# Baha'i Fundamentals for Bioethics

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> Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Leila Rassekh Milani, Baha'i Fundamentals for Bioethics, bahai-library.com.
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> 
> Bahà’i Fundamentals for Bioethics
> Leila R. Milani and Kavian S. Milani
> Abstract
> The recent unprecedented explosion of advances in the biological and medical
> sciences, especially in the arena of technology, has produced a plethora of new
> bioethical challenges with significant moral, economic, and public policy
> implications. Inherent in the Baha’i Revelation is the claim that it contains a
> universal moral code. The rich field of Bahd’i bioethics has not been studied to
> date. This article attempts to establish a framework and to open a dialogue
> within which medical ethical dilemmas may be addressed and analyzed in light
> of the Bahd’i Faith. Bahd’i psychology (science of the soul) is examined, as it is
> a prelude to ethical questions. The authors suggest a possible Bahd’i scriptural
> understanding o f suffering, theodicy, and the purpose o f creation. The
> definitions of life and death, as well as the purpose of human life, are also
> explored. Finally, a number o f principles from the Bahd’i writings are
> examined for use in formulating a Bahd’i approach to bioethical dilemmas. It
> must be noted that this article does not represent the definitive Bahd’i stance on
> any of the issues discussed; rather, these preliminary observations are only
> intended to serve as a prelude to a Bahd’i bioethical dialogue.
> 
> Résumé
> Le foisonnement récent et sans précédent que l ’on constate dans les sciences
> biologiques et médicales, tout particulièrement dans le domaine technologique, a
> entraîné une pléthore de nouveaux défis bioéthiques ayant des répercussions
> morales, économiques et sociétales. Au coeur même de la révélation baha’ie, il y
> a l ’affirmation qu’elle renferme un code moral universel. Le riche domaine de la
> bioéthique baha’ie n ’a pas encore fait l ’objet d ’études. Cet article cherche donc à
> établir un cadre et à amorcer un dialogue où les dilemmes médicaux et éthiques
> peuvent être examinés et analysés à la lumière de la foi baha ’ie. La psychologie
> baha’ie (ou science de l ’âme) y est examinée, puisqu’elle est un prélude aux
> questions éthiques. Les auteurs proposent une compréhension scripturale baha ’ie
> de la souffrance, de la théodicité et du but de la création. L ’article explore
> également la définition de la vie et de la mort, de même que le but de l ’existence
> humaine. Enfin, un certain nombre de principes tirés des écrits baha’is sont
> examinés en vue de form uler une approche baha’ie face aux dilemmes
> bioéthiques. Il faut noter que cet article ne représente pas la position baha’ie
> définitive au sujet des questions à l ’étude. Plutôt, ces observations préliminaires
> se veulent un point de départ à un dialogue de la bioéthique baha ’ie.
> 48           THE J O U R N A L OF B A H Á ’ Í S T U D I E S                 8.2.1998
> 
> Resumen
> La reciente explosion sin precedentes en las ciencias médicas y biológicas,
> especialmente en el campo de la tecnología, ha resultado en una abundancia de
> retos nuevos bioéticos que insinúan significativamente ante la politico pública,
> la moral, y la economiá. Inherente en la Revelación Bahďí estd la afirmación
> de contener dentro de si pautas universales sobre la moral. El campo
> abundante de la bioética bahà Y hasta la fecha no ha sido estudiado. Este
> artículo tratarâ de establecer un marco de referenda y comenzar un diâlogo
> que permitirà analizar dilemas médicos tocantes en la ética a la luz de la Fe
> Bahâ’i. La sicologia bahâ’i (la ciencia del alma) se investigarápor ser preludio
> a los asuntos éticos de actualidad. Los autores sugieren una comprensión en los
> escritos sagrados bahá ’ís referente al sufrimiento, la teodicea, y el propôsito de
> la creaciôn. Se exploran las defïniciones de la vida y la muerte, y también el
> propôsito de la vida humana. Por ultimo, se sondean algunos principios de los
> escritos bahá’is que sirven para elaborar un enfoque bahďí referente a los
> dilemas bioéticos. Vale anotar que este artículo está lejos de ser la màxima
> posiciôn bahd’i sobre los temas que se presentan; mas bién, con estas
> observaciones preliminares se busca solamente adelantar un preludio a un
> diálogo bioético bahá Y.
> 
> eginning in the 1950s and 1960s, a distinct new field emerged in relation to
> B    the ethical ramifications of medical advances. The first heart transplants,
> the first clinical use of kidney dialysis and respiratory support, the increased
> technological ability to prolong life, the capability to control human fertility and
> reproduction, and the new ability of genetics to orchestrate the creation of a
> “desirable” human being were among the many issues that prepared the way for
> a new set of discussions. Although the different fields of theology, philosophy,
> law, and sociology had independently confronted issues arising from medicine
> and the life sciences, rarely had this been done in terms of an interdisciplinary
> dialogue. By the 1970s, these dialogues gave rise to the field of bioethics
> (Encyclopedia of Bioethics xxi).
> The field of philosophy consists of the four major branches of metaphysics,
> epistemology, logic, and ethics. Ethics is the study of moral conduct and leading
> a good life. The term bioethics is derived from the Greek words bios (life) and
> éthiká (ethics). It has hence been defined as :
> 
> . . . the systematic study of the moral dimensions—including moral vision, decisions,
> conduct, and policies—of life sciences and health care, employing a variety of ethical
> methodologies in an interdisciplinary setting. (Encyclopedia xxi)
> B a h à ’i F u n d a m e n t a l s f o r B i o e t h i c s                       49
> 
> Biomedical ethics has now emerged as a new field of human endeavor.1 The
> general questions in the field of bioethics are those same questions raised in
> other ethical inquiries; however, bioethics asks more specific questions related
> to the ethics of the health sciences. The following questions are raised in the
> realm of bioethics: Should the lives of the terminally ill be indefinitely
> prolonged? Should fetal abnormalities in utero be diagnosed? To what extent
> should society provide and encourage alternative means of conception for those
> otherwise not capable? Should scientists engage in germ-line gene therapy,
> altering the genetic endowment of the human race? At what point, if ever,
> should abortion take place?
> It is not the purpose of this article to address specific ethical problems.
> Therefore, those searching for a definitive Bahà’f response to controversial
> issues such as the ethical aspects of abortion, euthanasia, or the patenting of the
> human genome will be disappointed. For instance, rather than addressing
> euthanasia specifically, BaháT guidelines regarding death as a means of escaping
> suffering are examined. In our study of selected topics, the operative texts are
> extracted and presented. These texts allow for the development of a common
> ground towards initiating dialogues in Bahá’1 bioethics. Such a study is long
> overdue and of interest for a variety of reasons. First, individual Bahà’fs from
> within or outside the medical field may face ethical dilemmas. This article
> establishes a framework that may be considered in management of such
> dilemmas. Second, it may prove of interest to scientists and healthcare providers
> who may be dealing with Bahá’1 scientists or patients. Third, and most
> important, as in many fields of human endeavor, global dialogues may eventuate
> in an emerging global consensus on the issue of bioethics. Jewish, Christian, and
> Muslim scholars of biomedical ethics have been heavily involved at the forefront
> of the global dialogue in the field. Buddhism and Hinduism have also made
> substantial contributions to the current scholarship in biomedical ethics
> (Encyclopedia xix-xx). The BaháT' Faith is the only major religion that has not
> participated in these dialogues. The BaháT' Faith, as the youngest and fastest-
> growing major religion in the world, has the right to contribute to the current
> dialogues in the field of biomedical ethics, alongside its sister religions.
> 
> Contemporary Approaches to Bioethical Decision-Making
> Deontology
> To familiarize the reader with the new field of bioethics, a cursory survey of
> some contemporary approaches to bioethical decision-making is necessary.
> 
> 1. Annually, more than 3,000 books and articles are published that contribute to this field. A large
> number of university centers have designed post-graduate degree programs in bioethics. Courses
> and electives are now offered by a large number of medical schools, and ethics questions are now
> standard on National Boards, Steps I, II, and III, as well as FLEX and specialty Board examinations
> (see La Puma and Scheidermayer, Ethics Consultation 58).
