# Ethics for a Global Society

*Exported from [Holy-Writings.com](https://www.holy-writings.com/) on 2026-06-21 — 1 clipping.*

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> Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Udo Schaefer, Ethics for a Global Society, bahai-library.com.
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> 
> Ethics for a Global Society
> 
> Udo Schaefer
> 
> published in Bahá'í Studies Review4:1
> 
> London: Association for Bahá'í Studies English-Speaking Europe, 1994
> 
> Abstract: The article deals with a process of apocalyptic dimensions: the
> collapse of the moral order; the disintegration of value systems over the
> last few decades; the lack of moral orientation. We are now living with
> these consequences. These events came to pass precisely at the time when
> the emergent world society is in need of a global ethic, a universal standard
> of values, ideals and goals—a need reflected in the "Declaration toward
> a Global Ethic" of the recent World Parliament of Religions in Chicago,
> which outlined a "minimal ethic" based on common values of the great world
> religions. However, a new hierarchy of values, a new ethic for global society
> has come into the world through Bahá'u'lláh's legislation
> in His revelation of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas.
> 
> I.
> 
> We are living in a time of a global upheaval. Everything that seemed
> to be fixed and solid has been seized by the storm of change. As Bahá'u'lláh
> foretold, the "world's equilibrium" has been "upset" and the "present-day
> order," "lamentably defective," is being "rolled up."(2)
> The collapse of the prevailing order; the radical change to a new order
> of things, to a level of a greater complexity and more coherent organisation;
> the breakthrough of the present world-society to a world-commonwealth integrating
> all nations, to a "new World Order;"(3)
> all this entails chaos and catastrophe. Many people feel that their very
> existence is threatened. Many see in these events the "Horsemen of the
> Apocalypse."
> 
> In this process of change, nothing has undoubtedly had such a far-reaching,
> radical effect on society and human thought as the change in moral views,
> ideas, and concepts which took place during the past few decades. There
> are no longer reliable answers to such crucial questions as: What is man?
> What is the purpose of his existence? What standards should man live by?
> What is good and what is evil? What is permitted and what prohibited? There
> is no moral orientation, nothing to hold on to. Within a few decades a
> change in the way people think has taken place with almost breath-taking
> speed. It can certainly be described as a cultural revolution when one
> considers its far-reaching consequences. Norms and values which have been
> established by religion, and have been handed on, kept alive and considered
> absolutely valid for two thousand years, and were even recognized by the
> rationalists of the Enlightenment in the 18th century as rational values,
> were swept away within a few decades. After losing their transcendental
> basis they were open to critical questioning, and were soon dissolved in
> the acid bath of a one-dimensional rationalism, that attitude which does
> not allow anything to have validity unless it can be established by empirical
> reason. I have described this process of disintegration of the value systems
> and its consequences in my book The Imperishable Dominion: The Bahá'í
> Faith and the Future of Mankind.(4)
> Its end result is a spiritual vacuum, which is becoming increasingly evident,
> and a lack of moral orientation, which is threatening society from inside.
> 
> Mankind's most crucial problems such as the ecological crisis, the population
> explosion, the economic injustice of the present system of world economics
> and the resulting North-South conflict, tyranny and despotism, civil war,
> and above all the outbursts of irrational violence in every part of the
> world —these problems of man's survival can only be solved on a worldwide
> basis or not at all. But at the very same time as nations are challenged
> to develop a co-operative global system capable of acting in solidarity,
> society is rapidly disintegrating and losing its structures. The bonds
> which hold society together are weakening constantly, living together with
> others is becoming increasingly more difficult, and the number of conflicts
> is ever on the rise.
> 
> Probably nothing shows the decline of traditional morals and the sickness
> of our society as clearly as the new dimension of evil with which we are
> confronted: the brutalization of our world by the increase in violence.
> A British writer, Gordon Rattray Taylor, described this process in the
> 1970s in his book How to Avoid the Future and stated: "Just as high
> temperature warns us that all is not well in the body, so violence is an
> indication that something is wrong in society."(5)
> This phenomenon confronts us in the rapidly increasing readiness to settle
> conflicts with violence. Violence may well be as old as humanity, but its
> impact within highly technological societies, its saturation in the media,
> and its presence in our daily lives, is new. Friedrich Hacker, in his best-seller
> on violence, described its nature, and the extent to which violence has
> become part of our lives.
