# Baha'ism in Iran

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> Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Ashaq Hussain, Baha'ism in Iran, bahai-library.com.
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> IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS)
> Volume 9, Issue 2 (Mar. - Apr. 2013), PP 53-61
> e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845.
> www.Iosrjournals.Org
> 
> Baha’ism in Iran
> Ashaq Hussain
> Centre of Central Asian Studies, University of Kashmir, Hazratbal-190006
> 
> Abstract : During the early 19th century, a religious movement called Babism flourished in Persia though for a
> short period, i:e., 1844-1852. Its founder Mirza Ali Mohammad Shirazi proclaimed his station as that of the
> Mehdi to the Muslims. Afterwards Bab claimed Prophetic status. He abrogated Islamic law and instead
> promulgated a system of Babi law in his (Persian) Bayan. Although the Babi movement successfully established
> its network both in rural and urban settlements of Iran, and after the execution of Bab he became a prominent
> figure among Babis. Most of the Babis were exiled by the Qachar government to the Sunni Ottoman area in
> Iraq. It was in Iraq that Baha‟u‟llah proclaimed himself the Prophet Promised by Bab. Majority of the Babis
> believed him and entered into the new faith and became Baha‟is. This happened in 1863 after a decade of Bab‟s
> execution. He stated his own dispensation and wrote letters to many kings instigating them to establish peace.
> He tried a lot to make his laws compatible with the modern globalized world. To him “World is but one country
> and humankind its citizens”. So far as the relevance of the present study is concerned, its pros and cons need to
> be analyzed and evaluated objectively. Study of religion usually influences common people in so far as the
> legitimate force that operates behind the principles and ideals of religion are concerned. The objective of this
> article is to give the reader a sense of Baha‟i history and also the Iranian response. It is in this context the
> present paper has been analyzed.
> Keywords- Babi, Baha‟i, Mehdi, Bah‟u‟llah, Bayan
> 
> I.          INTRODUCTION
> Few countries can rival Iran in the length and the variety of her history. One has only to look at a map
> of the Middle East to see why history has been so eventful. The country is situated for the most part between the
> depressions of the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf and its territory has, therefore, often served in the past as a
> bridge for peoples and tribes migrating westwards from the vast areas of Central Asia and beyond, and
> sometimes in the reverse directions. [1] Religious beliefs and doctrines in Iran have passed under many names
> and appeared in many different and sometimes violently opposed forms. But throughout the whole periods of
> Iranian history there has been both continuity and consistency of ideas, and a steady progress and evolution. [2]
> The founder of Baha‘ism, Mirza Ali Mohammed, who afterwards assume the title of Bab (i:e Gate), was born at
> Shiraz in the south of Persia, on the 20th October, 1819 A.D. He was a Sayyid, that is, a descendant of the
> Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W). His father, a well known merchant died soon after his birth, and He was then
> placed under the care of maternal uncle, a merchant of Shiraz, who brought Him up. [3] Shaykhi school became
> the precursor of the Babi movement that later developed into a truly autonomous religion. This school was
> founded by Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsa (1753-1826), a pious Shi‟a theologian from Al-Ahsa (Arabia), the name of
> the movement coming from his title of Shaykh). The Shaykhis believed that a Bab or gate must always be
> present as an intermediary between the people and the Imam. To some Shaykhis Bab is an abstract concept and
> to some it is referred to a real person. He educated in Bahrain and the theological centers in Najf and Karbala in
> Iraq. He spends his last twenty years of life in Iran. [4]
> Shaykh Ahmad at the age of 40 began to study in earnest in the Shi‟a centers of religious scholarship
> such as Karbala and Najf. He attained sufficient recognition in such circles to be declared as a Mujadid, an
> interpreter of Islamic law. He declared that all knowledge and sciences were contained (in the essential form)
> within the Quran, and that to excel in the sciences, all knowledge must be gleaned from the Quran. He saw
> himself as a mainstream Shi‟a, not as a sectarian leader. Yet he clearly innovated in Shi‟a thought in many ways
> that towards the end of his life sparked the controversy. He lived at a time when his brand of Islam was deeply
> divided on the role of the Muslim learned man. After the death of Shaykh Ahmad Ahsai in 1826 Sayyid Kazim
> Rashti became the head of this movement and was designated as the leader of the Shaykhis.
> Sayyid Kazim urged the Shyakhis to travel far off lands after his death in search of the goal of their
> desire. ―Preserve till the time when He, who is your true Guide and Master, will graciously aid you and enable
> you to recognize him. Be firm till the day when He will choose you as the companions and the heroic supporters
> of the promised Qaim. Well is it with every one of you who will quaff the cup of martyrdom in His path”. [5]
> Mullas Husayn was the first shaykhi and the student of Sayyid Kazim Rashti who recognized Sayyid Ali
> Mohmmad as Bab. Gradually Bab proclaimed himself as a harbinger of a new dispensation or Shariah and
> 
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> Baha‟ism in Iran
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> became an independent Prophet with a new religion and a set of new laws. He also categorically claimed to be
> the Imam Mahdi awaited by Muslims. Bab claimed his authority in 1844 and was executed in 1850. According
> to Babi and Baha‘i sources Bab used to predict the advent of a great manifestation or Messenger of God after
> him. But the Bab didn‘t stop and adopted the sacred title of „Nuqtiy—i-ula‟ or primal point. On assuming this
> title, the Bab claimed to rank, like Muhammad, in the series of great founders of religion, and for this reason, in
> the eyes of Shi‟a. He even inaugurated a new calendar, restoring the solar year, and beginning the
> commencement of the New Era from the year of his own declaration. [6]
> The first eighteen disciples of the Bab (with Himself as nineteenth) became the known as ―Letters of
> the Living‖. These disciples he sent to different parts of Persia and Turkistan to spread the news of His advent.