> 50             TH E J O U R N A L OF B A H À ’ Î S T U D I E S      8.2. 1998
> 
> Deontological, or obligation-based theory, as developed by Immanuel Kant
> (1742-1804), is one of the earliest normative theories of ethics. It advances the
> notion that moral judgments must rest on reasons that can be generalized for
> others who are similarly situated. Kant maintained that human beings have a
> rational power to resist desire and possess the capacity to act according to
> rational considerations. He went on to argue that it is in reason, not tradition,
> intuition, conscience, emotions, or attitudes that morality is grounded. A natural
> extension of this theory lends itself to Kant’s assertion that moral obligation
> depends on the rule that determines the individual’s will. In other words, an
> action is only morally worthy if it is performed by an agent who has a good
> will.2 Kant’s categorical imperative followed: “I ought never to act except in
> such a way that I can also will that my maxim become a universal law”
> (Beauchamp and Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics 56-57).
> 
> Utilitarianism
> Utilitarianism, or consequence-based theory, determines the rightness or
> wrongness of an act based on the balance of its good and bad consequences.
> “The right act in any circumstance is the one that produces the best overall
> result, as determined from an impersonal perspective that gives equal weight to
> the interests of each affected party” (Beauchamp and Childress, Principles 48).
> While the proponents of utilitarianism generally agree that moral actions are
> valued based on their production of maximal value, there is disagreement as to
> which values are most important. The agent-neutral utilitarian asserts that goods
> are valuable in themselves regardless of their further consequences. Jeremy
> Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-73), two well-known
> utilitarians, envisioned utility in terms of happiness or pleasure (also known as
> hedonistic utilitarians). Some of the more recent philosophers have argued that
> values such as friendship, knowledge, health, beauty, autonomy, understanding,
> enjoyment, and success have intrinsic worth as well. Finally, there are
> utilitarians who would look more at the individual’s preferences as the
> determining factor (Beauchamp and Childress, Principles 48).
> 
> Feminine Ethics
> Noting a sense of alienation that many women have experienced in trying to
> work within the structures of contemporary moral theory, Carol Gilligan, in a
> detailed study, identified distinct masculine and feminine voices in ethical
> reasoning. She maintained that mainstream ethical theory has been carried on in
> a voice that is overwhelmingly masculine and that the voices of women have
> 
> 2. Cf. 'Abdu'1-Bahá, Some Answered Questions 300-305.
> B a h a ’i F u n d a m e n t a l s f o r B i o e t h i c s                            51
> 
> been largely excluded or ignored.3 Claiming that women speak with a different
> voice, Gilligan discovered “the voice of care.” Not based on the universality of
> individual rights, but rather on the strong sense of responsibility, this ethics of
> care deals with emotional commitment to and willingness to act on behalf of
> persons with whom one has a relationship (Beauchamp and Childress,
> Principles 85-87).
> 
> Principle-based Common Morality Theory
> One of the most prevalent and contemporary approaches to ethics is the
> principle-based, common-morality theory. Developed in 1994 by Tom L.
> Beauchamp and James F. Childress, it is embedded in the common morality,
> and it uses principles as its structural basis. Although Beauchamp and Childress
> acknowledge that such a theory does not need to be principle-based, they treat
> the theories together to develop their tradition of ethics. For instance, a
> principle-based ethic argues that an ethical question or dilemma may be
> discovered by applying the correct ethical theory (e.g., utilitarianism) or
> principle (e.g., autonomy) to the case (Encyclopedia 406). The common-
> morality aspect of the theory takes its basic premises from the morality shared
> in common by the members of a society—what Beauchamp and Childress call
> unphilosophical common sense and tradition. Similar to utilitarianism and
> Kantian ethics, the principle-based theories have an emphasis on principles of
> obligation. However, it is important to note that common-morality theory is
> pluralistic.4 Moreover, it relies a great deal on ordinary shared moral beliefs for
> its content. This is in contrast to a heavy reliance on reason, natural law, or a
> special moral sense. Finally, the principles fundamental to the shared moral
> beliefs are usually accepted by rival ethical theories (Principles 100). Of
> particular interest to the BaháT tradition is the fact that “analogous to beliefs in
> the universality of basic human rights, the principles of the common morality
> are universal standards” (Principles 101). Beauchamp and Childress enumerate
> four: respect for autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence, and justice.
> 
> Respect for Autonomy
> Respect for autonomy, although embedded in common morality, carries with it
> different interpretations and strengths. To prevent any misunderstanding,
> Beauchamp and Childress define it as:
> 
> 3. Gilligan, cited in Sherwin, No Longer Patient 46. In her empirical study, Carol Gilligan found that when
> women are presented with moral conflicts, they are prone to focus on details about the relationships among
> the concerned parties. The solutions sought by women are usually those that protect the interests of all
> participants. In contrast, she maintained that men have a tendency to identify the relevant rules that govern
> the particular situation. Gilligan called the women’s approach an “ethics of care.” The men’s approach she
> titled “ethics of justice.” This study has been documented in Gilligan’s In a Different Voice (1982).
> 4. This term is defined on page 53 of this article, in footnote 9.
> 52            TH E J O U R N A L OF B A H À ’ Î S T U D I E S                         8.2.1998
> 
> The autonomous individual freely acts in accordance with a self-ch osen plan,
> analogous to the way an independent government manages its territories and sets its
> policies. A person o f diminished autonomy, by contrast, is in at least some respect
> controlled by others or incapable o f deliberating or acting on the basis o f his or her
> desires and plans. (Principles 121)
> 
> Stated in a negative form, the principle of respect for autonomy is:
> “Autonomous actions should not be subjected to controlling constraints by
> others” (Principles 126).5 The individual’s right to self-determination, carrying
> with it other rights such as confidentiality and privacy, is also correlated to this
> obligation. While there is a wide disagreement as to the scope of an individual’s
> confidentiality and privacy rights, there is little disagreement that this sacred
> right of autonomy can be legitimately curtailed by the rights of others. In
> summation, the principle of respect for autonomy has only prima facie standing
> and can be constrained by overriding moral obligations (Principles 126).6
> 
> Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
> Closely associated in medical ethics with the maxim Primům non nocere
> (Above all, do no harm), the principle of nonmaleficence puts forth an
> obligation not to inflict harm intentionally. The implications of this principle are
> many and cover the following range of ethical quandaries: distinctions between
> killing and letting die, intending and foreseeing harmful outcomes, withholding
> and withdrawing life-sustaining treatments, and extraordinary and ordinary
> treatments. Although there are many who would and do join nonmaleficence
> and beneficence as a single principle, Beauchamp and Childress make a
> significant distinction between the two. They indicate that while
> nonmaleficence means that “one ought not to inflict evil or harm” (Principles
> 192), beneficence dictates that “one ought to prevent evil or harm; one ought to
> remove evil or harm; and that one ought to do or promote good” (Principles
> 192). The main distinction between the two is that the three forms of
> beneficence require taking action by helping, whereas nonmaleficence only
> requires intentionally refraining from actions that cause harm (Principles 192).
> 
> Justice
> Justice is the final principle put forth in the dialogue of principles promoted by
> Beauchamp and Childress. It is a principle by which the inequalities in access to
> health care and health insurance are addressed. The diverse approaches to
> 
> 5. The principle asserts a broad, abstract obligation that is free of exceptive clauses such as, “We
> must respect individuals’ views and rights ‘so long as their thoughts and actions do not seriously
> harm other persons’.”
> 6. For example, if our choices endanger the public health, potentially harm innocent others, or
> require a scarce resource for which no funds are available, others can justifiably restrict our exercise
> of autonomy.
> B a h à ’i F u n d a m e n t a l s f o r B i o e t h i c s                                       53
> 
> justice—egalitarian, communitarian, libertarian, and utilitarian theories—only
> partially capture the range and diversity of the moral life, emphasizing the need
> for a coherent and complete theory of justice. Beauchamp and Childress assert
> that in the absence of a social consensus about these competing theories of
> justice, public policies will shift, emphasizing different theories at different
> times. Nonetheless, one point which cannot be ignored is that reliance on a
> theory of justice is essential to addressing current ethical issues.
> The above paragraphs outlined some of the contemporary approaches in
> ethics.7 BaháT' fundamentals of ethics, or moral theology, however, are based
> on ethical reflections in light of the BaháT' Revelation. In moral theology,
> metaphysical and theological considerations provide the moral framework in
> which actions and policies are to be evaluated.8 The authors maintain that the
> BaháT' Revelation presents a distinct ethical theory.9 However, this article will
> neither engage in discussions of ethical theory based on BaháT principles, nor
> 
> 7. For an excellent survey of religion and morality and their implications for bioethics, see the
> Encyclopedia o f Bioethics 758-64.
> 8. This has been the basic approach in the formulations of religious bioethics. For an introduction
> to Islamic bioethical thought, see Encyclopedia o f Bioethics, s.v. “Islam” by Abdulaziz Sachedina.