> 
> The most horrifying dimension of modern brutalization
> is not that individual and collective violence flares up more frequently...but
> that it is becoming more and more common and customary. Violence has become
> an everyday, natural trivial event, a banal trifle.... We are already so
> insensible that it needs a significant escalation of violence or especially
> dramatic acts of brutality to rouse us up out of our dull indifference,
> which supposedly derives from our feeling of helplessness.(6)
> 
> A society progressively loses its cohesion and is destined to perish, if
> there are no ultimate values, no absolute obligations, if there is no civic
> sense (which was called "civitas" by the ancient Romans), that "spontaneous
> willingness to obey the law, to respect the rights of the others, to forego
> the temptations of private enrichment at the expense of the public weal."(7)
> Society cannot survive if its members have lost the ability to share and
> sacrifice, if everyone furthers only his own rights and pursues his own
> interests, if the highest aim in life is the utopia of living in luxe,
> calme et volupté, as Baudelaire defined it,(8)
> if society is based on hedonism and egotism.
> 
> The cultural crisis of the West, announced and analysed by philosophers
> like Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Spengler, has developed into a global
> crisis of human civilisation, which endangers the survival of mankind.
> What is the cause of this process and where is it leading us?
> 
> II.
> 
> At some time or other in his phylogenesis, before recorded history,
> man escaped from the barriers of his instincts. He was no longer exposed
> to the compulsions of nature. He gained freedom and then had to gain control
> over his urges by conscious action, a uniquely human endeavour; the animal
> does not act, it reacts.
> 
> Man's grandeur and dignity are his freedom. However, this is also what
> endangers him. In gaining freedom he lost the automatic security of animal
> instincts. From then, he had to derive his direction from values. All human
> societies have systems of generally accepted values at their disposal,
> which provide goals, means, and orientation for the individual as well
> as for society. History reveals that mankind's great value systems are
> rooted in the great historic religions and their civilisations. Western
> civilisation is largely a genuinely Christian one, although the contribution
> of Judaism, the culture of antiquity, and later, Islam was significant.
> The values and standards people followed were an integral part of their
> faith, from which they also obtained their highest motivation for moral
> conduct.
> 
> For 300 years, however, the foundation of these values, the Christian
> Faith, has been in retreat. It is no longer the standard and the centre
> of life; it is drifting to the periphery. Atheism has become a political
> movement. For seventy years, in socialist countries a militant, missionary
> atheism was the dominant ingredient of state doctrine. In these countries,
> religion survived in the underground; several generations grew up without
> any religious education. However, in liberal democracies too, religious
> traditions are withering. Symptoms of the decay of Christendom are seen
> in the dramatic exodus from the Church—in Germany every year some hundred
> thousands of Catholics and Protestants resign from Church membership.(9)
> Today most parents no longer impart a religious consciousness to their
> children; religion is no longer discussed in families. Church leaders frankly
> admit that Europe is no longer a Christian continent.(10)
> 
> This crisis is especially reflected in the increasing rejection of institutionalised
> Christianity among the youth who have turned instead to materialism and
> self-centredness. A study commissioned by the Protestant Church, Heiner
> Barz, professor at the University of Heidelberg, concludes that the younger
> generation rejects any doctrine and suspects all traditions received from
> their parents and any institutions. In the Church they see primarily a
> "power apparatus" identical with that of the Party, the State, or the tax
> office. According to Barz, the Christian image of Jesus and the symbols
> of Christianity are of little relevance, its teachings frequently unknown,
> and the youth are either ignorant of the concept of "sin" or dismiss it
> as "outdated."(11)
> 
> The crisis of Christianity and, in its wake, the crisis of morals has
> been on the way for a long time, at least since the European Enlightenment,
> that Copernican revolution of thought, which began in the 17th century
> and moulded the West. This new attitude was based on a belief in the power
> of reason, on the conviction of the absolute certainty of rational knowledge:
> "Faith in the old presuppositions and authorities, for so long considered
> valid beyond question, gave way to a spirit of criticism. Reason claimed
> to be autonomous and set itself up as the unique court of appeal."(12)
> The spirit of modernism, which made a method of doubt, has profoundly changed
> the world. It was the ideal for man in his newly-attained independence
> and maturity to be liberated from prejudice and preconceived ideas and
> at the same time to hold a commitment to methodological discipline and
> absolute objectivity. This new way of thought has laid the foundation of
> our scientific-technical civilisation. In the field of law we owe to it
> great victories over barbarism: the principles of equality before the law
> and of the separation of powers, the triumphant advance of democracy, the
> abolition of torture and the humanisation of penal law, in short, the modern
> constitutional state, a state which binds the power of the ruler to the
> law and protects the citizen from governmental arbitrariness.
