# Mysticism and the Baha'i Community

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> Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Moojan Momen, Mysticism and the Baha'i Community, bahai-library.com.
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> Mystici sm and the Ba há’í Community
> 
> Mysticism and the Bahá’í Community
> by Moojan Momen
> 
> eligion has played many roles in human history. One of its roles has been that of assisting and promot-
> 
> R      ing the spiritual development of the individual—helping to put the individual in touch with the spiritual
> side of their being, placing the individual into a higher, better relationship with Transcendent reality. In
> most religions, a minority of the members of religion have made this aspect of the religion their main concern
> and have organized themselves for the better pursuit of this aspect. This has resulted in the emergence of
> Christian and Buddhist monasteries and Sufi orders in Islam.
> In the Bahá’í Faith, mysticism has been brought forward to a central role in the religion. Indeed, Shoghi
> Effendi has defined “that mystical feeling which unites man with God” as “the core of religious faith” (Hornby
> 1988, 506, no. 1704). It is thus the concern of all Bahá’ís rather than that of just a minority. In this paper, we
> will leave aside the examination of personal spirituality and mysticism (the use of prayer, fasting and medita-
> tion in order to achieve spiritual progress) and concentrate upon the communal aspect, the organisation of the
> Bahá’ís as a mystic community. We will begin with a brief look at the Islamic mystical community, the Sufi
> orders, and at Bahá’u’lláh’s historical interactions with these and with Sufi mystics, especially those wander-
> ing dervishes who were a familiar sight in nineteenth-century Iran. Then we will examine the general features
> of the organisation of mystical orders and communities in the different religions of the world and Bahá’u’lláh’s
> criticism of these. Lastly, we will look at the way that Bahá’u’lláh organised the Bahá’í community in such a
> way as to be a new type of mystical community.
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh and Mystics
> There is much evidence that Bahá’u’lláh was sympathetic to and had clos e relations with many Muslim mys-
> tics during His lifetime. The clearest evidence for this comes from the Baghdad period. When Bahá’u’lláh left
> Baghdad because of disunity among the Bábís, He took up the lifestyle of a wandering dervish among the
> Sulaymaniyyah mountains. He soon became regarded as a Sufi shaykh and was invited by the head of the
> Khalidiyyah (Naqshbandíyyah Order) in the Kurdish town of Sulaymaniyyah to stay in their takiyyah (retreat).
> While there, Bahá’u’lláh expounded on the great mystical text, the Futúhát M akkiyyah of Ibn al- ‘Arabí. He
> also composed a poem, the Qasídah-yi Warqá’iyyah (Ode of the Dove), in the style of the Tá’iyyah, a famous
> poem of the Sufi master, Ibn Fárid. Although the Bábís of Baghdad managed to persuade Bahá’u’lláh to return
> there, He continued His ties with the Kurdish Sufis, who visited him from time to time in Baghdad. Since the
> time of His years in Baghdad He had been in touch with the Qádiriyyah Order as well as the Naqshbandíyyah.
> He wrote the Four Valleys for a Kurdish Sufi leader whom He had met in Sulaymáníyyih, Shaykh ‘Abdu’r-
> Rahmán Tálabání of Kirkúk, the head of the prominent Kurdish Tálabání family and leader (shaykh) of the
> Qádirí Sufi order in Kurdistan. Bahá’u’lláh also wrote the Seven Valleys for Shaykh Muhiyu’d-Dín, a Sufi of
> the Qádirí order, who was to succeed his father as a Sufi shaykh in Gilzarda. In these texts, Bahá’u’lláh showed
> Himself to be perfectly at home with Sufi terminology and concepts.
> During the rest of Bahá’u’lláh’s sojourns, He remained in touch with Sufi initiates and shaykhs. Hájí Mírzá
> Ridá Qulí Safá, a well-known Sufi shaykh of the Ni‘matu’lláhí order, visited him in Istanbul; Hájí Muhammad
> ‘Alí Pírzádih, a celebrated Sufi, boarded Bahá’u’lláh’s ship at Alexandria to pay his respects; and Hájí
> Muhammad ‘Alí Sayyah visited Bahá’u’lláh in ‘Akká. Many Ottoman officials were inclined to Sufism and
> several of these came to regard Bahá’u’lláh very highly on account of the spirituality they observed in him.
> Among these was Sulayman Páshá, a Sufi of the Qádiriyyah Order who was governor of Edirne while
> Bahá’u’lláh was there. Bahá’u’lláh also instructed ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to res pond to a request from Safvet Páshá for
> a commentary on an Islamic Tradition much favoured by Sufis (“I was a Hidden Treasure . . .”).
> Among those who became Bahá’ís during the time of Bahá’u’lláh, there were many who were either Sufis
> or were inclined towards Sufism. Among these was the famous calligrapher Mírzá Muhammad Husayn
> Mishkín-Qalam, a Sufi of the Ni‘matulláhí order; Sulaymán Khán, later known as Jamál Effendi; and Ahmad
> 
> Lights of ‘Irfán
> 
> Yazdí, to whom the Arabic Tablet of Ahmad was addressed; and several of several of the companions of
> Bahá’u’lláh in His journeys, including Darvish Sidq ‘Alí, Mírzá Muhammad- ‘Alí Isfahání, and Hájí
> Muhammad Khán Balúch. Many other prominent disciples of Bahá’u’lláh either showed interest in Sufism or
> wore the garb of dervishes for a time. These include Mullá Muhammad Zarandí Nabil-i-A‘zam and Mullá
> Muhammad Qá’iní Nabíl-i-Akbar.
> There were also a number of conversions among Iranian Sufi dervishes, who, even after conversion, con-
> tinued as wandering dervishes. Hájí Qalandar of Hamadán, upon becoming a Bahá’í took to the road and lived
> the life of a wandering dervish, meeting with and converting other dervishes. He visited ‘Akká on several
> occasions, once in the company of another Bahá’í dervish Sádiq-‘Alí Qazvíní (Mazandarání n.d., 6:711-12).
> Hájí ‘ Abdu’l-Karím of Qazvín, a twenty-year-old man from a wealthy family, met Hájí Qalandar and was con-
> verted both to the Bahá’í Faith and the dervish way of life. Leaving behind all his property, he took the Sufi
> name of ‘Árif- ‘Alí and began to travel. After a time, a certain Ismá‘íl joined him as student, taking the Sufi
> name Hájí Tayfúr. These two travelled through the Ottoman domains eventually reaching ‘Akká, where
> Bahá’u’lláh gave Hájí ‘Abdu’l-Karím the name of Hájí Mu’nis (Mazandarání n.d., 6:554-5). In Baghdad, the
> two travellers met and converted Hájí Tavangar, another dervish from Qazvín, and four of his companions
> (M azandarání n.d., 6:555-6). In this way, the Bahá’í Faith gradually spread among the dervishes. On one occa-
> sion, a group of six Bahá’í dervishes appeared in ‘ Akká to visit Bahá’u’lláh.