> The interesting study by ‘A ttár, Islamic Medicine (75-79 and 173-82) translates theological
> reflections into practice. For examples of Christian bioethical studies, see Hauerwas’s Suffering
> Presence and A Community o f Character.
> 9. ‘ The authors have hesitated to engage in outlining a BaháT' moral philosophy. This choice will
> undoubtedly raise criticisms, and with some justification. However, this is a task clearly beyond the
> goals of this article and the intention of its authors. W e maintain, however, that any ethical
> philosophy based on BaháT' principles must be pluralistic along the lines suggested by Barukh
> Brody, as detailed in Life and Death Decision Making (9-11), where Brody advances the virtues of
> pluralistic theory. He acknowledges that there are weaknesses and strengths in each of the ethical
> formulations. He maintains that there is a need to recognize that each moral theory has failed
> because it has recognized only one of the many legitimate moral appeals. Instead of looking at the
> history of competing theories among which a choice must be made, Brody puts forth the proposal
> that it would be more beneficial to view it as a series of attempts to articulate different moral
> appeals, all of which will have to be combined to frame an adequate moral theory to help deal with
> difficult cases. Following Brody, Beauchamp and Childress (in Principles o f Biomedical Ethics)
> assign to themselves the title of pluralists in that they accept as legitimate various aspects of several
> different theories advanced in the history of ethics. A parallel in pluralism may be the comparison
> and contrast that Shoghi Effendi provides between diverse political theories and the BaháT'
> Administrative Order, where the BaháT Administrative Order is said to contain some features of
> existing political theories:
> A word should now be said regarding the theory on which this Administrative Order is based and the
> principle that must govern the operation of its chief institution.. . .
> The BaháT' Commonwealth of the future, of which this vast Administrative Order is the sole framework, is,
> both in theory and practice, not only unique in the entire history of political institutions, but can find no parallel
> in the annals of any of the world’s recognized religious systems.. . .
> This new-bom Administrative Order incorporates within its structure certain elements which are to be found
> in each of the three recognized forms of secular government, without being in any sense a mere replica of any
> one of them, and without introducing within its machinery any of the objectionable features which they
> inherently possess. It blends and harmonizes, as no government fashioned by mortal hands has as yet
> accomplished, the salutary truths which each of these systems undoubtedly contains without vitiating the
> integrity of those God-given verities on which it is ultimately founded. (Shoghi Effendi, World Order o f
> Bahdu'lldh 152-53)
> 54           T H E J O U R N A L OF B A H À ’ Î S T U D I E S                      8.2.1998
> 
> present a comparison and contrast with competing ethical theories.10 As this
> article intends to open the bioethics dialogue within the Bahà’i religion,
> attention will be given prim arily to the metaphysical and theological
> considerations that must precede such dialogue.
> 
> Bioethics and the Bahà’i Faith
> Religion serves a unique function in the Bahà’i worldview. ‘AbduT-Bahá
> argues that humanity is in need of three distinct forms of education. He
> enumerates the three as material, human, and spiritual education—these
> covering the full spectrum of human activity (Some Answered Questions 7-11).
> ‘AbduT-Bahá states that all three can only be found in the universal Educators,
> who are divine teachers. He equates the universal Educators with holy
> Manifestations (Some Answered Questions 11). Divine revelation then becomes
> a unique and most excellent source of guidance for humanity in all aspects.
> According to ‘AbduT-Bahá, religion is the pathway of the acquisition of
> perfections and attributes.11 Elsewhere, ‘AbduT-Bahá writes the following
> regarding religion:
> 
> Religion, moreover, is not a series o f beliefs, a set o f customs; religion is the
> teachings of the Lord God, teachings which constitute the very life o f humankind,
> which urge high thoughts upon the mind, refine the character, and lay the groundwork
> for man’s everlasting honour. (Selectionsfrom the Writings of ‘Abdu'1-Bahá 52-53)
> 
> In this, ‘AbduT-Bahá is reiterating the thesis regarding the purpose of religion
> that Bahà’uTlàh had already advanced in the first Ishráq:
> 
> They that are possessed o f wealth and invested with authority and power must show
> the profoundest regard for religion. In truth, religion is a radiant light and an
> im pregnable stronghold for the protection and w elfare o f the p eop les o f the
> world. . . . Should the lamp o f religion be obscured, chaos and confusion will ensue,
> and the lights o f fairness and justice, o f tranquillity and peace cease to shine. (Tablets
> of Bahà’uTlàh 125)
> 
> In the second leaf of the Kalimát-i-Firdawsíyyih, BaháVlláh writes:
> 
> Religion is verily the chief instrument for the establishment of order in the world and
> o f tranquillity amongst its peoples. The weakening o f the pillars o f religion hath
> strengthened the foolish and emboldened them and made them more arrogant. Verily
> 1 say: The greater the decline of religion, the more grievous the waywardness of the
> ungodly. (Tablets of Baha'u'llâh 63-64)
> 
> 10. There are, however, a few instances where a comparison and contrast is pointed out, as in the
> section on truthfulness. These are enumerated to support the thesis that an ethical theory based on
> Bahà’i principles must be pluralistic.
> 11. Cf. ‘Abdu’l-Baha, Promulgation o f Universal Peace 179, 152.
> B a h a ’i F u n d a m e n ta ls f o r B io e th ic s              55
> 
> Bahà’u’Ilàh is thus the divine physician, as the mouthpiece for the Creator,
> whose every diagnosis and remedy is critical to the well-being of humankind:
> 
> The All-Knowing Physician hath His finger on the pulse o f mankind. He perceiveth
> the disease, and prescribeth, in His unerring wisdom, the remedy. Every age hath its
> own problem, and every soul its particular aspiration. (Gleanings from the Writings
> ofBahá ’u 'lláh 213)
> 
> Therefore, inherent to the Bahà’i Faith is the claim that it possesses solutions to
> the manifold problems facing humanity, including those in the realm of
> bioethics. On this ground, we hold that the developing field of biomedical ethics
> stands to benefit from the incorporation of BaháT teachings.
> 
> Bahà’i Psychology and the Purpose of Creation
> The chief endowment that distinguishes a human being from all else is the
> human spirit, which ‘AbduT-Bahá identifies with the rational soul (Some
> Answered Questions 208-9). It is not within the scope of this article to examine
> fully the concepts of rúh (spirit) and nafs (soul) in BaháT sacred texts.
> However, it is necessary to establish the nomenclature in order to generate a
> functional framework. Every human being is by definition endowed with the
> human spirit, as explained by ‘AbduT-Bahá. Rúh (usually translated as spirit) is
> divided by ‘AbduT-Bahá into five categories, consisting of vegetable, animal,
> human, spirit of faith, and the Holy Spirit. ‘AbduT-Bahá states that the human
> spirit has proceeded from God through emanation and that it is a simple (basit)
> substance, i.e., not composed of parts (Some Answered Questions 241).12 This
> spirit is not bound by time and place.13 The consummate ontological attainment
> for a human being is to acquire the spirit of faith (rúh-i-ímání) through
> recognition of and obedience to the Manifestation of God.
> Nafs (generally translated as soul) represents a related but different entity in
> psychology. ‘AbduT-Bahá, in Some Answered Questions, identifies the rational
> soul (nafs-i-nátiqah) with the human spirit (rúh -i-insání). However, when these
> collective works are considered, the classic distinction between rúh and nafs is
> maintained. In Paris Talks, for example, ‘AbduT-Bahá states, “There are in the
> world of humanity three degrees; those of the body, the soul, and spirit” (96).14
> According to ‘AbduT-Bahá in that same talk, the soul “is the intermediary
> between [the] body and [the] spirit” (96). A particular soul may or may not
> acquire the life of spirit (rúh-i-ímání)}5 The degree of acquisition of the rúh-i-
> ímání is described in terms of stations of na/s.16 For example, the Qur’àn
> 
> 12. Also see ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris Talks 91.
> 13. See ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions 241.
> 14. Cf. the Persian record of that same talk, Khitábát-i-‘Abdu’l-Bahá 174.
> 15. See ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris Talks 97.
> 16. For example, see Khitábát-i-‘A bdu’l-Bahá 174-75.
> 56             TH E J O U R N A L OF B A H À ’ Î S T U D I E S                     8.2.1998
> 
> classifies nafs along a spectrum from amárah (concupiscence) to mardiah (one
> that has attained divine good-pleasure). The stages of nafs between the two
> above includes lavvámah (irascibility), mutma’inah (confirmed), and rádíah
> (content) as mentioned in the Qur’ân.17 Islamic mysticism and theosophy have
> built upon the quranic terminology and developed a rather complicated science
> of the soul.18 The qualities of the soul change as it increasingly gains and is
> influenced by the rúh-i-ímání and traverses through stages towards perfection.
