Meditation and Health
Exported from Holy-Writings.com on 2026-06-19 - 1 clipping

Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Paul Friedman, Meditation and Health, bahai-library.com.
──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

54                                                   Australian Bahá’í Studies, Vol. 3, 2001

Meditation and Health
Paul Friedman

Outline

1. Prayer and Meditation: Synergistic Forces of Spiritual Transformation
2. What is Meditation According to the Bahá’í Writings?
3. Meditation as Pondering, Reflecting and Thinking Deeply
4. Meditation as Silent Wordless Reflection, Seeking Divine Wisdom
5. Meditation Using Repetition of Words or Phrases
6. Forms of Bahá’í Meditation
7. Forms of Meditation With Proven Health Effects
8. Transcendental Meditation and the Bahá’í Teachings
9. Transcendental Meditation and Health
10. Conclusions

The aims of this article are:

1. To develop a deeper understanding of the practice of meditation accord-
ing to the Bahá’í Writings

2. To explore the effects of meditation on health.

Meditation has been practiced in diverse forms throughout the world for
thousands of years. In an attempt to understand meditation, scientists have
studied it in highly controlled settings. According to Professor Deane Shapiro,
such controlled scientific experiments often remove meditation from its spir-
itual and religious contexts [1]. These studies can address certain aspects of
meditation such as stress reduction and relaxation but are ill-equipped to deal
with broader elements.
Shapiro asserts that most published studies of meditation have examined
Eastern forms meditation from Vedic or Buddhist traditions; few studies have
examined meditation from Africa, North or South America [1].
There are many forms of meditation such as:
Meditation and Health                                                          55

1. Contemplation
2. Concentration without contemplation (e.g. focus on breathing or watch-
ing a flame)
3. Mindfulness
4. Zen meditation pondering words or phrases, often paradoxical (e.g. if the
Buddha stands in the way of your enlightenment kill him)
5. Visualizing or imagining certain states such as love
6. Transcendental Meditation, in which sounds without meaning are repeated
to attain a state of restful alertness where the mind is silent (the effect of
the sounds is linked to their resonance frequencies)
7. Meditation designed for people living a monastic life

Activities not typically considered meditation, such as immersion in natural
beauty in mountains, or waterfalls may foster episodes of meditation. Many
people use music to relax and in some cases meditate; the Bahá’í writings
have called music a ladder for your souls to ascend to the world of spirit
[Bahá’u’lláh. Kitáb-i-Aqdas, p. 38]. Likewise, certain activities such as
fishing may lead to periods of contemplation and reflection.
Before considering the relationship between meditation and health it is
important to define health. The word health comes from the term wholeness.
The World Health Organization has defined health as the optimal state of
physical and mental well-being rather than the absence of disease. Accord-
ing to this rigorous definition, few people are truly healthy. In this age of
medical syndromes, the rarest of all syndromes has been described by a New
Zealand comedian, Gary McCormack, as TNP: totally normal person!
Palliative care of people in their last months of life offers rather different
definitions of health as a state of peace and acceptance of death in which
symptoms such as pain and shortness of breath are controlled. In this model
a person about to die can be seen as whole whereas a person with no measur-
able disease can be quite unhealthy and wishing she or he was dead.
I have organised this article into ten topics. For each topic I will examine
pertinent references from the Bahá’í Writings and from books and articles
about specific forms of meditation. I have employed Mars for Windows, a
computer database of the Bahá’í Writings of Bahá’u’lláh, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and
Shoghi Effendi, to sample the relative frequencies and associations of terms
such as meditation, contemplate, reflect and ponder. Because Mars for Win-
dows lists certain quotations twice when they appear in different books, the
absolute number of citations for a given word is not a perfect measure of the
frequency of that term. The table below shows that the most frequently cited
term is reflect followed by ponder and meditation. The least frequently cited
term is commune. None of these key words were linked within 10 words to
health or healing suggesting that the Bahá’í writings either do not or rarely
connect meditative practices to health or healing.
56                                                       Australian Bahá’í Studies, Vol. 3, 2001

Word                       Citations                  Health / Healing

Reflect                       253                                           0

Ponder                        199                                           0

Meditation                    100                                           0

Meditate                      95                                            0

Contemplate                   53                                            0

Transcend                     24                                            0

Commune                       32                                            0

1. Prayer and Meditation: Synergistic Forces of Spiritual
Transformation
The Bahá’í Writings often associate the words prayer and meditation in
the same sentence. The words meditate or meditation appear in 100 citings
from Mars for Windows. In fifty one percent of these citings, the words
meditate (tion) and prayer appeared within 10 words of one another; in 47%
these terms were within three words of one another. Bahá’í book titles link-
ing meditation and prayer include Prayers and Meditations and The Impor-
tance of Prayer, Meditation and the Devotional Attitude: A Compilation. The
Bahá’í month of fasting is also a month of meditation [Kitáb-i-Aqdas Notes,
pp. 176-177].
Here are several examples of exhortations to pray and meditate:

The first thing to do is to acquire a thirst for Spirituality, then Live the
Life! Live the Life! Live the Life! The way to acquire this thirst is to
meditate upon the future life. Study the Holy Words, read your Bible, read
the Holy Books, especially study the Holy Utterances of Bahá’u’lláh;
Prayer and Meditation, take much time for these two. Then will you know
this Great Thirst, and then only can you begin to Live the Life!
[‘Abdu’l-Bahá. The Importance of Deepening, p. 204]

For the core of religious faith is that mystic feeling which unites Man
with God. This state of spiritual communion can be brought about and
maintained by means of meditation and prayer.
[Shoghi Effendi. Directives of the Guardian, p. 86]
Meditation and Health                                                             57

The Guardian has thus linked prayer and meditation with communion
with God. In summary, meditation is depicted as a necessary companion to
prayer in the journey of spiritual transformation. The Bahá’í Teachings
also link study with prayer and meditation: ‘These gifts of the spirit are
received through prayer, meditation, study of the Holy Utterances and serv-
ice to the Cause of God....’
[Shoghi Effendi. The Importance of Deepening, p. 232]

Bahá’u’lláh has emphasized the link between worship and bliss: ‘Who-
soever experienceth the holy ecstasy of worship will refuse to barter such an
act or any praise of God for all that existeth in the world’
[The Importance of Obligatory Prayer and Fasting, p. 5].