> It would appear that Bahá’u’lláh looked to Sufism and mysticism as a way of attracting Sunnis to the Bahá’í
> Faith, since Sunnis were usually hostile to anything that emerged from Iran and which they therefore consid-
> ered tainted with Shi‘ism. This process started in Baghdad where Bahá’u’lláh produced several mystical works
> in a style familiar to Sufis. But it was from ‘Akká that Bahá’u’lláh appears to have organised and directed a
> campaign to spread the Bahá’í Faith among Arab, Turkish and Indian Sunnis through Bahá’í mys tics, who
> would travel through these lands in the garb of dervishes, speaking to the people and hoping to guide a few to
> the Bahá’í Faith. They would, of course, use Bahá’u’lláh’s Seven Valley and Four Valleys as well as His mys-
> tical poetry for this. Among those who appear to have been specifically instructed by Bahá’u’lláh to carry out
> this campaign were Hájí Qalandar, who after visiting Bahá’u’lláh travelled through Syria, Iraq, and Anatolia
> (M azandarání n.d., 6:711-12); Jamál Effendi, who was instructed by Bahá’u’lláh to travel in the garb of a Sufi
> dervish throughout the Ottoman domains and teach the Bahá’í Faith (1871-5; Samandar, Tarikh, 213 and
> Momen 1999-2000, 50) and who was later instructed to continue in the same way throughout India and south-
> east and central Asia (Momen 1999-2000); Hájí Eliyáhú who, after visiting Bahá’u’lláh in ‘Akká, travelled
> throughout the Sunni world in dervish dress (Mazandarání n.d., 6:674); and Sayyid Háshim of Káshán, who on
> Bahá’u’lláh’s instructions spent seven years wandering through Iraq, Syria and the Arabian penins ula dressed
> as a dervish (Vahid-Tehrani n.d., 1-2). None of these individuals appears to have had any great success, how-
> ever, except for Jamál Effendi’s efforts in India and Burma. Later, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá appears to have abandoned
> this plan in favour of using Mírzá Abu’l-Fadl Gulpáygání to approach the more orthodox Sunni Muslims at the
> Azhár University in Cairo.
> 
> The Social Organisation of Mystical Orders
> Insofar as we can discern similarities in the s ocial organisation of the mysticism in the various religions of
> the world, these would consist of:
> 1. A hierarchical structure with a leader who is regarded as being farthest along the s piritual path and who
> is thought capable of guiding others along that path. One of the main features of mysticism in the religions of
> the world is the fact that they usually result in some form of hierarchical organisation. In Theravada and most
> forms of Mahayana Buddhism, the spiritual path can only be successfully trod in a monastery under the guid-
> ance and authority of an abbot or senior monk. In many forms of Hinduism, true mysticism only occurs under
> the tutelage of a guru. Absolute obedience of His commands is required. In Christianity, the traditional path for
> mystics was to join one of the more mystical monastic orders, such as the Franciscans and the Carmelites .
> These orders often stressed discipline and obedience to the hierarchy of the order. Islamic mysticism, Sufism,
> is organised into orders, each of which has a shaykh (pír, murshid) or leader. The fact that progress along the
> mystical path can only be attained under the authority and guidance of a shaykh is emphasised by such say-
> ings as “he who has no shaykh has the Devil as his shaykh.”
> 
> Mystici sm and the Ba há’í Community
> 
> One of the aspects of the master-initiate relationship that is thus set up is that of confession, laying oneself
> emotionally and psychologically bare before the master. This practice forms an important part of Christian
> mystical and monastic orders, but is also to be found in Sufi orders. Another aspect is the complete submission
> and obedience shown by the initiate towards the master. It was not unusual, for example, for the initiate to pros-
> trate themselves before the master. Rules about how initiates are to behave, especially towards the master are
> part of Christian, Sufi and Buddhist orders. A typical text explaining the relationship of master to initiate is the
> following description of Sufism:
> This relationship draws the novice from the turmoil of the world into the refuge provided by the master’s
> spiritual presence and protection. This result demands, however, that two conditions be fulfilled: (1) con-
> fession and (2) compliance with the master’s guidance. (Ajmal 1987: 295-6)
> 2. The insistence that it is only by personal, oral transmission of the teaching and experience of the com-
> munity that one can really make progress along the spiritual path—it is not something that can just be learned
> from books. This principle is held by mystics and mys tical orders from Buddhism and Hinduism through to
> Is lam and Christianity. Thus for example, Honen, the Japanese Buddhist Master and founder of the Jodo school
> of Buddhism, said:
> A man who reads about the doctrines of the Jodo without receiving oral instruction will miss the thing real-
> ly necessary to the attainment of Ojo (enlightenment). (Shunjo 394)
> All mystical orders are to some extent gnostic—they hold to a secret or knowledge or wisdom which is only
> transmitted through their order. Indeed, even within the order, there is sometimes an elite inner circle that has
> full access to this esoteric knowledge while the outer circle merely benefits and obtains a grace and blessing
> through being associated with the inner circle. There is thus usually a distinct elitism associated with these
> mystical orders. This state of affairs is described thus by Frithjof Schuon:
> [A]lthough esotericism is reserved, by definition and because of its very nature, for an intellectual elite
> necessarily restricted in numbers, one cannot help observing that initiatory organizations have at all times
> included in their ranks a relatively large number of members . . . this leads to a distinction, within the broth-
> erhoods between inner and outer circles, the members of the latter being scarcely aware of the real nature
> of the organization to which they belong . . . (Schuon 1984: 33-4)
> These mystical orders usually relate this secret or esoteric knowledge to the founder of their religion, some-
> times saying that it is a secret teaching that the founder transmitted to those who were ready to hear it or else
> that the founder transmitted in a dream or vision.
> 3. An inclination towards monasticis m or as ceticism. Insofar as these mystical orders perceive the world and
> its distractions to be a hindrance to their quest, these groups try to isolate themselves from the world. In the
> monastic setting there are often elaborate rules of behaviour for initiates to follow, commonly involving peri-
> ods of isolation, a reduction or absence of speech, sexual abstinence and a general reduction in ordinary human
> interactions. Even in Islam, where monasticism is prohibited, the Sufi orders developed retreats (khanegahs,
> tekkes, or zawiyas), which shared many similarities with monasteries.
> 4. Practices that lead to altered states of consciousness. The commonest form of this is the repeated rhyth-
> mic chanting of a formula (mantra [Skt.], dhikr [Ar.], or hesychasm [Gr.]), usually accompanied by rhythmic
> breathing leading to hyperventilation and resulting in ecstatic and trance experiences. In fact these ecstatic and
> trance states result in altered states of consciousness which are often interpreted by those experiencing them
> as become one with the universe. Thus they reinforce the monistic view of reality to which these mystical
> orders subscribe.
> 5. Ethics, Law and Unity. There are a number of other features which are not typical of mystical orders but
> which did occur historically in Islam and which we will note here because they were of particular concern to
> Bahá’u’lláh. In Islamic history we can see a development in mysticism. In the earliest phase, mys tics were just
> pious individuals, such as Hasan al-Basrí and Rabí‘a (both eighth century C .E .) with a desire for direct com-
> munion with and experience of the Divine. Although these individuals may have had a circle of students to
> whom they gave religious instruction, they did not attempt to set up a religious community or order. Later, in
> the Twelfth through Thirteenth Centuries, Islamic mysticism became more formal with the s etting up of the
> 
> Lights of ‘Irfán
> 
> spiritual lineages of the great Sufi orders, such as the Qádiriyyah and the Rifá’iyyah. Although ideally, each
> successive leader of the order was chosen by the previous leader on the basis of their high spiritual station and
> their ability to guide others, in practice, the leadership of most Sufi orders became hereditary. By the Fifteenth
> Century, these Sufi orders had begun to establish formal practices such as repetitive chanting, rhythmic breath-
> ing, song and dance. Increasingly the focus was away from individual spiritual development and towards group
> practices (which often led to altered levels of consciousness and the ecstatic experiences associated with such
> states), the veneration of saints and shrines, and the working of miracles and cures—activities that no doubt
> increased the popularity of these orders, but were of little relevance to the true mystic quest. In other words ,
> spiritual depth had been sacrificed for show, effect and sentiment.
