha' i World Centre including several Baha ' i
holy places, the most important of which are the Shrine of the Bab
and the Monument Gardens.

National Spiritual Assembly: The national administrative body in the
Baha'i Faith, ordained in the Baha'i sacred writings, with authority
over all activities and affairs of the Baha'i Faith throughout its area.
Among its duties are to stimulate, unify, and coordinate the manifold
activities of Local Spiritual Assemblies and of individual Baha'is
within its jurisdiction. The members of National Spiritual Assemblies throughout the world constitute the electoral college for the
Universal House of Justice. At Ri<;ivan 1999, there were 181 National
or Regional Spiritual Assemblies. See also Regional Spiritual Assembly.

Nineteen Day Feast: The principal gathering in each local Baha'i community, every Baha'i month, for the threefold purpose of worship,
consultation, and fellowship.

Pioneer: Any Baha'i who arises and leaves his or her home to journey
to another country for the purpose of teaching the Baha ' i Faith.
"Homefront pioneer" describes those who move to areas within their
own country that have yet to be exposed to the Baha'i Faith or where
the Baha ' i community needs strengthening.

Regional Spiritual Assembly: An institution identical in function to
the National Spiritual Assembly but including a number of countries
or regions in its jurisdiction, often established as a precursor to the
formation of a National Spiritual Assembly in each of the countries it
encompasses.

Ric;lvan: Arabic for "Paradise." Twelve-day festival (from 21 April
through 2 May) commemorating Baha'u'llah's declaration of His

THE BAHA'I W ORLD

mission to His companions in 1863 in the Garden of Ri<;lvan in
Baghdad.

Shoghi Effendi Rabbani: (1897-1957) The Guardian of the Baha' i Faith
after the passing of 'Abdu'l-Baha in 1921 , designated in His Will
and Testament as His successor in interpreting the Baha'i writings
and as Head of the Faith.

Shrine of Baha'u'llah: The resting place of Baha 'u ' llah's mortal remains, located near the city of Acre, Israel. The Shrine is the holiest
spot on earth to Baha' is and a place of pilgrimage.

Shrine of the Bab: The resting place of the Bab's mo1tal remains, located on Mount Carmel in Haifa, Israel , a sacred site to Baha' is, and
a place of pilgrimage.

Tablet: Divinely revealed scripture. In Baha'i sc ripture, the tennis used
to denote writings revealed by Baha'u'llah, the Bab, and 'Abdu'l-
Baha.

Ten Year Crusade: (1953- 1963) Ten Year Plan for teaching the Baha'i
Faith initiated by Shoghi Effendi , which culminated with the election of the Universal House of Justice, during the centenary of the
Declaration of Baha' u' llah. The objectives of the Crusade were the
development of the institutions at the World Centre, the consolidation of the communities of the participating National Spiritual
Assemblies, and the opening of the main unopen ed teITitories. See
also Knight of Bahil 'u 'llah.

Universal House of Justice: Head of the Baha' i Faith after the passing
of Shoghi Effendi, and the supreme administrative body ordained by
Baha' u' llah in the Kitab-i-Aqdas, His book of laws. The Universal
House of Justice is elected every five years by the members of all
National Spiritual Assemblies, who gather at an International Convention. The House of Justice was elected for the first time in 1963.
It occupied its permanent seat on Mount Carmel in 1983.

Adapted from A Basic Bah<i 'i Dictionary, Wendi Momen, ed.
(Oxford: George Ronald, 1989) .

