# Seeking Light in the Darkness of Race *Exported from [Holy-Writings.com](https://www.holy-writings.com/) on 2026-06-20 — 1 clipping.* --- > Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Jamar M. Wheeler, Seeking Light in the Darkness of Race, bahai-library.com. > ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── > > Seeking Light in force éclairante qui, lorsqu’elle se traduit > par des actions sociales individuelles et > the Darkness of collectives, a le pouvoir de transformer la > société à mesure que des actions à petite > “Race”1 échelle se combinent et entraînent des > mouvements d’envergure communautaire. > > Resumen > JAMAR M. WHEELER En este artículo, el autor explora el > Abstract racismo a través de una lente que integra > In this article, the author explores racial- una perspectiva sociológica e informada > ism through a lens that integrates a socio- por la Fe Bahá’í. Se ofrece un bosquejo > logical and Bahá’í-informed perspective. A histórico de cómo el concepto de la > historical sketch of how the race concept raza evolucionó, junto con un análisis > evolved is offered, along with a contempo- contemporáneo de lo que la historia ha > rary analysis of what history has wrought formado en los niveles macro y micro de > at the macro and micro levels of society. la sociedad. Viendo el racismo como un > Viewing racialism as a dark, subjugating aspecto oscuro y subyugante en la vida > aspect of social life, the author presents social, el autor presenta la unidad de la > the oneness of mankind as an enlighten- humanidad como una fuerza iluminadora. > ing force that, when actualized through Esa fuerza cuando se actualiza a través de > individual agency and collective social ac- una agencia individual y una acción social > tion, has the power to transform society as colectiva, tiene el poder de transformar la > small-scale efforts snowball into commu- sociedad, de los esfuerzos pequeños a los > nity-level movements. movimientos de nivel comunitario > > Resumé INTRODUCTION > Dans cet article, l’auteur examine le > racialisme à travers un prisme qui intègre At this critical juncture in the life > à la fois la sociologie et la pensée bahá’íe. of society, it is tempting to focus on > Il brosse un tableau de l’évolution du the most visible signs of racial con- > concept de la race et offre une analyse flict being featured on various media > contemporaine de ce que l’histoire a platforms, whether mainstream news > engendré aux niveaux macro et micro de > outlets or social media. The level of > la société. Voyant dans le racialisme un > urgency that currently appears to be > aspect sombre et assujetissant de la vie > en société, l’auteur présente le concept > building up with respect to race2 is > de l’unité de l’humanité comme une > 2 The word race has been used through- > 1 I dedicate this article to the memo- out this article with some regret given its > ry of Heather Heyer. I would also like to insignificance with respect to its original > thank Jeremy Lambshead for his invalu- biologistic intention. Its usage has been > able assistance in helping me improve this employed due to its general usefulness for > article. social discourse. > 58 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017 > > largely a result of the level of media While I acknowledge that there are > attention. However, I would argue numerous examples of positive inter- > that the situation has been urgent for racial interactions and social patterns, > a long while. Before the recent epi- this article is focused on fundamental > sodes of teens and even preteens be- questions such as why “race” seems > ing murdered with impunity, names to be a permanent feature of society, > like Rodney King, Amadou Diallo, how we got to the present situation > and Nicole Brown Simpson became with respect to race, and what might > familiar to us. Albeit often under the be some factors in liberating our social > radar of the news media, patterns of world from the dark scourge of race. > racial inequality have persisted in the As a result, this article tackles mainly > criminal justice system, at various so- large-scale sociohistorical dynamics > cioeconomic metrics, and in the sense that involve individuals, but mostly > of social esteem granted to those of a transcend them, especially those who > particular racial background. stand out as exceptions to the rule. > With this in mind, this article Given the sensitive nature of race as a > seeks to analyze race primarily from a subject matter, it could prove beneficial > sociohistorical perspective. This “big for the reader to be mindful that terms > picture” approach, I would argue, is such as “White,” “Black,” “whiteness,” > more effective in uncovering the so- and several others are mostly em- > cial significance of race as opposed ployed as general terms that do not > to focusing on highly visible inci- imply a sweeping categorization of > dents that are, in the end, symptoms every individual characterized as such. > or flare-ups of a deeper problem. The scope of this article is, for the > Presented for your consideration is most part, purposefully limited to the > a painstakingly forged reconciliation United States, given its unique racial > of sociological, spiritual, and expe- history and the sociological sense that > riential knowledge concerning race. race looks different in different social > In other words, this article reflects a contexts. Our exploration begins with > standpoint based on what I have thus a sociological perspective that focuses > far gathered from sociological schol- on the nature of race and how it has > arship and my study of the spiritual expressed itself throughout US histo- > teachings of the Bahá’í Faith, all fil- ry up to the present day at both the > tered through my personal experi- structural and interpersonal levels of > ence. Despite the inherent challenges society. It is established within this > and limitations, I believe that speak- discussion that race has evolved from > ing about what I know to be true at misguided ideas on human diversi- > this point in my holistic journey as a ty to become a cancerous element of > Bahá’í and an aspiring scholar is the our contemporary social structure > most effective way for me to contrib- that subjugates the populace and con- > ute to the discourse. strains our ability to forge authentic > Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 59 > > interracial bonds. We then explore generations to root out racism as a > insights from the Bahá’í Writings that social force that perpetuates systemic > offer an enriching social vision regard- and dehumanizing injustice means we > ing human diversity and the means to are living under the weight of a racial- > establish community life conducive to ized social structure in the United States > interracial brotherhood. Finally, I of- (Bonilla-Silva, “Rethinking Racism”). > fer some thoughts on how attaining Birthed by what those in power felt > and sustaining an authentic form of were the exigencies of capitalistic ma- > identity, and deepening this transcen- terialism, this racialized social struc- > dent sense of identity in the company ture is animated by sociohistorical > of like-minded collaborators, is the forces that place whiteness, as a way > key building block to constructing of being, at the very center of social > transformative communities that em- life, producing a system of social rela- > body the principle of the oneness of tions that bestows privileges to those > humanity—the pivotal social verity regarded as White and social burdens > of our time that unites science and upon those regarded as non-White. > religion. The racialized social structure exerts > As a whole, this article runs counter a subjugating influence on society due > to at least two tendencies, one tied to to its historical embeddedness and the > Bahá’í-centered discourse on race and fact that we are born into this racial- > the other tied to the social sciences in ized social environment, profoundly > general. Focused mainly on the cur- shaped by it during our lifetime, and > rent moment and the racialized social most likely to be outlived by it. As a re- > condition of the United States as a sult, deep racial inequalities are widely > whole, there will be scant mention of regarded as “the way it is,” something > the race amity initiatives spearheaded that we are powerless to change rather > by the US Bahá’í community at var- than an outcome of systemic injustice. > ious points in its history. This omis- This means that efforts at counter- > sion is a result of both its peripheral ing the forces released and sustained > relationship to my central thesis and a by the racialized social structure will > purposeful choice to avoid any trium- need to be revolutionary in character, > phalist tone when speaking on a del- focused on the principle of universal > eterious aspect of society that has so justice, and animated by forces that > far proven to be intractable. With re- transcend material reality. > spect to the social sciences, this article The animating principle that is con- > counters their inherent materialism ducive to fueling such countering ef- > and the concomitant tendency to avoid forts is the spirit of oneness. Seeing it as > metaphysical phenomena and their po- the conscious expression of the one- > tential to effect social outcomes. ness of humanity at the individual and > The primary assertion of this ar- collective levels, those inspired by the > ticle is that the inability of previous spirit of oneness will work for social > 60 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017 > > change and transform communities in granted as “the way things are” (Berg- > direct accordance to the strength of er and Luckmann). If subscribing to > the collaborations forged, and these race had been just one option available > transformed communities will effect in the “free market of ideas,” maybe > the institutional