> In several religions, and especially in Islam, there has also been a tendency for some of those pursuing the
> mystical path to degenerate morally. Thinking that they have achieved a higher plane through s piritual exer-
> cises and discipline, they have considered themselves above the religious law and sometimes sunk into moral-
> ly reprehensible behaviour.
> The mystical thread in the development of religions has always been in tension with other threads, such as
> the trend towards ritualism and legalism. In the religions of the West, those tending towards legalism have us u-
> ally attacked those who follow the mystic path. Thus another problem of the mystic path has been the propen-
> sity to cause divisions.
> When Bahá’u’lláh came to analyse and give His formulation of the spiritual problems of humanity, He gave
> some degree of attention to what was by then the ancient question of how to organise a community that sets
> out to promote spiritual development. In His analysis, He pointed out the weakness es of the existing systema-
> tisations of the mystic path in the world’s religions.
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh’s critique of existing mystical pathways
> In His writings, Bahá’u’lláh critiques all five of the characteristic features of mystical order that are enu-
> merated above. As He surveys the various religious hierarchies and organizational frameworks that existed in
> His day, He found none of them satisfactory for His purpose of creating a mystical religious community.
> 1. Leadership and a hierarchical structure. Bahá’u’lláh’s criticism of all forms of religious leadership can be
> found in many places in His works. His assessment of them is:
> Leaders of religion, in every age, have hindered their people from attaining the shores of eternal salvation,
> inasmuch as they held the reins of authority in their mighty grasp. Some for the lust of leadership, others
> through want of knowledge and understanding, have been the cause of the deprivation of the people. By
> their sanction and authority, every Prophet of God hath drunk from the chalice of sacrifice, and winged His
> flight unto the heights of glory. . . . Content with a transitory dominion, they have deprived themselves of
> an everlasting sovereignty. (Bahá’u’lláh 1989:15-16)
> Although Bahá’u’lláh allows that in past ages, when the majority of people were illiterate and there were no
> social support systems in society, religious leaders and religious professionals may have been necessary, He
> states that that stage in human history is now past. With the increasing ability of all human beings to obtain an
> education and read the scriptures for themselves, the balance has now shifted so that the negative aspects of
> their role out-weigh the positive.
> Bahá’u’lláh also comments on some specific practices that are part of the master-initiate relationship. Apart
> from abolishing the religious leadership of the mystical master and the obedience due to him, Bahá’u’lláh pro-
> hibits the confessing by one individual of his/her sins before any individual or even in a group setting:
> Moreover such confession before people results in one’s humiliation and abasement, and God—exalted be
> His glory—wisheth not the humiliation of His servants. (Bahá’u’lláh 1978, 24)
> 2. Oral Transmission and Gnostic Knowledge. With regard to oral transmission of scripture and knowledge,
> which is considered of primary importance in most mystical traditions, Bahá’u’lláh deals with this as an aspect
> of His criticism of religious leadership as a whole. The insistence on oral transmiss ion is often a pretext for
> elevating and strengthening the position of the leader of a mystical order. But the tradition of oral transmission
> and master-initiate relationships is also condemned by Bahá’u’lláh because it leads to taqlíd, the blind imita-
> 
> Mystici sm and the Ba há’í Community
> 
> tion and following of the master, and thus to spiritual stagnation. It negates that spirit of search and investiga-
> tion which is essential on the mystic path: “O My Brother, journey upon these planes in the s pirit of search,
> not in blind imitation” (Bahá’u’lláh, Seven Valleys and Kitáb-i-Aqdas, p. 24). He also attributed the corruption
> of Islam to its attribution of binding authority to the orally transmitted reports of the sayings of Muhammad
> (Shoghi Effendi in Hornby 1988, 439, no. 1435).
> With regard to the gnostic knowledge implicit in most mystical orders, Bahá’u’lláh states that in this day all
> the spiritual knowledge and guidance that is necessary for the mystic quest is freely and openly available to
> all. All claims to a secret spiritual knowledge that is above what ordinary people can understand are to be treat-
> ed with great suspicion.
> And among the people is he who layeth claim to inner knowledge, and still deeper knowledge concealed
> within this knowledge. Say: Thou speakest false! By God! What thou dost possess is naught but husks
> which We have left to thee as bones are left to dogs. (1992, 36)
> Even more strongly condemned are thos e who claim that certain specific abstrus e knowledge is necessary
> for spiritual unders tanding. Bahá’u’lláh condemned, for example Karím Khán Kirmání, the Shaykhí leader
> who taught mystical philos ophy to his circle of disciples. He states that he had perused Kirmání’s book
> Irshádu’l-Awwám (Guidance to the Ignorant) and “From this title We perceived the odour of conceit and vain-
> glory, inasmuch as he hath imagined himself a learned man and regarded the rest of the people ignorant” (1989,
> 185). More specifically, Bahá’u’lláh condemns Kirmání for claiming that some twenty obscure and abstruse
> branches of learning were necessary in order to understand Muhammad’s Mi ‘ráj, the night-ascent to heaven,
> one of the key events in the life of Muhammad, that has always been understood by mystics in Islam to be a
> symbol of the mystic’s ascent towards God.
> We noticed that he had enumerated some twenty or more sciences, the knowledge of which he considered
> to be essential for the comprehension of the mystery of the “Mi‘ráj.” We gathered from his statements that
> unless a man be deeply versed in them all, he can never attain to a proper understanding of this transcen-
> dent and exalted theme. Among the specified sciences were the science of metaphysical abstractions, of
> alchemy, and natural magic. Such vain and discarded learnings, this man hath regarded as the pre-requi-
> sites of the understanding of the sacred and abiding mysteries of divine Knowledge . . .
> Gracious God! Such is the measure of his understanding . . . how clear and evident it is to every discern-
> ing heart that this so-called learning is and hath ever been, rejected by Him Who is the one true God. How
> can the knowledge of these sciences, which are so contemptible in the eyes of the truly learned, be regard-
> ed as essential to the apprehension of the mysteries of the “Mi‘ráj,” whilst the Lord of the “Mi‘ráj”
> Himself was never burdened with a single letter of these limited and obscure learnings, and never defiled
> His radiant heart with any of these fanciful illusions? . . . By the righteousness of God! Whoso desireth to
> fathom the mystery of this “Mi‘ráj,” and craveth a drop from this ocean, if the mirror of his heart be
> already obscured by the dust of these learnings, he must needs cleanse and purify it ere the light of this
> mystery can be reflected therein. (1989, 186-7)
> Bahá’u’lláh emphasizes in His works that true spiritual knowledge is not dependent on book learning or
> instruction in abstruse and esoteric matters. It is purely dependent on one’s spiritual qualities and capacities:
> Heed not the idle contention of those who maintain that the Book and verses thereof can never be a testi-
> mony unto the common people, inasmuch as they neither grasp their meaning nor appreciate their value.