Dr Hossain Danesh, a Bahá’í psychiatrist and academic, has explained that:

While meditation is directly connected with our capacity to know, prayer
is indispensable to our capacity to love. Through prayer we commune with
the ultimate object of our love. Prayer is love talk. The lover earnestly
supplicates the Beloved, humbly entreating the loved one to shower her or
him with loving bounties. In the context of spiritual transformation, the
loved one is God - the source of all truth, love, and assistance. Therefore
when we pray we enkindle our soul, open our heart and mind, attract the
hearts of other people, and help to create a reciprocal relationship of love,
truth and service.
[Danesh. The Psychology of Spirituality. From Divided Self to Integrated
Self p. 230]

2. What is Meditation According to the Bahá’í Writings?
Perhaps the best explanation of meditation within the Bahá’í Writings is in
a passage from ‘Abdu’l-Bahá that appears in Paris Talks. Because the meaning
of this passage is so concentrated, I will analyse it sentence by sentence. To
begin, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá cites Bahá’u’lláh stating that contemplation is essential
for understanding and that this process requires the meditator to remain silent:
‘Bahá’u’lláh says there is a sign (from God) in every phenomenon: the sign of
the intellect is contemplation and the sign of contemplation is silence, because
it is impossible for a man to do two things at one time - he cannot both speak
and meditate’ [`Abdu’l-Bahá. Paris Talks, p. 174].
The word contemplate was cited 53 times in Mars for Windows but never in
association with meditate or meditation.
Next, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá depicts meditation as speaking with your own spirit -
asking questions and receiving answers:
58                                                       Australian Bahá’í Studies, Vol. 3, 2001

‘It is an axiomatic fact that while you meditate you are speaking with
your own spirit. In that state of mind you put certain questions to your
spirit and the spirit answers: the light breaks forth and the reality is
revealed’
[‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Paris Talks, p. 174].

‘Abdu’l-Bahá labels meditation as an essential feature distinguishing hu-
mans from animals:

‘You cannot apply the name ‘man’ to any being void of this faculty of
meditation; without it he would be a mere animal, lower than the beasts’
[`Abdu’l-Bahá. Paris Talks, p. 175].

‘Abdu’l-Bahá assures us that God bestows the breath of the Holy Spirit
during meditation:

‘Through the faculty of meditation man attains to eternal life; through it
he receives the breath of the Holy Spirit - the bestowal of the Spirit is given
in reflection and meditation’
[`Abdu’l-Bahá. Paris Talks, p. 175].

He further asserts that we are inspired, strengthened and informed of new
wisdom during meditation, receiving spiritual nutrition:

‘The spirit of man is itself informed and strengthened during medita-
tion; through it affairs of which man knew nothing are unfolded before his
view. Through it he receives Divine inspiration, through it he receives heav-
enly food’
[`Abdu’l-Bahá. Paris Talks, p. 175].

‘Abdu’l-Bahá assures us that we can unlock the doors of mysteries during
meditation:

Meditation is the key for opening the doors of mysteries. In that state
man abstracts himself: in that state man withdraws himself from all outside
objects; in that subjective mood he is immersed in the ocean of spiritual life
and can unfold the secrets of things-in-themselves. To illustrate this, think of
man as endowed with two kinds of sight; when the power of insight is being
used the outward power of vision does not see.
[‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Paris Talks, p. 175]

‘Abdu’l-Bahá emphasizes the importance of meditation to advancing sci-
ence, art and civilization:
Meditation and Health                                                           59

This faculty of meditation frees man from the animal nature, discerns
the reality of things, puts man in touch with God. This faculty brings forth
from the invisible plane the sciences and arts. Through the meditative fac-
ulty inventions are made possible, colossal undertakings are carried out;
through it governments can run smoothly. Through this faculty man enters
into the very Kingdom of God.
[‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Paris Talks, p. 175]

‘Abdu’l-Bahá enjoins us to direct the mirror of meditation towards spir-
itual matters and issues that benefit humanity:

Nevertheless some thoughts are useless to man; they are like waves
moving in the sea without result. But if the faculty of meditation is bathed
in the inner light and characterized with divine attributes, the results will
be confirmed. The meditative faculty is akin to the mirror; if you put it
before earthly objects it will reflect them. Therefore if the spirit of man is
contemplating earthly subjects he will be informed of these. But if you
turn the mirror of your spirits heavenwards, the heavenly constellations
and the rays of the Sun of Reality will be reflected in your hearts, and the
virtues of the Kingdom will be obtained. Therefore let us keep this faculty
rightly directed - turning it to the heavenly Sun and not to earthly objects
- so that we may discover the secrets of the Kingdom, and comprehend
the allegories of the Bible and the mysteries of the spirit.
[‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Paris Talks, pp. 175-176]

‘Abdu’l-Bahá referred to prayers that ‘transcend the murmur of syllables
and sounds ...’ [Bahá’í Prayers (US edition), pp. 70-71]:

Adorn our bodies with the robe of Thy bounty, and remove from our
eyes the veil of sinfulness, and give us the chalice of Thy grace; that the
essence of all beings may sing Thy praise before the vision of Thy gran-
deur. Reveal then Thyself, O Lord, by Thy merciful utterance and the mys-
tery of Thy divine being, that the holy ecstasy of prayer may fill our souls
- a prayer that shall rise above words and letters and transcend the mur-
mur of syllables and sounds - that all things may be merged into nothing-
ness before the revelation of Thy splendor.
[‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Bahá’í Prayers (US edition), pp. 70-71]

Might such prayers not represent a meditation that leaves the plane of
thinking and travels towards the absolute Being?
I propose that Bahá’í meditation comprises three or more distinct proc-
esses:
60                                                     Australian Bahá’í Studies, Vol. 3, 2001

1. Contemplation or thinking in a conscious state.
In this paper I will use the term contemplation to refer to this process. An
example is reading the Writings and pondering the meaning using logic
or intuition.
2. Silent wordless reflection, seeking Divine wisdom
In this paper I will use the term wordless reflection to denote this process.
3. Reflection on repeated words or phrases
An example is repeating the Greatest Name [Allah-u-Abhá] ninety-five
times.
In this article I will use the term reflection on words to refer to this process.