and cultural changes the eventual collective realization that > that will ultimately lead to the de-ra- it was a misguided idea would be all > cialization of society. we need to get over it and move on. > Instead, race was codified into law and > RACIALISM THROUGH A structured into the very life of soci- > SOCIOLOGICAL LENS ety through culture and custom (Zinn > 38). An idea is fairly easy to discard, > While it is rare for contemporary so- but the institutionalization of an idea > cial scientists to agree on a lot, there and the resulting structural effects are > is general agreement regarding the much harder to do away with. Under- > subject of race. There is a consensus standing that race is a social construct > that although existing phenotypical provides us with a gateway to a more > differences are real—exemplified in nuanced understanding of it, which > diversity of skin color, facial features, involves seeing the phenomenon as > and other physical characteristics— rooted in false ideas yet carrying sig- > such differences are in no way rooted nificant social consequences. > in mutually exclusive biological cate- > gories. In short, racial categories are RACIALISM: IDEOLOGY > not a scientifically valid means of sub- AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE > dividing the human race. Given this > fact and the visible inequalities largely One of the most prominent socio- > founded on a history of racialized dis- logical theories built upon the social > crimination, social scientists consider construction of race concept is racial > race to be a social construction. formation. Scholars Michael Omi and > The social construction of race con- Howard Winant argue that race is an > cept is based on the premise that while unstable construct within the sphere > “race” is not real in a scientific sense, it of social meanings that is constantly > is real in a social sense. Speaking very being contested in the arena of po- > concisely, racialism began as a set of litical struggle (116). The racial for- > ideas, and people then enacted these mation process is animated by racial > ideas through their behaviors, crystal- projects, which are said to be “histor- > lizing the ideas into a structure of be- ically situated projects in which hu- > liefs, and this structure of beliefs over man bodies and social structures are > time became encoded into the life of represented and organized” (Omi and > society. In other words, race evolved Winant 117). Each is “simultaneously > from false ideation in its genesis to an an interpretation, representation, or > aspect of social reality that we take for explanation of racial dynamics, and > Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 61 > > an effort to reorganize and redistrib- to social meaning, we will see that > ute resources along particular racial each era is profoundly shaped by forc- > lines” (117). At a macro level, the way es tied to social power. The concept > in which race is interpreted directly of hegemony becomes central to this > connects with social policy and how conversation. For the purposes of > interventions either seek to uphold or this article, hegemony represents a > attack the existing social structure. system of ideas and social practices > For example, if race is regarded as a that are promoted and maintained by > historical phenomenon that has lin- a dominant group in society as a nec- > gering effects, such an interpretation essary component to sustaining pop- > would tend to support policies aimed ular consent to their authority. Once > at ameliorating past discrimination. popular consent is generally achieved, > Conversely, if race is viewed as insig- societal notions and related practices > nificant, as something to be ignored emerge as a “common sense,” laying > regardless of what has taken place in the foundation for the establishment > the past, such an interpretation would of a hegemonic order. Although the > lend credence to a more “hands off ” existence of a hegemonic order does > approach (Omi and Winant 118–19). not negate the fact that social mean- > In short, the existence of numerous ing is a contested terrain, it does > racial projects operating in the field mean that it takes a concerted effort > of social action strongly suggests to deconstruct and dislodge it (Omi > that the meaning of race is consis- and Winant 127). > tently contested along political and Additionally, it should not be lost > cultural lines. that during each of these periods, the > If racialism is a body of ideas, ra- creed of material accumulation is the > cialization is the institutionalization primary driver. While the conquest > of these ideas through dominant ra- era can be defined by the rawness > cial projects and the internalization of its capital accumulation process, > of the beliefs and practices concom- during the nation-building period we > itant with a particular instance of find that the process of accumulation > race-making. I would argue that the is much more complex, involving a > evolution of the process of racializa- web of trade patterns that evolved > tion can be segmented into three eras: into an industrialized, transnational > 1) the conquest era (1419-1619), 2) economy. Lastly, in the post-war era, > the nation-building era (1620-1945), questions emerge with respect to how > and 3) the post-war era (1946-pres- to redress the racialized exploitation > ent). Each historical period of mo- and discrimination that was charac- > dernity exemplifies the dynamic of teristic of a history of oppression— > contestation highlighted in racial questions with pecuniary implica- > formation theory. Despite race be- tions in a “zero-sum” socioeconomic/ > ing a contested terrain with respect sociopolitical framework. > 62 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017 > > A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE PROCESS along these lines facilitated a sense of > OF RACIALIZATION ideological coherence between the > merchant conquerors, the monarchs, > At the beginning of the conquest and the ecclesiastical authorities (Omi > era, we find that the early European and Winant 122). While the hegemon- > explorers were faced with a bit of a ic order of the day was well estab- > conundrum when they encountered lished—an order that served to justify > populations in the New World that the material appropriation of newly > were very different from them. Differ- entered lands and the total domination > ent in skin, in language and culture, of the people residing there—a few > and in myriad other ways, questions brave souls consulted their conscience > arose regarding where these “natives” and challenged the “common sense” > stood in the “family of man.” Surely of the time Dominican friar and Span- > these people could not be equal to the ish historian Bartolomé de las Casas > Europeans, but to what extent could may be the most prominent example > they be exploited or enslaved? Over of one who, having witnessed the hu- > time it became clear that this contact man atrocities, implored the Catholic > with native populations throughout Church to respect the rights of Native > the Americas consolidated a world- Americans, at least in some form or > view that placed European Christian fashion. Las Casas’s plea to the Church > civilization at the center while periph- was heard, at least for a time, but the > eralizing Native American and Afri- cosmic weight of the conquest era > can populations that were regarded greatly diminished the impact of that > as heathens to be exploited. It is this counterhegemonic attempt (Dussel). > dynamic of in-group and out-group What began as European conquest > distinctiveness that released the seeds eventually became European colonial- > of modern racial awareness. ism. While conquest was largely de- > Although racial considerations are fined by the material appropriation of > in their infancy at this point, it is ar- foreign lands, colonialism was defined > gued that the conquest era is one de- by emerging European nation-states > fined by the religious civilization stand- maintaining a sustained presence in > point. Despite the existing competitive these lands, exemplified by the eventu- > struggles and the internal turmoil al presence of formal institutions. As > that they produced, European powers Europe’s colonial enterprise expand- > were united by the sense that their ed, a burgeoning intellectual revolu- > civilization was locked in a battle with tion was developing that would have > barbarism; therefore, the subjugation a lasting impact on the North Amer- > of such peoples was not only condu- ican colonies as well as on Europe as > cive to riches, but could be seen as a a whole. The Enlightenment ideas > Christianized campaign for social bet- promoted and embraced by a growing > terment. Interpreting human diversity contingent of Europeans conflicted > Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 63 > > with the reality that much of the The most successful racial project > economic life of Europe depended on to transform a historical instance of > slave labor and the material appropri- racial “common sense” was the one at > ation of foreign lands. In an attempt the core of the civil rights movement, > to achieve logical coherence between which is widely regarded as coming > Enlightenment ideas and European into form in 1955 with the Montgom- > domination, a set of notions regarding ery Bus Boycott. Partially facilitated > human diversity were advanced that by Cold War global politics, the civil > would accrete to scientific racism. rights movement successfully trans- > I contend that it was the consoli- formed the social meaning of race > dation of this racialized logic that has through an organized and concert- > permanently shaped American culture ed effort that included non-violent > when it comes to race. The political protests, appeals to the federal gov- > machinations aimed at separating ernment, the