> And yet, the unfailing testimony of God to both the East and the West is none other than the Qur’án. Were
> it beyond the comprehension of men, how could it have been declared as a universal testimony unto all
> people? . . .
> Such contention is utterly fallacious and inadmissible. It is actuated solely by arrogance and pride. Its
> motive is to lead the people astray from the Ridván of divine good-pleasure and to tighten the reins of their
> authority over the people. And yet, in the sight of God, these common people are infinitely superior and
> exalted above their religious leaders who have turned away from the one true God. The understanding of
> His words and the comprehension of the utterances of the Birds of Heaven are in no wise dependent upon
> human learning. They depend solely upon purity of heart, chastity of soul, and freedom of spirit. (1989,
> 210-11)
> 
> Lights of ‘Irfán
> 
> 3. Monasticism or asceticism. Bahá’u’lláh states that monasticism and withdrawal from the world is no
> longer an acceptable means for individuals to try to achieve spiritual progress. He instructs monks and others
> who seclude themselves to go out into the world and occupy themselves with what will benefit humanity:
> Say: O concourse of monks! Seclude not yourselves in your churches and cloisters. Come ye out of them
> by My leave, and busy, then, yourselves with what will profit you and others. Thus commandeth you He
> Who is the Lord of the Day of Reckoning. Seclude yourselves in the stronghold of My love. This, truly, is
> the seclusion that befitteth you, could ye but know it. He that secludeth himself in his house is indeed as
> one dead. It behooveth man to show forth that which will benefit mankind. He that bringeth forth no fruit
> is fit for the fire. (1988, 49)
> Bahá’u’lláh also admonishes monks and spiritual ascetics that the concept of celibacy as an assistance to
> spiritual progress is erroneous. In Christianity, for example, Bahá’u’lláh states that it was born out of a mis-
> guided idea that all sexual intercourse is evil and out of a ill-conceived desire to emulate Christ’s celibacy.
> Bahá’u’lláh states that it is lechery that is forbidden, not legitimate marital relations, and that the reason for
> Christ’s celibacy was not intended to indicate that this was a desirable state but rather was born out of neces-
> sity. Addressing monks in general, He states:
> Enter ye into wedlock, that after you another may arise in your stead. We, verily, have forbidden you lech-
> ery, and not that which is conducive to fidelity. . . . He that married not (Jesus Christ) could find no place
> wherein to abide, nor where to lay His head, by reason of what the hands of the treacherous had wrought.
> His holiness consisted not in the things ye have believed and imagined, but rather in the things which
> belong unto Us. (1988, 49-50)
> Bahá’u’lláh condemns asceticism and the severe practices of self-denial and self-punishment that often
> accompany this. He implies that these actions are often only done so as to attract the adulation of the masses:
> How many a man hath secluded himself in the climes of India, denied himself the things that God hath
> decreed as lawful, imposed upon himself austerities and mortifications, and hath not been remembered by
> God, the Revealer of Verses. Make not your deeds as snares wherewith to entrap the object of your aspi-
> ration. (1992, 36)
> 4. Practices that lead to altered states of consciousness. Among the laws given by Bahá’u’lláh is one that
> commands the chanting of the phrase “Alláhu Abha” 95 times daily. There is some question as to whether this
> can be considered the same as Sufi dhikr or a mantra. The fact that one must count the number of times that
> one is saying the formula is somewhat against that loss of consciousness of one’s surroundings that usually
> accompanies trance and ecstasy states associated with reciting dhikrs and mantras.
> What we can say is that although Bahá’u’lláh made the spiritual development of the individual a central con-
> cern of His religion, He did not raise any of the practices leading to altered states of consciousness to the level
> of a law. Thus He evidently did not think these practices were essential for spiritual development. Moreover,
> Bahá’u’lláh warns against exces sive recitation to the point that causes weariness and dejection:
> Pride not yourselves on much reading of the verses or on a multitude of pious acts by night and day; for
> were a man to read a single verse with joy and radiance it would be better for him than to read with lassi-
> tude all the Holy Books of God, the Help in Peril, the Self-Subsisting. Read ye the sacred verses in such
> measure that ye be not overcome by languor and despondency. Lay not upon your souls that which will
> weary them and weigh them down, but rather what will lighten and uplift them, so that they may soar on
> the wings of the Divine verses towards the Dawning-place of His manifest signs; this will draw you near-
> er to God, did ye but comprehend. (1992, 149)
> Another mystical activity which some traditions recommend is the practice of visualization. In Mahayana
> Buddhism, for example, one of the spiritual practices that is recommended is that of visualising the Western
> Paradise (Sukhavati) of Amitabha. This visualisation is achieved under the instruction of a master. ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá speaks of a similar process of vis ualising but rather than visualising a heavenly place, the process that
> He refers to is the intellectual visualising, with the inner eye, of a spiritual truth. Moreover, ‘ Abdu’l-Bahá does
> not imply that a master is required for this process to occur:
> Day and night you must strive that you may attain to the significances of the heavenly Kingdom, perceive
> 
> Mystici sm and the Ba há’í Community
> 
> the signs of Divinity, acquire certainty of knowledge and realize that this world has a Creator, a Vivifier, a
> Provider, an Architect—knowing this through proofs and evidences and not through susceptibilities, nay,
> rather, through decisive arguments and real vision—that is to say, visualizing it as clearly as the outer eye
> beholds the sun. In this way may you behold the presence of God and attain to the knowledge of the holy,
> divine Manifestations. (1982, 227)
> 5. Ethics, Law and Unity. Bahá’u’lláh was strongly critical in several places in His writings of certain devel-
> opments in Sufis m. In the Seven Valleys, He specifically refutes those Sufis who have asserted that once a
> mystic has attained a certain level or stage on the mystic path, then religious laws, which are intended for the
> uninitiated masses, are no longer incumbent upon them:
> In all these journeys the traveller must stray not the breadth of a hair from the “Law,” for this is indeed the
> secret of the “Path” and the fruit of the Tree of “Truth” ; and in all these stages he must cling to the robe
> of obedience to the commandments, and hold fast to the cord of shunning all forbidden things, that he may
> be nourished from the cup of the Law and informed of the mysteries of Truth. (1991, 39-40)
> In general, in Bahá’u’lláh’s time, the behaviour and morals of some Sufis had sunk to a low point. Some
> were intoxicated and unruly; others were unprincipled charlatans who performed sleights of hand and trickery
> to fool the uneducated masses into thinking that they had super-natural powers . After a passage in which
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states that Bahá’u’lláh ordained a special night for the mystics and dervishes, He goes on to cor-
> rect any possible misunderstanding as to who is meant:
> He went on to say that “dervish” does not denote those persons who wander about, spending their nights
> and days in fighting and folly; rather, He said, the term designates those who are completely severed from
> all but God, who cleave to His laws, are firm in His Faith, loyal to His Covenant, and constant in worship.
> It is not a name for those who, as the Persians say, tramp about like vagrants, are confused, unsettled in
> mind, a burden to others, and of all mankind the most coarse and rude. (1971, 38)
> In addition, Bahá’u’lláh condemns some mystics for allowing themselves to be fed and supported by the
> generality of the people, while they seclude themselves and do nothing that contributes to the general good.