3. Meditation as Pondering, Reflecting and Thinking Deeply
There are a number of passages in the Bahá’í Writings which depict medi-
tation as pondering, reflecting and thinking deeply as opposed to a process
which goes beyond or transcends formal thinking. Bahá’u’lláh enjoined
meditation for a thousand years:

‘It is necessary for them to meditate, to meditate for a thousand thou-
sand years, that haply they may attain unto a sprinkling from the ocean of
knowledge, and discover the things whereof they are oblivious in this day.’
[Bahá’u’lláh. Epistle to the Son of the Wolf, pp. 126-127]

He particularly emphasized pondering the Divine verses:

Do thou meditate on that which We have revealed unto thee, that thou
mayest discover the purpose of God, thy Lord, and the Lord of all worlds.
[Bahá’u’lláh. Gleanings, p. 153]

Meditate profoundly, that the secret of things unseen may be revealed
unto you, that you may inhale the sweetness of a spiritual and imperish-
able fragrance, and that you may acknowledge the truth that from time
immemorial even unto eternity the Almighty hath tried, and will continue
to try, His servants, so that light may be distinguished from darkness,
truth from falsehood, right from wrong, guidance from error, happiness
from misery, and roses from thorns.
[Bahá’u’lláh. The Kitáb-i-Iqan, p. 8]

Meditate on the world and the state of its people.
[Bahá’u’lláh. Epistle to the Son of the Wolf, p. 56]

Bahá’u’lláh has assured us that meditation, like reflection, is a highly
condensed form of worship:
Meditation and Health                                                             61

‘...the meditation referred to in the words “One hour’s reflection is
preferable to seventy years of pious worship” must needs be observed...’
[Bahá’u’lláh. The Kitáb-i-Iqan, p. 238].

Shoghi Effendi has assured us that meditation would confer Divine inspi-
ration; I cannot determine whether the Guardian was referring to contempla-
tion or another type of meditation in this passage.

The inspiration received through meditation is of a nature that one
cannot measure or determine. God can inspire into our minds things that
we had no previous knowledge of, if He desires to do so. We cannot clearly
distinguish between personal desire and guidance, but if the way opens,
when we have sought guidance, then we may presume God is helping us.
[Shoghi Effendi. Directives of the Guardian, pp. 77-78]

Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá have linked the words meditate and pon-
der in a number of passages: Referring to the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, Bahá’u’lláh
enjoined his followers to peruse, meditate and ponder the Most Holy Book:
‘Blessed those who peruse it! Blessed those who apprehend it! Blessed those
who meditate upon it! Blessed those who ponder its meaning!’ [Bahá’u’lláh.
Kitáb-i-Aqdas Other Sections, p. 16]. The separate instructions suggest a
hierarchy from peruse (survey in superficial study) to apprehend (logical study)
and meditate (seeking Divine inspiration).
In other passages, ponder and meditate have been linked:

The sanctified souls should ponder and meditate in their hearts re-
garding the methods of teaching.
[Bahá’u’lláh. Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh, p. 200]

It is incumbent upon you to ponder in your hearts and meditate upon
His words, and humbly to call upon Him, and to put away self in His
heavenly Cause.
(‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Selections from the Writings of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, p. 241)

The words ponder and reflect are often linked in the Bahá’í Writings:

Ponder and reflect how mighty and potent hath the Cause of God be-
come!
[‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Selections p. 99]

O SON OF MAN! Ponder and reflect. Is it thy wish to die upon thy
bed, or to shed thy life-blood on the dust, a martyr in My path, and so
62                                                     Australian Bahá’í Studies, Vol. 3, 2001

become the manifestation of My command and the revealer of My light in
the highest paradise? Judge thou aright, O servant!
[Bahá’u’lláh. Arabic Hidden Words, p. 46]

Pondering can release extraordinary power. In the Fire Tablet, the Blessed
Beauty advised us: ‘Should all the servants read and ponder this, there shall
be kindled in their veins a fire that shall set aflame the worlds’ [Bahá’u’lláh.
Bahá’í Prayers (US), p. 221]. Thus, reading the Fire Tablet is only one step
in the process of enkindlement - pondering is also necessary. Elsewhere
Bahá’u’lláh writes:

Do thou ponder on the penetrative influence of the Word of God’
[Bahá’u’lláh. Epistle to the Son of the Wolf, pp. 75-76]

“Blessed the man”, He, moreover, has stated, “who will read it, [the
Kitáb-i-Aqdas] and ponder the verses sent down in it by God, the Lord of
Power, the Almighty.
[Bahá’u’lláh. Kitáb-i-Aqdas Other Sections, p. 16]

In more than one passage Bahá’u’lláh asks his followers to ponder with
their hearts:

Ponder this in thine heart, that the truth may be revealed unto thee,
and be thou steadfast in His path.
[Bahá’u’lláh. Gleanings, p. 76].

Ponder this in your hearts, O people of Bahá, and render thanks unto
your Lord, the Expounder, the Most Manifest.
[Bahá’u’lláh. Gleanings, p. 117]

Ponder this in your hearts, O people, and be not of those who have
turned a deaf ear to the admonitions of Him Who is the Almighty, the
All-Praised.
[Bahá’u’lláh. Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh, p. 13]

We are also enjoined to ponder with our inner and outer eyes. Outer
vision is essential for most of our daily activities. How much more important
is inner vision to our spiritual development:

Ponder a while thereon, that with both your inner and outer eye, ye
may perceive the subtleties of Divine wisdom and discover the gems of
heavenly knowledge...
[Bahá’u’lláh. Gleanings, p. 144]
Meditation and Health                                                         63

O My Brother! Until thou enter the Egypt of love, thou shalt never
come to the Joseph of the Beauty of the Friend; and until, like Jacob, thou
forsake thine outward eyes, thou shalt never open the eye of thine inward
being; and until thou burn with the fire of love, thou shalt never commune
with the Lover of Longing.
[Bahá’u’lláh. Seven Valleys and Four Valleys, p. 9]

What is our inner and outer eye? Could the inner eye refer to a state of
detachment with our minds focused on or opened towards God in wordless
reflection? Bahá’u’lláh writes, ‘O MAN OF TWO VISIONS! Close one eye
and open the other. Close one to the world and all that is therein, and open
the other to the hallowed beauty of the Beloved’ [Bahá’u’lláh. Persian Hid-
den Words, p. 12].
Thus, meditation may be compared to opening our spiritual eye to be-
come more conscious of the perfection of God and less aware of the imper-
fections of the world.
Bahá’u’lláh has enjoined His followers to reflect on the Teachings:

Reflect: Who in this world is able to manifest such transcendent power,
such pervading influence?
[Bahá’u’lláh. Kitáb-i-Iqan, p. 235]