> Bahà’u’ilàh has acknowledged these diverse stations of the nafs in numerous
> tablets.19 He has also considerably simplified Bahà’i fundamentals for
> psychology:
> 
> Much hath been written in the books o f old concerning the various stages in the
> development of the soul, such as concupiscence, irascibility, inspiration, benevolence,
> contentment. Divine good-pleasure, and the like; the Pen o f the Most High, however,
> is disinclined to dwell upon them. Every soul that walketh humbly with its God, in
> this Day, and cleaveth unto Him, shall find itself invested with the honor and glory o f
> all goodly names and stations. (Gleanings from the Writings o f Baha’u ’lláh 159)
> 
> The human spirit is a divine “trust” according to Bahà’i writings (‘AbduT-Bahá,
> Some Answered Questions 200). In a tablet revealed by Bahà’u’ilàh for
> recitation at the bedside of a dying person, the spirit (rúh) is acknowledged as
> both a trust (amdnah) and the agent that manifested life to the world (Ishráq
> Khávarí, Tasbih va Tahiti 238). This divine trust (human spirit or rational soul)
> is located at an ontological crossroads. ‘Abdu’l-Bahà states that the physical
> realm ends the “arc of descent” and that humankind is the beginning of the “arc
> of ascent,” which initiates spirituality. This ascent involves the acquiring of the
> rúh-i-ímání (spirit of faith), the best form of acquisition of virtues and
> perfections (‘AbduT-Bahá, Some Answered Questions 285-86).
> The Bahá’1 writings teach that the mystical purpose underlying the creation
> of human beings is twofold: That humankind should know and worship God.
> An example occurs in the Short Obligatory Prayer, “I bear witness, O my God,
> that Thou hast created me to know Thee and worship Thee” (Bahà’i Prayers 4).
> Another cogent example is the following, where Bahà’uTlàh establishes a link
> between this purpose of creation and human ontological self-understanding:
> 
> Having created the world and all that liveth and moveth therein. He, through the
> direct operation o f His unconstrained and sovereign Will, chose to confer upon man
> the unique distinction and capacity to know Him and to love Him— a capacity that
> must needs be regarded as the generating impulse and the primary purpose underlying
> 
> 17. See the following quranic references: 12:53, 89:27, and 75:2.
> 18. For a brief synopsis, see Nasr, Islamic Spirituality 1:294-307.
> 19. For example, see M ajmú’iy-Alwah-i-Mubárakiy-i-Hadrat-i-Bahá’u'lláh 97.
> B a h à ’i F u n d a m e n ta ls f o r B io e th ic s                            57
> 
> the whole of creation. . . . Upon the inmost reality o f each and every created thing He
> hath shed the light o f one o f His names, and made it a recipient o f the glory o f one of
> His attributes. Upon the reality o f man, however, He hath focused the radiance o f all
> o f His names and attributes, and made it a mirror o f His ow n Self. A lone o f all
> created things man hath been singled out for so great a favor, so enduring a bounty.
> (BaháV lláh, Gleanings 65)
> 
> According to the Bahà’i writings, all divine attributes are fully manifested in the
> Primal Will or First Intellect.20 These same attributes are also latent in every
> human being. The purpose of physical reality is that humankind should traverse
> this plane of existence, and actualize these potential virtues (Some Answered
> Questions 200). ‘Abdu’l-Bahà states that these perfections are at once limited
> and without limit (Some Answered Questions 230). They are limitless in
> themselves, yet they are limited with respect to the ontological sphere within
> which humans exist. Bahà’i theology holds that the virtues and perfections that
> one acquires in the physical realm are essential and needed for an ontologically
> happy existence after the dissociation of the human spirit from the body, just as
> limbs and organs developed by an embryo are utilized after birth (Fádil-i-
> Mazandarání, Amr va Khalq 1:120).
> 
> The Best of All Possible Worlds?
> In the BaháT Faith, physical reality is considered to be a field for the acquisition
> of perfections. Questions may be asked at this point: Is this the best of all
> possible worlds? Could God have created a different mechanism for developing
> virtue? Why is physical reality plagued with earthquakes, disease, famine,
> suffering, and numerous other hardships? The question that this line of
> argumentation poses is one of theodicy, i.e., the justice of God.
> BaháT sacred scripture examines the question of theodicy in substantial
> detail. For the purposes of this article, a cursory examination of divine justice is
> imperative. Regarding the design of the universe, ‘AbduT-Bahá states that it is
> perfect:
> 
> This Nature is subjected to an absolute organization, to determined laws, to a
> complete order and a finished design, from which it will never depart. . . . (Some
> Answered Questions 3)
> 
> This statement is repeated on many occasions by ‘AbduT-Bahá. Early in Some
> Answered Questions, in the argument for the existence of God, ‘AbduT-Bahá
> poses the following question, “Can the creation be perfect and the creator
> 
> 20. The Primal Will is the first emanation from God, as described in Baha’i writings, which exercises
> creative powers and begets all that exists. See ‘AbduT-Bahá, Some Answered Questions 203.
> 58            TH E J O U R N A L OF B A H Á ’ Í S T U D I E S                    8.2.1998
> 
> imperfect?” (Some Answered Questions 5). The passage quoted below is equally
> emphatic:
> 
> For all existing beings, terrestrial and celestial, as well as this limitless space and all
> that is in it, have been created and organized, composed, arranged and perfected as
> they ought to be; the universe has no imperfection, so that if all beings became pure
> intelligence and reflected for ever and ever, it is impossible that they could imagine
> anything better than that which exists. (Some Answered Questions 177)
> 
> Admittedly, the most interesting Bahà’i response to the question of theodicy
> is to be found in what one may consider Bahà’uTlàh’s response to a debate that
> had engaged Muslim theologians for more than nine centuries.21 The great Abú
> Hámid al-Ghazálí (d. 1111 c.E.) is generally credited with writing a statement
> that proved very problematic for Islamic theologians. He states, in his best-
> known book, Ihyá ul-'ulum ud-din, as well as in other texts, the following:
> “There is not in possibility (imkán) anything whatever more excellent, more
> complete, or more perfect than it is” (Theodicy in Islamic Thought 37).
> Bahà’uTlàh acknowledges this debate and responds to the dispute in clear
> terms. He closely follows al-Ghazálí even in the grammatical structure. He
> writes that there is nothing in possibility (imkán) more wonderful (abda') than
> that which is.22 The statement clearly indicates that, according to Bahà’i
> theology, existence, as it exists, is simply the best contingent possibility.
> Neither BaháVlláh nor ‘AbduT-Bahá is expressing naïveté, nor are they
> denying the reality of suffering. Both readily acknowledge that the physical
> world is replete with sorrows, wrongs, and suffering. For instance, ‘AbduT-
> Bahá writes the following to a wife who has lost her husband:
> 
> Such is this mortal abode: a storehouse o f afflictions and suffering. It is ignorance that
> binds man to it, for no comfort can be secured by any soul in this world, from
> monarch down to the most humble commoner. ( Selections from the Writings of
> ‘Abdu 'l-Bahá 200)
> 
> According to the BaháT Faith, the corporeal world is absolutely real, yet with
> respect to the spiritual realms and the existence of God, it may be said to be an
> illusion (Some Answered Questions 278). The following passage by Bahà’uTlàh
> merits close examination with regards to both theodicy and the reality of the
> physical world:
> 
> Follow not, therefore, your earthly desires, and violate not the Covenant o f God, nor
> break your pledge to Him. With firm determination, with the whole affection of your
> 
> 21. This dispute is comprehensively examined in Theodicy in Islamic Thought by Ornsby.
> 22. See Ulúhiyyat va Mazhariyyat 104. This is the second volume of the collected works of ‘Ali-
> Murad Dávúdi, the late BaháT' martyr and philosopher.
> B a h a ’i F u n d a m e n ta ls f o r B io e th ic s                     59
> 
> heart, and with the full force o f your words, turn ye unto Him, and walk not in the
> ways of the foolish. The world is but a show, vain and empty, a mere nothing, bearing
> the semblance o f reality. Set not your affections upon it. Break not the bond that
> uniteth you with your Creator, and be not o f those who have erred and strayed from
> His ways. Verily I say, the world is like the vapor in a desert, which the thirsty
> dreameth to be water and striveth after it with all his might, until when he cometh
> unto it, he findeth it to be mere illusion. . . . Sorrow not if, in these days and on this
> earthly plane, things contrary to your wishes have been ordained and manifested by
> God, for days o f blissful joy, o f heavenly delight, are assuredly in store for you.