INDEX

A 91 , 97,98,99, 101 , 102, 322
' Abdu'l-Baha 9, 11 , 43, 48, 125, Associated Press 159, 193
167, 168- 70, 180, 187,218, Association for Baha' i Studies 78
250, 254-55 , 276, 333 directory of3 l 7- 19
passing of 170 Assoc iation medicale baha' ie 322
statements on inten-eligious Atlanta Journal-Constitution 193
activity 276- 77, 283 Atopare, Silas 85
writings of 23- 26, 254, 330 Austra lia 81- 83 , 86, 87, 112, 11 9,
advancement of women 7, 48-49, 186, 289, 317,3 19
50,51,53 , 60, 72, 77, 78, 79, Austria 88,91 , 112, 173, 174
81, 82, 83 , 88, 90, 114-16, 315 Auxiliary Boards 334
African Action on AIDS 115
B
Aftenposten (Norway) 193
Bab, the 8- 9, 11 , 214- 16,238- 39,
Agence France Presse 193
Agritech '9942, 11 9, 120
Shrine of 11 , 35 , 11 9, 178, 338
Ahderom , Techeste 75
Terraces of the Sirrine of 28, 41 -
Al-Marayati , Laila 69
42, 36- 38
Ala'i, Qudsiyyih Amin-Amin 303
writings of 243, 330
A laska 59, 62
Babi religion 9, 238- 39
A lbani a 88, 121 , 193
Baha' i Assoc iation for the Arts 322
Albright, Madeleine 71, 161
Baha' i community 13- 14, 15 , 30,
' Ali-MuDammad, Siyyid
47-48
See Bab, the
Baha ' i centers 52, 55 , 56, 57, 66,
Alli ance for Religions and Conserva-
76, 77, 99
tion 279
conferences 49, 53, 58, 59, 60, 61,
A luze, Jean Paul 84
62, 63,64, 66, 67, 70, 76, 78,
Amarsingh , Mansingh 68- 69
80, 83,84,87,88,92, 97, 99,
Amartuvishin 288
102, 103
Amatu' l-Baha RuDiyyih Khanum
development of 52, 56, 59, 67, 71
See Hands of the Cause of God
lega l registration 77, 81, 102
America Intercontinental Conference
public recogn ition of 7
Baha' i Computer and Commun ica-
Andaman and Nicobar Islands 71
tions Association (BCCA) 322
Angola 48-49
Baha' i Era 334
Annan, Kofi 75
Baha' i Esperanto League 322
ann iversari es, Baha'i
Baha'i Faith
celebration in Singapore 79
admin istrativeorderof 11 - 13,27,
celebration in Sri Lanka 80
43 , 333
celebration in Uruguay 70
aims of 15 , 18
Antigua/Barbuda 63, 65
early legal history of 239-48
Area Growth Programs 29
history of 8- 11, 13, 235- 39
Argentina 60, 61 , 317, 319
holy days 336
Armenia 71
laws and moral teachings 14
arts 7, 49, 58, 70, 80, 83 , 85 , 87,89,
public recognition 50, 51 , 53 , 54,

56,57, 60, 63 , 68, 69, 71 , 74, 238- 39, 240- 64, 297,335
77, 83 , 84, 85 , 89, 90, 91 , 92, legal framework of 239-49,
93, 97 259- 64
spiritual teachings 13- 15 Shrine of 175, 192, 338
Baha ' i Health Agency 322 statements on inteJTeligious
Baha'i lnstitute for Higher Education activity 276
(BIHE) 157, 159- 160 writings of 21 - 23 , 28, 127, 131,
See also Tran, situation of the 202- 03, 217, 240, 243 ,
Baha'i community in 329- 30
Baha'i International Community 8, Bangladesh 72
15 , 17, 41, 105, 111, 114, 127, Barak, Ehud 193
291 , 295 , 299, 307,334 Barbados 60, 65
Geneva Office I 12, 114, 322, 334 Barnes, Kiser 31
Office for the Advancement of Beijing Platfonn for Action 119
Women 15, 112, 114- 16, 322, Belarus 88- 89, 94, 96, 102
334 Belgium 88, 89, 90, 173, 319
Office of the Environment 15, Belize 61
112, 322 Ben-Sasson, Menahem 125
Office of Public Information 15, Benin 49
111 , 119, 127,322 Berman, Harold J. 232- 34
Paris Office 119- 120, 121, 322 Bermuda 61
United Nations Office 15 111 , Bhutan 72
112, 114, 322 Bistandstorget 96
Baha ' i Justice Society 322 Blair, Tony 102
Baha ' i Medical Association of Boddy, Peter 304
Canada 322 Boff, Leonardo 139
Baha'i Office of the Envirorunent for Bolivia 7, 60, 61, 64, 67, 97
Taiwan 322 Bosnia-Herzegovina 120, 133, 279,
Baha ' i Publishing Trusts 281
directory of 319- 21 Botswana 49, 122
Baha'i schools Brazil 61, 62, 127- 28, 134, 152, 193,
permanent 57, 86 319
seasonal 49, 55 , 74, 83 , 84, 90, 94, Brown, Donald and Christine 63
98, 99, 100 Bulgaria 89, 120, 121
Baha ' i Studies, Chair for 123- 26 Burkina 49, 58
Baha'i World, The 172, 179
Baha'i World Centre 10- 11, 28, 125, c
184,335 Calgary Herald 193
Baha 'i World Web site 120 Call to Our Guiding Institutions, A
Baha ' i worldview 198- 202 105- 06, 117, 268, 278
Baha'i writings Camacho, Josephina 304
authority of 202- 06 Cambodia 72- 73, 80
Cameroon 49, 50, 112, 317, 319
Bahamas 60
Baha' u'llah 9- 10, 12, 13 , 17, 18, 35, Canada 7, 62, 65,88, 90, 97, 100,
47, 107, 132, 192, 209, 214- 16, 102, 120, 159, 169, 172, 175,