This subject needs deep thought. Then the cause of these changes will
be evident and apparent. Blessed are those who reflect!
(‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Some Answered Questions, p. 96)

Study groups in the Ruhi institute collectively reflect on the teachings:

The posture of learning avoids searching for formulas that are to be
followed strictly. Decisions are carried out, after consultation, with the
understanding that the developments which follow will be observed and
reflected upon. This community reflection is done in light of the wisdom
enshrined in the Writings.
[Institute Training Programs, June 1995]

In the Ridván 157 Message of April 2000 the Universal House of Justice
enjoined the Bahá’ís to meditate on the sacred word. This passage is most
likely referring to conscious contemplation of the Writings: ‘...members of
our worldwide community also gave more attention to drawing on the power
of prayer, to meditating on the sacred Word, and to deriving the spiritual
benefits of participation in devotional gatherings’ [Ridván 157 Message, p.
3].
64                                                    Australian Bahá’í Studies, Vol. 3, 2001

Bahá’u’lláh enjoined His followers to ‘...Bring thyself to account each
day ere thou art summoned to a reckoning...’ (Bahá’u’lláh. Arabic Hidden
Words, p. 31). Contemplation and reflection is a suitable process of review-
ing each day and correcting our behaviour.

4. Meditation as Silent Wordless Reflection, Seeking Divine
Wisdom
In the Book of the River, Bahá’u’lláh asserts that experience and ob-
servation is necessary to understanding - logic is not sufficient:

...human reason is not a sufficient standard. When viewed with the
eye of insight, no phenomenon on earth could be comprehended by
any human, whether high or low, without prior observation and expe-
rience. Observe the sun in the heavens... Certainly, human reason
would not be inclined to accept the possibility of the existence of such
a thing by means of any rational definition or description without ac-
tual observation and experience.
[Sahifiy-i-Shattiyyih (Book of the River) Revealed by Bahá’u’lláh. A
Provisional Translation. By Nader Saiedi. Journal of Bahá’í Studies 1999;
9:3, p. 57]

Nader Saiedi concludes that: ‘After actual observation and experi-
ence, reason takes for granted all the wonders of natural phenomena and
reduces them to necessary rational truths capable of deduction through
rational analysis’ [Concealment and Revelation in Bahá’u’lláh’s Book of
the River. Journal of Bahá’í Studies 1999; 9:3, p. 301].
These passages from the Book of the River have particular relevance
to the Bahá’í approach to meditation. If meditation is a direct communi-
cation channel with God, then it can provide the experience of knowing
God, which is far more important than knowing about God. This experi-
ence of knowing God is not and cannot be put into words.
Reflection without words may follow periods of prayer, communion
with God or study of the Writings. Just as prayer can be viewed as speak-
ing to God, reflection without words may represent listening to God or
communing without the constraints of language.
Various passages in the Writings refer to entering the Divine Presence
and being immersed in the love and bounties of God: ‘...the people of
Bahá have entered the blissful abode of the Divine Presence, and quaffed
the wine of reunion, from the chalice of the beauty of their Lord, the
All-Possessing, the Most High’ (Bahá’u’lláh. Gleanings, p. 32).
Meditation and Health                                                         65

5. Meditation Using Repetition of Words or Phrases
As mentioned above, Bahá’ís repeat the Greatest Name, [Allah-u-Abhá],
ninety-five times per day. When believers repeat the Greatest Name they are
using a phrase with meaning as opposed to a mantra, which is a sound with-
out meaning. The mantra in Transcendental Meditation is used to settle the
mind in a deep state of restful alertness, at which time the meditator pas-
sively lets go of the mantra. If one persists repeating the sound after one
starts to transcend, then the mind is drawn back to the intellectual level and
out of transcendence. The repetition of the Greatest Name is different from
repeating a mantra until a state of transcendence is reached. However, Jan
Dietrick has suggested that ‘the Greatest Name is so transcendental in its
meaning that it can support the mind to transcend its meaning’ [personal
communication]. She recommends that during repetition of the Greatest Name
one should ‘slow down and turn inward to the Self between words’ [personal
communication].
There are a number of Bahá’í prayers which use repetition in a manner
that fosters meditation. One of the prayers for the Fast re-affirms our spiritual
lifeline fourteen times, reminding us that we are: ‘...clinging to the hem of the
cord to which has clung all in this world and in the world to come’
[Bahá’u’lláh. Bahá’í Prayers US Edition pp. 238-245]. Each verse of the
Tablet of the Holy Mariner except for the last three ends with the phrase
‘Glorified be my Lord, the All-Glorious!’ [Bahá’u’lláh. Bahá’í Prayers US
Edition pp. 220-229]. The long prayer for the departed includes nineteen
repetitions of six separate phrases, emphasizing each as a separate medita-
tion on the greatness of God.

6. Forms of Bahá’í Meditation
The Guardian stated that there is no set form of Bahá’í meditation -
believers may choose whichever forms suit them: ‘As to meditation: This
also is a field in which the individual is free. There are no set forms of medi-
tation prescribed in the teachings, no plan as such, for inner development.
The friends are urged - nay enjoined - to pray, and they also should meditate,
but the manner of doing the latter is left entirely to the individual’ [Shoghi
Effendi. Directives of the Guardian, p. 35].
Bahá’ís are not to teach specific methods of meditation at Bahá’í summer
school because this could be divisive and the Faith does not endorse one
method over another method:

There are, of course, other things that one can do to increase one’s
spirituality. For example, Bahá’u’lláh has specified no procedures to be
followed in meditation, and individual believers are free to do as they
wish in this area, provided that they remain in harmony with the teachings,
66                                                       Australian Bahá’í Studies, Vol. 3, 2001

but such activities are purely personal and should under no circumstances
be confused with those actions which Bahá’u’lláh Himself considered to
be of fundamental importance for our spiritual growth. Some believers
may find that it is beneficial to them to follow a particular method of
meditation, and they may certainly do so, but such methods should not be
taught at Bahá’í Summer Schools or be carried out during a session of
the School because, while they may appeal to some people, they may repel
others. They have nothing to do with the Faith and should be kept quite
separate so that enquirers will not be confused.
[Letter written on behalf of the Universal House of Justice to a National
Spiritual Assembly, September 1, 1983) Lights of Guidance, p. 542]