> 
> However, the spirit of modernism is also responsible for the deep crisis
> of faith and, in its wake, the crisis of morals. Doubt was cast upon the
> Christian revelation, religion was declared to be superfluous, even detrimental.
> Or, as Bertolt Brecht put it in his drama "Galileo Galilei": "Belief has
> prevailed for a thousand years, but now doubt has taken its place.... Doubt
> is cast on time-honoured truths, and what always used to be taken for granted
> is now questioned."(13) It is one of the
> central dogmas of the philosophy of the Enlightenment that religion is
> destined to wither away. Nietzsche's formula "God is dead!" has become
> the slogan of the century. Secular society—a society in which religion
> has been banned—and the mature autonomous man, i.e. an individual emancipated
> from the traditions of the past and absolutely self-determining, have become
> the goal and direction of the people.
> 
> Belief in God has been replaced by belief in reason and human progress,
> by faith in the completion of history, by science and technology. Messianic
> expectations have been replaced by the utopia of a man-made paradise. Man's
> conviction that he is able to create a better world, the "Messianic Kingdom,"
> by rational analysis and political action have superseded the transcendental
> promises of salvation.(14) Thus, the world
> has been made rational and technical, and, as a consequence, utilitarian.
> What remains is a vast emptiness in which man is cut off from his metaphysical
> origins, and left impoverished with merely the affairs of this world to
> care about: discovery, invention, progress, achievement, production, and
> consumption.
> 
> Now, at the end of the second millennium, the optimistic belief in the
> omnipotence of reason and the Enlightenment, in science and progress, has
> dwindled. Jürgen Habermas has diagnosed perplexity among intellectuals
> and politicians, a lack of confidence in Western civilisation(15).
> 
> The deficiencies of an unbalanced Enlightenment are becoming increasingly
> evident. The fading Christian faith has left a vacuum which has, as Nietzsche
> clearly predicted, seized everything which is built on this faith: "For
> example our entire European morality."(16)
> Nietzsche called this phenomenon of the devaluation of the highest values
> and the lack of meaning nihilism: "The aim is lacking; 'why' finds
> no answer."(17) Nihilism is the conviction
> "that nothing has any value, that no standards are binding, that no purpose
> exists, that there is nothing worth living or dying for, that everything
> is futile".(18) Russian writers like Ivan
> Turgeniev and Fyodor Dostoevsky described the spreading spiritual vacuum,
> and European thinkers from the nineteenth century clearly anticipated its
> consequences. Nihilism has become the shaping power of our civilisation:
> "The frustration, the embitterment, the hatred of history, of the illusions
> of the past and the reality of today are the origin of that nihilism which
> is inundating us. Nihilism is the other side of the hope for a man-made
> paradise. We have arrived on the other side of the coin."(19)
> 
> The philosophers of the Enlightenment vehemently refused to accept the
> reproach that atheism means amorality, and the prognosis that the decline
> of religion would finally cause the devaluation of moral values. Pierre
> Josephe Proudhon [1809-1865] wrote: "L'homme est destiné à
> vivre sans religion.... La loi morale est éternelle et absolue....