> Among them are mystics who bear allegiance to the Faith of Islam, some of whom indulge in that which
> leadeth to idleness and seclusion. I swear by God! It lowereth man’s station and maketh him swell with
> pride. Man must bring forth fruit. One who yieldeth no fruit is, in the words of the Spirit [Christ], like unto
> a fruitless tree, and a fruitless tree is fit but for the fire. (1978, 60)
> Bahá’u’lláh was also critical of any movement that created a split or disunity in a religion. Mystics often
> created such disunity by being at odds with the majority of their fellow-believers, although it must be admit-
> ted that it has usually been the latter and their leaders that have initiated the conflict and have persecuted the
> mystics. In the Tablet of Unity, Bahá’u’lláh condemns in particular the creation of separate sects based on dif-
> ferent rituals and public acts of worship. He refers in particular to different ways of saying the ritual obligato-
> ry prayer and to the Sufi practice of dancing. He laments the fact that Islam has become weakened because it
> has become divided into numerous religious communities, each with their own public rituals and practices.
> Bahá’u’lláh considers that the Sufi orders have played a major role in this process of dividing and weakening
> Is lam. In the following provisional translation of a passage from the Tablet of Unity, Bahá’u’lláh specifically
> refers to a number of Sufi orders as examples of this process:
> The Holy Law (Sharí‘ah) of the Messenger of God may be likened to an ocean from which innumerable
> gulfs branch out. And this is the cause of the weakness of the Sharí‘ah of God among the peoples. Until
> now no-one, not kings nor subjects nor the indigent have understood the reason for this, nor have they
> appreciated how to regain that power that has vanished and the learning that has fallen away. Thus one gulf
> is Shí‘a, one gulf is Sunni, one Shaykhí, another Sháh Ni‘matulláhí, one Naqshbandí, another Malámatí,
> one Jalálí, another Rifá‘í, and yet another Khárábátí. Thus are multiplied the innumerable pathways to hell.
> Thus do the stones weep and the Pen of the All-High laments. Seest thou what has befallen a Sharí‘ah
> whose light illumined the world and whose fire, that is to say the fire of its love, was the guide of its peo-
> ples. Well is it with those who ponder upon these matters and investigate then and are fair in their judge-
> ment. Thus did this difference in public rituals become the cause of the shaking of the foundations of the
> Cause of God (Bahá’u’lláh unpublished)
> 
> Lights of ‘Irfán
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh’s Formula for a Mystic Community
> One of the most important things that Bahá’u’lláh did was to make it clear that the quest for personal spir-
> itual development (the mystical quest) is the central concern of religion. This is something that has not always
> been clear in other religions . In the majority orthodox interpretation of Judaism and both Sunni and Shí‘í Islam,
> for example, the central concern of the religion is the following of a Holy Law, the correct performance of rit-
> uals and the correct pattern of life. Bahá’u’lláh annuls most of the provisions of the Holy Law, saying in effect
> that such rigid frameworks were necessary in the childhood of humanity but now that humanity has reached
> maturity, decisions on the pattern of one’s life should be left to the ethical judgement and sense of dignity and
> moderation of the individual. Instead, He refocus es the energies of the followers of His Religion on the spiri-
> tual development of the individual. From now on, the mystic quest is to be everyone’s concern. Using the term
> that in Sufism signifies the mystical union of the lover and the Beloved (wisál), Bahá’u’lláh calls this day, “the
> Day whereon the Finger of majesty and power hath opened the seal of the Wine of Reunion (wisál), and called
> all who are in the heavens and all who are on the earth.” (1983, 28-29)
> Thus while the mystical quest is a religious interest of a minority in other religions (the members of Sufi
> orders, the ascetics in Hinduism, the monks in Christianity and Judaism, etc.), in the Bahá’í Faith, it becomes
> a central concern of the whole community. While in other religions , separate communities need to be set up in
> order to cater for the minority who wish to pursue the mystical quest (Sufi orders, Christian and Buddhist
> monastic communities), in the Bahá’í Faith, the whole community is engaged in the mystical ques t and thus
> the Bahá’í community itself is the mystic community. The Bahá’í administrative order thus becomes the orga-
> nization of a mystic community.
> 1. Leadership and a hierarchical structure. In the religious community that He is creating, Bahá’u’lláh does
> not want individuals to claim authority. He does not want any Bahá’í to see himself or herself as being of a
> higher rank than other Bahá’ís. ‘ Abdu’l-Bahá emphasizes this when He states that, despite His position of
> being the leader of the community and the Centre of the Covenant, He wishes His rank to be merely that of
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (the “servant” [lit. “s lave”] of Bahá’u’lláh; Shoghi Effendi 1991, 139). Shoghi Effendi similar-
> ly refused all attempts by Bahá’ís to elevate his position and he signed his English letters to Bahá’ís “your true
> brother.” Bahá’u’lláh treats of this theme in the Tablet of Unity, of which the following is a provisional trans-
> lation of the relevant part:
> Another type is the unity of rank or station. This results in the rising up of the Cause and its elevation
> among the peoples. But if ranking and preference of one over another comes into its midst, the world falls
> into ruin and desolation may be witnessed. Those souls who have drunk from the sea of the utterance of
> the All-Merciful and are turning towards the All-High Horizon should see themselves as being of one rank
> and one station. Should this injunction be firmly established and be realised through the power and might
> of God, the world would be seen as the Abhá paradise. Verily human beings are exalted, as can be found
> in every Divine scripture; but to consider oneself as more learned, more favoured, more accomplished,
> more righteous or more exalted is a mighty error and sin. Well is it with those souls who are adorned with
> the ornament of this unity and are accepted before God. Look at the ‘ulamá of Iran. If they had not con-
> sidered themselves the most exalted and most accomplished of all beings, they would not have caused
> those wretched followers of theirs to curse and blaspheme against the Desire of the Worlds. All humanity
> is dismayed, nay the entire world is bewildered, at these false and neglectful souls. The fire of pride and
> vainglory has burnt them all, but they are not aware of it and do not understand. They have not drunk a
> drop of the ocean of knowledge and understanding. Woe unto them and unto what their tongues have
> uttered and unto what their hands have wrought on the day of retribution and on this day when the people
> have arisen for the Lord of the Worlds. (Bahá’u’lláh, unpublished)
> Having established this principle, Bahá’u’lláh was then left with the question that, if the Bahá’ís were to be
> a mystic community and if there was to be no religious leaders in the community, what then was going to
> replace the role of the spiritual guide or master to that mystic community? What was going to replace the Sufi
> shaykh or murshid, the guru, the abbot or senior monk of the monas tery?
> There are several ways in which the role of the spiritual guide or master is replaced in the Bahá’í commu-
> nity. First, Bahá’u’lláh instructs every Bahá’í to read and meditate upon a passage of the Bahá’í scriptures
> 
> Mystici sm and the Ba há’í Community
> 
> every day: “Peruse ye every day the verses revealed by God. Blessed is the man who reciteth them and
> reflecteth upon them” (Bahá’u’lláh in Compilation 1991, 1:188, no. 363). Through this process, spiritual
> secrets will be revealed to the mystic: “Meditate profoundly, that the secret of things unseen may be revealed
> unto you, that you may inhale the s weetness of a spiritual and imperishable fragrance” (Bahá’u’lláh 1989, 8).