legal advocacy of the > Whites and Blacks, the racial logic NAACP, and voter registration drives > being promoted by highly esteemed (Carson). Each of these efforts had > philosophers and the religious and one thing in common, which effected > political leaders of the time, and the a lasting transformation of the so- > compelling vulnerability of enslaved cial meaning of race—the unequiv- > Africans and Native Americans, fused ocal affirmation of the humanity of > together in a socially toxic mix to Americans of African descent. The > produce a highly racialized society hegemonic order regarding race was > that lingers with us to this day. De- dismantled by the protagonists of the > spite the sociopolitical changes that civil rights movement and members of > resulted from the emancipation of the the general public that were inspired > slave population, Reconstruction, the to embrace a new social reality imbued > emergence of Jim Crow, and the Great with racial justice. The passage of the > Migration to the North, the social Civil Rights (1964) and Voting Rights > meaning of race was still rooted in Acts (1965), like the ignominious laws > biologically essentialist notions. Such passed during the days of slavery, were > a racialized conception was reflected the institutional expressions of the > in the strict segregationist structure transformed meaning of race. It was > of the South and the pattern of wide- understood for a time, however brief, > spread job and housing discrimination that for American society to move for- > in the North. Regardless of where ward the injustices of the past and the > Black persons found themselves, at the inequalities produced as a result had to > institutional and interpersonal levels be rectified through ameliorative so- > of society they were most likely to be cial policies such as affirmative action. > regarded as inferior beings whose civil This wave of social change, while > rights and pursuit of happiness need powerful, meaningful, and revolution- > not be respected or even considered. ary, was soon countered by another > 64 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017 > > wave of social sentiment that crystal- Abstract Liberalism is described as a > lized into an ideology that character- frame that seeks to rationalize opposi- > ized social policies designed to redress tion to “racial fairness policies” based > historical wrongs as problematic. One on principles such as equality of op- > of the key ingredients of this ideol- portunity, individualism, and basing > ogy was addressing racial issues in a decisions related to hiring or admis- > race-neutral manner, and this discur- sions on merit alone. Briefly, the argu- > sive strategy is at the core of what is ment posits that society is best served > known as the colorblind racial ideology when it allows equality of opportuni- > (Bonilla-Silva, Racism without Racists ty to be employed in a “race-neutral” > 3). Over time, in the battle for the so- fashion. Despite obvious racial ineq- > cial meaning of race, colorblindness uities and their potential causes, any > reached a position of hegemony and a efforts to expand opportunities to dis- > new version of racial “common sense” advantaged groups are thus labeled as > was consolidated. While various racial “preferential treatment” or examples > projects continue to wage, it seems of “reverse discrimination.” Addition- > that colorblindness is today’s watchword ally, from such a viewpoint, programs > for the hegemonic order of today. like affirmative action are attacked as > “group-based” preferential programs > COLORBLINDNESS AS that disregard individual talents and > THE RACIAL HEGEMONY OF TODAY capacities, which penalizes more qual- > ified (i.e. White) individuals (Bonil- > The ideological components of col- la-Silva, Racism without Racists 78). > orblindness combine classical liberal The second frame, naturalization, > sentiments, such as liberty and equal- largely consists of sentiments that ex- > ity before the law, with some of the plain visibly racial phenomena as the > discursive elements employed by civil “way it is,” as natural occurrences that > rights activists, such as judging peo- are the result of human nature. Fea- > ple by the content of their character tures of the social landscape such as > rather than by the color of their skin. segregated neighborhoods, schools, > According to Bonilla-Silva, this racial and religious communities are viewed > ideology is composed of four central as products of the tendency of dif- > frames: abstract liberalism, naturaliza- ferent racial groups to “stick to their > tion, cultural racism, and minimization own.” It should be noted that Whites > of racism. Leveraging his analysis of who make this claim are careful to > hundreds of interviews, Bonilla-Silva attribute this behavior to all racial > is quick to point out that these frames groups to ensure that it is known that > are mutually reinforcing and often “all groups do it” (Bonilla-Silva, Rac- > employed in various combinations in ism without Racists 84). > particular lines of discourse (Racism One of the more potent frames > without Racists 74). of the colorblind racial ideology is > Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 65 > > cultural racism. The success of the civ- “bad apples out there.” Another key > il rights movement meant that overt element of this frame is attributing > claims regarding the racial inferiority certain social outcomes that are racial > of Blacks and other racialized minori- in character to non-racial factors. For > ties have been rendered immoral. As example, the widely stated claim from > a consequence, inequalities are rarely Blacks (and social scientists) that job > conceptualized as a result of biological discrimination still exists is regarded > limitations; they are now conceived as with skepticism, while other factors > resulting from a deficient culture that such as qualifications and attitudinal > promotes certain undesirable traits characteristics are used as explana- > and behaviors. For example, the status tions. More general claims of experi- > of Blacks in this country is viewed as encing racial discrimination through- > resulting from laziness and the lack out one’s life are regarded as making > of motivation to upraise themselves excuses and “finding what you’re look- > through education and hard work. ing for” (Bonilla-Silva, Racism without > Often this phenomenon, in an attempt Racists 91). > to be “gentle and kind,” is attributed A great example of the tensions > to the family life of Blacks and other created by the hegemonic order of > minorities, the implication being that, colorblindness are readily apparent > “while it is true that they are lazy and in the Black Lives Matter movement > unmotivated, it is not 100% their fault (BLM). Founded in 2013 as a spirited > because they were never taught any response to the acquittal of George > better” (Bonilla-Silva, Racism without Zimmerman in the death of Tray- > Racists 87). von Martin, the movement received > The final frame, and the one that national attention in the wake of the > seems to tie everything together, is police shooting of Michael Brown in > the minimization of racism. This per- Ferguson, Missouri (Day). According > spective portrays racial discrimination to its website, “#BlackLivesMatter is a > as a phenomenon that is no longer a call to action and a response to the vir- > significant factor in limiting the social ulent anti-Black racism that permeates > mobility of racialized minorities. The our society” (“About”). The counterhe- > elasticity of this particular frame is the gemonic response being mounted by > source of its potency because it allows BLM seems to be especially directed > for the recognition of discrimination toward opposing the criminalization > at the level of individual action while of Black youth, especially with re- > denying its structural impact. This dy- spect to policing as a matter of pub- > namic enables proponents to decry in- lic policy. The goal of the movement > stances of racially motivated violence, in reference to the racial formation > for example, yet still hang on to the framework is to transform the mean- > belief that “we’re moving past race” as ing of race surrounding Black people. > a society since there are always some Success in this regard would equate > 66 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017 > > to measurable changes both in how stage in its development has allowed > Blacks are perceived and how they are this social malignancy to produce a > treated in public spaces, whether by structure of social relations that ren- > the police or the general public. From ders everyday interactions and prac- > the BLM viewpoint, transforming the tices as both racist and rational (Bonil- > meaning of race will help minimize la-Silva, “Rethinking Racism” 475). In > the instances of state violence against other words, the racialization process > Blacks and uphold their common hu- has evolved to such a degree that ac- > manity and dignity. tions that could accurately be read > Conversely, the spirited reaction as racist could also be read as logical > against the Black Lives Matter move- choices given the social context. For > ment can be summarized in the phrase example, if a young White couple has > “All Lives Matter.” Those who sym- been priced out of a certain residen- > pathize with the logic underlying this tial area but finds that there is a hip, > counter-response are, for all intents on-the-rise neighborhood within their > and purposes, aligned with colorblind- price range, their moving into that > ness. Just as colorblind proponents in- neighborhood is logically beneficial > fer that the cardinal racial sin is to inject to them, despite the fact that they are > race into public policy as a means of contributing to a large-scale pattern > addressing inequalities and injustices of Black displacement that is charac- > of