> Worlds, holy and spiritually glorious, will be unveiled to your eyes. (Bahà’uTlàh,
> Gleanings 328-29)
> 
> The Purpose of Suffering
> The purpose of suffering lies at the heart of the BaháT approach to theodicy.
> According to BaháT theology, suffering is an integral part of corporeal
> existence, and it is essential to spiritual well-being. Let us consider the
> statement by ‘AbduT-Bahá from Paris Talks in response to this interesting
> inquiry: “Does the soul progress more through sorrow or through the joy in this
> world?”:
> 
> The mind and the spirit o f man advance when he is tried by suffering. The more the
> ground is.ploughed the better the seed will grow, the better the harvest will be. Just as
> the plough furrows the earth deeply, purifying it o f weeds and thistles, so suffering
> and tribulation free man from the petty affairs o f this worldly life until he arrives at a
> state o f com plete detachment. His attitude in this world w ill be that o f divine
> happiness. (178)
> 
> In fact, according to ‘AbduT-Bahá, it is impossible to attain true happiness
> without suffering. He states, “To attain eternal happiness one must suffer”
> (Paris Talks 179). Suffering and pain are an integral part of the journey of the
> human soul towards its “heavenly homeland” and nearness to the creator as
> detailed in BaháT mystical theory. BaháVlláh explains the role of suffering in
> the “Valley of Love” as follows:
> 
> Now is the traveler unaware o f himself, and o f aught besides himself. He seeth
> neither ignorance nor knowledge, neither doubt nor certitude; he knoweth not the
> mom o f guidance from the night of error. He fleeth both from unbelief and faith, and
> deadly poison is a balm to him. Wherefore ‘Attár saith:
> For the infidel, error — for the faithful, faith;
> For ‘Attár’s heart, an atom o f Thy pain.
> The steed o f this Valley is pain; and if there be no pain this journey will never end.
> (Bahà’uTlàh, Seven Valleys 8)
> 60           TH E J O U R N A L OF B A H À ’Î S T U D I E S                      8.2.1998
> 
> The transforming and necessary nature of suffering is a prominent motif in
> Bahà’i mysticism. They may be harsh and painful, but in fact tests and trials are
> blessings in disguise:
> 
> O SON OF MAN! My calamity is My providence, outwardly it is fire and vengeance,
> but inwardly it is light and mercy. Hasten thereunto that thou mayest become an
> eternal light and an immortal spirit. (Bahà’u’ilàh, Hidden Words 15)
> 
> Suffering and hardships are especially necessary for spiritual development, as it
> is only in this world that we can experience them:
> 
> As to the second question: the tests and trials o f God take place in this world, not in
> the world of the Kingdom. (Selections from the Writings o f ‘Abdu 'l-Bahá 194)
> 
> The BaháT Faith teaches that suffering facilitates spiritual development. This
> essential understanding of suffering, however, does not translate to a disregard
> for the human body, nor does it imply passive acceptance of an illness. In fact,
> it is the duty of everyone to try to reduce the suffering of others:
> 
> Those souls who during the war have served the poor and have been in the Red
> Cross Mission work, their services are accepted at the Kingdom o f God and are the
> cause of their everlasting life. (Selections from the Writings o f ‘Abdu'1-Bahá 116)
> 
> Medicine in the Bahà’i Faith
> The topic of medicine as seen through BaháT' scripture is an incredibly
> intriguing and challenging one. The spectrum is very broad, covering
> everything from nutrition to future developments in pharmacology. In recent
> years, BaháT scholars have generated a number of very interesting studies in
> health and healing as taught in the BaháT Faith.23 A thorough examination of
> medicine and healing in the BaháT' Faith is yet to be done and is beyond the
> scope of this article. However, a few general comments are offered.
> That medicine is a praiseworthy profession may be gathered in that
> BaháVlláh most frequently conveyed his relationship to humanity in terms of
> two worldly occupations: the teacher and the physician. In the Lawh-i-Tibb
> (Tablet of Medicine) Bahà’uTlàh writes that medicine is the most exalted of all
> 
> 23. See “Health and Healing” by H. Danesh and “International Health W ork” by Alfred K.
> Neumann and Irvin M. Lourie in World Order 13.3, as well as “The Application of Bahá’1
> Teachings on Health” by A. K. Neumann and L. Femea in the same journal. There have been some
> attempts to establish dialogue between the Western medical tradition and non-Westem traditions, in
> light of the BaháT teachings on the subject. See “Maharishi Ayurveda: A BaháT Perspective” by
> Felicity Rawlings in the Journal o f B aha’i Studies. A relatively recent addition of substantial
> importance is Health and Healing compiled by the Research Department of the Universal House of
> Justice.
> B a h à ’i F u n d a m e n ta ls f o r B io e th ic s                              61
> 
> sciences (Majmuih 225). In that same Tablet, the science of medicine is given
> priority over all other branches of learning (ulúm va’l-hikam) (Majmti’ih 225).
> ‘AbduT-Bahá has also paid high tribute to the science of medicine.24 BaháT'
> history tells us that ‘AbduT-Bahá would frequently urge his companions to
> study modem medicine.25
> The purpose of medicine is to alleviate suffering and restore health. The
> BaháT Faith obligates its members to seek medical treatment. In fact,
> Bahà’uTlàh always sought medical advice when indicated.26 Moreover, the
> BaháT' Faith demands that one seek the best possible medical treatment.27 The
> following example is of particular interest with regard to this point. BaháT'
> historians note that ‘AbduT-Bahá knew old Oriental medicine and occasionally
> used to practice medicine as a youth. Later BaháVlláh asked ‘AbduT-Bahá not
> to treat the believers so that they would not develop the habit of seeking
> treatments from other than formally trained physicians.28 This is in accordance
> with the explicit text of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas:
> 
> Resort ye, in times of sickness, to competent physicians; We have not set aside the
> use o f material means, rather have We confirmed it through this Pen, which God hath
> made to be the Dawning-place of His shining and glorious Cause. (Kitáb-i-Aqdas 60,
> paragraph 113)
> •
> 
> ‘AbduT-Bahá has confirmed the same advice in many tablets. It is worth noting
> that no one is spared this duty:
> 
> According to the explicit decree o f B aháV lláh one must not turn aside from the
> advice o f a competent doctor. It is imperative to consult one even if the patient
> himself be a well-known and eminent physician. In short, the point is that you should
> maintain your health by consulting a highly-skilled physician. (Selections from the
> Writings o f ‘Abdu’l-Bahd 156)
> 
> The obligation to maintain physical health to the extent possible is clearly
> unequivocal. BaháVlláh explains that the preservation of health is imperative,
> in part because health is a prerequisite for the application of the laws and
> ordinances of God (Fádil-i-Mázandarání, Amr va Khalq 3:10-11).29 The BaháT
> 
> 24. For example, see Ishráq Khâvari. Mďidiy-i-Ásmáni 5:23-26. Here ‘Abdu’l-Bahá comments on
> the following prophetic tradition: Knowledge consists of two sciences, the Science of medicine and
> science of religion.
> 25. For example, see Khdtirat-i-nuh Sdlih (the Nine Year Memoirs) by Afnikhtih 435.
> 26. For an example, see Sulaymání, Masábíh-i-Hidáyat 1:165.
> 27. That seeking a skilled physician is necessary may be gleaned from many Baha’i writings. Of
> particular interest is the first line of the Lawh-i-Tibb (the Tablet of Medicine) where it is explicitly
> stated that the medical advice B aháV lláh provides will suffice in absence <ehavbat1 of a physician.
> 28. Afrukhtih. Khátirát-i-Nuh Sdlih 327.
> 29. Also see Ishráq Khávarí. M ďidiy-i-Ásmání5:23-26.
> 62           TH E J O U R N A L OF B A H À ’ Î S T U D I E S                         8.2.1998
> 
> writings also provide further reasons for the duty to maintain a healthy life.30 A
> noteworthy example conveying the importance of life is the response by
> Bahà’u ’Uàh to a peculiar request by Jamál-i-Burújirdí. He had written
> Bahà’uTlàh and asked for one of these three wishes to be granted: permission to
> return to ‘Akká, death, or an alteration in his miserable condition. Bahà’uTlàh
> wrote in response that it is not becoming for any soul to wish for death in this
> Day. He elaborates that the concourse on high and the near ones who have
> passed away are begging to return to the physical realm to serve the Cause and
> render it victorious, even through the utterance of a single word (Fádil-i-
> Mazandarání, Amr va Khalq 3:12). Thus, according to Bahà'uTlàh, it is not
> acceptable for a Bahá'1 to seek an early termination of life.