> This process will in itself lead to progress along the mystic path:
> They who recite the verses of the All-Merciful in the most melodious of tones will perceive in them that
> with which the sovereignty of earth and heaven can never be compared. From them they will inhale the
> divine fragrance of My worlds—worlds which today none can discern save those who have been endowed
> with vision through this sublime, this beauteous Revelation. Say: These verses draw hearts that are pure
> unto those spiritual worlds that can neither be expressed in words nor intimated by allusion. Blessed be
> those who hearken. (Bahá’u’lláh 1992, 116)
> There are, in the Bahá’í s criptures, numerous prayers, s upplication and meditations from Bahá’u’lláh and
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá which will assist in this process of spiritual enlightenment and progress.
> Turn to God, supplicate humbly at His threshold, seeking assistance and confirmation, that God may rend
> asunder the veils that obscure your vision. Then will your eyes be filled with illumination, face to face you
> will behold the reality of God and your heart become completely purified from the dross of ignorance,
> reflecting the glories and bounties of the Kingdom. (‘Abdu’l-Bahá 1982, 293)
> Beyond this, the Bahá’í teachings also have provision for the obtaining of s piritual guidance through tap-
> ping the spiritual wisdom of the community. The process of consultation is applied to all aspects of Bahá’í
> community life. It is applied in the administrative affairs of the community, but Bahá’ís are also encouraged
> to gather together, read the Bahá’í scriptures and consult about the meaning and spiritual significance of these.
> Bahá’u’lláh states that this process leads to “awareness” and “awakening” (in Compilation 1991, 1:93, no.
> 170). Bahá’u’lláh calls consultation “the lamp of guidance which leadeth the way and the bes tower of true
> understanding” (Bahá’u’lláh 1978, 168). There is a great deal in the Bahá’í writings about the way in which
> consultation should occur (see below), but if it is carried out in this way, then Bahá’ís believe that it is supe-
> rior to the master-initiate relationship as a source of spiritual guidance because it taps the collective wisdom
> of the group and, as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states: “the views of several individuals are assuredly preferable to one man,
> even as the power of a number of men is of course greater than the power of one man. Thus consultation is
> acceptable in the presence of the Almighty, and hath been enjoined upon the believers.” (Compilation 1991,
> 1:97-98, no. 182)
> In the Bahá’í community, however, as developed by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, individuals do not
> have authority. There are individuals who have special designations, such as Hands of the Cause, Counsellors,
> and the Afnán, but these designations are only honorary or confer opportunities for service to the Bahá’í com-
> munity. Such roles as these individuals may have in the Bahá’í community are advisory and exhortatory. They
> have no authority. Authority belongs only to elected institutions.
> 2. Oral Transmission and Gnostic Knowledge. With regard to authoritative transmission of the scriptures of
> the Bahá’í Faith, the official position is almost the exact opposite of what is to be found in most mystical
> orders. In the Bahá’í Faith, all are encouraged to read the scriptures for themselves and to gain their own under-
> standing of them. The scriptures and authoritative texts consist only of material that was written down either
> by one of the Central Figures of the Bahá’í Faith or was seen and approved by them. Material that has been
> orally transmitted even through just one transmitter has no binding authority.
> Shoghi Effendi has laid down the principle that the Bahá’ís should not attribute much importance to talks,
> reported to have been given by the Master, if these have not in one form or other obtained his sanction.
> Bahá’u’lláh has made it clear enough that only those things that have been revealed in the form of Tablets
> have a binding power over the friends. Hearsays may be a matter of interest but can in no way claim
> authority. This basic teaching of Bahá’u’lláh was to preserve the Faith from being corrupted like Islam
> which attributes binding authority to all the reported sayings of Muhammad.
> This being a basic principle of the Faith we should not confuse Tablets that were actually revealed and
> mere talks attributed to the founders of the Cause. The first have absolute binding authority while the lat-
> 
> Lights of ‘Irfán
> 
> ter can in no way claim our obedience. The highest thing this can achieve is to influence the activities of
> the one who has heard the saying in person. (Hornby 1988, 438-439, no. 1435)
> We have seen above that these traditions of oral transmission through master-initiate relationships are
> regarded by Bahá’u’lláh as not merely perpetuating the phenomenon of religious leadership, which He con-
> demns, but also leading to spiritual stagnation in that each generation merely continues the insights and guid-
> ance that it has inherited and does not push forward the boundaries of human spiritual achievement.
> Bahá’u’lláh calls upon His followers to “[t]ear asunder, in My Name, the veils that have grievously blinded
> your vision, and, through the power born of your belief in the unity of God, scatter the idols of vain imitation”
> (1983, 143, no. 75). Each Bahá’í is instructed to know of his/her own knowledge, to investigate reality and
> judge matters independently for himself/herself:
> The best beloved of all things in My sight is Justice; turn not away therefrom if thou desirest Me, and
> neglect it not that I may confide in thee. By its aid thou shalt see with thine own eyes and not through the
> eyes of others, and shalt know of thine own knowledge and not through the knowledge of thy neighbour.
> (Bahá’u’lláh 1990, Arabic 2)
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá stresses this need for human beings to free themselves of blind imitation of religious leaders
> and spiritual masters and to investigate reality for themselves:
> God has given man the eye of investigation by which he may see and recognize truth. He has endowed man
> with ears that he may hear the message of reality and conferred upon him the gift of reason by which he
> may discover things for himself. This is his endowment and equipment for the investigation of reality. Man
> is not intended to see through the eyes of another, hear through another’s ears nor comprehend with anoth-
> er’s brain. Each human creature has individual endowment, power and responsibility in the creative plan
> of God. Therefore, depend upon your own reason and judgment and adhere to the outcome of your own
> investigation; otherwise, you will be utterly submerged in the sea of ignorance and deprived of all the
> bounties of God. Turn to God, supplicate humbly at His threshold, seeking assistance and confirmation,
> that God may rend asunder the veils that obscure your vision. Then will your eyes be filled with illumina-
> tion, face to face you will behold the reality of God and your heart become completely purified from the
> dross of ignorance, reflecting the glories and bounties of the Kingdom. (1982, 293)
> 3. Monasticism or as ceticism. We have seen above that Bahá’u’lláh forbade monastic seclusion and called
> upon the monks to emerge from their monasteries and to take an active role in society. Having criticised and
> dismissed many aspects of the existing mystical communities, Bahá’u’lláh was faced with the task of creating
> an alternative structure that would replace the role of the monastery, that would give the guidance and support
> upon the mystical path that was provided in the traditional monastic setting. Of course, Bahá’u’lláh had to
> operate within the historical reality of His time. The Bahá’í community was a persecuted minority with much
> of its energy and efforts being spent in merely s urviving. Therefore Bahá’u’lláh was compelled to delay much
> of the implementation of His ideas. He laid down the principles but left it to His successors, ‘ Abdu’l-Bahá and
> Shoghi Effendi, to bring these ideas to reality. Thus in considering the creation of the Bahá’í community as a
> mystical order, we must look across the whole of the history of the Bahá’í Faith in order to discern its features.
> There are various features of Bahá’í community life that allow it to function as a supportive environment
> for spiritual development and the mystical life. The first is the fact that most community activity is carried out
> in an environment of prayer and devotion. Second that the individual members of the community are encour-
> aged to interact with each other in such a way as to promote love and unity. Third, Bahá’u’lláh prohibits back-
> biting in the community, since He states that it “quencheth the light of the heart, and extinguisheth the life of
> the soul.” (Bahá’u’lláh 1983, 265)
> In brief, what Shoghi Effendi and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá have tried to create is a religious community that is suffi-
> ciently supportive to allow the individuals in it to develop themselves spiritually within a “safe” environment
> as a replacement for the monastic environment.