a racial character, the advocates of teristic of gentrification. In essence, > “All Lives Matter” reject the mention many of the contemporary racial > of “Black lives” for similar reasons. dynamics are shaped by the socioeco- > The core critique of BLM from these nomic vulnerability of Blacks, which > proponents is centered on the ratio- leads to limited choices with respect to > nale that the incidents highlighted by housing in conjunction with the more > BLM are race-neutral incidents or at expansive options available to Whites > most are isolated incidents that do not in accordance with their particular > merit the level of protest and angst tastes. This housing dynamic becomes > raised. The “All Lives Matter” stance more compelling when considering > is a pure reflection of the hegemonic that the tastes of Blacks and other > order of colorblindness, positing that racial minorities have rarely been ac- > in the absence of clear, explicit racism, corded a similar level of respect in the > the “real racists” are those who inject housing market, regardless of socio- > race into the conversation. economic background (Lewis, Emer- > son, and Klineberg). > RACIALIZED SOCIAL STRUCTURE Overall, the reality of a racialized > AS A PRODUCT OF HISTORY social structure as the outcome of the > historical forces detailed earlier ulti- > The inability of the US social collec- mately means that contemporary ra- > tive to root out racialism at an earlier cial antagonisms are often reflective > Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 67 > > of rational self-interests, given the dated 10 April 2011; emphasis added.). > perception that the material gains of Racialism has become a fixed feature > an out-group will have an adverse of the US social structure, its life, and > effect on the in-group . This attitude its culture. Evidence suggests that > creates a social dynamic in which the even the most innocent daily activities > socioeconomic gains of racialized can have racial connotations, be they > groups are regarded as offensive in- shopping, eating out, watching tele- > cursions into the field of social status vision, going to the park, or choosing > and prestige, while the consolidation to live in a certain neighborhood. Our > of socioeconomic gains on the part social ecology has been so thoroughly > of the dominant group is viewed as polluted by race that the reproduction > the continuance of white supremacy. of deep racial inequalities is seen as a > According to Herbert Blumer, these natural features of contemporary so- > dynamics are undergirded by the “col- ciety. Upholding social privileges for > lective process of characterization,” those regarded as White, while racial > which perceives distinctive racial minorities bear the burden of denial, > groups as alien and their desires for is a sociocultural phenomenon that > social mobility as indicative of har- appears to be fundamental to the con- > boring “designs on the prerogatives temporary American way of life. > of the dominant race” (4). At the same > time, the dominant racial group has a > feeling of “proprietary claim to cer- RACIALISM: SOCIAL INTERACTION > tain areas of privilege and advantage,” AND IDENTITY > which may explain the sense of am- > bivalence with respect to the social im- It could be said that a natural out- > plications of gentrification and similar growth of the process of racialization > matters (Blumer 4). was the erection of social barriers > The dynamic of mundane self-in- separating the White population from > terested actions producing racialized non-White populations, with Blacks > outcomes and the manner in which being the primary example of a group > socioeconomic gains are perceived from which to be socially distanced. > across the color line testify to the During the post-Reconstruction pe- > degree that racialism permeates the riod of US history, W. E. B. Du Bois, > sociocultural and sociopolitical life a preeminent Black sociologist and > of the United States. This condition activist, introduced to the world “the > brings to mind a statement from the veil” and “double consciousness” as > Universal House of Justice: “The interrelated sociological concepts. In > expressions of racial prejudice have his well-known The Souls of Black Folk, > transmuted into forms that are mul- Du Bois discusses both concepts in the > tifaceted, less blatant and more intri- following way: > cate, and thus more intractable” (Letter > 68 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017 > > After the Egyptian and Indian, go hand in hand with the racialization > the Greek and Roman, the Teuton process. It is this very process that > and Mongolian, the Negro is a yields “double consciousness”—the > sort of seventh son, born with a sense of twoness that stems from the > veil, and gifted with second-sight inherent struggle to enjoy the fruits > in this American world,—a world of US citizenship while being regard- > which yields him no true self-con- ed as undeserving. > sciousness, but only lets him see One of the more troubling aspects > himself through the revelation of of the veil is the way in which it pre- > the other world. It is a peculiar vents mutual recognition across the > sensation, this double-conscious- color line. As an ever-present phenom- > ness, this sense of always looking enon, the obscuring quality of “the > at one’s self by the tape of the veil” prevents true communication > world that looks on in amused from happening between racializing > contempt and pity. One ever feels and racialized groups (Itzigsohn and > his twoness,—an American, a Brown 237). In a later work, Du Bois > Negro; two souls, two thoughts, thus elaborated on the nature of the > two unreconciled strivings; two veil: > warring ideals in one dark body, > whose dogged strength alone It is as though one, looking out > keeps it from being torn asunder. from a dark cave in a side of an > (45) impending mountain, sees the > world passing and speaks to it; > In post-Reconstruction America, Du speaks courteously and persua- > Bois believed that the ascriptive na- sively, showing them how these > ture of the racialization process and entombed souls are hindered in > its resulting reification3 prevents the their natural movement, expres- > racializing group (Whites) from rec- sion, and development; and how > ognizing the full humanity of the their loosening from prison would > racialized because the process itself be a matter not simply of cour- > is one of “othering” segments of the tesy, sympathy, and help to them, > population and portraying them as de- but (an) aid to all the world . . . . It > viations from the norm of whiteness gradually penetrates the minds of > (Itzigsohn and Brown 237). Racialized the prisoners that the people pass- > subjects, therefore, are forced to recon- ing do not hear; that some thick > cile their own sense of humanity while sheet of invisible but horribly tan- > battling the dehumanizing forces that gible plate glass is between them > and the world. They get excited; > 3 The treatment of socially construct- they talk louder; they gesticulate. > ed concepts as concrete aspects of the real Some of the passing world stop > world. in curiosity; these gesticulations > Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 69 > > seem so pointless; they laugh relative social blindness—its inability > and pass on. They still either do to recognize the humanity of the ra- > not hear at all, or hear but dimly, cialized as well as their “own position > and even that they hear, they do as oppressor within the system of ra- > not understand. Then the people cialization” (Itzigsohn and Brown 243). > within may become hysterical. Because of their position of dominance > They may scream and hurl them- within the system of racialization, the > selves against the barriers, hardly social vision of Whites is limited to > realizing in their bewilderment their own world of privilege. The veil > that they are screaming in a vac- does not allow them to fully see, under- > uum unheard and that their antics stand, or empathize with the communi- > may actually seem funny to those ty in its entirety. Even the most well-in- > outside looking in. (Dusk 66) tentioned White persons are said to be > ill equipped to accurately interpret the > This eloquently descriptive allegory il- Black experience, which leads them to > lustrates how difficult it is to communi- misdiagnose the remedy for race-based > cate across the veil and achieve mutual inequalities (Du Bois, Dusk 67). > recognition. It matters not how articu- The inability to walk in the shoes of > lately or forcefully one speaks; the voice racialized groups blinds Whites to the > of the racialized either goes unheard or oppressive nature of the system of ra- > is misunderstood by the racializing col- cialization and fosters a sense of social > lective. This dynamic creates troubling delusion. This delusion has two rein- > outcomes for the racialized group, forcing components, the first being the > but the racializing group does not go sense that the existing social order, de- > unaffected. spite the presence of racial inequalities, > As a consequence of the incongru- is essentially just, and the second being > ous relationship between its continual that Whites are, therefore, ontological- > defense and assertion of its common ly superior to racialized minorities. The > humanity and the actual amount of presence of the veil as a powerful so- > progress made, the racialized group cial barrier produces two separate life- > struggles to appreciate the humanity worlds—one Black, one White. While > of the racializing group. Along with the White world can be discerned > the exhausting efforts to reaffirm the through the limitations it imposes on > humanity of their group comes a con- the racialized world in contrast to its > gealed sense of resentment and a cor- position of privilege, the world of > responding lack of faith that those on