# Strategies for Spiritualization

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> Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Sandra S. Fotos, Strategies for Spiritualization, bahai-library.com.
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> 
> Published in the Journal of Bahá’í Studies Vol. 9, number 1 (1994)
> © Association for Bahá’í Studies 1994
> 
> Strategies for Spiritualization*
> Sandra S. Fotos
> * A version of this paper was given at the 20th Annual Conference of the Association for Bahá’í Studies–North America,
> Edmonton, Canada. September, 1996. The author is grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on earlier
> drafts but takes full responsibility for any ambiguities that remain.
> 
> Abstract
> Like the ability to use language, possession of spiritual attributes and qualities is a defining characteristic of the
> human species. Evidence from the Bahá’í writings suggests that, similar to the capacity to learn one’s first language,
> spiritual qualities and virtues exist innately in the young child as easily activated potential states that are subject to
> critical period constraints as the child matures. In the adult, although the innate capacity to manifest spiritual
> attributes is still present, its activation appears to occur more through an information-processing approach similar to
> the way other new skills are learned. Educational research has found that students who use learning strategies are
> more successful in developing new skills than those who do not report strategy use. If the spiritualization process in
> adults is similar to other learning tasks, then active use of learning strategies may facilitate the development of
> spiritual virtues. This article discusses a possible cognitive, language-based pathway for spiritualization and then
> examines the application of learning strategies to the spiritualization process.
> 
> Résumé
> Le present article explore le parallèle entre le processus de développement spirituel et l’apprentissage d’une langue.
> L’évidence présentée dans les Écrits bahá’ís suggère que tout comme l’enfant détient la capacité d’apprendre une
> langue premiere, les qualites spirituelles et les vertus existent de façon innée chez l’enfant en tant qu’états potentiels
> facilement activés mais soumis à des contraintes de temps critiques, et ce, au fur et à mesure que l’enfant mûrit.
> Chez l’adulte, toutefois, la spiritualisation semble plutôt prendre place a travers une approche de traitement
> d’information, semblable à la mannière d’acquérir d’autres nouvelles habiletés. La recherche, pédagogique sur
> l’application de stratégies d’apprentissage à diverses compétences a permis de constater que les apprenants qui
> utilisent des strategies ont davantage de succès que ceux qui indiquent n’en utiliser aucune. Aussi, si le processus de
> spiritualisation chez l’adulte a des points en commun avec l’apprentissage d’une langue seconde et l’acquisition
> d’autres compétences, il s’ensuit que l’usage de stratégies pourrait faciliter le développement de vertus spirituelles.
> 
> Resumen
> Tal como la facultad del uso de idiomas, poseer cualidades y atributos espirituales es una característica que define el
> género humano. Los escritos bahá’ís presentan señales que sugieren que, parecido a la capacidad de aprender el
> primer idioma del individuo, existen innatas en el niño cualidades y virtudes espirituales enforma de condiciones
> latentes facilmente activadas pero expuestas a constreñimientos periódicos críticos mientras llega a la madurez. En
> el adulto, aunque la capacidad para manfestar atributos espirituales sigue en pie, su activación parece ocurrir más
> por la via de procesar información semejante a la forma en que se adquieren otras habilidades. La investigación
> educacional ha descubierto que los estudiantes que se valen de estrategias de aprendizaje experimentan mas éxito en
> el desarrollo de habilidades que los que no los usan. Si el proceso de espiritualización en los adultos es similar a
> otras tareas de aprendizaje, entonces el uso activo de estrategias de aprendizaje podrd facilitar el desarollo de
> virtudes espirituales. Este artículo presenta la posibilidad de un camino conocible hacia la espiritualización basado
> en lenguaje y después examina las estrategias de aprendizaje correspondientes al proceso de espiritualización.