> At the same time, he went to Mecca for pilgrimage and clearly announced his claim as Babhood. [7] In
> consequences of the announcement of new dispensation, he meted out a severe opposition from Shi‟a. Houses
> were destroyed. Women were seized and carried off. Many were beheaded, hanged and burnt alive. Despite all
> these attempts the movement progressed, because some believe that the Prophecies concerning the coming of
> Mahdi were literally fulfilled. [8]
> On July 1850, Bab fell a victim and his follower Aqa Muhammad Ali who begged to be allowed to
> share his martyrdom. But there happened a strange episode, when Bab and his disciple were hung with ropes
> from a pillar. The disciple‘s head rested against the Bab‘s breast and his last words were: ―Master, are you
> pleased with me?‖When a regiment of soldiers was drawn up and received the order to fire, it was found that
> Bab and his disciple were still alive. The first firing squad refused to fire again, and a new regiment had been
> brought on the scene, which fired when ordered. This time Bab and his disciple were dead and the enemies of
> the Bab enjoyed a guilty thrill of triumph thinking. After the Bab‘s martyrdom, His remains were thrown on the
> edge of the most outside wall of the city. After that it was secretly taken by some of the Babis, and after being
> concealed for several years in Persia, was ultimately brought, with great danger and difficulty, to the Holy land
> Mount Carmel at Akka, and only a few miles where Baha‘u‘llah spent his last years and where his remains now
> lie. [9]
> However Bab‘s many works were almost preserved in manuscript form such as Qayyum-al-Asma or
> commentary on Surah Joseph consisting over well 9300 ―short verses‖ in 111 chapters. It opens with a
> revolutionary address to the kings of the earth: ―O kings! O sons of kings! Don‘t take possession of what
> belongs to God!‖ it was written in Arabic but later was translated in Persian by famous Babi, Qurat-ul-Ain
> Tahira. The Sahih Baina‘l-Harmain, ―The Book written between the two sanctuaries, in which he gave further
> meaning of his mission. Dalai ‗il-I sab‘eh (The seven Proofs), which is the most important of the Bab‘s polemic
> works. [10]
> 
> II.          BAHA’U’LLAH
> Mirza Hussain Ali Nuri (from Nur to Mazandaran, the place of origin of his family) was born in Tehran
> on the second of Muharram 1233 A.H. (November 12, 1817, two years before the Bab) to a high ranking family
> which gave several dignitaries to the Persian court, although he attend no school. He showed wonderful wisdom
> and knowledge in his early childhood. [11]
> When the Bab declared his mission in 1844, Baha‘u‘llah was then in his twenty-seventh year, boldly
> espoused the cause of the new faith, of which he soon became recognized as one of the most powerful and
> fearless exponents. He had already suffered twice imprisonment for being as a Babi follower, but Baha‘u‘llah
> and his companions remained zealous and enthusiastic, in the greatest happiness. Almost everyday one or more
> of them was tortured or put to death and the others reminded that their turn might come next. About a year after
> coming to Baghdad, He departed alone into the wilderness of Sulaymaniyah, taking with him nothing but a
> change of clothes. Regarding this period he writes in the Book of Iqan as follows:-
> In the early days of our arrival in this land, when We discerned the signs of impending events, We
> decided, ere they happened, to retire. We betook ourselves to the wilderness, and there, separated and alone, led
> for two years a life of complete solitude. From Our eyes there rained tears of anguish, and in our bleeding heart
> there surged an ocean of agonizing pain. Many a night we had no food for sustenance, and many a day Our
> body found no rest. By Him who hath my being between His hands! Notwithstanding these showers of afflictions
> and unceasing calamities, our soul was wrapt in blissful joy, and our whole being evinced an ineffable gladness.
> For in Our solitude we were unaware of the harm or benefit, the health or ailment, of any soul. Alone, we
> communed with our spirit, oblivious of the world, and all that is therein. We knew not, however, that the mesh of
> divine destiny exceedth the vastest of mortal conceptions, and the dart of His decree transcendeth the boldest of
> human designs. None can escape the snares He setteth, and no soul can find release except through submission
> to His will. By the righteousness of God! Our withdrawal contemplated no return, and our separation hoped for
> no reunion. The one subject of our retirement was to avoid becoming a subject of discord among the faithful, a
> source of disturbance unto our companions, the means of injury to any soul, or the cause of sorrow of heart.
> Beyond these, we cherished no other intention, and apart from them, we had no end in view. And yet, each
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> person schemed after his own desire, and pursued his own idle fancy, until the hour when, from the Mystic
> source, there came the summons bidding us return whence We came. Surrendering our will to His, We
> submitted to His injunction.