> Eh, qui donc aujourd'hui oserai attaquer la morale?"(20)
> The values were regarded as natural, self-evident and generally valid for
> all time—eternal truths arrived at by reason. However, what seemed to
> be self-evident and absolutely valid has been critically questioned little
> by little, and finally dissolved. The absoluteness of moral obligations
> was abandoned and replaced by a pluralism of non-obligatory value concepts,
> by relativism and subjectivism. A non-obligatory, pluralistic ethics, however,
> is a "Lichtenberg knife," a knife without a handle and a blade.(21)
> 
> The implications of this process are obvious: if rational proof is the
> only gauge for evaluating an ethical norm, then a norm that commands positive
> action can only be recognized if it is of proven advantage to all; equally,
> one that has a prohibitive function can only be recognized when the social
> harm of the prohibited act is evident to all. This means that any value
> you are pleading for is in need of rational justification. However, even
> if you can supply a norm which you believe is based on cogent reasons,
> you never can convince another person who has a different view. This is
> why Bahá'ís face endless discussions when they offer their
> moral concepts. Although the prohibition of narcotics and alcoholic beverages
> can be justified on the basis of an abundance of medical and social reasons,
> most people react with criticism. And if you mention a virtue like chastity,
> a word which has almost completely fallen out of usage, it gives rise to
> mockery or biting sarcasm: you are looked at as if you had come from another
> planet.
> 
> This critical attitude of the mind, which recognises none but rational
> values automatically rejects the notion of unconditional duties and the
> existence of generally binding norms. Every human being is then the supreme
> judge of the norms of his life-style and of the social order. That is the
> meaning of the new ideal of "self-determination" and "maturity," whereas
> the recognition of an authority which cannot be questioned, and the observance
> of its commandments is contemptuously dismissed as "immaturity":
> 
> The illusion is cherished that everyone by means of his
> own mental efforts will be able to realize what he should do and will be
> capable of making a free choice for or against what should be done... Thus,
> the individual with his subjective desires, his chance experiences, his
> restricted knowledge and his limited understanding is granted the right
> to consider himself the measure of all things.(22)
> 
> The consequences:
> 
> The belief in absolute duties is replaced by calculating
> adaptation to the contingencies of the day. The love for ideals which demand
> that man overcome his egocentricity cannot emerge in a society in which
> it is considered 'progressive' to doubt everything. As this love dwindles,
> so does the motivation to exert oneself in ethical areas and the energy
> to devote oneself unselfishly to greater tasks... In such a spiritual climate,
> the growth of egotism is accompanied by the spread of pessimism and the
> foreboding of destruction. One becomes indifferent to the welfare of others
> and is only concerned to get the best for oneself as long as this is still
> possible.(23)
> 
> The emancipation of morals (from religion) which appeared at the beginning
> of modern times was followed by the emancipation of man (from morals).
> When value systems are separated from the soil of divine revelation, they
> shatter. Without God, morality has no foundation, no hold, no support.
> Dostoevsky was referring to this consequence when he had Ivan Karamazov
> say: "If God does not exist, then everything is permitted. If there is
> no God, then nothing matters."(24)
> 
> III.
> 
> The need for ethic, though, is increasingly recognised. Compared to
> decades of virtual silence on the subject, philosophers are now focusing
> on it again, indicated by the increasing number of publications in the
> field. However, all the secular attempts of moral philosophy to found a
> rational ethical system which is both practicable and generally obligatory
> have failed. Its failure, in which British philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre
> recognizes the very cause of the crisis of Western civilisation,(25)
> is because no moral rules can be deduced conclusively from an abstract
> concept of man, from man's "dignity." Reason is not able to make "thou
> shalt" statements which are clear and acceptable to unanimous agreement.
> The question of man's "dignity" cannot be answered without reference to
> a clear concept of man. The nature of man, however, is a question beyond
> rational, empirical, and scientific knowledge. The concepts offered by
> the humanities are focused on man's biological nature. They reduce man
> to his biological, chemical, and anatomical elements and deny his freedom
> and his dignity. B.F. Skinner's well-known work Beyond Freedom and Dignity(26)
> demonstrates this denial of guilt, responsibility, and the existence of
> objective values. Moreover, moral obligations based on reason alone, even
> if they could be made evident, cannot be invested with the inner authority
> that urges the individual to comply with standards created by himself:
> "Why should man shy away from barriers which he or his kind have erected?"(27)
> 
> With each day it is becoming increasingly evident that mankind's survival
> is not an issue of technology and pragmatism, but one of new binding values
> and goals for the individual, of political actions based on a set of generally
> accepted values appropriate to the conditions of a global society. Bertolt
> Brecht's slogan "Erst kommt das Fressen, dann die Moral!"(28)
> has been disproved by historical experience. The states of the former Soviet
> Union have painfully shown that without morals there may be no more "grub".