The Guardian affirmed that meditation connects us with God: ‘Through
meditation doors of deeper knowledge and inspiration may be opened. Natu-
rally, if one meditates as a Bahá’í he is connected with the Source... Medita-
tion is very important, and the Guardian sees no reason why the friends should
not be taught to meditate, but they should guard against superstitions or fool-
ish ideas creeping into it’ [Shoghi Effendi. Directives of the Guardian, p.
47].
Meditation, like prayer, should be linked with action and bear fruit: ‘Prayer
and meditation are very important factors in deepening the spiritual life of
the individual, but with them must go also action and example, as these are
the tangible results of the former. Both are essential’ [Shoghi Effendi. Lights
of Guidance, p. 457]. Prayer and meditation are the prelude for action, par-
ticularly service. Shoghi Effendi has indicated that we act in cycles, with
periods of reflection and meditation followed by periods of action and serv-
ice, precluding a monastic existence:

Dear friends, this is the day of faithfulness; this is the day of unity;
this is the day of service. Let us not wait, nor ponder, but, detached from
the world and its concerns, clad in the armour of faith, filled with the
divine spirit of love, and quickened by His life-giving exhortations, let us
arise in utmost love and harmony, hasten to the field of service, and sub-
due the domain of hearts with the arms of the love of God and the sword
of peace and brotherhood.
[Shoghi Effendi. Bahiyyih Khanum, p. 164]

7. Forms of Meditation With Proven Health Effects
Bahá’í Writings either do not or rarely directly link meditation with health
or healing. As mentioned previously, the Mars for Windows database con-
tains no sentences in which the words meditate, meditation, ponder, reflect,
or contemplate includes the words health or healing. The absence of such
links, however, do not prove that the Bahá’í Teachings do not connect the
Meditation and Health                                                        67

two subjects. In fact, the Writings advise us to study health and treatment of
disease.

Let them also study whatever will nurture the health of the body and
its physical soundness, and how to guard their children from disease.
[‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Selections, p. 124]

Thou shouldst endeavour to study the science of medicine.
[‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Health and Healing, p. 461]

Individual Bahá’ís are encouraged to compare the Writings to scientific
knowledge. Thus the admonitions to refrain from smoking and drinking al-
cohol would be reinforced by scientific studies demonstrating the harmful
health effects of smoking and alcohol abuse.
Although health is not the primary purpose of Bahá’í meditation, medita-
tion could have as a secondary purpose the goal of health improvement. For
example, although we regard the ‘procreation of children as the sacred and
primary purpose of marriage’ [Shoghi Effendi. World Order of Bahá’u’lláh,
p. 188] there are many other important purposes of marriage. In the Tablet to
a Physician, Bahá’u’lláh warns that ‘anger burneth the liver.’ If anger is
harmful to health, then it follows that measures that prevent or control anger
can protect against the damage from anger. Meditation and other forms of
relaxation can dissipate anger and may indirectly improve health conditions
influenced by anger. Furthermore, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá assures us that communion
with God attracts a power to understand the secrets of the universe, which
presumably include secrets about our health and well-being:

...if thy mind become empty and pure from every mention and thought
and thy heart attracted wholly to the Kingdom of God, forget all else
besides God and come in communion with the Spirit of God, then the
Holy Spirit will assist thee with a power which will enable thee to pen-
etrate all things, and a Dazzling Spark which enlightens all sides, a Bril-
liant Flame in the zenith of the heavens, will teach thee that which thou
dost not know of the facts of the universe...
[‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Bahá’í World Faith, p. 369]

‘Abdu’l-Bahá enjoins us to focus our attention or ponder the Divine teach-
ings: ‘Now, if thou wishest to know the true remedy which will heal man from
all sickness and will give him the health of the divine kingdom, know that it is
the precepts and teachings of God. Focus thine attention upon them’
[`Abdu’l-Bahá. Selections from the Writings of `Abdu’l-Bahá, p. 152].
Evaluation of the health effects of the meditation of Bahá’ís would be
extraordinarily difficult given that the practice is completely individualized
68                                                  Australian Bahá’í Studies, Vol. 3, 2001

and unique for each person. It may however be possible to examine the health
effects of elements of Bahá’í prayer or meditation such as recitation of the
Greatest Name ninety-five times.
The form of meditation that has been most widely studied with respect to
health and healing is Transcendental Meditation.

8.      Transcendental Meditation and the Bahá’í Teachings
Transcendental Meditation, often labelled TM, is the most widely re-
searched form of meditation. TM claims to create a state of restful alertness
different to that of waking, dreaming or sleeping without dreaming. TM
involves repetition of a sound without meaning for twenty minutes twice
daily, in the morning and late afternoon or early evening. This sound is used
to quieten the mind; once in a state of quietness the meditator does not con-
sciously repeat the sound.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, a physicist by training, developed TM after study-
ing Vedic scriptures under a spiritual master. Although Maharishi did not
originate TM, he made it accessible for Westerners and helped to establish its
scientific basis. He remains the central figure in TM.
About one-third of TM research has studied an advanced technique known
as the TM-Sidhi program. Outcomes of conventional TM must be analysed
separately from the outcomes of the TM-Sidhi program in the same way that
an exercise group doing a 15 minute light warmup four times per week would
be analysed separately from another group running 10 km four times per
week after a 15 minute light warmup.
The basis of TM shares much in common with the Bahá’í teachings. In
the following list, numbers in square brackets refer to the page number from
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, The Science of Being and the Art of Living. Tran-
scendental Meditation:

1. One almighty God
2. All religions come from the same Absolute Being
3. Meditation is essential
4. Live a life of service to others
5. Individuals responsible for their own spiritual progress
6. World government to bring world peace
7. Spiritual basis for solving economic problems
8. Obey the government and abide by law of the land [166]
9. Moderation in all things [170, 225]
10. Alcohol is harmful and should be avoided [117, 162, 291]
11. Follow the scriptures of your own Faith [132]
12. Unity in diversity. [351]
13. A set of natural laws underpin the universe [323]
Meditation and Health                                                          69

Some teachings of Maharishi contradict those of the Bahá’í Writings, such
as:

1. Follow Your Own Religion - do not look to other Faiths [131-132]
2. Reincarnation [110]
3. Behave naturally, do not plan or ponder how to behave [112]
4. The ‘Bhagavad-Gita is the highest divine wisdom ever revealed to man...’
[321]
5. Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation Movement, continuing in the
world, will create an ideal civilization. [author not stated p. 333]
6. No reference to the Bahá’í Faith in TM literature