> One last issue must be addressed at this time. The limited resources available
> to present-day society have led to a highly divisive current debate in biomedical
> ethics and public policy. The following question lies at the core of this debate:
> Is healthcare a right, or should it be considered a privilege? The issue is
> admittedly a highly complex one. However, we hold that in the light of Bahá’1
> teachings healthcare can be considered to be a right, one to which every human
> being is entitled.31 As BaháVlláh has ordained that every sick person must
> seek medical treatment, it follows that healthcare must be available for all.
> Certainly the Bahá’1 principles concerning justice, mercy, and compassion
> imply the same:
> 
> O SON OF MAN! If thine eyes be turned towards mercy, forsake the things that
> profit thee and cleave unto that which will profit mankind. And if thine eyes be turned
> towards justice, choose thou for thy neighbour that which thou choosest for thyself.
> (BaháV lláh, Tablets of Bahà'u’ilàh 64)
> 
> The Bahá’1 solution, as taught by both BaháVlláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahà, to the
> problem of scarcity of resources is both innovative and challenging. It concerns
> the establishment of the practice of muvását (voluntary sharing) as opposed to
> forced equality, musávát:32
> 
> To state the matter briefly, the Teachings o f B a h á V llá h advocate voluntary
> sharing, and this is a greater thing than the equalization of wealth. For equalization
> must be imposed from without, while sharing is a matter o f free choice.
> Man reacheth perfection through good deeds, voluntarily performed, not through
> good deeds the doing o f which was forced upon him. And sharing is a personally
> 
> 30. For example, see Selections from the Writings o f the Báb 95.
> 31. This a point on which Baha’i scholars generally agree. See for example “Towards a World
> Economy” by John Huddleston, Journal o f B ahá’1Studies 3.3 (1991): 32.
> 32. For a summary of Baha’i scripture on this topic, see Fádil-i-Mazandarání, Am r va Khalq
> 3:256-58. The Lawh-i-Muvását is available in BaháVlláh, Daryáy-i-Dánish 14046. For a different
> theoretical and practical approach to the same concept, see Fárábťs Ará-i-Ahl-i-Madiniy-i-Fádilih 331.
> B a h à ’i F u n d a m e n ta ls f o r B io e th ic s                    63
> 
> chosen righteous act: that is, the rich should extend assistance to the poor . . . but of
> their own free will, and not because . . . the poor have gained this end by force. For
> the harvest o f force is turmoil and the ruin o f the social order. On the other hand
> voluntary sharing, the freely-chosen expending o f o n e’s substance, leadeth to
> society’s comfort and peace. It lighteth up the world; it bestoweth honour upon
> humankind. {Selections from the Writings of ‘Abdu ’l-Bahá 115)
> 
> Life as Seen in Bahà’i Theology
> As physical entities, life and death are at the same time both spiritual and
> physical realities. According to the Bahà’i teachings, physiological life and
> death, as physical entities, are natural phenomena:
> 
> Nature is that condition, that reality, which in appearance consists in life and death,
> or, in other words, in the composition and decomposition o f all things. ( ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá, Some Answered Questions 3)
> *
> 
> Bahà’i theology defines physiological life in terms of the association of the
> human spirit with the physical body. That this association of spirit and body
> defines life is clearly borne out in the Bahà’i scripture. For example, ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá states that “the spirit of man is the cause of the life of the body” (Some
> Answered Questions 201). He reiterates the same in the following passage:
> 
> The spirit does not need a body, but the body needs spirit, or it cannot live. The soul
> can live without a body, but the body without the soul dies. (Paris Talks 86-87)
> 
> In a tablet to be recited at the bedside of the dying person, Bahà’uTlàh confirms
> that physiological life is of the human spirit.33 Another notable example is one
> of the verses in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas that prohibits murder:
> 
> What! Would ye kill him whom God hath quickened, whom He hath endowed with
> spirit through a breath from Him? (46, para. 73)
> 
> ‘AbduT-Bahá alternatively defines life in terms of composition. He, for
> instance, states that life is an “expression of composition”:
> 
> Life is the expression of composition; and death, the expression of decomposition.
> In the world or kingdom o f the minerals certain materials or elemental substances
> exist. When through the law o f creation they enter into composition, a being or
> organism comes into existence. For example, certain material atoms are brought
> together, and man is the result. (Promulgation of Universal Peace 306)
> 
> 33. Ishráq Khávari. Tasbîh va Tahiti 238.
> 64           TH E J O U R N A L OF B A H À ’ Î S T U D I E S                     8.2.1998
> 
> This seemingly materialistic explanation underlying human life may appear to
> contradict understanding humans as spiritual beings. However, in Some
> Answered Questions (201) ‘A bduT-Bahá further elaborates that this
> com position becomes- a “m agnet for the [human] spirit.” The “noble
> combination” of the human body is moreover, “compared to a mirror, and the
> human spirit to the sun” (Some Answered Questions 144). Thus, the human
> spirit becomes associated with the human temple. It must be noted that the
> creation of life is an act of God, one which humankind can never perform.34
> ‘AbduT-Bahá states that the human spirit “can manifest itself in all forms” of
> the physical frame, and in different stages of development. For instance,
> ‘AbduT-Bahá clearly argues that the human embryo is endowed with the human
> spirit:
> 
> In the same way, the embryo possesses from the first all perfections, such as the
> spirit, the mind, the sight, the smell, the taste— in one word, all the powers— but they
> are not visible and become so only by degrees. (Some Answered Questions 199)
> 
> The attributes and powers of the spirit are, according to ‘AbduT-Bahá, in a
> less developed form in the embryo, that is, potentially (bi’l-quwah) present,
> but not actually. He uses the classic philosophical example of the seed and the
> tree to differentiate between the potential and the actual. It is in light of the
> above teachings that the Bahá’1 tradition maintains that the human soul
> appears at conception.35
> ‘AbduT-Bahá teaches that human beings have five physical (outer) powers
> and five intellectual (inner) powers.36 The five outer powers are sight, hearing,
> smell, taste, and feeling. One can utilize these powers to “perceive outward
> existences.” The five inner powers are imagination, thought, comprehension,
> memory, and the common faculty. The common faculty is considered to be the
> interface or intermediary between the inner and outer powers (‘AbduT-Bahá,
> Some Answered Questions 210-11). Life, i.e., the association of the human
> spirit with the physical frame, results in these ten powers. In the following
> passage, ‘AbduT-Bahá defines death, as a state wherein these powers are
> absent:
> In the time of sleep this body is as though dead; it does not see nor hear; it does not
> feel; it has no consciousness, no perception— that is to say, the powers of man have
> become inactive, but the spirit lives and subsists. (Some Answered Questions 228)37
> 
> 34. For example, see Some Answered Questions 181-82.
> 35. See Lights o f Guidance 345. This understanding is clearly rooted in Bahà’i writings. Cf. the
> Lawh-i-Rais cited in Fádil-i-Mazandarání, Amr va Khalq 1:230.
> 36. This classification is foreign to modem Western psychology, however, it closely parallels
> classical philosophy and psychology. See Aristotle, On the Soul, Book 3, and Fárábí, Ará-i-Ahl-i-
> Madíniy-i-Fádilih 181-92, for two contrasting classifications. The system presented by ‘AbduT-
> Bahá is closest to that of Ibn-i-Khaldún in his Al-Muqadamih 1:178-80.
> 37. See also ‘AbduT-Bahá, Promulgation o f Universal Peace 415-17.
> B a h a ’i F u n d a m e n ta ls f o r B io e th ic s                      65
> 
> The human brain is the center to which the five senses relay their output. The
> mind and the brain then assume a unique function with regard to physical life.
> In the BaháT teachings, the mind is described as such:
> 
> But the mind is the power o f the human spirit. Spirit is the lamp; mind is the light
> which shines from the lamp. Spirit is the tree, and the mind is the fruit. Mind is the
> perfection of the spirit and is its essential quality, as the sun’s rays are the essential
> necessity of the sun. (Some Answered Questions 209)
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá writes the following regarding the unique position of the mind in
> the human experience:
> 
> The mind force. . . . doth direct and co-ordinate all the members o f the human body,
> seeing to it that each part or member duly performeth its own special function. If,
> however, there be some interruption in the power o f the mind, all the members will
> fail to carry out their essential functions, deficiencies will appear in the body and the
> functioning o f its members, and the power will prove ineffective. (Selections from
> the Writings of ‘Abdu ’l-Bahá 48)
> •
> The mind, however, is not to be found within any of the sense organs. ‘AbduT-
> Bahá states that “the mind has no place, but it is connected with the brain”
> (Some Answered Questions 242). According to ‘AbduT-Bahá, the mind is
> connected to the brain, much in the same way that love is connected to the
> human heart (Some Answered Questions 242). In fact, ‘AbduT-Bahá states that
> the brain is the “chief member” of the human body and the cause of its
> perfection (Some Answered Questions 178). It may therefore be suggested that
> the presence of an intact brain is an integral part of the BaháT' definition of life.