I NDEX

180, 181, 193, 318 Dawn-Breakers, The 172
Canary Islands 90 de Calderon, Isabel Pavon 305
Canterbu ry, arc hbishop of I 02, 116, de Sanchez, Isabe l 70
188, 279 Deane, Wi ll iam 82
Cape Times (Cape Town) l l 0 Denmark 11 2
Cape Verde 50 development 58, 66, 73, 75, 77, 8 1,
Cardell , Ted 304 82, 83 , 86,97, 116- 17, 285- 90
Centre fo r the Study of the Texts 38- statistics 315- 16
39, 125 Dhabihi-Muqaddam, Sirus 158, 292
Chad 50 directory of Baha ' i agencies 3 17- 24
Chan, Ceci lia 73 D iversity Dance Theatre of Europe
Ch ile 61, 63 , 64, 67, 73, 112, 3 17 (DDT) 97
China 11 9, 226 Djibouti 5 1
Chirac, Jacques 193 Dominican Republic 63
Chua, Vicente 78
Clarkson, Adrienne 193 E
C linton, Wi lliam 69, 159, 193 East Leeward Islands 63
Co llins, Ame lia Eastern Caro li ne Islands 83
See Hands of the Cause of God Eck, Diana 269, 270
Co ll ymo re, Henry 68 Ecuador 64, 67, 119, 317
Co lombia 63 , 112, 119, 3 17 education, mora l 66, 7 1, 73 , 82, 97
Congo, Democratic Republic of 51 El Salvador 64
Congo Republ ic 50 E lli s, Wi lma 7 1
consultation 335 Encyclopedia Britannica 8
Conti nental Counse llors 335 environment
Conventions, Baha'i 335 See Baba ' i International Commufirst internationa l 185 ni ty, Office of the Environment
Cook Islands 83 Eri trea 51
Correa, Sang 52 Estoni a 43 , 90, 94
Costa Rica 6 1, 63, 64, 112 Estrell a, Carl os Manue l 63
Cote d'Ivoire 49, 51 , 11 2, 3 19 Ethiopia 52, 11 2, 187
Covenant ofBaha' u ' ll ah 204-06 European Baha'i Business Forum
'A bdu ' I-Baba 204 (EBBF) l 03, 323
Shoghi Effendi 204- 05 European Baha'i Yo uth Council 95 ,
Universal House of Justice 205 102 , 121 , 323
Croatia 88, 99, 102, 121 E uropean Famil y Life Task Force 97
Cusanus, Nicolaus 265 European Un ion (EU) I 20
Cyprus 90 F
Czech Republic 88, 90, 11 9 Farkas, Florian 93
D Ferdosian, Habibullah 159
Da lai Lama l 08 F icca, Dirk l 09
Danesh, Hossein I 00 Fiji Islands 320
Danesh , Roshan 223 Fi nl and 62, 90
Davaadulam 288 Five Year Plan 29