> “What pen can recount the things we behold upon our return? Two years have elapsed during which our
> enemies have ceaselessly and assiduously contrived to exterminate us, whereunto all witness” [12]
> After his return from this retirement, his fame became greater than ever and people flocked to Baghdad. The
> Mullas (Muslim doctors), however, took up a hostile and persistently plotted to effect his overthrow. The
> General of Persia in Baghdad came to their assistance and sent repeated messages to the Shah to the effect that
> Baha‘u‘llah was injuring Muslim sentiments more than ever, still exerting a malign influence in Persia, and that
> he ought therefore to be banished to some more distant place. It was character of Baha‘u‘llah that, at the crisis,
> when at the instigation of the Muslim Mullas the Persian and Turkish Governments were combining their efforts
> to eradicate the Movement, He remained steadfast, calm and serene, encouraging and inspiring his followers and
> writing imperishable words of consolation and guidance. Within a short period of time, Government of Turkey
> summoning Baha‘u‘llah to Constantinople along with his followers, and encamped in the Garden of Najib Pasha
> outside the town for twelve days, while the Caravan was being prepared for the long journey. It was during these
> twelve days (April 22 to May 3 1863, i:e nineteen years after the Bab‘s declaration) that Baha‘u‘llah announced
> to several of his followers the glad tidings that he was the one whose coming had been foretold by the Bab –the
> chosen of God, the Promised One of all the Prophets. This garden became famous where Baha‘u‘llah made his
> declaration known to Baha‘is as the ―Garden of Ridvan‖ and the days Baha‘u‘llah spent there is commemorated
> in the ―feast of Ridvan‖ which is held annually on the anniversary of those twelve days. [13]
> At the same time, he wrote letters to the Sultan of Turkey, many of the crowned heads of Europe, the
> Pope, and the Shah of Persia. In these letters he announces his mission and called upon them to bend their
> energies to the establishment of true religion, just government and international peace. He tried a lot to make his
> laws compatible with the modernized global world. To him “World is but one country and humankind its
> citizens”. He also powerfully pleaded the case of the oppressed Babis and asked to be brought face to face with
> those who had instigated their persecution. But unfortunately this letter was seized and devoted Baha‘i who
> delivered the letter was martyred with fearful tortures hot bricks being pressed on his flesh! Even when the
> imprisonment was at its worst, the Baha‘is were not dismayed, and their serene confidence was never shaken.
> While in the barracks at Akka, Baha‘u‘llah wrote to some friends: - “Fear not. These doors shall be opened. My
> tent shall be pitched on Mount Carmel, and the utmost joy shall be realized”. This declaration was a great
> source of consolation to his followers, and in due course it was literally fulfilled. Baha‘u‘llah was warmly
> accepted by the Babis and the Bab had already indicated it as the title of “He whom God will manifest”. The
> conflict with the minority followers of Subh-i-Azal who kept to the letter of Babism and are now only a few of
> thousands in the East, where they have mostly reabsorbed by the Shi‟a Islam to Akka (Palestine)and the Azalis,
> including their leader, to Cyprus. In 1868 he and his family reached Akka where he wrote the fundamental Book
> of laws of his religion, The Most Holy Book (Kitab al-Aqdas) in Arabic. Baha‘u‘llah pass the evening of his life
> on earth until, after an attack of fever, He passed away on the 20th May 1892 at the age of seventy-five, and his
> last wish was that his son became representative and expounder of His teachings, and the family and relatives of
> Baha‘u‘llah and all believers were instructed to turn to him and obey him. [14]
> 
> III.           ‘ABDUL BAHA
> Abbas Effendi, better known as ‗Abdul Baha (i:e Servant of Baha), was the eldest son of Baha‘u‘llah,
> born in Tehran on 23 May 1844, the same day in which Bab declared his mission. During the early childhood in
> Adrianople, ‗Abdu‘l-Baha endeared himself to everyone. He taught much, and became generally known as the
> ―Master‖. Baha‘u‘llah indicated in many ways that ‗Abdul Baha was to direct the cause after his own ascension.
> He declared this in a veiled manner in his Kitab al-Aqdas. He referred to ‗Abdul Baha on many occasions as
> ―The Centre of My covenant,‖ ―The Most Great Branch,‖ ―The Branch from the Ancient Root‖. During the
> early period, ‗Abdul Baha was opposed by his half-brother, Mírzá Muhammad `Alí. But this was made clear by
> Baha‘u‘llah in The Book of My Covenant in which ‗Abdul Baha‘s appointment was made, but this small group
> eventually died out. [15]
> During his period, Baha‘ism reached the pinnacle of its glory mostly in the Asia, Europe and America. Mr.
> Horace Holley writes of this period as follows:-
> “To Abdul Baha, as a teacher and friend, came men and women from every race, religion and nation, to sit at
> His table like favored guests, questioning Him about the social, spiritual or moral programme each had most at
> heart; and after a stay lasting from a few hours to many months, returning home, inspired, renewed and
> enlightened. The world surely never possessed such a guest-house as this.
> “Within its doors the rigid castes of India melted away, the racial prejudice of Jew, Chrisitians and Muslim
> became less than a memory; and every convention save the essential law of warm hearts and aspiring minds
> broke down banned and forbidden by the unifying sympathy of the master of the house. It was like a King Arthur
> 
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> and the Round Table…but an Arthur who knighted women as well as men, and sent them away not with the
> sword but with the Word” [16]
> It was ‗Abdul Baha who made this faith at global level and without him; Baha‘u‘llah‘s revelation
> could not have been transmitted to humanity. He was truly a master and real architect of a rapidly expanding
> Baha‘i community. During the early years of ‗Abdul Baha‘s ministry, the Baha‘i Faith was taken to North
> America. During his tours to the west, ‗Abdul Baha met men of every shade of opinion amply fulfilled the
> command of Baha‘u‘llah to ―Consort with all the people with joy and fragrance‖. He reached London early in
> September 1911, and spent a month there, and daily talks with inquirers and many other activities. He then
> proceeded to Paris, where his time was occupied in giving daily addresses and talks to eager listeners of many
> nationalities and types. [17] During his next visit to America, where he met all sections of the society including
> university students, and in December 5th left for Great Britain visiting Liverpool, London, Bristol and Edinburg.