Blacks and other racialized minorities > the other side of the veil can exhibit is invisible to Whites because of their > fairness and show a degree of reason inability to see through the eyes of the > when it comes to racial matters (Du “othered” while they themselves are > Bois, Dusk 67). The effects on the ra- enmeshed in privilege (Itzigsohn and > cializing group, instead, center on its Brown 243). > 70 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017 > > THE PROBLEM OF WHITENESS be consistent among Whites, regard- > less of their political affiliations (e.g., > I would argue, in alignment with nu- white nationalist, anti-racist). Hughey > merous scholars, that much of the asserts that hegemonic whiteness > story of American-style racialism is is composed of two comingled ele- > defined by the creation, maintenance, ments: first, the conceptual framing > and perpetuation of whiteness. Gen- of whiteness as both different from > erally speaking, whiteness refers to a and superior to forms of non-white- > particular worldview and a concomi- ness; and second, the marginalization > tant dimension of behaviors and prac- of any alternative forms of whiteness > tices that reflect an internalization of that do not conform to the formulated > white racial identity. According to Ian ideal (16). In essence, whiteness oper- > Haney López, white racial identity is ates as an aspirational form of identi- > ultimately defined by the double neg- ty, separating good Whites from bad > ative of being “not non-White.” In Whites, while non-Whites are essen- > short, López finds that there is a sig- tially barred because of how they are > nificant relationship between contem- inferiorized. > porary white racial identity and the Revisiting earlier concepts, white- > judicial rulings of various US courts ness as a combination of a worldview > regarding immigration at a time when and collective social practices tied to > immigration was limited to those re- that worldview is a logical expression > garded as White. Finding that the of agency on the part of a socially > courts focused more attention on the privileged group. Due to the racial- > non-White plaintiffs, rather than de- ized nature of the social structure, > fining what constitutes whiteness, he Whites mobilize their resources in > asserts that white racial identity is pri- ways that are rational but that have > marily animated by a sense of norma- the effect of perpetuating their social > tive transparency, which renders the privilege—white privilege. In addi- > existence of non-Whites as differen- tion, the obscuring quality of the veil, > tiated from this standard of transpar- conjoined with the social blindness > ency. In essence, non-Whites become that regularly affects any privileged > “raced,” and this differentiation from group—whether on the basis of race, > the standard is regarded as ontologi- gender, or class—results in renders > cally inferior. Therefore, whiteness is any attempts of racially subordinat- > not simply the opposite of non-white- ed groups to transform the existing > ness; it is perceived as the superior op- social order as hostile, misguided, or > posite (López 20). premature. Consistently perceived as > Matthew Hughey elaborates on the “social aliens,” racialized minorities > nature of whiteness in White Bound. In encounter a barrage of messages that, > this book, he identifies “dimensions of for all intents and purposes, commu- > hegemonic whiteness” that appear to nicate to them the need to accept a > Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 71 > > lower status because, according to the American toward his Negro fellow > rules of whiteness, they will never be citizen” would be necessary to avoid > accepted as social equals. bloodshed (Citadel 126). All signs in- > It should be made abundantly clear dicate that such a transformation in > that individual Whites can refuse consciousness is still necessary, as the > to participate in whiteness or even mainstream discourse on race appears > choose to dedicate time and energy to to be paralyzed by ideological postur- > disrupting whiteness as a social force ing, while blood is literally being shed > that ultimately seeks to defend social as a result of cross-racial conflict. > boundaries in the face of “intruders.” > By the same token, the compelling THE GUIDING LIGHT OF ONENESS > weight of the racialized social struc- > ture suggests that it takes high levels If we can use our social imagination > of personal resolve and social percep- and perceive US society as being in a > tiveness to navigate such a path. The state of organic growth much like a > objective here is not to cast aspersions garden and as being ultimately judged > on White people but to identify how by the health of the garden in its > the perpetuation of whiteness as a entirety, we would be anxiously con- > social force concretizes the social rela- cerned with the health and growth of > tions that act as the brick and mortar each plant, hopeful that each would > of the racialized social structure. The bloom and display its latent beauty. > collective failure to disrupt a system If a friend were invited over and hap- > of social relations that effectively pened to see our garden and observe > places whiteness at the center of each the health of the lilies while lamenting > social space of significance is tanta- the state of the violets, what would be > mount to deliberately perpetuating the the appropriate reaction? Would we > entrenchment of racialism as a dimen- blame the significant differences in the > sion of social life. state of the flowers on their individual > The socially toxic mix of whiteness, traits, or would we take responsibili- > a racialized social structure, and the ty as gardeners and admit that we’ve > related inability to recognize the com- neglected the violets? Better yet, what > mon humanity of “the other” across actions would we take to ensure that > racial lines are powerful social forces the violets grew just as healthily as the > that greatly constrain our collective lilies? How would we treat the soil? > vision as well as our collective will to How would we go about extracting > build toward a social reality imbued the strangling weeds? > with the oneness of humanity. Shoghi In the 240-year history of the Unit- > Effendi, as part of a larger statement, ed States, plus the more than 100-year > exhorted in a cautionary tone that a period before the Declaration of Inde- > “revolutionary change in the concept pendence, those in positions of lead- > and attitude of the average white ership have failed to tend the garden > 72 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017 > > of humanity existing on this soil in a conflict will continue to fester and > way that leads to the organic growth erode ties between citizens and social > and health of all. To the contrary, the institutions. > tendency has been to direct resources As of today, evidence suggests > to those deemed “worthy” through pe- that interracial social relations are > riodic social interventions and to deny encumbered by the specter of white- > the same benefits to those deemed un- ness, meaning that large-scale social > worthy by the dint of race. Whether institutions, whether public or private, > it was the extension of land to for- legal or commercial, exhibit a high de- > mer White indentured servants while gree of responsiveness to Whites as a > slave codes were being enforced, the social group, despite the consequences > New Deal policies (1933-1939) during to non-Whites. The various examples > the Jim Crow era, or the extension of of this dynamic could fill scores of > GI Bill benefits (1944-1968) at a time pages; therefore, it is prudent to say > when redlining policies and housing that for Blacks, there are many sto- > discrimination were the de facto laws ries of unmerited police interactions, > of the land, the process of racializa- whether precipitated by the phone > tion has expressed itself through a calls of neighbors or through police > social system that has exhibited recep- officers’ insidious practice of racial > tivity to the social plight of Whites profiling. Similarly, the history of > while largely ignoring the plight of Native Americans is replete with ex- > racial minorities. amples of White incursions into their > Much of the racial story in the US sovereign territory in the guise of > has hinged on the issue of justice. justified legal action, when in fact such > Historically, those deifying whiteness annexations are more reflective of the > have sought to defend the racial sta- dominant group doing as it pleases. > tus quo of various eras regardless of If we envision social progress as the > the injuries inflicted upon humankind garden of humanity on full display > as a whole, while those asserting the and not as lilies standing out while > need for equal justice envisioned a the other flowers wither and wilt, it is > society that bonded all its citizens to imperative that justice, both legislated > the rule of law with no glint of racial and enforced, be evenly applied to each > preference. Speaking on the issue of citizen regardless of the accidents of > justice, Bahá’u’lláh said, “The light of birth. > men is Justice. Quench it not with the > contrary winds of oppression and tyr- HUMANITY REDEFINED > anny. The purpose of justice is the ap- > pearance of unity among men” (Tablets The Bahá’í teachings offer a trans- > 66–67). In the context of this article formative vision of the human race, > the implication is clear: until the paving the way for reformative jus- > standard of justice is met, interracial tice that is inclusive of three major > Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 73 > > themes: 1) the nature of human cre- of Adam. This signifies that ra- > ation, 2) the socio-spiritual realness of cial assumption and distinction > the oneness of humanity, and 3) unity are nothing but superstition. In > in