Four Year Plan 28, 29, 46, 70, 90 30, 165- 95 , 333-34
Fowler LeBlanc, Diane 62 early life 167- 71
Fozdar, Shirin 79 "Green Light Expedition, The"
France 91 , 97, 120, 159, 176, 193 of 192
Freehill, Mary 93 marriage of 174- 76
French Guiana 64- 65 memorials gatherings for 74
Fresnedi, Jaime R. 78 message of the Universal House
Fukada, Takeo 273 of Justice regarding 194- 95
passing of I 93
G
"Pilgrimage, The" (film by) 192
Gabon 52
recognition of 193
Gambia, the 52
"This is Faith" (poem by) 176
Georgia 73
travels of 186- 90
Germany 58, 65 , 91 , 97, 120, 172,
tribute to 165- 95
173 , 174,318, 320
Co llins, Amelia 181
Ghadimi , Shoghi 305- 06
Root, Martha 43 , 308
Ghana 7, 52, 100, 318
Varga, 'Ali-Mu~ammad 92, 99
Globe and Mail (Toronto) 193
"Happy Hippo Show, The" 95 , 121
glossary of Baha'i terms 333- 38
Harald V, King (of Norway) 95
God Passes By 11 , 178
Hatcher, William S. 91
Gonez, Arpad 92
Hawaiian Islands 83 , 115, 318
Gorkhapatra (Nepal) 77
Health for Humanity 323
Greece 92, 97
Hebrew University of Jerusalem , the
Greenland 62
120, 123- 26
Grenada 65
See also Baha'i Studies, Chair for
Grossman, Hartmut 44, 45--46
Hedayat, Maria Augusta 94
Guadeloupe 65
Henderson, Robert 70
Guardian of the Baha'i Faith
Herzog, Aura 41
See Shoghi Effendi
Hick, John 269, 275- 76
Guardianship 12
Hohener, Hans 101
Guinea 7, 53
Holy Days 336
Gurirab, Theo-Ben 115
Holy Year (1953) 180
Gushiken, Luiz 129
Honduras 66
Gutierrez, Jose 63
Hong Kong 73 , 320
Guyana 65- 66
Hong Kong Baha' i Professional
H Forum 323
Hague Appeal for Peace Conference, Hossain, Syud 171
The 95, 121 Houses of Worship 15
Haiti 64 in Uganda 59
J:Iaji Siyyid Javad-i-Karbila'i 240, in the United States 180- 81
241,242, 244,246 in Western Samoa 87
Hakiman, Sina 159 human rights 64, 75 , 79, 112- 14
Hands of the Cause of God 12, Human Rights Education Newsletter
182- 86, 192, 193, 335 113
Amatu ' l-Baha Rul)iyyih Khanum

J NDEX

Hungary 92, 93 , 119, 121 Jerusalem Post 193
I:Iuququ'llah 92, 99, 249, 336 John Paul II, Pope 73 , 118
I:Iusayn-'Ali , Mirza Jones, Rose 305
See Baha'u ' llah Jordan 117, 120
Jovet, Carmen 68
I
Iceland 93 K
Imperial , Reynaldo 78 Kashefi-Najafabadi , Hedayat 158,
India 72, 73- 74, 119, 191, 318, 320 292
indigenous peop les 7, 55, 61 , 66, 68, Kazakhstan 74- 75 , 98, 119
79, 82 Kazemzadeh, Firuz 69
Indonesia 279 Kenney, Jim 106
Intercontinental Baha'i Conference Kenya 53, 112, 119, 121 , 317,320
180- 81 , 184 Khajeh, Farzad 159
interfaith activities 62, 67, 69, 72, Khan, Peter J. 126, 197
73 , 74, 85, 9 1, 94, 95 , 100, 102 Kim, Dae-Jung 75
International Baha ' i Archives 11 , Kim-Farley, Robert 82- 83
38- 39, 185 Kiribati 83
International Baha ' i Council 180, Kitab-i-Aqdas 99, 227, 240-43, 249
181 , 185 further application of laws 30
International Day of the African Knight ofBaha'u'llah 336
Child 49 Koirala, Bharat 77
International Environment Forum Korea 75- 76, 320
323 Kosovo 279
International Monetary Fund 117 Kiing, Hans 96, 271 , 277
International Teaching Centre 31, Kyrgyzstan 76
193 , 336
L
International Teaching Centre
La Jnformacion (Dominican Repubbuilding 35 , 39-40
lic) 63
interreligious dialogue 265
Landegg Academy 92, 100, 323
involvement in the life of society 50,
Laos 80
52,59,62,63 , 68, 75 , 78, 80,
Lapland 62
81, 88 , 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 101
Lapli , John 86
Iran 69, 291
Latvia 43 , 44-45 , 90, 94
situation of the Baha'i community
law
in 17, 157- 64,291 - 94
external integrity of 232- 33
Ireland 93 , 103
influence ofreligion on 230- 34
Israel 41 , 91, 118, 119, 120, 123 , 125
internal integrity of 230-32
Italy 94, 97, 98, 112, 320
relevance of religion in 234
Iwakura, Nobuku 74
law, Baha'i
J public aspects of 249- 52
Jamaica 65 LeMonde 193
Japan 74, 120, 318, 320 Le Monde Diplomatique 91
Javaheri , Firaydoun 92, 99