> In Edinburg, He gave a notable address to Esperanto society in which he announced that he encouraged the
> Baha‘i of the East to study the Esperanto society in order to further understanding the East and the West. He
> spoke and gave much importance on the issues regarding peace, women's rights, racial equality, labor relations,
> etc. He met many prominent politicians, philosophers, artists, scientists, and leaders of thought and was the
> centre of a great deal of attention from newspapers and magazines. His early statements testify to the special
> importance attached to the Baha‘i consolidation there:
> “The continent of America… is, in the eyes of the one true God, the land wherein the splendors of his
> light shall be revealed, where the mysteries of His faith shall be unveiled, where the righteous shall abide and
> the free assemble. The American continent…giveth signs of very great advancement. Its future is even more
> promising for its influence and illumination are far reaching. It will lead all nations spiritually.
> …this American nation is equipped and empowered to accomplish that which will adorn the pages of history, to
> become the envy of the world, and be blest in both the east and the west for the triumph of its people. May this
> American democracy be the first nation to establish the foundation of international agreement. May it be the
> first nation to proclaim the unity of mankind. May it be the first to unfurl the standard of the greatest
> peace.”[18]
> His prime concern and responsibility was the expansion of the Baha‘i faith and he did that in a most
> wonderful manner. ‗Abdul Baha‘s contribution was unforgettable towards the growth and expansion of Baha‘i
> faith. According to Moojan Momen, ―During his period the largest Baha‟i community was that of Iran. He
> strictly made his efforts towards strengthening the Baha‘i community and made his best possible effort to
> expand and develop. He gave much importance towards social development of the community and encouraged
> the Baha‘is to establish schools and medical facilities, and promoted the role of community. He also guided the
> institutional development of the community, directing the Hands of the Cause and advising on the setting up of
> assemblies and committees. In addition, he gave instructions for the refurbishment of the House of the Báb in
> Shiraz. ‗Abdul Baha around 1906 urged Baha‘is to attempt to elect two Ayadi or Amir i-Allah ―Hands of the
> Cause‖ to parliament. He later became disillusioned with the Majlis and urged Baha‘is to disassociate
> themselves from politics, a policy which gradually became frozen into a Baha‘i principle. Anti-Baha‘i attacks
> increased at times of political unrest, and the early 1920‘s, prelude to Reza Khan‘s coup also saw numerous
> pogroms.
> ‗Abdul Baha further refined the Baha‘i administrative apparatus, calling for election for local Houses
> of Justices or spiritual Assemblies by majority vote, and preparing for the election of an international House of
> Justice. Also in his will and testament, Shoghi Effendi, his grandson, was appointed the leader of the Baha‘i
> faith after him as Guardian of the Cause of God. He stipulated that Shoghi Effendi should appoint the next
> guardian from among his children or close cousins. Some Baha‘is like Ruth while refused to accept Shoghi
> Effendi, others, like Ahmad Sohrab thought him too authoritarian. Only a minuscule number of Baha‘is,
> however, followed them, and Shoghi Effendi‘s vigorous leadership and administrative abilities led to a great
> expansion in the number of Baha‘is worldwide. [19]
> In Ashkhabad, Baha‘is were directed by ‗Abdul Baha to set up a number of institutions: schools, a
> clinic, a traveler's hospice, library and reading room, and public baths. The first ever Mashriqu‘l-Adhkar was
> established in Ashkhabad. In other parts of the Middle East, he also encouraged the promotion of the Baha‟i
> Faith, especially in Egypt where Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl Gulpáygání was teaching at Al-Azhar University.
> Shoghi Effendi establishes ‗Abdul Bahá as the "Perfect Exemplar" of Baha‘u‘llah‘s teachings; and the
> important task of becoming the exponent of the Revelation, the Doer of the word, and the Great Exemplar of the
> Baha‘i life in actual contact of the World of today, in the most of its myriad activities. The writings of ‗Abdul
> Baha are very numerous and are mostly in the form of letters to believers and inquiries. A great many of His
> talks have also been recorded and many have been published. This great soul passed away on November 28 th so
> peacefully that the two daughters watching by His bedside, it seemed as if He had gone quietly to sleep. [20]
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> IV.         THE GUARDIAN OF THE BAHA’I FAITH
> After the passing of ‗Abdul Baha in 1921, the leadership of the Baha‟i community came into the hands
> of Shoghi Effendi, (Grandson of Abdul Baha). He also worked hard for the betterment of the Baha‘i community
> and his primary focus was to strengthen the administrative order as was originally envisaged by Baha‘u‘llah in
> his Book of Laws. He clearly envisaged the work of raising the administrative structure, the Baha‘is, at the time,
> only dimly understood the task before them. [21]
> Shoghi Effendi patiently outlined the manner in which local and national Assemblies should be elected
> and function, as well as the spiritual qualities which their members would need in order to assure success. He
> stressed the loving, frank spirit of consultation that must underlie every effort. Before the close of his second
> year as Guardian he sent detailed guidelines on building the Mother Temple of the west in Wilmette, IIIinois;
> stressed the importance of the Baha‘i fund; given standards for publishing activities; encouraged the holding of
> summer schools; and outlined the pattern of committee work. He paid great attention towards raising and
> guiding the Assemblies for sixteen years. But he never let the Baha‘is to loose sight of the main goal; ―to bury
> our cares and teach the cause, delivering far and wide this Message of salvation to a sorely-stricken world‖. [22]
> During his leadership the Baha‘i religion developed into a global faith. As was above stated that he paid great
> attention towards the administrative structure and within a short span of time, he not only systemized the Baha‘i
> community but extended the Baha‘i administration throughout the world where there existed Baha‘i
> communities; because the Baha‟i community was relatively small and undeveloped. Under Shoghi Effendi's
> direction, National Spiritual Assemblies were formed, and many thousands of Local spiritual Assemblies sprang
> up as the Baha‘i Faith spread around the globe. Shoghi Effendi has summarized the duties of local Assemblies
> as follows:
> “The matter of teaching (the faith), its ways and means, its extension, its extension, its consolidation, essential
> as they are to the interests of the Cause, constitute by no means the only issue which should receive the full
> attention of these Assemblies…
> “It is incumbent upon them to be vigilant and cautious, discreet and watchful, and protect at all times the
> Temple of the Cause from the dart of the mischief-maker and the onslaught of the enemy.