> Western relief aimed at old people and children in Russian cities nearly
> failed when corrupt officials stole or sold charity on the black market.
> 
> What is to be done? How can dying morality be revived? How can people
> be motivated to submit themselves to norms which demand much of them? How
> can they be induced to do good and to shun evil? What can cause them not
> to lie, deceive, or steal? What can cause people to overcome greed, envy,
> and hatred, to restrain their basic instincts, to resist the temptations
> of corruption, to sacrifice for others, to be "a good man" in a world where
> "Supplies are scarce and human beings base?"(29)
> 
> Normative ethics have always been based on religion's system of trans-cendental
> values and ideals. Religion translates values into standards of behaviour,
> passes them on by education to the young and keeps them alive in the consciousness
> of society. The question of whether man possesses an innate sense of justice
> was put to 'Abdu'l-Bahá. He answered in the negative and stressed
> man's dependence on divine revelation:
> 
> If we ponder the lessons of history it will become evident
> that this very sense of honour and dignity is itself one of the bounties
> deriving from the instructions of the Prophets of God. We also observe
> in infants the signs of aggression and lawlessness, and that if a child
> is deprived of a teacher's instructions his undesirable qualities increase
> from one moment to the next. It is therefore clear that the emergence of
> this natural sense of human dignity and honour is the result of education....
> Even if we grant for the sake of the argument that instinctive intelligence
> and the innate moral quality would prevent wrong-doing, it is obvious that
> individuals so characterized are as rare as the philosopher's stone....
> Universal benefits derive from the grace of the Divine religions, for they
> lead their true followers to sincerity of intents, to high purpose, to
> purity and spotless honour, to surpassing kindness and compassion, to the
> keeping of their covenants when they have covenanted, to concern for the
> rights of others, to liberality, to justice in every respect of life, to
> humanity and philanthropy, to valour and to unflagging efforts in the service
> of mankind. It is religion, to sum up, which produces all human virtues,
> and it is these virtues which are the bright candles of civilisation.(30)
> 
> A reconstruction of morals comes only from a living faith. Values can only
> be absolutely valid if they are not in need of rational justification,
> if they are not in contradiction to reason, but at the same time are immune
> to criticism. That means that they are based on God as the law-giver. Nothing
> but such a morality can ever hope to overcome the prevailing pluralism
> and relativism of all moral concepts, and to motivate people to accept
> and obey it.
> 
> Mankind's global society is in need of a global code of ethics. Hans
> Küng, a renowned Catholic theologian, has acknowledged that this world
> only has a chance of survival if it is endowed with a common, universal
> standard of values, ideals and goals. In his brilliant book, Global
> Responsibility, he presents the opinion that such a world ethos can
> only be based on the common values of the great world religions, as only
> religion can provide man with an apodeictic, categorical, absolute norm
> which is also practical.(31) The recent
> centenary celebration of the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago has
> approved a "Declaration Toward a Global Ethic." Seven thousand representatives
> of the world's religions signed and solemnly presented a statement of a
> minimal ethic on which all could agree.(32)
> 
> In fact, the project of a "global ethic" began 120 years ago when Bahá'u'lláh
> revealed the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, the Charter of a divine legislation.
> The Bahá'í Faith offers a new ethical system, a new hierarchy
> of values for global society, anchored in divine revelation. It provides
> mankind with a new spiritual impulse for a new ethos. As in the past, this
> new ethos is brought about by the Word of God, which, as Bahá'u'lláh
> says, "alone, can claim the distinction of being endowed with the capacity
> required for so great and far-reaching a change"(33)
> for the spiritual rebirth of man. Bahá'u'lláh declares its
> power to transform: "The day is approaching when God will have, by an act
> of His Will, raised up a race of man the nature of which is inscrutable
> to all save God, the All-Powerful, the Self-Subsisting."(34)
> 
> End Notes
> 
> Based on a presentation made at the National Bahá'í Conference in Llandudno, Wales, October 1993. It will be followed by the paper "The New Morality" in the next Review.