Lebanon 320 M ill en nium Summ it 283
Lee, Mrs. George 306 Moani, Hedi 84
Lesotho 52, 53 Mogharrabi, ' Abdu' llah 306- 07
Lesser Peace 336 Mo ldova 88 , 96, I 02
Letrav iva Editoria l 128 Monajem, Jamshid 307
Lets i Ill , King(ofLesotho) 53 , 54 Mongo lia 7, 76, 77
Liberia 54 Mongo lian Deve lopment Center 285-
Linco ln, A lbet141 , 11 8, 124, 125 90
Linco ln, Joan 58 Montessori schoo l 169
Lithuania 43 , 45-46, 90, 94, 119 Montreal Gazette 193
Locke, Kevi n 55, l 08 Monument Gardens 337
Lockhart, Joe 159 Mottahedeh Deve lopment Services
Los Angeles Times 193 323
Luxembourg 91 , 94, I 02 , 120 Mottahedeh, Mil dred 307- 08
Mo un t Carmel 337
M
Baha ' i projects on 33-42
Macau 7, 100
Mozambique 55
Macedonia 120
Munsiff, Meherangiz 308
Madagascar 54
Myanmar 77 , 11 9
Magidor, Menachem 123
Ma laysia 76- 77 , 80, 3 18, 320 N
Ma li 49 Nakbjavani, Violette 167
Malietoa Tanurnati li II, Head of State Nam ibia 55, 115
(ofSamoa) 188, 193 Naraqi , Sirt'.1s 85
Mandela, Nelson I 09 Narayanan, Kocheri l R. 74
Manifestations of God 8- 10, 13 Na~ iri ' d-Din Shah 334
Mariana Islands 83 Nasiri zadi h, Ata'u' ll ah Ham id 159,
Markovich, Ivo 281 292
Marks , Amy 108, I 09 , 11 0 National Post 193
Mai1inique 65 Navo n, ltzhak 125
Mash riq u ' 1-Ad hka r 249 Nelson , Dorothy 69
materi alism , dogmatic 200 Nepa l 72, 77- 78
Mauritius 7, 54 Netherlands 94, 95 , 120, 12 1, 320
Maxwell , Mary New Ca ledon ia and the Loyalty
See Amatu' l-Baha Rt'.1hiyyih Islands 84
Khan um under Hands of the New Era Development Institute
Ca use of God (NEDI) 96
Maxwe ll , May 167- 74 174, 177- 78, New York Times 193
180 New Zea land 84- 85, 87, 3 18
Maxwell , William Sutherl and 167, Nicaragua 67
178, 180 Niederreiter, Leo 309
Memem , Fernando Perez 63 Niger 49 , 58, 320
Merhatsion, Aba ineh 306 Nigeria 3 19, 320
Mexico 66 Nineteen Day Feast 337
Michael , King (of Roman ia) 193