> “They must endeavor to promote unity and concord amongst the friends, efface every lingering trace of distrust,
> coolness and estrangement from every heart, and secure in its stead an active and wholehearted co-operation
> for the service of the Cause.
> “They must do their utmost to extend at all times the helping hand to the poor, the sick, the disabled, and the
> orphan, the widow, irrespective of color, caste and creed.
> “They must promote by every means in their power the material as well as the spiritual enlightenment of youth,
> the means for the education of children, institute whenever possible Baha‟i educational institutions, organize
> and supervise their work and provide the best means for their progress and development.
> “They must make an effort to maintain official, regular and frequent correspondence with the various Baha‟i
> centre‟s throughout the world, report to them their activities, and share the glad tidings they receive with all
> their fellow-workers in the cause”
> “They must encourage and stimulate by every means at their command, through subscription, reports and
> articles, the development of the various Baha‟i magazines.
> “They must undertake the arrangement of the regular meetings of the friend, the feasts and the anniversaries, as
> well as the special gatherings designed to serve and promote the social, intellectual and spiritual interests of
> their fellow-men.
> “They must supervise, in these days when the Cause is still in its infancy, all Baha‟i publications and
> translations, and provide in general for a dignified and accurate presentation of all Baha‟i literature and its
> distribution to the general public”[23]
> During the 1930s, he translated many tablets of Baha‘u‘llah into English and also established many
> Baha‘i communities around the world. In 1953, he launched a global campaign for the Baha‘i faith, ‗The Ten-
> Year World Crusade‘ (1953-1963) which sought with some success to spread the religion even to remote areas
> and Islands. He also started to develop the Baha‘i World Centre in Haifa, including the construction of the
> superstructure of the Shrine of the Bab and the building of the International Archives as well as beautifying the
> gardens at Bahji, where the Shrine of Baha‘u‘llah is located; these plans continued through the 1950s. In the
> 1950s he also continued building the Baha‘i administration, establishing in 1951 the International Baha‘i
> Council to act as a precursor to the Universal House of Justice, as well as appointing 32 living Hands of the
> Cause — Baha‘is who achieved a distinguished rank in service to the religion and whose main function was to
> propagate and protect the religion. [24]
> Shoghi Effendi translated many works of Bab, Baha‘u‘llah and Abdul Baha, into English including
> the Hidden Words in 1929, the Kitab-i-Iqan in 1931, Gleanings in 1935 and Epistle to the Son of the Wolf in
> 1941. He also translated such historical texts as The Dawn-breakers. Majority of his writings were in the style
> 
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> of letters and these were compiled in the form of Book. [25] His famous Book he ever wrote was God Passes By
> in which he gave the history of the Babi and Baha‘i faith.
> Shoghi Effendi was truly a great administrator and gave a perfect administrative order to the Baha‘i
> faith. He passed away in 1957 during a stay in London. Unfortunately, he died childless and the actions of
> eligible relatives had forced him to excommunicate them, he found it impossible to appoint a ‗Guardian‘ to
> succeed him. In 1963 there was a global congress of the Baha‘is which elected the first Universal House of
> Justice. Almost all Baha‘is accepted its authority, though a small number followed ‗Hands of the Cause‘ Mason
> Remey who declared himself the Guardian despite Abdul Baha‘s stipulation of descent from Baha‘u‘llah. The
> seat of the Universal House of Justice is in Haifa, Israel near the shrines of the Bab and Baha‘u‘llah. [26]
> 
> V.          UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE
> This body is at the apex of the Baha‘i administrative hierarchy. It directs, coordinates and safeguards
> the Baha‘i world community. This body has executive, Judicial and legislative function. Baha‘u‘llah had given
> the fundamental laws and teachings but, he also recognized the need of other social rules that will be gradually
> decided according to the changing needs. These social rules and regulations, Baha‘u‘llah said must be ordained
> by Universal House of Justice. Abdul Baha says:-
> “..if it be established under the necessary conditions with members elected from all the people that House of
> Justice will be under the protection and the unerring guidance of God. If the House of Justice shall decide
> unanimously, or by a majority, upon any question not mentioned in the Book that decision and command will be
> guarded from mistake”. [27]
> As a legislative body, as mentioned above, it may institute new laws for the Baha‘i world communities
> which are in keeping with the spirit and principles laid down in the writings. As an executive body it draws up
> the long range plans for the growth and development of the Baha‘i faith and it allocates goals in these plans to
> various National Spiritual Assemblies (NSA‘S). Other executive functions include administration of the Baha‘i
> properties at the world centre at Haifa, and contact with the government of Israel. It is also in contact with the
> United Nations. The Baha‘i international community is an accredited NGO with consultative status to the
> Economic and social council body the Universal House of Justice is the final court of appeal in the faith. It lays
> down boundaries for the jurisdiction of National Spiritual Assemblies and has sole authority to recognize new
> National Assemblies.