> Bahá'u'lláh, Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book (Haifa: Bahá'í World Centre: 1992) 181; Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh revealed after the Kitáb-i-Aqdas (Haifa: Bahá'í World Centre, 1978) 11:27; Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh (Wilmette: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1978) 4:2, 143:3.
> Kitáb-i-Aqdas 181.
> (Oxford: George Ronald, 1983) 33ff.
> (London: Secker & Warburg, 1975) 31.
> Aggression, (Reinbek: Rowohlt, 1973) 13.
> Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (London: Heinemann, 1975) 245.
> "in luxury, leisure and lust," from the poem, "L'invitation au voyage," in Les Fleurs du Mal, XLIX. Paris: Gallimard, 1972.
> In 1991 and 1993, more than 500,000 left the Church in Germany.
> For further discussion, see Schaefer, Imperishable Dominion chapter 1.
> Heiner Barz, Postmoderne Religion am Beispiel der jungen Generation in den Alten Bundesländern, mit einem Vorwort von Thomas Luckmann, Teil 2 des Forschungsberichts "Jugend und Religion", (Opladen 1992) vol. 2, 137, 172, 251, 261.
> Theodor Greene, The Historical Context and Religious Significance of Kant's Religion (New York: Harper & Row, 1960) ix.
> Bertolt Brecht, "The Threepenny Opera," in From the Modern Repertoire, ed. Eric Bentley, Series two (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1949) scene 1.
> On the secular salvation, cf. Schaefer, Imperishable 10ff.
> One of the most prominent contemporary German philosophers in the tradition of the Frankfurt School, Die neue Unübersichtlichkeit (Frankfurt/M.: Suhrkamp, 1985) 143.
> Friedrich Nietzsche, The Joyful Wisdom (London: George Unwin & Allen, 1924) no. 343.
> Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power (London: Widenfeld and Nicolson, 1968) 1,2.
> Wolfgang Brezinka, Erziehung und Kulturrevolution. Die Pädagogik der Neuen Linken, 2d rev. ed. (Ernst Reinhardt Verlag: München-Basel, 1976) 46.
> Wolfgang Kraus, Nihilismus heute oder Die Geduld der Weltgeschichte (Frankfurt/M.: Fischer Verlag, 1985) 138.
> P.-J. Proudhon, De la Création de l'ordre dans l'humanité, ou principes d'organisation politique (Paris-Besançon 1843) 38, no. 60. "Man is destined to live without religion... Moral law is eternal and absolute... Who then would dare to attack morality today?"
> Georg Lichtenberg (1742-1799), a physicist at the University of Göttingen, famous for his aphorisms.
> Brezinka, Erziehung 16.
> Ibid.
> The Brothers Karamazov.
> After Virtue, A Study in Moral Theory (Indiana: Notre Dame Press, 1984).
> Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977.
> August Messer and Max Pribilla, Katholisches und modernes Denken. Ein Gedankenaustausch über Gotteserkenntnis und Sittlichkeit zwischen August Messer und Max Pribilla SJ (Stuttgart 1924) 95.
> From "The Three-Penny Opera." ("First comes the grub, then the morals" - the German is much more expressive.)
> Ibid, 1st Three-Penny Finale.
> 'Abdu'l-Bahá, The Secret of Divine Civilization, 2d ed. (Wilmette: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1970) 97.
> Global Responsibility: In Search of a New World Ethic (London: SCM, 1991).
> See Hans Küng and Karl-Josef Kushel, A Global Ethic; The Declaration of the Parliament of the World's Religions (London: SCM, 1993).
> Gleanings 99.
> Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of Bahá'u'lláh (Wilmette: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1974) 109-110, cf. Advent of Divine Justice (Wilmette: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1971) 26
> 
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> — *Ethics for a Global Society (Used by permission of the curator)*