I NDEX

Norodom Sihanouk, King of Cam bo- Prescription For living 179
dia 72 Priceless Pearl, The 174, 179
No rthern Ireland l 03 Pringle, Ruth 66
No rway 62 , 95 , 97, 320 Promise of World Peace, The 17, 278
No rwegian Age ncy for Development Prosperity of Humankind, The 18
Cooperation (NORAD) 97 Puerto Rico 68 , 3 18
No rwegian Baha ' i Comm ittee fo r
Social a nd Economic Deve lop-
Q
Quem esta escrevendo ofuturo? 25
ment 96
textos para o Seculo XXI 127-
"Nuit de l 'Espoir" 9 1
R
Ob ituari es 303- 12
race uni ty 47, 55, 70, 93
O ' Bri en, Terrence 84
Rafa t, Po lin 44
O linga, George 58
R aman, Yaradaraj a Y. 107
One Counlry 11 2, 121, 285
Ra mirez, Zenaida 3 1, 80
Open Uni versity
Rawhani , Shohreh I 08
See B aha'i Institute for H igher
reading li st of basic Baha'i books
Education
329- 33 1
Otta wa Ci!izen I 93
Ric;l van 337
p Ro binson, Arthu r N. R. 69
Pakistan 72, 78, 32 1 Roman i peoples 93
Pa nama 6 1, 67 Ro mania 97- 98 , 11 2, 120 , 121 , 32 1
Pap ua New Guinea 85 Root, Martha
Paraguay 67 See Hands of the Cause of God
Par! iaments of th e World 's Re li gio ns Ross , Peggy 309
117, 267- 68 , 272 , 278 , 282 Royaumont Process 120
Declarati on of 272- 73 Ru gova, Ibra him 97
"Payam-e Doost" 70 Rushdy, Abbas 309- 10
peace 17 Russ ian Federation 62, 90, 95, 3 19,
Lesser Peace 336 32 1
Peace Week 88, 90 Rwanda 55 , 56, 59
Pera lta, Pau l 63
Peres, Shi mo n 120
s
Sabah 79, 80
Pereyra, G ladi al iza 63
Sabri , Hassan 55
Perez, Giora 38, 39
Saeed, Shapoor 3 10
Peru 6 1, 67 , 11 9
Sah ba, Fari borz 38,4 1
Ph il ip, Prince 188, 193
Sa lgado, Sebastiao 128
Phil ippines 78- 79, 80, 11 9, 3 18, 32 1
Samii , Ka myab 89
Pho losi, K hoel i 54
Samoa 85
Pihl ainen, Ma ij a 44, 45
Sanchez, Mercedes 310- 1l
pioneer 337
Sao Tome and Princ ipe 55 , 56- 57
Po land 90, 96, 32 1
Sarawak 79, 80
Portugal 7, 97 , 32 1
Savi, Julio 94

Schaefer, Udo 277 Slovakia 98- 99
scholars, Baha'i Slovenia 99, 12 1
qualities of 210- 2 13 Smith, Charles Z . 69
scholarship Smith, Chris 102
Baha'i approach to 210-13 Smith , Helen 46
scholarsh ip, Baha ' i 197- 222 Smith-Te ll ez, Leilani 50
acqui sition of knowledge 206- 14 social and econom ic development
and academic studies 208- 09 See development
categories of 2 14- 2 1 Sole, Jan 90
appli cation of Baha'i teachings Solomon Islands 85
to contemporary issues Sorabjee, Zena 73
218-19 SouthAfrica 105 , 114, 117, 119,
study of historical origins of 268,321
Faith 2 14- 16 Spain 99, 11 9,3 19,32 1
study ofreligious concepts Spi ritual Assemb ly, Local 336
217- 18 Spirihia l Assemb ly, National 12, 337
study of the Baha'i community formation of 28, 43-46
219- 21 Spiritual Assemb ly, Regional 337
textual analysis 2 16- 17 Sri Lanka 7, 72 , 80, 100
future prospects 221 St. Vincent and the Grenad ines 68
range of 213- 2 1 statistics of the Baha'i wo rl d commu-
Selassie, Hai le 187 nity 313- 16
Senega l 56 development statistics 3 15- 16
Serbia 97 studies, Baha ' i 197
Seventh World Assemb ly of the Sii.dwestrundfimk 91, 120
World Conference on Religion Suriname 68
and Peace 117 Swazi land 57
Seyche ll es 56 Sweden 62, JOO, 119, 321
Seychelles Nation 56 Swidler, Leonard 280
Sharon, Moshe 41 , 100, 124, 125, Swing, Wi ll iam E. 273
126 Switzerland 8, 9 1, l 00, 319
See also Baha 'i Studies, Chair for Sydney Morning Herald 193
Shaykhism 237- 238
T
Shogh i Effendi 10- 12, 16, 125 ,
Tablet 338
170- 80, 191 , 250, 259, 338
Tablets of the Divine Plan 10, 169
passing of 12, 182
Taherzadeh, Adib 31, 311 - 12
statements on interreligious
Taiwan 80, 321
activity 277
Tanzania 57
writings of 16, 208, 22 1, 331
teaching the Baha ' i Faith 18, 48, 50,
Sicily 98
51 , 52, 54,55,58,64,65 , 66,
Sierra Leone 56- 57, 189, 279
68, 70, 79, 85,86,88 , 89, 93,
Simiyo, Y. G. 53
97, 98, 103
Singapore 79- 80, 319
Temp le of Understanding 267
Singh, Harvansh 311
Ten Year Crusade 182- 83 , 184, 186,