> 
> Death as Seen in the Bahà’i Faith
> Death and dying are processes with which both the science of medicine and
> people in general are uncomfortable. As such, our society permits allocation of
> vast resources to postpone death. According to the BaháT writings, death is an
> event to be welcomed, not feared. Using the common mystical metaphor of the
> bird and the cage, ‘AbduT-Bahá notes that at the moment of death the bird of
> the human spirit is freed from the cage of the world (Some Answered Questions
> 228). BaháVlláh states that death is the gate through which one may attain the
> presence of God (Ishráq Khávarí. M á’idiy-i-Ásmání 8:95). In another tablet,
> BaháVlláh refers to death as a gate among the gates of mercy (Ishraq Khávarí.
> Mďidiy-i-Asmání 8:95). The following well-known example from the Hidden
> Words conveys the same concept:
> O SO N OF THE SUPREM E! I have made death a m essenger o f jo y to thee.
> Wherefore dost thou grieve? I made the light to shed on thee its splendor. Why dost
> thou veil thyself therefrom? (11)
> 66          TH E J O U R N A L OF B A H À ’ Î S T U D I E S                          8.2.1998
> 
> ‘AbduT-Bahá teaches that physiological death represents the “severance” of
> the human spirit “of its connection with the body of dust” (Some Answered
> Questions 240). Elsewhere, ‘AbduT-Bahá elaborates that the human spirit does
> not enter into the physical frame; rather, it is associated with this physical body.
> He then defines death as the severance of this association. He adds that this
> association may be severed gradually, or it may occur suddenly (Fádil-i-
> Mazandarání, Amr va Khalq 268). This concept requires careful, more extensive
> study; however, it may be beneficial here to recall the ten powers that defined
> life, as mentioned in the preceding section. The complete impairment of those
> ten faculties may be taken to be a sign of death. The onset of these impairments
> may be sudden (as in a car accident) or gradual (as in a prolonged death in an
> intensive care unit setting).
> The severance of the spirit from the body itself appears to be synchronized
> with another process, which is the dissolution of the physiological body.
> ‘AbduT-Bahá writes regarding death, “Those souls who are pure and unsullied,
> upon the dissolution of their elemental frames, hasten away to the world of God,
> and that world is within this world” (Selections from the Writings of ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahd 195). This dissolution exemplifies the reversal of the process that resulted
> in life, i.e., composition. ‘AbduT-Bahá states that death is an expression of
> decomposition (Promulgation o f Universal Peace 306). Elsewhere, ‘AbduT-
> Bahá says that death is a manifestation of decomposition (Promulgation 87).
> Currently, three clinical definitions of death prevail.38 The classical
> definition of death is the heart-lung definition that has been used for decades.39
> In the 1960s, a number of philosophers and physicians began advocating
> “whole brain death” as an alternative definition of death.40 Most recently, there
> has been a movement to recognize higher-brain death or cortical death as well.
> This movement has been supported by the growing need for organ
> transplantation. The definition using the heart-lung criteria is clearly acceptable
> according to the BaháT writings. The whole-brain and the higher-brain
> definitions are clearly not as straightforward but may also find some
> justification in the BaháT scriptures, as discussed below.
> The pivotal position of the mind and brain in the BaháT definition of life and
> death clearly requires further consideration. In a tablet addressed to Dr. Auguste
> Henri Forel, ‘AbduT-Bahá remarks that the mind, whose proper functioning is
> 
> 38. For a concise review of the clinical definitions of death, see American Journal o f Critical Care
> 4.6 (Nov. 1995).
> 39. This definition requires the “cessation of breathing and the absence of an audible heartbeat or a
> pulse” (Fletcher, Introduction to Clinical Ethics 118).
> 40. In 1968, the Ad Hoc Com mittee of the Harvard M edical School studied the issue and
> published a report endorsing whole brain definition of death in JAMA (Journal o f the American
> Medical Association). Their criteria included coma, absence of spontaneous breathing, absence of
> reflexes, and a flat-line electroencephalogram (Introduction to Clinical Ethics 119).
> B a h à ’i F u n d a m e n ta ls f o r B io e th ic s                       67
> 
> associated with the brain, is the “all-unifying agency” necessary for the unity of
> “all the component parts” of the human body:
> 
> Consider the body o f man, and let the part be an indication o f the whole. Consider
> how these diverse parts and members o f the human body are closely connected and
> harmoniously united one with the other. Every part is the essential requisite o f all
> other parts and has a function by itself. It is the mind that is the all-unifying agency
> that so uniteth all the component parts one with the other that each dischargeth its
> specific function in perfect order, and thereby co-operation and reaction are made
> possible. All parts function under certain laws that are essential to existence. Should
> that all-unifying agency that directeth all these parts be harmed in any way there is no
> doubt that the constituent parts and members will cease functioning properly. . . .
> {Baha'i World 15:42)
> 
> Therefore, there may be room for inclusion of some brain-death criteria in the
> BaháT' definition of death. ‘AbduT-Bahá teaches that existence is an
> evolutionary process, and a gradation of life. BaháT' philosophers have followed
> this argument closely. A contemporary BaháT' philosopher suggests that a
> persistent vegetative state may therefore be considered a form of death:
> 
> However, the vegetable has the power o f growth, which is absent in the mineral.
> And the animal is alive, when it is compared to the vegetable, whereas the vegetable
> is dead, if it is compared to the animal. For example, a human being affected by a
> deep coma because o f a severe trauma is said to live a vegetative life, and by this is
> meant that his life is quite different from a normal human life. (Savi, Eternal Quest
> fo r God 59)
> 
> The BaháT Faith does not permit one to seek an early termination of life.
> Suicide, for instance, is strongly forbidden.41 A passage by Bahà’u’Uàh
> addressed to Jamál-i-Burújirdť was referenced earlier with a similar unequivocal
> teaching. Moreover, ‘AbduT-Bahá clearly forbids one from seeking an early
> termination of life, even when one encounters situations “which one cannot
> bear” {má lá yutáq). One is called upon to manifest patience and endure, when
> encountering situations of unbearable hardship and to exemplify thankfulness
> (Fádil-i-Mazandarání, Amr va Khalq 3:14).
> 
> 41. It must be noted that there are cases of early Baha’is who had committed acts of self-
> annihilation during the lifetim es of Bahà’u ’ilàh and ‘A bdu’l-Bahá, and who are m entioned
> reverently and praised in the corpus of Baha’i writings. For example, Siyyid Ismá’íl-i-Zavárih,
> entitled Dhabih. is praised in the Lawh-i-Rats as the “beloved of martyrs and their king.” The
> actions of these individuals are generally understood in terms of their mystical relationship to
> Bahà’u ’ilàh, considered acts o f sacrifice rather than suicide. Therefore, in this context, the
> statements of praise are not as problematic as they may otherwise appear to be.
> 68           TH E J O U R N A L OF B A H À ’ Î S T U D I E S                    8.2.1998
> 
> Principles of Bahà’i Bioethics
> Moral and ethical dilemmas are inherent to the technological revolution in
> modem medicine. The remainder of this article elaborates on principles that can
> guide the decision-making process when one is faced with such dilemmas.
> Obviously, any such list can only touch on the highpoints and is certainly not
> intended to be perceived as exhaustive. It must be noted that by “principles” the
> authors intend teachings gleaned from the BaháT writings that may be utilized
> in bioethical decision-making and not principles along the lines suggested by
> Beauchamp and Childress.
> 
> 1. Justice
> Justice is clearly a preeminent element in any ethical consideration. According
> to BaháVlláh, justice is “the best beloved of all things . . .” (Hidden Words 3).