diversity as a social way of being. the estimate of God there are > In a collection of verses titled The no English, French, Germans, > Hidden Words, Bahá’u’lláh writes, “O Turkish or Persians. All these in > Children of Men! Know ye not why the presence of God are equal; > We created you all from the same they are of one race and creation; > dust? That no one should exalt him- God did not make these divisions. > self over the other. Ponder at all times These distinctions have had their > in your hearts how ye were created” origin in man himself. Therefore, > (Arabic no. 68). Bahá’u’lláh not only as they are against the plan and > signifies that humanity was “created purpose of reality, they are false > from the same dust”; He also exhorts and imaginary. (299) > us to ponder and reflect on the impli- > cations of how we were created. In the Considering the themes outlined in > current social context, this mode of this article, what emerges as especially > active reflection and internalization of significant is the statement that racial > the social meaning has the potential to divisions and distinctions “are against > free us from snap judgments that em- the plan and purpose of reality” (299). > ploy racial stereotypes as social tem- What does this mean with respect to > plates that characterize certain groups our common ability as US urbanites to > of people as “safe” or “dangerous,” identify in what part of town Blacks > “trustworthy” or “criminal.” Under- and Latinos live? What is the impli- > standing that skin color, style of dress, cation when there are clear patterns > and other outward characteristics say showing that a racialized group has > little about one’s inner character and been overpenalized and, at the same > potential is surely a progressive step, time, underserved by the criminal jus- > although counterintuitive in a highly tice system? If we are encompassed by > racialized environment. a social environment that is inimical to > If we accept that humanity is of a a social reality more congruent with > single origin, questions regarding the human nature, what is the scope of > social significance of it all naturally our responsibilities to ensure a more > emerge. On this subject, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá complementary environment? The > states: dictates of colorblindness would have > us simply accept the society we’ve in- > All humanity are the children herited and chalk up numerous indica- > of God; they belong to the same tions of racial inequality to “natural” > family, to the same original race. human processes. > There can be no multiplicity of Accepting the ontological realness > races, since all are the descendants of the oneness of humanity and its > 74 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017 > > rootedness in the image of our cre- is indicative of the inherent beauty > ation offered by Bahá’u’lláh, it would of the whole of humanity. Addition- > be fair to ask how humanity should ad- ally, He offers a vision of society in > dress racial diversity. Further deepen- which people of distinct ethno-racial > ing the garden metaphor I borrowed backgrounds freely associate with one > from the writings of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, I another “without discord or disagree- > share the following passage in its pur- ment between them” (69). But given > er form: the racialized character of existing > social relations, how can this condition > Bahá’u’lláh has proclaimed the be realized? > oneness of the world of human- It seems that a major first step > ity. He has caused various nations would be the institutionalization of > and divergent creeds to unite. He interracial justice in terms of both the > has declared that difference of “laws on the books” and their enforce- > race and color is like the variegat- ment. Holding people accountable for > ed beauty of flowers in a garden. their actions regardless of their role > If you enter a garden, you will see within the criminal justice system and > yellow, white, blue, red flowers in the non-politicization of agencies re- > profusion and beauty—each ra- sponsible for ensuring equality under > diant within itself and although the law would be key ingredients to > different from the others, lending justice being wielded in ways that lead > its own charm to them. Racial dif- to a greater sense of interracial unity. > ference in the human kingdom is It could well be argued that mass in- > similar. If all the flowers in a gar- carceration and the differential treat- > den were of the same color, the ment of Whites and racial minorities > effect would be monotonous and when confronted by police emboldens > wearying to the eye. those tantalized by the notion of white > Therefore, Bahá’u’lláh hath said supremacy while exasperating those > that the various races of human- who envision a social world more in > kind lend a composite harmony keeping with our metaphysical re- > and beauty of color to the whole. alities as children of the same God, > Let all associate, therefore, in this equally valued and equally beloved. > great human garden even as flow- > ers grow and blend together side OVERCOMING “THE VEIL” > by side without discord or dis- > agreement between them. (68–69) The principle of the oneness of hu- > manity—animated by universal equal- > According to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, human di- ity with respect to human station > versity, specifically that of a so-called and an unrestrained appreciation of > racial character, should be regarded human diversity—offers a corrective > as a virtue, a delightful element that social vision for which to aspire, but > Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 75 > > what are the implications at the lev- the past, and their ability to wipe > el of identity and social interaction? out every trace of suspicion that > The concept of “the veil” posits that may still linger in their hearts and > a racialized social barrier is not only minds. (Advent 40) > in place, but is so embedded in the > field of social relations as to obscure In these two paragraphs, the leader > the ability of a racial group to see the of the worldwide Bahá’í community > common humanity of another group. implicitly acknowledges the weighti- > With a penetrating sense of social ness of the racialized social structure > perceptiveness, especially for one who and its potential to have a deleterious > never set foot in the United States, effect on the ability of a religious > Shoghi Effendi, shortly before the community to live out its socially > start of the Second World War, coun- transformative principles, especially > seled both White and Black Bahá’ís in those tied to the oneness of humanity. > the following way: Speaking primarily to the US Bahá’ís, > Shoghi Effendi, I believe, is exhorting > Let the white make a supreme both Black and White Bahá’ís not to > effort in their resolve to contrib- content themselves with a surface-lev- > ute their share to the solution of el sense of brotherhood. Most sig- > this problem, to abandon once for nificantly, a religious community still > all their usually inherent and at slight in membership was encouraged > times subconscious sense of supe- by its leader to fight an uphill battle in > riority, to correct their tendency defense of its core beliefs against the > towards revealing a patronizing social forces that surrounded it. > attitude towards the members of We established earlier that the veil > the other race, to persuade them has a negative effect on the ability of > through their intimate, sponta- both racially dominant and racially > neous and informal association subordinate groups to fully see the > with them of the genuineness of humanity of the other. Those in the > their friendship and the sincerity dominant group are prone to assume > of their intentions, and to master their inherent superiority when en- > their impatience of any lack of gaging with racialized minorities, > responsiveness on the part of a while racialized minorities tend to > people who have received, for so assume that members of the domi- > long a period, such grievous and nant group will somehow reveal racist > slow-healing wounds. tendencies, however unintended, that > Let the Negroes, through a cor- may cause offense. In this context, > responding effort on their part, wouldn’t it be easier to avoid contact > show by every means in their altogether? It may be so in the short > power the warmth of their re- term, but Shoghi Effendi, cognizant > sponse, their readiness to forget of the true nature of humanity and > 76 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017 > > its ultimate purpose, in clear language agencies that stand outside the > encourages both groups to muster the orbit of their Faith. Let neither > heart and soul to fully engage in an think that anything short of gen- > intimate manner until any walls sepa- uine love, extreme patience, true > rating them are destroyed through the humility, consummate tact, sound > power of their mutual affection. initiative, mature wisdom, and de- > It is rather remarkable how well liberate, persistent, and prayerful > Shoghi Effendi was able to read the effort, can succeed in common > reality of the racial situation in the country. Let them rather believe, > United States. Clearly, he was able and be firmly convinced, that on > to determine that both Blacks and their mutual understanding, their > Whites have challenges to overcome amity, and sustained cooperation, > in order to meet the standard of be- must depend, more than on any > ing free from racial prejudice. It seems other force or organization oper- > the primary challenge for Whites is ating outside the circle of their > to detach themselves from feelings of Faith, the deflection of that dan- > superiority and the related tendency gerous course so greatly feared > to be condescending toward racial