These teachings, however, do not relate to the practice of TM. Hence the
practice of TM does not conflict with Bahá’í principles.
TM proponents are permitted to earn money through the teaching and
application of TM in publishing, health spas and other areas whereas Bahá’ís
do not as a general rule earn money from teaching or applying the Bahá’í
teachings.
The Bahá’í Writings praise the word transcendental: ‘No one except Thy-
self can unravel the secret of Thy nature, and naught else but Thy transcen-
dental Essence can grasp the reality of Thy unsearchable being’ [Bahá’u’lláh.
Gleanings, p. 64]. Shoghi Effendi has labelled Bahá’u’lláh as transcenden-
tal: ‘Dominating the entire range of this fascinating spectacle towers the in-
comparable figure of Bahá’u’lláh, transcendental in His majesty, serene,
awe-inspiring, unapproachably glorious’ [World Order of Bahá’u’lláh, p. 97]
The Bahá’í Writings further depict a set of universal laws similar to Natu-
ral Law in TM:

This Nature is subjected to an absolute organization, to determined
laws, to a complete order and a finished design, from which it will never
depart - to such a degree, indeed, that if you look carefully and with keen
sight, from the smallest invisible atom up to such large bodies of the world
of existence as the globe of the sun or the other great stars and luminous
spheres, whether you regard their arrangement, their composition, their
form or their movement, you will find that all are in the highest degree of
organization and are under one law from which they will never depart.
[‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Some Answered Questions, p. 3]

It is said that Nature in its own essence is in the grasp of the power of
God, Who is the Eternal Almighty One: He holds Nature within accurate
regulations and laws, and rules over it.
[‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Some Answered Questions, p. 4]
70                                                    Australian Bahá’í Studies, Vol. 3, 2001

‘Abdu’l-Bahá referred to natural law in at least three passages:

The world of creation is bound by natural law, finite and mortal.
[‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Paris Talks, p. 57]

The phenomenal world is entirely subject to the rule and control of
natural law.
[‘Abdu’l-Bahá. The Promulgation of Universal Peace, p. 17]

Man is not the captive of nature, for although according to natural
law he is a being of the earth, yet he guides ships over the ocean, flies
through the air in airplanes, descends in submarines; therefore, he has
overcome natural law and made it subservient to his wishes.
[‘Abdu’l-Bahá. The Promulgation of Universal Peace, p. 17]

Maharishi describes natural law somewhat differently than ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.
According to Maharishi, natural law cannot be overcome or made subservi-
ent.
I will now compare features of meditation mentioned in the Bahá’í Writ-
ings to the practice of Transcendental Meditation:

1. Contemplate in silence (do not speak while meditating)
2. Speak with your own spirit
3. Ask questions of the spirit and receive answers
4. Meditation unlocks the doors of mysteries
5. Meditation informs and strengthens the spirit
6. Meditation is like a mirror which should be turned towards spiritual, sci-
entific and artistic themes that benefit humanity
7. Meditation as prayer that transcends the murmur of syllables and sounds
8. Meditation should generate action
9. Prayerful meditation on the Bahá’í Teachings, particularly meditations
written by Bahá’u’lláh

Starting with the first feature, Transcendental Meditation is practiced in
silence:
...sanctuaries of silence be constructed in the midst of noisy market-
places of big cities, before going to their businesses, and after completing
their businesses of the day, may enter into silent meditation rooms, dive
deep within themselves, and be profited by undisturbed, regular, and deep
meditations... it seems necessary that such silent meditation centers also
be constructed in the holiday resorts where people go on weekends to
stay for one or two days.
[Maharishi p. 300]
Meditation and Health                                                       71

Maharishi regards contemplation as an intellectual path towards God con-
sciousness, different from TM:

... the intellectual path of God realization through contemplation is
not a path for practical men...No man remaining active in the world...can
possibly succeed in infusing the divine nature into his mind through this
method of contemplation. The intellectual path of divine revelation suits
those who have nothing to do with practical life... The silence which a
recluse enjoys is such that it keeps him away from work. He is in silence
most of the time...
[Maharishi p. 282]

Although TM is not portrayed as contemplation, Maharishi does not op-
pose contemplation as an adjunct to meditation. TM is a specific form of
meditation whereas the Bahá’í Writings define meditation more broadly.
The second feature of Bahá’í meditation, speaking with your own spirit,
is not a phrase used by Maharishi, who depicts TM as communication with
the Absolute. TM refers to this process as returning to the Absolute Self.
The third feature of Bahá’í meditation, asking questions of the spirit and
receiving answers, is likewise not a phrase used by Maharishi. He refers to
this phenomenon as creative intelligence, in which the meditator receives
inspiration from the Absolute to gain unlimited imagination, energy and joy:

Because absolute Being is the source of all thought and of all crea-
tion, when the conscious mind comes to that level, it comes in contact
with the unlimited creative intelligence of absolute Being. Great creative
intelligence enters into the nature of the mind; constructive imagination,
the power of creative thinking, increases along with joyfulness and con-
tentment. The mind coming in tune with the field of Being gains the source
of unlimited energy. Such a powerful, energetic mind naturally has very
powerful thoughts.
[Maharishi, p. 116]

The forth feature of Bahá’í meditation, unlocking the doors of mysteries,
is related to the creative intelligence released by TM as previously described.
The fifth feature of Bahá’í meditation, that meditation informs and
strengthens the spirit, is consistent with the writings of Maharishi on TM and
creative intelligence. The elimination of stress in the mind and body while
practicing TM strengthens the mind and body as well as spirit and can em-
power an easier pursuit of a devotional life.
The sixth feature of Bahá’í meditation is that meditation is like a mirror
which should be turned towards spiritual, scientific and artistic themes that
72                                                     Australian Bahá’í Studies, Vol. 3, 2001

benefit humanity. Maharishi’s writings support this view of using medita-
tion; after meditation the mind is more open to right thought which will in
turn create right action.
The seventh feature of Bahá’í meditation, in which meditation is viewed
as prayer that transcends the murmur of syllables and sounds, is consistent
with TM, which does not employ words with meaning to achieve a state of
higher consciousness.
The eighth feature of Bahá’í meditation, that meditation should generate
action, is consistent with TM. Maharishi has explained the unique role of
meditation in creating right action:

A right thought will be that which will produce a good, harmonious,
useful and life-supporting influence for the doer and for the entire uni-
verse in the present and for all times... It does not seem possible to enter-
tain thoughts which are always right by trying to think rightly. Any con-
scious attempt on the part of the mind to entertain only right thoughts will
only mean straining the mind on a plane over which there can be no con-
trol. In order that the mind succeed in entertaining only right thoughts, it
should be cultured so that by nature it picks up only a right thought.
[Maharishi p. 140]

The ninth feature of Bahá’í meditation, prayerful meditation on the Bahá’í
Teachings, particularly meditations written by Bahá’u’lláh, would be regarded
by TM as contemplation rather than meditation.