> 4. Mystical Practices. There are a number of practices used by mystics to which Bahá’u’lláh did give His
> qualified assent. Certain mystical systems believe that the very vibrations of the chanting of holy verses them-
> selves have an effect. Thus, for example, in Yoga mantras should be said in a voice that is “alive and resonant”
> so that it may “utilize the power of sound vibrations to influence modalities of conscious ness.” (Hewitt 1991,
> 
> Mystici sm and the Ba há’í Community
> 
> 442). Similarly, Bahá’u’lláh instructs that His words be chanted in “in the most melodious of tones” (1992,
> 116). He further exhorts the Bahá’ís:
> Gather ye together with the utmost joy and fellowship and recite the verses revealed by the merciful Lord.
> By so doing the doors to true knowledge will be opened to your inner beings, and ye will then feel your
> souls endowed with steadfastness and your hearts filled with radiant joy. (Compilation 1991, 1:188, no.
> 364)
> There is a reference, moreover, in the Bahá’í s criptures to Bahá’u’lláh having ordained a certain night for
> those who wish to carry out repetitive chanting (dhikr) activities.
> While in the barracks, Bahá’u’lláh set apart a special night and He dedicated it to Darvish Sidq-‘ Alí. He
> wrote that every year on that night the dervishes should bedeck a meeting place, which should be in a
> flower garden, and gather there to make mention of God [dhikr]. (‘Abdu’l-Bahá 1971, 38)
> In the main, however, Bahá’u’lláh turns the attention of the Bahá’ís towards practices of individual devo-
> tion such as prayer and meditation upon the Bahá’í scriptures, and away from specific techniques which lead
> to states of trance or ecstasy.
> 
> Process and Progress
> As well as establishing the Bahá’í community as an alternative to the traditional mystical communities ,
> Bahá’u’lláh has ensured that the workings of the Bahá’í community facilitate and enhance the process of mys-
> tical progress and spiritual advancement. Thus, for example, many authors of texts on mysticism in the past
> have emphasised the importance of willing obedience to the mas ter or spiritual guide. This obedience is nec-
> essary both to ensure compliance with the master’s instructions but also to enable the initiate to develop spir-
> itual qualities such as humility and detachment. In the Bahá’í community, the same result is achieved through
> the concept of the Covenant. This concept means that each generation of Bahá’ís agrees to obey the ins truc-
> tions of the Centre of the Covenant— ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, followed by Shoghi Effendi, followed by the Universal
> House of Jus tice. In day-to-day terms, Bahá’ís currently obey the local and national institution of the Bahá’í
> community in the place where they live. Although full discussion and consultation is encouraged in the process
> leading up to a decision, once these institutions have made a decision, it is expected that all Bahá’ís will obey
> this, whether or not they agree with the decision. This allows the same spiritual proces ses that occur through
> obedience—suppression of the ego, the development of humility, and detachment from one’s own fond notions
> and preconceived ideas.
> We have seen above that consultation can be a source of spiritual guidance for Bahá’ís. It is also however,
> in its very process a way of enhancing spiritual development. The qualities that need to be cultivated in order
> for good consultation to occur, whether this be consultation over the meaning of the text or over an adminis-
> trative matter, are also qualities that are needed for the spiritual progress of the individual.
> The prime requisites for them that take counsel together are purity of motive, radiance of spirit, detach-
> ment from all else save God, attraction to His Divine Fragrances, humility and lowliness amongst His
> loved ones, patience and long-suffering in difficulties and servitude to His exalted Threshold. (‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá 1978, 87, no. 43)
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá also writes of the need for “courtesy, dignity, care and moderation” (in Compilation 1991,
> 1:95, no. 176) as a pre-condition for consultation. In short, the development of many of the virtues that
> progress human beings along the mystical path are facilitated by engagement in the process of consultation.
> And both Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá have encouraged the use of this consultative process in all aspects of
> both pers onal and community life:
> Settle all things, both great and small, by consultation. Without prior consultation, take no important step
> in your own personal affairs. Concern yourselves with one another. Help along one another’s projects and
> plans. Grieve over one another. Let none in the whole country go in need. Befriend one another until ye
> become as a single body, one and all . . . (‘Abdu’l-Bahá in Compilation 1991, 1:98-9, no. 185)
> In this way, the whole of one’s life as a Bahá’í becomes a continuous chance to consult and thus to improve
> these qualities and progress along the mystic path.
> 
> Lights of ‘Irfán
> 
> We have see above that Bahá’u’lláh prohibits the isolation of the monastic community and ins tructs the
> monks to emerge from their monasteries. Instead He creates the Bahá’í community, in which He encourages
> as much diversity as possible—Bahá’u’lláh, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, and Shoghi Effendi always called Bahá’ís to seek
> out new and diverse groups to bring into the community. ‘ Abdu’l-Bahá, for example, encouraged the American
> Bahá’ís to bring the black races into the Bahá’í community, even though He knew that this would be a great
> test for the white Bahá’ís. Shoghi Effendi encouraged and reported as a great success the enrolment of new
> races and tribes into the Bahá’í community. The Universal House of Justice has also encouraged Bahá’ís to
> seek to enrol members of all classes and strata of society. Thus, while in a monastic community the monks
> interacted with others who were of much the same cultural and social outlook as themselves, in the Bahá’í
> community one is exposed to every type of person and to types of cultural and social outlooks that clash with
> one’s own. This creates a situation in which tests arise due to conflicting outlooks of individual Bahá’ís. Thus,
> commonly, the greatest tests and difficulties for Bahá’ís arise from their interactions with other Bahá’ís. (This
> being indeed a reflection of Bahá’u’lláh’s own experience: “My imprisonment doeth Me no harm, neither the
> tribulations I suffer, nor the things that have befallen Me at the hands of My oppressors. That which harmeth
> Me is the conduct of those who, though they bear My name, yet commit that which maketh M y heart and My
> pen to lament.” Baháu’lláh 1988, 23)
> As a consequence of this great variety of people interacting within the Bahá’í community, there will always
> tend to be great differences of opinion. The important factor in allowing this potentially unstable mixture to
> continue without exploding and splitting into sects is the concept of the Covenant. The source of the unity of
> the Bahá’í Faith is not a uniformity of doctrine and thought or the strict regimentation of a Holy Law, it is loy-
> alty to the Covenant. As long as Bahá’ís maintain this loyalty, they are free to have widely differing ideas about
> the Bahá’í Faith. But this very freedom will inevitably be a s ource of irritation and tests to their fellow-believ-
> ers, who think differently from them. Western ways of doing things will clash with Eastern ways; conserva-
> tives will be offended by radicals; liberals will be frustrated by fundamentalists. ‘ Abdu’l-Bahá says that it is
> through meeting and overcoming tests that human beings grow spiritually (1971, 49-51). Thus in the dynam-
> ics of the social interactions of the Bahá’í community and under the umbrella of the unity brought about by the
> Covenant, one’s spiritual qualities of love, patience, forbearance and empathy are put to the test and refined.