> 
> B    ahá’u’lláh writes that “He hath focused the radiance of all of His names and attributes” on us as human beings
> (Gleanings 65). In addition to this ability to manifest spiritual virtues and qualities, the ability to use language
> is a second defining characteristic of the human species. As an applied linguist, I will approach the process of
> actualizing our spiritual potential by comparing it to the way children learn first languages and adults learn second
> languages. Of course, the basic question here is the extent to which spiritualization and language learning are similar
> and, consequently, the extent to which findings from Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research can be used to
> inform the process of becoming spiritual. Our current understanding of SLA is that the immature brain is “wired” for
> rapid and unconscious language acquisition until physiological changes occur at puberty, at which point attention
> and effort are necessary to learn languages—usually a second language since most of us acquire our first language in
> childhood. I see a parallel to the spiritualization process in children and will present quotations from the Bahá’í
> writings supporting this view. This article will argue for the possibility of easy and unconscious activation of innate
> spiritual virtues and qualities in the young, provided they receive moral education and can see examples of virtuous
> conduct in the behavior of others around them.
> This article then suggests that in the adult the ability for rapid and unconscious spiritualization may be lost,
> much as the ability to learn a language easily is lost. Although the capacity to manifest these virtues is still present—
> just as the capacity to learn other languages is a fundamental human ability regardless of age—the activation of this
> capacity undergoes a change. In the adult, spiritualization appears to take place in the same way as other skills are
> acquired, through conscious attention and effort. This article will therefore present two cognitive pathways for
> spiritual development—a restructuring pathway and a practice pathway—with special reference to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s
> identification of knowledge, volition, and action as the three essential steps for goal attainment.
> Observing that educational research has demonstrated that students who actively use strategies to support
> their learning processes are more successful than students who do not report strategy use (see Pintrich, Student
> Motivation), this article will then introduce learning strategies that have been investigated extensively in the
> language acquisition context (see the literature review in Oxford, Language Learning Strategies) and will describe
> how these strategies might be adapted to facilitate the spiritualization process in adults.
> As a caveat, I note that research has demonstrated that intelligence is not a monolithic construct but is
> composed of at least seven components (see Gardner, Multiple Intelligences), and learning styles are therefore
> varied. Thus, particular strategies will appeal to some but not be useful to others, depending on personality factors.
> 
> Understanding Spiritualization through an Interdisciplinary Approach
> The Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh emphasizes the central role of spiritual transformation for the closely linked
> processes of individual regeneration and the advancement of humankind. Shoghi Effendi wrote:
> 
> One thing and only one thing will unfailingly and alone secure the undoubted triumph of this sacred Cause,
> namely, the extent to which our own inner life and private character mirror forth in their manifold aspects
> the splendor of those eternal principles proclaimed by Bahá’u’lláh. (Bahá’í Administration 66)
> 
> It is therefore necessary to investigate the nature of spiritualization—the “mirroring forth” of eternal spiritual
> principles in our actions and character—and to identify possible mechanisms that facilitate the process. Although
> there is lack of agreement among religious scholars as to what the term spiritualization means and how it is achieved
> (see Helminiak. Spiritual Development 29), this article uses the definition developed in an investigation of the
> acquisition of spiritual virtues in two groups of religious believers, members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
> day Saints (Mormons) and members of the Bahá’í Faith (Fotos and Hansen-Strain, “Investigating Spiritualization”).
> Building on ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s identification of knowledge and love of God, faith, philanthropic deeds, self-sacrifice,
> severance from this world, and sanctity and holiness as essential qualities to develop in this life (‘Abdu’l-Bahá,
> Promulgation 226), spiritualization is defined as the process whereby individuals develop and manifest those
> inherent qualities and attributes identified by the world’s religions as characteristic of the intrinsically spiritual
> human nature.
> A key element in this definition is the suggestion that spiritual qualities are inherent. People are considered
> to be basically spiritual entities naturally endowed with divine qualities and attributes. Bahá’u’lláh asserts that “[t]he
> whole duty of man in this Day is to attain that share of the flood of grace which God poureth forth for him. Let none,
> therefore, consider the largeness or smallness of the receptacle” (Gleanings 8). Bahá’u’lláh thus establishes the
> existence of variation in innate capacity but notes the absolute requirement to express what is present fully. Such a
> view is quite different from the perception of humankind as being innately sinful and requiring salvation from an
> external source.