> The Universal House of Justice has the assistance of groups of men and women chosen for their
> dedication and distinguished services to the Baha‘i cause. Those who were appointed by Shoghi Effendi during
> the period of his guardianship of the faith (1921-57) are known as ―Hands of the Cause‖ and they are held in
> high esteem by the Baha‘i community because of their personal qualities and the services they have rendered
> individually, and also because of the critical part they played collective in the evaluation of the Administrative
> order following the death of Shoghi Effendi. The others are counselors appointed by the Universal House of
> Justice. [28]
> Although the influence of the Baha‟i faith has expanded steadily since its birth, exhibiting no
> significant periods, of noticeable contraction, [29] growth has been most impressive during the era of carefully
> planned expansion. The question, of course, arises as to whether there recent acceleration in growth has been a
> consequence of planning or is merely coincident with it and actually the outcome of changing world conditions
> that have revolutionized the technology of transportation and communication, lowered the cultural and political
> barriers separating countries and regions, and modified the beliefs and values of humanity to the point where the
> Baha‘is message is more acceptable.
> In so far as the Iranian response is considered, Iran never proved a hostile atmosphere for the Baha‘is
> from the emergence until the present day. The Bab‘s declaration of his mission constituted, therefore, a
> challenge to the central pillar of this theological system. Throughout Persia, the followers of the new faith were
> denounced by the clergy as enemies of God. During the Qajar period, the Baha‘is were persecuted because of
> their un-Islamic practices and activities. When the resulting mob attacks failed to halt the rapid spread of the
> Bab‘s message, the government moved with armed force against the principle centre‘s of Babi influence. [30]
> The Bab was executed in 1890 after a trial by an ecclesiastical court. This action participated an attack on the
> Qajar ruler, Nasiri‘d-Din Shah, in retaliation for the execution of their Prophet, but failed, in response, the Shah
> ordered a nation wide witch hunt for Babis hundreds of whom were tortured and put to death.
> During the Pahlavi period (1925-1979), the secularization of the Reza Shah government in the late
> 1920s at first helped the Baha‘is, who built a Baha‘i centre (Hazirat al-Qudus) in Tehran. Reza Shah also
> appointed a number of Baha‘is to important positions in the civil administration, particularly those branches of
> government related to finance. Although, as a salve to the Mullahs, laws were passed restricting the general
> employment of Baha‘is in the civil service, minor improvements in the position of the Baha‘is began to appear.
> Baha‘is could count on a limited degree of protection from persecution and were eventually permitted to open
> schools. As these schools rapidly gained a reputation for excellence, the monarch was moved to enroll his own
> 
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> children. It seemed possible that, given time, the restrictive laws might be lifted and the miasma of prejudice and
> hostility eventually dissipate. At the same time, Reza shah himself adept at the ‗divide and rule‘ philosophy
> which was to play an important part in the perpetuation of the Pahlavi regime. [31] But later on, he formalizes a
> policy of discrimination which was to characterize the treatment of the Baha‘i community for the next five
> decades. In 1933, the publication of Baha‘i literature was banned; Baha‘i marriage was deemed concubinage,
> and prison sentences were set for those who admitted to marrying to Baha‘i law‘ a number of Baha‘i cemeteries
> were expropriated; Baha‘is in the public service were demoted or fired; attacks in the press were freely
> permitted; and eventually the Baha‘i schools were closed. Once again the community sank to its former status as
> a proscribed and hated minority. Another round of persecution was undertaken in 1955, when the government
> allowed the nationwide broadcast of a series of incendiary sermons against the Baha‘is by a leading Shi‟a
> preacher in Tehran. A wave of anti-Baha‘i violence swept the country, with murders, rapes and robberies
> reported in many areas. Government officials joined in the seizure and destruction of the national headquarters
> building of the Baha‘i community, and the government announced it had ordered the suppression of all activities
> of ―Baha‘i sect‖. During the month of Ramadan 1955, a leading Shi‟a preacher, Sheikh Muhammad Taqi
> Falsafi, began a series of incendiary sermons in a Tehran mosque, calling for the suppression of Baha‘i faith as a
> ―false religion‖ dangerous to the welfare of the nation. At the same time, the house of Bab in Shiraz, the
> foremost Baha‘i shrine in Iran, was pillaged and severely damaged. Baha‘i cemeteries were seized and handed
> over to mobs for desecration and corpses were dragged through the streets and burned in public. [32]
> Since the Revolution of 1979, a new chapter in the persecution of the Baha‘is of Iran was introduced. When the
> Republic‘s constitution was drawn up in April 1979, the rights of the Christians, Jewish and Zoroastrians
> minorities in Iran were specifically mentioned and protected. The rights of the Baha‘i community, the largest
> religious minority, however, were not mentioned. In an Interview given by the Ayatollah Khmomeini to
> Professor James Cockroft of Rutgers University in December 1978, the Ayatollah had this to say about the
> Baha‘is:
> ―Will there be either religious or political freedom for the Baha‘is under an Islamic government?
> Khomeini: ―They are a political faction; they are harmful. They will not be accepted.