9. Transcendental Meditation and Health
TM is associated with health promotion, disease prevention and improved
health status. A large number of scientific studies have been published in
refereed medical and scientific journals to support the role of TM and the
TM-Sidhi in prevention and treatment of disease and risk factors for disease.
Less than one-quarter of the studies randomized subjects to either TM or a
control method, in part because it is difficult to gain adherence to a life-style
change not selected by the participants. By comparison, it is very easy to
randomise subjects to take a tablet once daily that might contain an active
treatment or a placebo.
Review of these studies [3-29 below] indicates that:

1. TM reduces risk factors for vascular disease and dementia such as blood
pressure, serum cholesterol, smoking and anxiety [7, 8, 21, 24, 25, 28]
2. TM practice may virtually eradicate essential hypertension, the most com-
mon form of high blood pressure [10, 13, 21, 22]
3. TM prevents all forms of stroke based on its effects on blood pressure,
Meditation and Health                                                       73

smoking and prevention of heart disease [7]
4. TM reduces symptoms of many conditions such as angina [5], headache,
pain [25] and asthma [29]
5. TM reduces the rate of hospital admission by 50% in North America [9]
We cannot extrapolate this finding to Australia or New Zealand
6. TM reduces hospital admissions in all categories except childbirth [9]
7. TM improves cognitive performance [18, 23]
8. TM reduces biological aging as measured by DHEA-S levels, systolic
blood pressure, visual and auditory thresholds and intellectual perform-
ance [3, 4, 15, 27]
9. TM improves psychological health and stress hardiness [6, 11, 12, 14, 16,
17, 19, 20]

These studies suggest that the benefits of TM are cumulative: groups
practicing for five years have greater benefit than novices while those
practicing for ten years have greater benefit than those practicing for five
years.

10. Conclusions
According to the Bahá’í Writings, meditation is essential for our spiritual
growth. The regular practice of meditation is exalted to the level of prayer
and fasting. The Bahá’í Writings also encourage natural preventative prac-
tices to maintain health and thereby serve mankind. Bahá’ís are required to
seek competent physicians when they are ill and follow the physician’s in-
structions. A growing number of health practitioners are recommending TM
for preventative and curative health benefits. Bahá’ís consider learning TM
as part of their health.
‘Abdu’l-Bahá asserted that the meditator must observe silence. Medita-
tion should generate action such as service. There is no set form of Bahá’í
meditation. Therefore individuals are free to choose processes that enhance
their spiritual development. There are at least three processes involved in
meditation: 1) contemplation or thinking in a conscious state, as exemplified
by reflecting on the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh or calling ourselves to account
each day; 2) wordless reflection in an altered state of consciousness, as sug-
gested by prayer that ‘transcends the murmur of syllables and sounds.’ TM
qualifies as one such meditative practice; 3) repetition of words and phrases
such as the Greatest Name. These words and phrases may be separated by
periods of contemplation or wordless reflection.
Scientific evidence on the health benefits of Transcendental Meditation is
quite strong. Further research is needed to identify health benefits from other
forms of meditation and to assess the effects of different forms of meditation
on the well-being and health of Bahá’ís.
74                                                   Australian Bahá’í Studies, Vol. 3, 2001

Acknowledgements
The author deeply appreciates the constructive remarks from Felicity
Rawlings-Sanaei, Jan Dietrick and Ron Whitehurst on the draft paper pre-
sented at the Australian Association for Bahá’í Studies Conference in Octo-
ber 2000.

Bahá’í References
‘Abdu’l-Baha. The Importance of Deepening. In Compilation of Compila-
tions. Bahá’í Publishing Trust, Sydney, 1991.
‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Paris Talks. Bahá’í Publishing Trust, London, 1972.
‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Promulgation of Universal Peace. Bahá’í Publishing Trust,
Wilmette, 1982.
‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Selections from the Writings of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Bahá’í World
Centre, Haifa, 1982.
‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Some Answered Questions. Bahá’í Publishing Trust, Wilmette,
1990.
Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Bahá’í Prayers (US edition), Bahá’í Pub-
lishing Trust, Wilmette, 1985.
Bahá’u’lláh. Epistle to the Son of the Wolf. Bahá’í Publishing Trust, Wilmette,
1988.
Bahá’u’lláh. Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh. Bahá’í Publishing
Trust, Wilmette, 1990.
Bahá’u’lláh. Hidden Words. Bahá’í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, 1985.
Bahá’u’lláh. Kitáb-i-Aqdas. Bahá’í World Centre, Haifa, 1992.
Bahá’u’lláh. The Kitáb-i-Iqan. Bahá’í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, 1989.
Bahá’u’lláh. Prayers and Meditations. Bahá’í Publishing Trust, Wilmette,
1987.
Bahá’u’lláh. Seven Valleys and Four Valleys. Bahá’í Publishing Trust,
Wilmette, 1991.
Bahá’u’lláh. Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh. Bahá’í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, 1988.
Danesh, Hossain B. The Psychology of Spirituality. From Divided Self to
Integrated Self. Landegg Academy Press, 1977.
Effendi, Shoghi. Bahiyyih Khánúm. Bahá’í World Centre, Haifa, 1982.
Effendi, Shoghi. Directives of the Guardian. Bahá’í Publishing Trust, New
Delhi, 1973.
Effendi, Shoghi. World Order of Bahá’u’lláh. Bahá’í Publishing Trust,
Wilmette, 1991.
The Importance of Obligatory Prayer and Fasting. Selection of Extracts and
Prayers from the Bahá’í Writings Compiled by the Research Department
of the Universal House of Justice. Bahá’í World Centre, Haifa, 2000.
Multiple authors. Lights of Guidance. Bahá’í Publishing Trust, New Delhi,
1994.
Meditation and Health                                                      75

Saiedi, Nader. Sahifiy-i-Shattiyyih (Book of the River) Revealed by
Bahá’u’lláh. A Provisional Translation. Journal of Bahá’í Studies 1999;
9 (number 3): page 57-61.
Saiedi, Nader. Concealment and Revelation in Bahá’u’lláh’s Book of the
River. Journal of Bahá’í Studies 1999; 9 (number 3):25-56.