> Although inherent in human nature, spiritual qualities and attributes are not expressed automatically;
> education is essential, as the following quotations indicate:
> 
> Regard man as a mine rich in gems of inestimable value. Education can, alone, cause it to reveal its
> treasures, and enable mankind to benefit therefrom. (Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings 260)
> Man is even as steel, the essence of which is hidden: through admonition and explanation, good counsel
> and education, that essence will be brought to light. (Bahá’í Education, no. 10, 3)
> 
> When asked about the purpose of physical life, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá replied that it is to “acquire virtues” (Paris
> Talks 177). This statement clearly shows the importance of spiritual development through education. Bahá’u’lláh
> writes:
> 
> The first duty prescribed by God for His servants is the recognition of Him Who is the Dayspring of His
> Revelation and the Fountain of His laws.... (Kitáb-i-Aqdas 19)
> 
> Thus, after recognition of and love for the Manifestation of God, the goal of human existence is to reflect those
> divine attributes embodied by the Manifestation.
> To understand what this might mean in psychological terms, it is useful briefly to examine findings from an
> investigation of the spiritualization process in Christian believers (Helminiak, Spiritual Development). Although this
> research is not particularly current, it indicates the usefulness of an interdisciplinary approach.
> Treating spiritual development as both a psychological and a theological phenomenon, three stages have
> been identified in the development of a spiritual life: (1) the purgative stage of moving away from sin; (2) the
> illuminative stage of developing spiritual virtues and attributes; and (3) the unitive stage of becoming one with the
> Creator. When these stages are compared with Jungian and other psychological models of life transition, a parallel
> three-stage progression is apparent: (1) a period of disintegration characterized by the individual’s separation from
> former attitudes and modes of behavior; (2) a period of painful transition and awkward behavior; and (3) a period of
> integration around a new way of organizing one’s life. Because of the striking similarity between theist approaches
> and Jungian psychology in their interpretation of the process of transformation, an interdisciplinary approach has
> been recommended for the study of spiritualization (Helminiak, Spiritual Development xii). Within this framework,
> the goal of the religious experience is also the goal of psychology: the development of wholeness and the integration
> of the human personality. In a real sense, spiritual growth is psychological integration.
> 
> Knowledge, Cognition, and Language
> Building on an approach that uses psychology to inform the spiritualization process, this article suggests spiritual
> development is linked to language-based cognitive processes. To develop this suggestion, this article will examine
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s views of understanding and comprehension and relate them to cognition and then to language—
> essentially showing that comprehension occurs through language and that both are causally related to
> spiritualization. The following overview is necessarily brief and is meant to be a signpost to future research rather
> than an exhaustive survey of the complex fields of memory and cognition.
> Regarding human understanding, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá has said that there are four accepted methods of
> comprehension: (1) through the senses, (2) through reason, (3) through tradition, and (4) through the Holy Spirit
> (Some Answered Questions 297–99). Since cognition is defined as the processing of information (see discussions in
> Eysenck, Cognitive Psychology; Jackencloff, Consciousness, “Conceptual Semantics,” and Semantic Structures), it
> can be suggested that these four processes are fundamentally cognitive (Fodor, “information and Representation”
> 175–76).1 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá further identifies five outer and five inner powers, which are linked through the interfacing
> function of one of the inner powers (Some Answered Questions 210–11). Individuals perceive the physical world by
> the five outer Powers, the senses. Sensory input is transmitted to the inner powers of thought, comprehension,
> imagination, and memory through an inner power called the “common faculty,” which, it is suggested, appears to
> refer to short-term or working memory in its current usage (see Cohen, Memory).2 Thought, comprehension, and
> imagination, however, are functions that involve long-term or permanent memory as well as working memory. The
> following discussion of memory and knowledge draws on the theories of 1972 Nobel Prize-winning neurobiologist
> Gerald Edelman (The Remembered Present and Bright Air, Brilliant Fire) and on the work of cognitive psychologist
> and information-processing researcher John Anderson (Learning and Memory).
> Memory can be viewed as enduring neural representations for encoding or storing information in the brain.
> The stored information is “knowledge.” Thus, the terms “knowledge” and “memory” can be used somewhat
> interchangeably. Sensory input (‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s five outer powers) is processed and organized into existing
> information hierarchies (also called schemata) for long-term memory storage. What is stored is usually not an exact
> replication of the particular sensory input but rather its meaning, although special schemata for images are suggested
> to exist (see the discussion in Jackendoff, Semantic Structures3).