> The social dynamics of the Bahá’í community and the resultant development of spiritual qualities has been dis-
> cussed further by Daniel C. Jordan:
> When one joins a Bahá’í Community, he joins a family of extremely diverse human beings with whom he
> will have to work and establish meaningful relationships. The first thing he finds out is that his old reper-
> toire of responses is no longer adequate. So many different human beings represent a great many
> unknowns, and trying to relate to those unknowns creates energy (anxiety) which sets that reciprocal
> process of knowing and loving though faith and courage in motion. Defining a legitimate goal which will
> constructively utilize the energy from that anxiety will call forth a new repertoire of responses. Each new
> response is a bit of one’s latent capacity made manifest—a release of human potential. Another way of say-
> ing it is that the Bahá’í Community offers more opportunities for knowing and loving under growth-fos-
> tering circumstances than can be found anywhere else.
> . . . Thus the Bahá’í community, because of its diversity, provides many of those tests which are essential
> for our development. At the same time, guidance from Bahá’í institutions and the commitment of members
> of the community to accept each other for what they can become provides the courage to turn those test
> into vehicles for spiritual development—for the release of human potential (n.d., 13-14).
> One function of the spiritual master or guide in traditional mystical communities has been to act as a cor-
> rective to delusions and self-deceptions that all are prone to. The processes of consultation and community
> interactions provide the corrective mechanism in the Bahá’í community. It is very easy to think that one has
> achieved such qualities as patience and love if one is in an isolated cocoon in a monastic setting. It is much
> more difficult to be self-deluded when one is interacting in a diverse community and trying to consult with
> individuals of a widely differing social, cultural and educational background to oneself.
> Lastly, in the processes of the Bahá’í community that lead to spiritual development and progress, great
> emphasis is given to the concept of service. Thus for example, when ‘Abdu’l-Bahá is enumerating what will
> lead to the mystic’s goal of nearness to the Divine, He includes service to humanity and service in the cause
> 
> Mystici sm and the Ba há’í Community
> 
> of universal peace among these pre-requisites.
> Bahá’u’lláh proclaims in the Hidden Words that God inspires His servants and is revealed through them.
> He says, “Thy heart is My home; sanctify it for My descent. Thy spirit is My place of revelation; cleanse
> it for My manifestation.” Therefore, we learn that nearness to God is possible through devotion to Him,
> through entrance into the Kingdom and service to humanity; it is attained by unity with mankind and
> through loving-kindness to all; it is dependent upon investigation of truth, acquisition of praiseworthy
> virtues, service in the cause of universal peace and personal sanctification. In a word, nearness to God
> necessitates sacrifice of self, severance and the giving up of all to Him. Nearness is likeness. (‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá 1982, 148)
> This teaching of the Bahá’í Faith is intended as a corrective to the tendency, des cribed above, for some to
> think that because they think they have reached a certain spiritual station, they can indulge in a life of idleness
> and seclusion. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá declares that, on the contrary, the closer one becomes to the Divine, the higher
> one’s mystical ascent, and the more one engages in service to other human beings, the more interactions one
> has with individuals who are unlike oneself, and therefore more tests come one’s way. Thus it is also through
> service that one’s spiritual qualities are extended and refined.
> This aspect of service is, at present, mainly an individual endeavour. Its role in Bahá’í community life is as
> yet undeveloped. It will only come to fruition with the development of the institution of the Mashriqu’l-
> Adhkár, the dependencies of which are intended to “afford relief to the suffering, sustenance to the poor, shel-
> ter to the wayfarer, s olace to the bereaved, and education to the ignorant.” (Shoghi Effendi 1968, 184) As the
> institution of the Mashriqu’l-Adhkár develops, the Bahá’í community will increasing adopt a service ethos and
> thus this avenue for the spiritual development of the individual will be enhanced.
> In summary, the Bahá’í administration is not just the organization of a mystical community, but has been set
> up precisely so that its very functioning is itself the promotion of the spiritual development of the individual.
> The processes of the Bahá’í community act in a similar manner to give the individual the maximum chance of
> spiritual progress and a way of assessing this progress and avoiding self-deception.
> 
> Bibliography
> ‘ Ab du’l-Bahá 1967. Paris Talks. London: Bahá’í Publishing Trust
> — ——. 197 1. Memo rials of the Fa ithful. Wilmette, IL: Bahá’í Publishing Trust
> — ——. 197 8. Selection s from the Wr itings of ‘ Abdu’l-Bahá. Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre
> — ——. 198 2. The Promulgation of Un ivers al Peace. Wilmette, IL: Bah á’í Publish ing Trust
> Ajmal, M ohammad 1987. “Sufi Science o f the Soul” in Islamic Spirituality: Foundations, World Spirituality. Londo n: Routled ge
> and Kegan Paul, 294-307
> Bahá’u’lláh 1978. Tablets of Ba há’u’lláh revealed after the Kitáb-i-Aqdas . Haifa: Bahá’í Wo rld Centre
> — ——. 1983. Gleanings from the Wr itings of Bahá’u’lláh (trans. Shoghi Effendi). Wilmette, IL: Bahá’í Pub lish ing Trus t (para-
> g raph numbers also giv en)
> — ——. 198 8. Epistle to the Son o f the Wolf (tran s. Shoghi Effendi). Wilmette, IL: Bahá’í Publishing Trust,
> — ——. 198 9. The Kitáb-i-ˆqán (trans. Shoghi Effendi). Wilmette, IL: Bahá’í Publishing Trus t
> — ——. 199 0. The Hidden Words. Wilmette, IL: Bahá’í Pub lis hing Trust (Arabic and Persian n umbers given )
> — ——. 199 1. The Seven Va lleys and the Fou r Valleys. Wilmette, IL: Bahá’í Publishing Trust
> — ——. 199 2. The Kitáb-i-Aqdas . Haifa: Bahá’í Wo rld Centre (verse number given)
> — ——. unpub lish ed. Th e Tablet of Unity. Provis ional translation b y Moojan M omen from text in Ad‘i yyah Hadr at-i-Mahbúb
> (orig inal edition: Faraju’lláh al-Kurd í, Egy pt, 7 6 B. E./1920 ; reprint Germany 1980), pp . 388-406
> Compilatio n of Compilations , The. Prepared by the Univ ersal House of Justice 1963-1990. 2 v ols. [Sydn ey]: Bahá’í Publications
> Aus tralia, 199 1.
> Hewitt, J ames 1991. The Complete Yoga Book.. Lon don: Rid er
> J ordan, Dan iel n.d . Beco ming your True Self. Lond on: Bahá’í Pub lis hing Trust (origin ally pu blis hed in World Order 3/1:43-51)
> Hornby, Helen (comp .) 1988. Lights of Gu idance: A Bahá’í Reference File. New Delhi: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 2nd edn.
> M azandarání, Fádil n. d., Zuhúr al-Haqq, vol. 6, und ated manuscript in private hands
> 
> Lights of ‘Irfán
> 
> Schuon, Frithjof. 1 984. The Tran scendent Unity of Religions , Wheato n Ill. : Quest
> Shoghi Effendi 1968 . Bahá’í Administration. Wilmette, IL: Bahá’í Publishing Trust
> — ——. 199 1. The World Order of Bahá’u’lláh. Wilmette, IL: Bahá’í Pu blis hing Trust
> Shunjo 1925, Honen the Bud dhist Saint (trans . H.H. Coates and R Is hizuka), Ky oto: Society for the Publication of the Sacred
> Books of the World
> Vahid-Tehrani, Mihrangiz. Biograp hy of Sayyid Hasan Hashimízádih Mutavajjih, u ndated manuscript in private hands
>
> — *Mysticism and the Baha'i Community (Used by permission of the curator)*