References to Transcendental Meditation

1. Shapiro, Deane. Examining the content and challenge of meditation: A
challenge for psychology in the areas of stress management, psychotherapy,
and religion / values. Journal of Humanistic Psychology 1994; 34: 101-
2. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1963) The Science of Being and the Art of Liv-
ing. Transcendental Meditation. New York: Signet.
3. Wallace RK, Dillbeck MC, Jacobe E, Harrington B. The effects of the
Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program on the aging process.
International Journal of Neuroscience 1982; 16: 53-58
4. Alexander CN. Langer EJ, Newman RI, Chandler HM, Davies JL. Tran-
scendental Meditation, mindfulness and longevity: an experimental study
with the elderly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1989 Dec;
57(6): 950-64
5. Zamarra JE, Schneider RH, Besseghini I, Robinson DK, Salerno JW.
Usefulness of the Transcendental Meditation program in the treatment of
patients with coronary artery disease. American Journal of Cardiology
1996: 77: 867-870
6. Gaylord C, Orme-Johnson D, Travis F. The effects of the Transcendental
Meditation technique and progressive muscle relaxation on EEG coher-
ence, stress reactivity and mental health in black adults. International
Journal of Neuroscience 1989 May; 46(1-2): 77-86
7. Castillo-Richmond A, Schneider Robert H, Alexander CN, Cook R, Myers
H, Nidich S, Haney C, Rainforth M, Salerno J. Effects of stress reduc-
tion on carotid atherosclerosis in hypertensive African Americans. Stroke
2000; 31: 568-573
8. Alexander CN, Robinson P, Orme-Johnson DW et al. Effects of Tran-
scendental Meditation compared to other methods of relaxation and medi-
tation in reducing risk factors, morbidity and mortality. Homeostasis
1994; 35: 243-264
9. Orme-Johnson D. Medical care utilization and the Transcendental Medi-
tation program. Psychosomatic Medicine 1987; 49: 493-507
10. Wenneberg SE, Schneider RH, Walton KG, MacClean CRK, Levitsky
DK, Salerno JW, Wallace RK. A controlled study of the effects of the
Transcendental Meditation program on cardiovascular reactivity and am-
76                                                   Australian Bahá’í Studies, Vol. 3, 2001

bulatory blood pressure. International Journal of Neuroscience 1997 Jan;
89 (1-2): 15-28
11. Electrophysiological correlates of higher states of consciousness during
sleep in long-term practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation pro-
gram. Mason LI, Alexander CN, Travis FT, Marsh G, Orme-Johnson
DW, Gackenbach J, Mason DC, Rainnforth M, Walton KG. Sleep 1997
Feb: 20(2): 102-110
12. Jevening R, Wilson AF, Davidson JM. Adrenocortical activity during
meditation. Hormones Behaviour 1978;10: 54-69
13. Seer P, Raeburn JM. Meditation training and essential hypertension: a
methodological study. Journal of Behavioural Medicine 1980 March;
3(1): 59-71
14. Warrenburg S, Pagano RR, Woods M, Hlastala M. A comparison of so-
matic relaxation and EEG activity in classical progressive relaxation and
Transcendental Meditation. Journal of Behavioural Medicine 1980 March;
3(1): 73-93
15. Glaser JL. Brind JL, Vogelman JH, Eisner MJ, Dillbeck MC, Wallace
RK, Chopra D, Orentreich N. Elevated serum dehydroepiandrosterone
sulfate levels in practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation program.
Journal of Behavioural Medicine 1992 Aug; 15(4): 327-341
16. Dillbeck MC. The effect of the TM technique on anxiety level. Journal
of Clinical Psychology 1977;33: 1076-78
17. Throll DA. Transcendental Meditation and progressive relaxation: their
physiological effects. Journal of Clinical Psychology 1982 Jul;38(2): 522-
18. Jedrcazak A, Toomey M, Clements G. The TM-Sidhi programme, age
and brief tests of perceptual-motor speed and nonverbal intelligence. Jour-
nal of Clinical Psychology 1986 Jan;42(1): 161-164
19. Gelderloos P, Hermans HJ, Ahlscrom HH, Jacoby R. Transcendence and
psychological health: studies with long-term participants of the Transcen-
dental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program. Journal of Psychology 1990
March;124(2): 177-197
20. Alexander C, Rainforth M, Gelderloos P. Transcendental Meditation, self-
actualization and psychological health: A conceptual overview and statis-
tical analysis. Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality 1991;6(5):
189-247
21. Wallace RK, Silver J, Mills PJ, Dillbeck MC, Wagoner DE. Systolic blood
pressure and long-term practice of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-
Sidhi Program: Effects of TM on systolic blood pressure. Psychosomatic
Medicine 1983;45: 41-46
22. Barnes VA, Treiber FA, Turner JR, David H, Strong WB. Acute effects of
Transcendental Meditation on hemodynamic functioning in middle-aged
Meditation and Health                                                   77

adults. Psychosomatic Medicine 1999;61: 525-531
23. Pelletier KR. Influence of Transcendental Meditation upon autokinetic
perception. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1974;39:1031-1034
24. Jevning R, Anand R, Biedebach M, Fernando G. Effects on regional cer-
ebral blood flow of Transcendental Meditation. Physiology and Behav-
iour 1996 March;59(3): 399-402
25. Orme-Johnson DW. Autonomic stability and Transcendental Meditation.
Psychosomatic Medicine 1973;35:341-349
26. Mills W, Farrow JT. The Transcendental Meditation technique and acute
experimental pain. Psychosomatic Medicine 1981 April:43(2): 157-164
27. Werner OR, Wallace RK, Charles B, Janssen G, Stryker T, Chalmers RA.
Long-term endocrinologic changes in subjects practising the Transcen-
dental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program. Psychosomatic Medicine 1986
January;48(1-2): 59-66
28. Schneider RH, Nidich SI, Salerno JW, et al. Lower lipid peroxide levels
in practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation program. Psychoso-
matic Medicine 1998 Jan-Feb;60(1): 38-41
29. Wilson AF, Hornsberger R, Chiu JT, Novey HS. Transcendental Medita-
tion and asthma. Respiration 1974;32: 74-80
-- Meditation and Health (Used by permission of the curator)