> There are two general forms of stored knowledge, perceptual and conceptual. Perceptual knowledge is
> defined as “selective discrimination of an object or event from other objects or events” (Edelman, Bright Air 87),
> whereas conceptual knowledge builds upon the results of perceptual information and involves the dynamic
> organization of this information into hierarchies of meaning, or schemata. Thus, memory is not a unitary mental
> function but has distinct components, and different researchers have proposed numerous taxonomies for memory.
> For example, memory of specific events (biographical or episodic memory) is separate from semantic memory, this
> referring to meaning-based information (see Tulving, “How Many Memory Systems Are There?”). In addition,
> declarative memory (“knowing that”—those things which can be recalled consciously) is distinct from
> nondeclarative or procedural memory (“knowing how”—the memory of how to do things) (Anderson, Learning and
> Memory 308). Another taxonomy makes a distinction between explicit memory (consciously recallable knowledge)
> and implicit memory (unconscious knowledge) (Anderson, Learning and Memory 307–9). These distinctions are
> important for spiritualization and will be discussed again later.
> Although imagination often involves sensory traces such as vision and smell, it and the other inner powers
> described by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá are cognitive since they involve manipulation of encoded information. Comprehension
> through the operation of reason4 or through declarative knowledge of previous traditions is also cognitive. These
> processes involve deductive reasoning or the “propositional calculus of the logic system” (Eysenck and Keane,
> Cognitive Psychology 406), as well as the need for processing language and the storage and possible reorganization
> of semantic propositions within existing schemata, as well as the creation of new schemata. This is a dynamic
> process, so memory is seen as a continually emerging property of the mind. Regarding the final type of knowledge,
> understanding through the Holy Spirit, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá says:
> 
> ...without the Holy Spirit he [man] would have no intellect, he would be unable to acquire his scientific
> knowledge.... The illumination of the Holy Spirit gives to man the power of thought, and enables him to
> make discoveries by which he bends the laws of nature to his will. (Paris Talks 59)
> 
> This statement implies consciousness, awareness of a problem, observation of data, and subsequent analytical
> processes resulting in the reorganization of knowledge hierarchies. Thus, while the Holy Spirit is often linked to
> inspiration and intuition, it also appears to operate through the problem-solving approach embodied in scientific
> methodology, science being characterized as “the first emanation from God toward man” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá,
> Promulgation 49). ‘Abdu’l-Bahá further notes that human powers and attributes are “human and hereditary in
> origin—outcomes of nature’s processes—except the intellect, which is supernatural,” that is, derived from the Holy
> Spirit (Promulgation 49).5
> 
> The Relationship between Language and Cognition: Four Views
> Cognitive processes are thus involved in all aspects of human comprehension, and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá has repeatedly said
> that the function of the human intellect (cognition) is God’s greatest gift to humankind (Paris Talks 41). He also
> refers to that “precious, priceless bestowal of God—the human mind...”(Promulgation 28).
> If it is accepted that most human understanding operates through cognitive processes, then the facilitating
> role of language becomes evident. Of the various cognitive domains, language is the most distinctive characteristic
> of human learning, for language is the process of creating meaning. As the noted linguist Halliday has said, when
> children learn a language, they are actually learning the foundations of learning itself (“Towards a Language-Based
> Theory of Learning” 95). Language is not merely a domain of human knowledge, it is the essential condition for the
> creation of knowledge. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá identifies the central role of language in cognition:
> 
> ...the function of language is to portray the mysteries and secrets of human hearts. The heart is like a box,
> and language is the key. (Promulgation 60)
> 
> Most linguists agree that there are four main views of the relationship between language and cognition. One
> view, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of the l950s, held that culture determines both language and thought. This is a
> highly deterministic view, which has been largely rejected in its strong form. Other researchers, such as the famous
> child psychologist Jean Piaget (Six Psychological Studies), argue that cognition precedes language, which is learned
> cognitively like any other skill. However, the currently accepted view is that language is an innate human capability
> (for details, see arguments in Chomsky, Lectures; Jackendoff, Semantic Structures, “Conceptual Semantics”; White,
> “Second Language Acquisition”) and develops separately from cognition. When an infant is exposed to its first
> language, many aspects of grammar are not obvious from normal input alone, yet are learned quickly and
> completely, given minimum linguistic exposure.6 Thus, it is impossible to explain naturalistic language acquisition
> in children without mediation by principles of Universal Grammar (UG) (see Chomsky, Lectures). UG may be
> conceived of as an innate mental pattern for the rapid acquisition of language. When language forms are perceived
> from input, they are slotted into preexisting grammatical structures in the developing brain.7 However, once the
> child passes through puberty and physiological changes8 occur in the brain neurons, it appears that UG may no
> longer be available, or may be quite limited.9 It has therefore been suggested that after a biologically determined
> critical period, languages are most likely learned cognitively, like any other skill, either through an information-
> processing approach (see Jackendoff, Consciousness, Semantic Structures) or through a connectionist model10 (see
> McClelland, “Connectionist Models”).