> ―How about their freedom of religion-religious practice?
> Khomeini: ―No‖
> In March 1979, the house of the Bab the holiest Baha‘i shrine in Iran was turned over by the
> Government to a Muslim cleric known for his anti-Baha‘i activities. Then, in September, the house was
> destroyed by a mob led by mullahs and officials of the Department of Religious Affairs. In November 1979,
> Baha‘i teachers were not only dismissed but held them responsible for the repaying of all salaries they had
> previously received. In the early 1980s, the trading licenses of most Baha‘i businessmen were revoked, the
> assets of businessmen run by Baha‘is were confiscated, and bank accounts of most Baha‘i businessmen were
> frozen. In addition, the authorities intimidated private employers into dismissing many Baha‘i employees. In
> Tehran and other cities throughout Iran, Baha‘i buildings were looted and burned. In rural areas, the authorities
> encouraged the plunder and destruction of the livestock and crop of Baha‘i farmers. In 1981, an official decree
> was issued barring Baha‘i students and Professors from admission to or employment at any university in Iran.
> Universities published new prospectuses in 1981 requiring that applicants belong to one of the four religions
> recognized in the constitution, namely the Muslim, Jewish, Christian or Zoroastrian religion. Admission to
> primary and secondary schools was refused to those who identified themselves as Baha‘is, and hundreds of
> students were expelled. However, execution continued through 1982, 1983 and 1984. At least 32 Baha‘is were
> executed or killed in 1983, and 30 executed or killed in 1984. One of the most dramatic groups of execution
> came in June 1983, when ten Iranian Baha‘i women, including two teen-age girls, were hanged. The primary
> charge against them; teaching Baha‘i children‘s and the women were subjected to intense physical and mental
> abuse in an effort to coerce them to recant their faith-an option that was almost always pressed upon Baha‘i
> prisoners. Nevertheless, the fact that so many Baha‘is were given the option of recanting, with the promise of
> release if they did so, is among the strongest proofs that the persecutions were based solely based on religious
> beliefs. [33]
> Despite the overwhelming proof that the Baha‘i community in Iran is being persecuted solely because
> of its religious beliefs, the Iranian Government continues to justify this persecution by charging the Baha‘i
> community with a variety of offenses. The principle charges advanced by the Government are:- ―That Baha‘is
> are supporters of the Pahlavi regime and the late shah of Iran; that they collaborated with SAVAK, the secret
> police; and that the Baha‘i faith is a political organization opposed to the present Iranian Government‖. ―That
> Baha‘is are agents of Zionism‖. ―That Baha‘is are involved with prostitution, adultery and immorality‖. [34]
> The international community has responded to the persecution of Baha‘i community in Iran with
> overwhelming sympathy and concern for the Baha‘is and condemnation of the Iranian Government. The United
> Nations Commission on Human Rights has passed eleven resolutions expressing serious concern about reports
> of human rights violation in Iran. Each resolution has made specific mention of the situation of the Baha‘i
> 
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> Baha‟ism in Iran
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> community there. Since 1985, United Nations General Assembly itself has approved seven resolutions which
> specifically mention the situation of the Baha‘is in Iran and express concern over reports of human rights
> violations there. [35] For example, Mr. Galindo Pohl‘s 1990 report to the General Assembly noted that he had
> received extensive documentation that provides ―evidence of discrimination, confiscation, rejection by
> universities, suspension of pensions, demands for the return of pension earned and paid, denial of passports and
> other irregularities‖. However, Iran‘s responses to the United Nations have always been less than satisfactory.
> As noted, they have produced a wide range of unsubstantiated charges against the Baha‘is-from accusations of
> spying to being Zionists-aimed at justifying their persecution. International and non government organizations
> have also risen to the defense of Iran‘s Baha‘is. Amnesty International, the Minority Right Group and Middle
> East Watch, among others, have closely monitored the situation of the Baha‘is in Iran and published extensive
> reports which confirm persecution there. [36]
> However, in early 1980s and early 1990s the Government has undertaken a reconsideration of its
> policies towards Baha‘is. In 1988, most of those Baha‘is being held in prison were released and the number of
> executions dropped sharply after 1985. During this period, Baha‘i children were allowed to re-enroll in primary
> and secondary schools in most of the country. But the restrictions were not lifted to institutions of higher
> learning. Baha‘is were not allowed to freely circulate their books. Some Baha‘is were allowed to obtain new
> business licenses and restrictions to other forms of economic activity appeared to lessen. The economic
> oppression of Baha‘is also continues to be an urgent problem as mentioned above that Baha‘is were dismissed
> from positions in government and education in the early 1980s because of their religion. Baha‘is are not free to
> travel outside Iran, as it is almost possible for them to obtain passport. For past twelve years, the Baha‘i
> community has been denied the right of assembly and the right to elect and maintain its administrative
> institutions.
> 
> VI.             Conclusion
> Summing up, the Islamic Republic of Iran has been accused of never producing convincing evidence
> with regard to its characterization of the Baha‘i community. However, the Islamic Republic of Iran has offered
> them freedom ―if they recant their belief and convert to Islam‖. Further, it is to be noted that the more
> aggressively the Iranian Government pursues its campaign against Baha‘i the stronger Baha‘i community seems
> to become. Baha‘is remain officially ‗unprotected infidels‘ and their rights are often ignored. Without them, the
> very existence of the Baha‘is as a viable religious community is seriously endangered.