> ‘AbduT-Bahá has stated that “justice is to give to everyone according to his
> deserts” (Some Answered Questions 266). The definition provided by ‘AbduT-
> Bahá in The Secret o f Divine Civilization is in the context of political
> philosophy, with significant implications for bioethics:
> 
> The second attribute o f perfection is justice and impartiality. This means to have no
> regard for one’s own personal benefits and selfish advantages, and to carry out the
> laws o f God without the slightest concern for anything else. . . . It means to consider
> the welfare of the community as one’s own. It means, in brief, to regard humanity as a
> single individual, and one’s own self as a member o f that corporeal form, and to know
> of a certainty that if pain or injury afflicts any member o f that body, it must inevitably
> result in suffering for all the rest. (39)
> 
> 2. Moderation
> Moderation is a central theme within the corpus of BaháT writings. Bahà’uTlàh
> has repeatedly emphasized moderation as a guiding principle, as the following
> text illustrates:
> 
> It is incumbent upon them who are in authority to exercise moderation in all things.
> Whatsoever passeth beyond the limits o f moderation will cease to exert a beneficial
> influence. Consider for instance such things as liberty, civilization and the like.
> However much men of understanding may favourably regard them, they will, if carried
> to excess, exercise a pernicious influence upon men. (Tablets of Bahà’u’llâh 169)
> 
> The BaháT understanding of moderation as a virtue closely follows the
> Aristotelian view of virtues as the mean between two evils:42
> 
> If haste is harmful, inertness and indolence are a thousand times worse. A middle course
> is best, as it is written: “It is incumbent upon you to do good between the two evils,”
> 
> 42. Cf. Nichomachean Ethics, Books 3 and 4.
> B a h à ’i F u n d a m e n ta ls f o r B io e th ic s                   69
> 
> this referring to the mean between the two extremes. “And let not thy hand be tied up to
> thy neck; nor yet open it with all openness . . . but between these follow a middle way”
> [Qur’àn 17:31; 110]. ( ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Secret of Divine Civilization 108-9)
> 
> B aháV lláh has obliged Bahà’is to observe moderation in all things. He
> especially reiterates this theme with respect to civilization and technology. The
> following passage is of particular interest with regard to the pivotal role of
> moderation in the advancement of technology:
> 
> In all matters moderation is desirable. If a thing is carried to excess, it will prove a
> source of evil. Consider the civilization of the West, how it hath agitated and alarmed
> the peoples of the world. An infernal engine hath been devised, and hath proved so
> cruel a weapon o f destruction that its like none hath ever witnessed or heard. ( Tablets
> of Bahá 'u 'lldh 69)
> 
> 3. Truthfulness
> Lying is explicitly forbidden according to BaháT writings. It is obligatory that a
> human being should always utter the truth. In fact, it is better to utter a
> blasphemy than to utter a lie (Ishráq Khávarí. Má'idiy-i-Ásmání5:169):
> 
> Consider that the worst o f qualities and most odious o f attributes, which is the
> foundation of all evil, is lying. No worse or more blameworthy quality than this can
> be imagined to exist; it is the destroyer o f all human perfections and the cause of
> innumerable vices. There is no worse characteristic than this; it is the foundation of
> all evils. (Some Answered Questions 215)
> 
> The BaháT Faith thus obligates all to speak the truth. Notably, BaháT
> scripture allows for only one possible exception to this ordinance. ‘AbduT-Bahá
> in the continuation to the above passage writes the following:
> 
> Notwithstanding all this, if a doctor consoles a sick man by saying, “Thank God you
> are better, and there is hope o f your recovery,” though these words are contrary to the
> truth, yet they may become the consolation o f the patient and the turning point o f the
> illness. This is not blameworthy. (Some Answered Questions 215-16)
> 
> The ethical component of this teaching needs further analysis. It is clear,
> however, that an untrue statement may be uttered by a physician as part of
> medical therapy if said with the intent to cure.
> 
> 4. Consultation
> BaháVlláh states that consultation is a prerequisite for the welfare and well­
> being of humankind.43 It would indeed be difficult to overemphasize the role of
> 
> 43. Cf. The Prosperity o f Humankind, section 3.
> 70           TH E J O U R N A L OF B A H À ’ Î S T U D I E S                       8.2.1998
> 
> consultation in the development of Bahà’i fundamentals for bioethics. We
> identify ethics consultation services, ethics committees, and institutional review
> boards as bodies that will benefit from the Bahà’i perspective on consultation.44
> The following passages serve to convey the necessity for consultation:
> 
> The Great Being saith: The heaven o f divine wisdom is illumined with the two
> luminaries o f consultation and compassion. Take ye counsel together in all matters,
> inasmuch as consultation is the lamp o f guidance which leadeth the way, and is the
> bestower of understanding. (Tablets of Bahà’u’llâh 168)45
> 
> And furthermore:
> 
> In all things it is necessary to consult. This matter should be forcibly stressed by thee,
> so that consultation may be observed by all. The intent o f what hath been revealed
> from the Pen of the Most High is that consultation may be fully carried out among the
> friends, inasmuch as it is and will always be a cause o f awareness and o f awakening
> and a source o f good and well-being. (Consultation: A Compilation 1)
> 
> 5. Compassion and Love
> According to Bahà’uTlàh, love is the principle underlying creation (Daryáy-i-
> Dánish 154). Both compassion and love are essential ingredients to the Bahá’1
> approach to any ethical dilemmas. Love is an element that is frequently omitted
> and often ignored in academic formulations of bioethics. The following passage
> concerns compassion and consultation:
> 
> Not long ago this most sublime Word was revealed in the Crimson Book by the
> All-Glorious Pen: ‘The heaven of divine wisdom is illumined with two luminaries:
> consultation and compassion.’ Please God, everyone may be enabled to observe this
> weighty and blessed word. (Tablets of Bahá 'u Tláh 242)
> 
> Love may be an overarching principle in Bahá’1 bioethics. The following
> exhortations from the Lawh-i-Hikmat indicates the importance of love in the
> BaháT worldview:
> O ye beloved o f the Lord! Commit not that which defileth the limpid stream of love
> or destroyeth the sweet fragrance o f friendship. By the righteousness o f the Lord! Ye
> were created to show love one to another and not perversity and rancour. Take pride
> not in love for you rselves but in lo v e for your fellow -creatures. (Tablets of
> Bahâ’u ’llâh 138)
> 
> 44. Ethics committees and ethics consultation services are relatively recent developments in the
> clinical setting. In 1991, the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations
> (JCAHO) required the establishment of mechanisms that addressed the ethical issues related to
> patient care (cf. Fletcher and Hoffmann in Annals). Institutional review boards, however, deal with
> the ethical dilemmas pertaining to research.
> 45. Similar exhortations are found in Tablets 126 and 242.
> B a h à ’i F u n d a m e n ta ls f o r B io e th ic s
> 
> 6. Good Will
> The Bahà’i Faith obligates one to possess a good intention (niyyat). Good
> intentions are to actions, as roots are to the branch. Only actions that are based
> on good intentions have an everlasting effect in the world (Badáyi ‘ul-Athár
> 1:331-32):
> 
> The third virtue of humanity is the goodwill which is the basis o f good actions.
> Certain philosophers have considered intention superior to action, for the goodwill is
> absolute light; it is purified and sanctified from the impurities o f selfishness, o f
> enmity, o f deception. ( ‘AbduT-Bahá, Some Answered Questions 302)
> 
> Although good will is “praiseworthy,” it is not complete and perfect in itself. In
> other words, it is necessary, but not sufficient. For ‘AbduT-Bahá, good will has
> two prerequisites: the knowledge of God and the love of God (Some Answered
> Questions 302). The agent is obliged to have a pure motive and intention in the
> Bahà’i bioethics; however, this good intention occurs in a different moral
> framework than would the good intention of a Kantian agent.46
> 
> Conclusion
> A comprehensive study of the BaháT fundamentals for ethics (akhláq) in
> general, and BaháT' fundamentals for bioethics in particular, has not as yet been
> undertaken. It would have been both premature and impossible to examine the
> whole spectrum in this article. For the purposes of this article, the authors did
> not discuss BaháT' fundamentals for ethical theory, but instead presented a
> metaphysical framework within which bioethical dilemmas can be considered.
> Relying on primary sources, in Persian, Arabic, and English, the authors
> examined some major concepts such as life, death, the role of medicine, and the
> role of suffering, within the BaháT religion. A number of principles gleaned
> from the BaháT' writings and intended for bioethical problem-solving were
> offered.
> Much work remains to be done. The authors hope that the common ground
> established in this article will serve to initiate much-needed dialogues in the
> BaháT' religion. Many of the issues and questions that were introduced in this
> article call for further examination. It is the task of BaháT bioethicists to
> introduce the BaháT teachings into the current dialogues.
> 
> 46. See page 50, above.
> 72         TH E J O U R N A L OF B A H À ’ Î S T U D I E S           8.2.1998
> 
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> — *Baha'i Fundamentals for Bioethics (Used by permission of the curator)*