> A very important fourth view of the relationship between language and cognition holds that language
> shapes thought through the process of interaction. This view will be discussed below.
> 
> Is There an Innate, Age-Sensitive System for Spiritualization?
> Based on the arguments for the existence of innate age-sensitive mental categories for both grammar and meaning,
> the case can be made that a number of Bahá’í writings suggest that the easy activation of latent spiritual virtues may
> be under similar critical-period constraints:11
> 
> It is extremely difficult to teach the individual and refine his character once puberty is [sic] passed.
> (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections 137)
> 
> Encourage the children from their earliest years to master every kind of learning.... (‘Abdu’l-Bahá,
> qtd. in Bahá’í Education 27–28)
> 
> Truly, if a babe did not live at all it were better than to let it grow ignorant, for that innocent babe, in later
> life, would become afflicted with innumerable defects. (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Tablets of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá 3:579)
> 
> Elsewhere, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá emphasizes the need to train children from early childhood to “acquire the divine
> perfections latent in the heart of man” (Promulgation 53). Such statements indicate that virtues probably exist as
> highly responsive potential states in the child and that, similar to language acquisition, a critical period exists for
> their activation. As with the ability to learn languages, after childhood, the ability for rapid and unconscious
> development of virtues appears to be lost. This suggestion is further supported by the many passages in the Bahá’í
> writings that refer to the need for conscious attention and effort—key cognitive learning mechanisms—in the
> spiritualization process of adults. Thus, virtue acquisition in the adult appears to proceed cognitively through an
> information-processing approach in much the same way as does the acquisition of other skills, such as playing the
> piano or learning a second language. This does not imply that the ability to become spiritualized has been lost, only
> that the means for activating spiritual potential may have altered. Adults can still learn languages, only learning
> requires conscious attention and effort. In the same way, adults can manifest their spiritual potential, again through
> conscious effort. The next section presents a cognitive model outlining two possible pathways for adult
> spiritualization.
> 
> The Adult Spiritualization Process
> 
> Developing Explicit Knowledge as the First Step
> In cognitive psychology, a distinction is made between explicit or declarative knowledge (consciously knowing
> about something, such as knowing the rules and forms of a language) and implicit or procedural knowledge
> (unconsciously knowing how to do something, such as being able to speak a language). Although Anderson presents
> a detailed discussion of the differences between the explicit—implicit and the declarative—procedural typologies,
> they can be considered to be similar in this brief article (Learning and Memory 308–9).
> A cognitive model of spiritualization has been proposed (see Fotos, “Spiritual Transformation”) which
> suggests that it is important for individuals first to become consciously aware of the virtues and qualities they wish
> to manifest. An initial step in the spiritualization process is the development of explicit knowledge about the virtue
> or quality: what it is and how it is manifested in behavior. One way to develop such explicit knowledge is through
> prayer and personal study of the holy writings. Explicit knowledge may also be developed through social
> interaction, for example, by participating in the Bahá’í Institute Process, informal discussions, consultation, and
> group study activities.