> 
> Acknowledgment
> The author would like to thank his supervisor Prof. G.N Khaki, University of Kashmir (Centre of
> Central Asian Studies), whose lectures and publications have inspired the preparation of this paper. Thanks also
> to Dr. Rouf Ahmad, who reviewed earlier draft of this paper.
> 
> REFERENCES
> [1].    John A.Boyle, Persia History and Heritage, Henry Melland Limited, London, 1978, p.17
> [2].    Alessandro Baussani, Religion in Iran, Bibiliotheca Persica, New York, 2000, p.382
> [3].    J.E.Esslemont, Baha‘u‘llah and the New Era, Baha‘i Publishing Trust, London, 1937, p.13
> [4].    Alessandro Baussani, Religion in Iran, Bibiliotheca Persica, New York, 2000, p.381
> [5].    John Ferraby, All Things Made New, Baha‘i Publishing Trust, New Delhi, 2007, p.205
> [6].    Alessandro Baussani, Religion in Iran, Bibiliotheca Persica, New York, 2000, p.382
> [7].    John Ferraby, All Things Made New, Baha‘i Publishing Trust, New Delhi, 2007, pp.209-10
> [8].    J.E.Esslemont, Baha‘u‘llah and the New Era, Baha‘i Publishing Trust, London, 1937, p.17
> [9].    Ibid.p.18
> [10].   Alessandro Baussani, Religion in Iran, Bibiliotheca Persica, New York, 2000, p.383
> [11].   Gloria Faizi, Baha‘u‘llah The Promised One, Baha‘i Publishing Trust, New Delhi, 2003, p.3
> [12].   J.E.Esslemont, Baha‘u‘llah and the New Era, Baha‘i Publishing Trust, London, 1937, p.25
> [13].   Gloria Faizi, Baha‘u‘llah The Promised One, Baha‘i Publishing Trust, New Delhi, 2003, p.83
> [14].   Alessandro Baussani, Religion in Iran, Bibiliotheca Persica, New York, 2000, p.393
> [15].   John Ferraby, All Things Made New, Baha‘i Publishing Trust, New Delhi, 2007, p.250
> [16].   J.E.Esslemont, Baha‘u‘llah and the New Era, Baha‘i Publishing Trust, London, 1937, p.54
> [17].   Anonymous, Paris Talks, Baha‘i Publishing Trust, New Delhi, 2003, p.3
> [18].   John Ferraby, All Things Made New, Baha‘i Publishing Trust, New Delhi, 2007, p.
> [19].   J.E.Esslemont, Baha‘u‘llah and the New Era, Baha‘i Publishing Trust, London, 1937, p.61
> [20].   Ibid,p.66
> [21].   Eunice Braun, From Strength to Strength, Baha‘i Publishing Trust, New Delhi, 1978, p.5
> [22].   Alessandro Baussani, Religion in Iran, Bibiliotheca Persica, New York, 2000, p.395
> [23].   John Ferraby, All Things Made New, Baha‘i Publishing Trust, New Delhi, 2007, pp.301-302
> [24].   Ibid, p.296
> [25].   Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, Baha‘i Publishing Trust, Delhi, 1944, pp. 101-102
> [26].   Peter Smith, ―Shoghi Effendi‖. A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baha‘i Faith, Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp.314-317
> [27].   Abdul Baha, some answered Questions, lauraclifford Barney, Trans (London), 1971, p.172
> 
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> Baha‟ism in Iran
> [28].   Peter Smith, Universal House of Justice‖ A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baha‘i Faith Oxford one world publication, 2000, pp.34 6-
> [29].   Dramatic declines in the fortunes of the faith have tended to be regional rather than global, and when they have occurred the seem to
> have been offset by developments in some areas that in the long run proved to be even more beneficial to the faith than the setback
> was detrimental. For example, the near annihilation of the Babis in Persia during the 1850‘s was counterbalanced by Baha‘u‘llah‘s
> banishment to Iraq, a development that permitted the realization of the Baha‘i dispensation and was the first in a sequence of steps
> leading to the firm establishment of the faith in numerous regions outside its area of origin. In a similar vein, suppression of the
> large, wealthy, and firmly established Baha‘i communities in the Caucasus and Turkistan following the Russian revolution
> coincided with the contrasting developments stimulated by the Tablets of the Divine plan, in particular the opening up of Australia
> and New Zealand, the initial settlement of south Africa, and the extensive forays of the indefatigable Martha root, first int o south
> America and then over the next two decades, into all other continents of the world.
> [30].   Douglas Matin, The Persecution of Baha‘is Iran, 1844-1984 )1984), pp.15-29
> [31].   Shahrough Akhavi, Religion and Politics in Contemporary Iran, Clergy state relations in the Pahlavi Period, 1980, pp.76-87
> [32].   Douglas Matin, The Persecution of Baha‘is Iran, 1844-1984 )1984), p.22
> [33].   Anonymous, The Baha‘i Question, Baha‘i International Community Publication, New York, p.15
> [34].   Ibid, pp.24-25
> [35].   Affolter, Friedrich W. (2005). ―The Specter of Ideological Genocide: The Baha‘is of Iran (PDF). War Crimes, Genocide and Crimes
> against Humanity 19 (1): 59-89.                    doi 10.1016/0048-721X (89)90077-8. http:/www.aa.psu.edu.journals/war-
> crimes/articlesV1/v1n1a3.pdf.
> [36].   Christopher Buck, ―Islam and Minorities: The Case of the Baha‘is‖ (2003), pp.83-106.
> 
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>
> — *Baha'ism in Iran (Used by permission of the curator)*