mi- by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, and the material- > norities. Similarly, the primary chal- ization of the hopes He cherished > lenge for Blacks seems to be showing for their joint contribution to the > a willing receptivity to Whites that fulfillment of that country’s glo- > is free of the tendency to presuppose rious destiny. (Advent 40–41) > someone’s intentions as a consequence > of the influence of an oppressive his- Although speaking primarily to what > tory. Both are encouraged to cleanse was then a small religious community > their eyes, hearts, and minds of their struggling to live up to its Founder’s > societal miseducation and to see one spiritual teachings, Shoghi Effendi > another anew. In this context, Shoghi clearly intended for these words to > Effendi goes on to say: have deep implications for the United > States as a whole. The racialized social > Let neither think that the solu- barriers that exist must be overcome > tion of so vast a problem is a by the force of interracial engage- > matter that exclusively concerns ment. This engagement must go be- > the other. Let neither think that yond civility and politeness and lead to > such a problem can either easily genuine, systematic, and heartfelt in- > or immediately be resolved. Let teractions that have the effect of slow- > neither think that they can wait ly melting away the iciness that tends > confidently for the solution of to characterize cross-racial social rela- > this problem until the initiative tions. This social imperative implies a > has been taken, and the favor- burgeoning community of mavericks > able circumstances created, by that can serve as an effective model to > Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 77 > > help fellow citizens see what can be, mutual reactions” (qtd. in Universal > instead of limiting our collective so- House of Justice, letter dated 26 No- > cial imagination to what is. vember 2012). Keeping in mind the > racialized character of the US social > THE QUEST FOR AUTHENTIC IDENTITY environment, we are challenged to > AND SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION vie for transformational outcomes > that effectively cleanse society of this > O Man of two visions! scourge by resisting the influence of > Close one eye and open the other. racial ideologies and their concurrent > Close one to the world and all that is therein, social practices, while harnessing their > and open the other to the hallowed beauty agency, or individual initiative, to effect > of the Beloved. change. The way in which we view > —Bahá’u’lláh, The Hidden Words ourselves as human beings becomes > (Persian no. 12) critical at this stage. > As we have established, “race” as a > While a forceful engagement across social construction has its beginnings > the color line is necessary in order to in the colonial period, deployed as a > overcome “the Veil,” something deeper means of justifying the systemic ex- > is necessary to animate and sustain our ploitation of those who were pheno- > efforts. The subjugating weight of the typically and culturally different. This > racialized social structure requires the dark social experiment has always been > means of fortifying ourselves against rooted in capitalistic materialism, or the > the dark forces of racialism and also a set of values and practices that regard > way to strike back and build new pat- the accumulation of wealth, goods, > terns of interaction that will accrete and power as chief priorities. Despite > to a new social order imbued with the historical class differences existing > spirit of oneness, expressed in the im- between those regarded as White, the > plementation of the principle of “unity force of racialization created condi- > in diversity.” As human beings, we are tions that allowed Whites on the low- > organically linked with the social en- est economic rungs to hold themselves > vironment that surrounds us. Shoghi in higher esteem than members of oth- > Effendi emphasized that there is a er racial groups. While whiteness ap- > dynamic of mutual reactions when it pears to be a significant cultural reality > comes to the inner life of the individu- for those of a middle-class background > al and the social environment in which or higher, for those in the low-income > he or she is embedded: “Man is organic group whiteness has become a critical > with the world. His inner life molds the fulcrum in their lifeworld. Whenever > environment and is itself also deeply racial minorities seem to be gaining a > affected by it. The one acts upon the socioeconomic foothold, it is typically > other and every abiding change in lower-income Whites that bluster the > the life of man is the result of these most. > 78 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017 > > In my own preliminary research, I take the form of active defiance in the > have observed that in this day, Blacks face of racial stigmatization. Regard- > often bear the brunt of the policing less of social perception, the deter- > of social boundaries associated with mination to be oneself, to recognize > whiteness. In seemingly race-neu- one’s equal worth, and to realize one’s > tral social spaces, whiteness exerts inherent potential as a “mine rich in > its presence in both subtle and overt gems” is paramount (Bahá’u’lláh, Tab- > ways through microaggressions and lets 162). Succumbing to internalized > hyper-surveillance, respectively. An racism and becoming a shell of one’s > example of a typical microaggression self in relation to one’s potential as > is a social slight in a public place such a human being is not only a personal > as a restaurant, where the service re- failure; it is equivalent to a candle’s > ceived by someone of color is clearly flame being snuffed out by the winds > of lesser quality when compared to of human negation, thereby leaving > the attention rendered to someone of more darkness in its wake. Once an > a lighter hue. Hyper-surveillance is of- individual has established a solid foot- > ten witnessed in retail establishments, ing on the path of racial defiance, it is > where racial minorities, especially critical that he or she initiate togeth- > Blacks and Latinos, are regularly fol- erness by joining hands and hearts > lowed or watched. with a group of collaborators, and in > What a transformative social out- this way, walk a path of service that, > come with respect to race requires is while difficult and arduous, is never- > a social imagination that rejects the theless a path that will ultimately lead > racialized social structure, regarding to a social reality in which the inher- > it as a manifestation of evil, and pro- ent nobility and the exquisite talents > motes the revolutionary recovery of of racialized minorities will not only > one’s authentic self-identity. This rev- be recognized, but, more importantly, > olutionary form of identity can then will also contribute vitally to the pros- > be leveraged in collaboration with perity of humankind. > others to effect social change. While it For American Whites, actively re- > should ever be kept in mind that soci- sisting the racialized social structure > ety requires transformation on gender, will come in the form of rejecting > class, and other social fronts , speaking whiteness as a way of being. It will > to race specifically, it is imperative that demand a heartfelt struggle to rec- > each individual take a stance of active ognize the ways in which whiteness > resistance against the forces of racial- requires the marginalization of non- > ization in accordance with their social Whites and how colorblindness at its > position within the racialized social core implies the cultural erasure of > structure. racialized minorities as people with > For American Blacks and other unique capacities, histories, and social > racial minorities, this response might needs. Most of all, overcoming the > Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 79 > > racialized social structure requires one of two conditions—duality or > tearing down the social walls that have oneness. Living in a state of duality > been erected over time as a means to refers to a state of being in which one > maintain a “pure community” from the is cognizant of their metaphysical self > incursion of “racial otherness.” The but fails to fully nourish that aspect > fundamental recognition that human of themselves, leading to a condition > authenticity means “to be with” in- of spiritual alienation. A condition > stead of “to be better than” or “to be of oneness, on the other hand, can be > in control of ” becomes paramount for defined as living in a spiritual state > individuals socially positioned among in which one nourishes and sustains > the dominant group in the racialized a spiritualized self-image, which has > social structure. the effect of forging a deep connec- > The Bahá’í Writings offer a meta- tion with the spiritual reality of the > physical definition of human existence Creator, oneself, and all of humanity > that allows those interested to tran- (Saiedi 166). The metaphysical sense > scend identities tethered to the exist- of connection that results from living > ing social structure. As an elaboration in a state of oneness is an expansive > on the Abrahamic verity that man is embracing of human reality that frees > “made in the image of God,” human one’s identity from any particularity, > beings are regarded as fundamentally which means that one can perceive > noble spiritual beings capable of re- more keenly his or her interconnection > flecting all of God’s attributes. This with all other human beings (166). > capability to mirror the Ultimate Spir- While living in a state of oneness > itual Reality within the inherent lim- is ultimately liberating to one’s con- > itations of human nature or ontology sciousness, it can lead to much pain > is what is said to separate human be- when one witnesses daily occurrences > ings from all other earthly life