> Consultation: Creating Knowledge through Interaction
> Whereas the principle of consultation has characterized Bahá’í social and administrative processes since their
> inception, collaborative learning (learning through group interaction and feedback) has become a significant
> component of pedagogy only within the last two decades. One reason for the current emphasis on an interactionist
> perspective in education is the work of Vygotsky (1896–1934), a Russian psychologist whose research (see
> Vygotsky, Mind in Society, Thought and Language; Wertsch, Vygotsky) has only recently become available to the
> West, yet has had a significant impact on the current appreciation of the role of interaction in cognition and language
> development. In Vygotsky’s view, learning and development are necessarily mediated by language, which is seen to
> be the basis of human intellect (see Vygotsky, Mind in Society, Thought and Language; Wertsch, Vygotsky)12 All
> higher-order13 cognitive functions are suggested to be developed from language-based social interactions, and
> Vygotsky suggests that it is through interaction that meaning is created.14 Language, therefore, has two functions:
> communication and the interpretation of experience “by organizing it into meaning” (Halliday, “Towards a
> Language-Based Theory” 95).
> Vygotsky’s work represents a highly significant fourth view of the relationship between language and
> cognition. He views language and cognition as originating separately, but becoming interdependent in the complex
> process of creating knowledge. The importance of interaction for knowledge creation is repeatedly emphasized
> throughout the Bahá’í writings. When speaking of consultation, Bahá’u’lláh writes, “In all things it is necessary to
> consult ... it is and will always be a cause of awareness and of awakening” (Consultation: A Compilation 2).
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá refers to consultation as a “potent instrument” and one of the “explicit ordinances of the Lord of
> Mankind” (Consultation 5–6). He further says that “the light of reality becomes apparent when two opinions
> coincide” (Promulgation 72) and that “cooperation and association are essential ... [t]o find happiness and
> development, individual and collective” (Promulgation 35). Therefore, the role of group study of the Bahá’í
> writings, particularly through collaborative methodology such as is used by the Institute Process, in developing
> explicit knowledge of desirable virtues cannot be underestimated.
> 
> Restructuring and Practice: Two Pathways for Spiritualization
> Noticing and Restructuring. Once the individual has developed explicit knowledge of virtues and qualities by prayer
> and studying the Bahá’í writings as well as through social interaction, this knowledge results in focused awareness
> or consciousness of the virtues. In studies of language acquisition, consciousness of language properties developed
> through explicit instruction is often positively correlated to successful learning outcomes if communicative
> encounters with the target language are also present (see Fotos, “Integrating Grammar”; Robinson, “Learning”;
> Schmidt, “Psychological Mechanisms”). Similarly, it also appears to be important for people to see examples of
> spiritual qualities and virtues in the behavior and deeds of others. A number of passages in the Bahá’í writings
> indicate that observation of others is of great importance (see the review in Jordan, “Becoming Your True Self”) to
> provide input on how others operationalize desired spiritual qualities. It has also been suggested (Fotos, “Spiritual
> Transformation” 155–56) that when individuals repeatedly notice in the behavior of others the virtues and qualities
> that they wish to develop, such noticing can act as a trigger for the unconscious restructuring of the individuals’
> internal value systems. Such a role for noticing and attention in the area of second-language learning has been
> indicated by several researchers (see Fotos, “Consciousness-Raising”; Robinson, “Learning”; Schmidt,
> “Psychological”), and it is suggested that an analogous role for noticing may exist in the spiritualization process,
> particularly when supported by personal effort to manifest the noticed virtue.
> Some empirical support for this point is provided by a study (Fotos and Hansen, “Investigating
> Spiritualization”) of 179 members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) and 49 Bahá’ís.
> Nearly half of both religious groups reported they noticed virtues in the behavior of others that they wished to
> develop in themselves, and interaction with those possessing the desired virtues was mentioned as important for the
> development of spiritual qualities.
> Practice. Automatization is seen as a second important pathway for virtues development (Fotos and Hansen-Strain,
> “Investigating Spiritualization”). Here, the individual consciously practices a desired virtue until its production has
> become automatic. In language learning, the point has been made that production of formal knowledge in the form
> of language which has been memorized and then automatized by frequent usage cannot be distinguished empirically
> from naturalistic language productions (see Gregg, “Krashen’ s Model”), and in cognitive psychology,
> proceduralization or automaticity coming from the repeated use of declarative: knowledge (“knowing what”) is a
> demonstrated way of transforming it into procedural knowledge (“knowing how”) (Anderson, Learning and
> Memory 308). Extending this argument, if an individual behaves as though she has a particular virtue and her
> behavior becomes automatized, then it is functionally as though she has acquired the virtue. This assumption also
> underlies a popular virtues curriculum for children and their families—that instruction which is followed by
> observation and deliberate modeling of a virtue will facilitate its acquisition (Popov, Popov, and Kavelin, Virtues
> Guide) and also supports the application of educational strategies shown to promote automaticity to the process of
> spiritualization.