I NDEX

338 International Year for Peace 15,
Thai land 80, 11 2, 119 17, 278
Togo 7, 49,58, JOO M ill ennium Forum, Summit, and
Tonga 86 Assembly 118
Toronto Star 193 United Nations Children's Fund
Towards a Global Ethic 109 (UNICEF) 112 , 11 9, 128, 286,
training institutes 28, 47, 54, 60, 65 , 287
67, 7 1, 73 , 77, 80, 89 Un ited Nations Development Fund
Tran, Rosali e, 77 for Women (UNl FEM) 11 2,
Trinidad and Tobago 65, 68, 112, 11 6, 11 8
319 United Nations Econom ic and
truth, independent investigation of Soc ial Council (ECOSOC) 112,
201 114, 11 9
Tsend, Maitar 289 United Nations Educational,
Turkey 30, 101 - 02 Sc ientific, and Cultural Organi-
Turkish-Greek Women 's Peace zation (UNESCO) 9 1, 115 , 128,
Initi ative (WINPEACE) 101 273 , 299
Turning Point for All Nations 18 United Nations High Coffiln is-
Twelve Month Plan 29 sioner fo r Refugees (UNHCR)
11 9
u United Nations Info rmation Center
Uganda 58, 59, 122, 32 1
(UN IC) 79
Ukrai ne 88, 96, l 02, 113, 120
Universal Dec laration of Human
United Kingdom 87, 95 , 102, l 03 ,
Rights 295 , 296, 298
162, 318, 32 1
World Conference against Racism
United Nations 15 , 64, 75, 11 2, 11 8,
160- 6 1, 291 , 295, 297,299
World Summit for Social Develop-
Comm ission on Human R ights
ment 18, 11 9
113, 158, 160, 161
Un ited Religions Initiative, the 274
Commi ss ion on the Status of
United States 7, 8, 62, 69-70, 7 1, 90,
Women 115
95, 100, 113 , 120, 122, 159,
Committee on the Elimination of
161 , 162, 321
Racial Di scrimination 11 4, 11 9
Uni versal House of Justice 8, 12, 27,
Convention on the Rights of the
35 , 192- 95, 250, 254-59, 338
Child 286
first election of 186
Conventi on on the Elimination of
legislative authority of 250- 53
all Forms of Di scrimination
messages of, 194
Against Women (CEDAW) 11 6,
Uruguay 70, 113
11 9
Uzbekistan 8 1, 119
Decade for Human Rights Education 112 v
fiftieth anniversary of 18 Valuing Spirituality in Development
International Day fo r the Eli mina- 11 7
tion of Rac ial Di scrimination Vancouver Sun 193
93 Vanuatu 86- 87

Vardanyan, Goar 71 World Econom ic Forum 273
Varqa, 'A li-Mu~ammad World Fa iths Development Dialogue
See Hands of the Cause of God (WFDD) 116- 17, 279-80
Venezuela 67, 70, 3 19 World Health Organization (WHO)
Vice, Sy lvia 45 83, 11 2
Vietnam 81 Wo rld Parliament of Religions I 06,
Voice ofAmerica 161 , 193 108, 266
van Czekus, Rolf 66 See also Parliament of the Wo rld 's
Religions
w
World Summit for Soc ial Develop-
Wa lters, Richard Harding 312
ment I 19
Warren, Lally l 08
Washington Post 193 x
Weizman , Ezer 193 Xi nhua News Age ncy 73
West Leeward Islands 71 y
Western Caro line Islands 87
Yem , Jean-Jacques 49
Western Samoa 85, 188
Yo ung, Ricardo 149
Who is Writing the Future? 18, 53,
Yo useffian , Sohrab 97
54, 56, 63, 71, 74, 76, 88,
yo uth 49, 50, 61 , 64, 65, 67, 70, 80,
127- 28
84, 85,87, 88, 89,92,98, 102
Wo lfenso hn, James 279
World Bank 11 6- 17, 279 z
World Co mmunity Foundation 323 Zamb ia 59
World Conference on Religion and Zimbabwe 59
Peace 267, 279 ZIPOPO
World Congress of Fa iths 267 See "Happy Hippo Show, The"
Z uber, Robert 121