forms. associated with a dehumanizing social > A corollary aspect of human reality is existence and has to navigate a social > free will, including the capacity to sub- world that is struggling to manifest > due our material nature, which is in- the latent socio-spiritual truth of the > formed by the struggle for existence, oneness of humanity. The inner trans- > for the sake of our essential reality— formation that results from abiding in > our soul—which the Bahá’í teachings a state of oneness necessitates enter- > affirm emanates from the Creator. ing the field of social action to engage > In this sense, human existence in a path of service that has the effect > is defined by the journey of the in- of both contributing to the better- > dividual, even as human history is ment of society and deepening one’s > defined by the collective journey authentic sense of identity. As individ- > of “an ever-advancing civilization” uals changed in this way collaborate to > (Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings 109:2). And transform communities, and as these > yet, both journeys are susceptible to communities work to transform social > 80 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017 > > institutions, the matrix of social rela- of American-style racialization is one > tions that are the bones and sinew of defined by the erection of a hege- > the racialized social structure will be monic order to preserve white racial > transformed as well, with the ultimate dominance, the incursion of social > result being the realization of social movements to disrupt and dismantle > justice and the concurrent emergence the structure of dominance, and an > of social relations that are emblematic orchestrated backlash to reestablish > of unity in diversity. It is in this con- dominance in a new form. > text that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá comments on The large-scale social trends that > the implications of interracial unity: gave birth to and nurtured the ra- > cialized social structure have also > Strive earnestly and put forth profoundly affected individuals and > your greatest endeavor toward communities at the interpersonal lev- > the accomplishment of this fel- el of society. As human beings born > lowship and the cementing of into and navigating this society, we > this bond of brotherhood be- encounter the social barriers that have > tween you. Such an attainment is been constructed to separate Whites > not possible without will and ef- and non-Whites, walls that act as a > fort on the part of each . . . . Each subjugating force that disempowers > one should endeavor to develop those who have the propensity to forge > and assist the other toward mu- social bonds across racial lines. Rela- > tual advancement . . . . Love and tively mundane aspects of social life— > unity will be fostered between such as living in neighborhoods, shop- > you, thereby bringing about the ping, dining out, and driving—take on > oneness of mankind. For the ac- a significant racialized character pre- > complishment of unity between cisely as the result of how thoroughly > the colored and white will be an racialism has imbued social relations. > assurance of the world’s peace. The divergent social experiences > (qtd. in Shoghi Effendi, Advent 39) of Whites and non-Whites and the > inability to walk in the shoes of “the > CONCLUSION: SEEKING LIGHT other” makes mutual recognition > IN THE DARKNESS OF RACE across racial lines difficult. While > there are always exceptions, the gen- > Racialism, as a set of beliefs that con- eral trend is for Whites to regard their > veniently sought to bridge the gap social position as being the result of > between Enlightenment ideals and their hard work, ingenuity, and values, > the hyper-exploitation of non-Euro- while the position of Blacks is seen as > peans, evolved to take on a structural due to their deficiency in being and > character through formal legislation doing the same. Blacks, on the other > and informal practices that soon be- hand, tend to view their social posi- > came customary. The cyclical history tion as resulting from a history of > Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 81 > > racialized oppression and the continu- loyalty and devotion to their reli- > ance of discrimination even in today’s gion when once they believe, their > time, which, in turn, characterizes the purity of heart, God has richly > social position of Whites as ill gotten. endowed them, and their contri- > Regardless of the materialistic roots bution to the Cause is much need- > of these sentiments, the most prob- ed. (qtd. in Hornby 533) > lematic aspect of this dynamic is the > failure of both groups to recognize The Guardian attaches the utmost > the common humanity of the other. importance, as you know, to the > For Whites, this translates to a fail- teaching of the natives of Amer- > ure to see fully that Blacks are fully ica. In the Tablets of the Divine > capable of accomplishing anything Plan, the Master pays the utmost > intellectually, physically, and spiritual- attention to this most important > ly that Whites can accomplish, while matter. He states that if the Power > Blacks fail to see that Whites have the of the Holy Spirit today properly > capacity to be loving, fair-minded, and enters into the minds and hearts > socially just. of the natives of the great Amer- > Shoghi Effendi, shepherding a re- ican continents that they will be- > ligious community seeking to realize come great standard bearers of > the oneness of humanity, counseled the Faith, similar to the Nomads > both Black and White Bahá’ís to bat- (Arabians) who became the most > tle with the dark forces of racialism in cultured and enlightened people > order to build a unified community im- under the Muhammadan civiliza- > bued with an authentic sense of inter- tion. (qtd. in Hornby 524) > racial brotherhood that would serve > as a beacon of hope for their country- In the context of our current society, > men. Cognizant that both groups are it is important to acknowledge the > organically linked with their social en- subjugating effects of the racialized > vironments, he implored them to en- social structure, the social imperative > gage in an interracial fellowship that of realizing and institutionalizing the > was spiritually authentic and would principle of the oneness of humanity, > lead to the recognition of the inher- and the need to transcend racial iden- > ent nobility of “the other.” Along with tities for a sense of identity that is > this encouragement, Shoghi Effendi more congruent with modern science > shared the following regarding Blacks and religious scripture. In texts rang- > and Native Americans, respectively: ing from the Book of Genesis to the > tablets penned by Bahá’u’lláh as the > The qualities of heart so richly nineteenth century came to a close, > possessed by the Negro are much human beings have been characterized > needed in the world today—their as being made in the image of God. > great capacity for faith, their As genomic sciences have validated > 82 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017 > > the physical unity of humanity as one by the specter of “race” is the light of > species, we must bind again with the oneness. The source of this light lies > metaphysical verity that the human in the metaphysical plane of existence, > essence is universally noble, which meaning it is both transcendental to > means that every human being is de- our sociopolitical reality and requires > serving of honor, rights, privileges, some form of spiritual education to > and the ability to realize his or her effectively tap into its transformative > inherent potential—regardless of the power. The fact that the reality of > accidents of birth, whether related to oneness transcends our sociopolitical > skin color, gender, or nationality. reality makes it an especially potent > As a cadre of individuals come to and creative force for attracting hu- > recognize their human essence as re- man hearts and building community > flecting the metaphysical unity of from a renewed foundation, free of > individuality, godliness, and intercon- racialized assumptions and sensibili- > nectedness with all of humanity, they ties. As individuals abide in the reali- > will naturally seek to collaborate with ty of oneness—that inner sense that > the like-minded and channel their their human reality cannot be divorced > agency to effect social change. While from the Source of all reality, nor from > they are surrounded and impacted by the reality of all of humankind—they > the racialized social structure, their ef- will be liberated from the subjugating > forts to create change are corollary to influence of the racialized social struc- > their ability to sustain their authentic ture to the point of actively strug- > sense of identity and to reinforce it in gling against it and thereby forge > the field of social action in collabora- bonds with like-minded collaborators > tion with others. Efforts of this kind to de-racialize society for the sake of > taken on by individuals, and then by both reformative justice and expe- > collaborative groups, will eventually riencing a social reality that is much > compound and secure the participation more humane. The road will be long, > of the larger community, as the hope painful, intense, and arduous, but for > of interracial unity and reconciliation the sake of our very humanity and the > dawns through the power of example. humanity of those who will come after > Surely, such efforts are already taking us, “we shall overcome.” > place. Surely, it will be a tremendous > struggle to undertake a project of so- WORKS CITED > cial transformation that aims to de-ra- > cialize society for the sake of securing ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. The Promulgation of > a future for generations to come that Universal Peace. 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