> In either case, whether restructuring of the individual’s internal spiritual system takes place first, or whether
> the individual practices the virtue until it becomes automatically manifested, the initial requirement is that the
> individual must become conscious of the need to manifest virtues in her own behavior.
> 
> Consciousness as Knowledge, Volition, and Action
> At this point, it is necessary to examine the concept of consciousness since it is a vital component of the above-
> presented cognitive model of spiritualization. Consciousness will be discussed from the perspectives of cognitive
> psychology, organizational research, and the Bahá’í writings.
> Earlier it was suggested that conscious knowledge or awareness of a virtue or quality is the first step in its
> acquisition. In this case, consciousness refers to awareness of the problem—the fact that a quality exists which the
> individual wishes to have. However, awareness alone is not sufficient. Consciousness must also include
> intentionality (see discussions in Bialystock, “Dangers”; Bogdan, Grounds for Cognition), or a planned course of
> action for applying strategic behavior to produce a desired goal. in the Bahá’í writings, this has been termed volition
> (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation 157). Further examination of the term yields consciousness as control, referring to the
> ability to automatize frequent actions. This step requires effort, and the need for intentional effort toward attainment
> of spiritual virtues is emphasized in the Bahá’í writings:
> 
> You must endeavor day and night to become worthy of a generous portion of these gifts [bestowals and
> bounties of the Lord] and realize full capacity of attainment. (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation 196)
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh promises that “‘[w]hoso maketh efforts for Us”’ will be guided and confirmed (Gleanings 266).
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá writes:
> 
> Mere knowledge of principles is not sufficient. We all know and admit that justice is good, but there is need
> of volition and action to carry out and manifest it. (Promulgation 121)
> 
> Extensive organizational research on motivation and skill development (summarized in O’Neil and Drillings,
> Motivation) also indicates that three stages are essential for goal attainment: the establishment of a goal,
> development of motivation or will to achieve that goal, and, finally, taking appropriate action toward attainment of
> the goal. These stages again parallel the cognitive idea of consciousness as awareness, intentionality, and control
> presented above and reflect the following often-quoted statement by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá:
> 
> The attainment of any object is conditioned upon knowledge, volition and action. Unless these three
> conditions are forthcoming, there is no execution or accomplishment. (Promulgation 157)
> 
> Thus, from the diverse perspectives of cognitive psychology, organizational research, and the writings of ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá, the key requirements for successful goal attainment are identical: awareness or knowledge, motivation or
> volition, and individual effort or action.
> Sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, and educational research15 has established the favorable results from use
> of strategies to attain both communicative and instructional goals. When learners are aware of their goal, are
> motivated to learn and take action, and are supported by active employment of strategies, very positive learning
> outcomes are achieved.
> 
> Using Learning Strategies to Facilitate Spiritualization
> It has been repeatedly demonstrated that knowledge gains occur when learners are engaged, active, in control of
> their learning, and self-regulating through the use of strategies (Karabenick, “Social Influences” 689). Strategies are
> broadly defined as conscious techniques used to achieve a goal, and a recent study of their use in the language
> classroom (see Donato and McCormick, “Sociocultnral”) identifies strategies as important higher-level mental
> processes that mediate cognitive change. Regarding a strategy taxonomy, several systems have been proposed (see
> Wenden and Rubin, Learner Strategies, and Kaspar and Kellerman, Communication Strategies, for reviews), but
> this article will follow Oxford’s classification (Language Learning Strategies 17) since it provides a clear discussion
> of the types and gives recommendations for their use that can be extended to the spiritualization process. Oxford
> identifies two broad categories of strategies, direct and indirect. Direct strategies (Oxford, Language 37–38) are
> those that directly involve the target item to be learned. All strategies require mental processing; however, direct
> strategies involve conscious manipulation of the target itself. In contrast, indirect strategies do not deal directly with
> the target but rather involve the learner’s approach to learning. Such metastrategies enable learners to take control of
> the nature anti rate of their own learning. Direct and indirect strategies are complementary in nature and are often
> used in tandem.
> 
> Direct Strategies
> The category of direct strategies includes memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies.
> 1. Memory Strategies. Memory strategies are aimed at facilitating the storage and retrieval of new information
> (Oxford, Language 58). The first type of strategy involves linking and subsuming new information within a
> framework of previously learned material and is achieved through grouping, associating, and placing new
> information in context. Such procedures enhance the development of explicit knowledge through formal study and
> memorization of prayers and sacred writings.16
> A useful strategy for remembering written text is to visualize the location of the item on the page. Using
> images and sounds (for example, chanting prayers or singing) also assists memorization of sacred writings by
> serving to focus the cognitive processes. Research on the use of imagery in education (for a review, see Ney,
> “Imagery”) indicates that imagery both facilitates the habitual aspects of learning new information and promotes
> creativity. Regarding the use of imagery to support prayer, Shoghi Effendi wrote:
> 
> If you find you need to visualize someone when you pray, think of the Master. Through Him you can
> address Bahá’u’lláh. Gradually try to think of the qualities of the Manifestation, and in that way a mental
> form will fade out, for after all the body is not the thing. His Spirit is there and is the essential, everlasting
> element. (Lights of Guidance 487)
> 
> In virtues development, the individual can imagine herself successfully exhibiting a virtue or quality in a particular
> situation. Using imagery, she can mentally rehearse instances where operation of the virtue is appropriate, imagining
> herself successfully displaying the virtue in much the same way as professional athletes mentally rehearse their
> performance in forthcoming games.
> Review reinforces processing of recently studied material and facilitates analysis of situations. Since the
> sequencing of these three memory strategies is important, review should take place after the subsumption of the new
> material. A spiral pattern is recommended, meaning that review is conducted repeatedly at regular intervals until
> knowledge of the desired virtue has been acquired (Oxford, Language 66–67).
> 2. Cognitive Strategies. Useful cognitive strategies for spiritualization include (a) practicing, (b) analyzing and
> reasoning, and (c) organizing or creating structure for new material (Oxford, Language 69–70). Practice is one of
> the most important overall strategies as it facilitates the automatization of spiritual behavior; it refers to acting out
> the possession of a virtue repeatedly, even to the extent of seeking or creating situations that require it. Throughout
> the Bahá’í writings, people are urged to take positive action. As ‘Abdu’l-Bahá says, “Without action nothing in the
> material world can be accomplished (Paris Talks 80).
> Practice also includes the mental imaging discussed earlier.17 Through practice, consciously controlled
> behavior consistent with the possession of specific virtues eventually becomes automatic. At this point, the ability to
> manifest the virtue has become part of the internal spiritual system.
> Analyzing and reasoning are cognitive activities used to understand the meaning of new material. The
> application of analysis and reasoning to the Bahá’í writings and to descriptions of the lives of the central figures can
> indicate what actions appropriately manifest spiritual virtues and qualities. Using deductive reasoning or top-down
> analysis, it is possible to determine how a general virtue such as patience might be applied to various situations and
> then, using visualization, rehearsal, and practice strategies, to imitate the behavior of a patient person. Such action
> can be reinforced by memorized repetitions of appropriate sacred writings and prayers. Contrastive analysis of one’s
> failure to display the virtue, compared with more appropriate behavior, is also informative for identifying specific
> behaviors and attitudes that must be changed.
> Organization is a primarily written means for establishing hierarchies to aid the integration of new
> knowledge into previously developed schemata. Here, the individual takes notes, perhaps keeping a Virtues Diary to
> record incidents involving the target behavior. Other types of organization include summarizing and highlighting
> appropriate Bahá’í writings. A systematic approach to the study of the Bahá’í Faith is recommended for,
> [t]here is no limit to the study of the Cause. The more we read the Writings the more truths we find in them
> (Shoghi Effendi, qtd. in The Importance of Deepening—A Compilation 93)
> 
> 3. Compensation Strategies. In second-language learning, the use of compensation strategies enables the learner to
> comprehend and produce the target language despite limitations in knowledge (Oxford, Language 47, 90). In the
> spiritualization process, the individual attempts to control her behavior in various situations so that either the target
> virtue is displayed or a contrary trait is not displayed. For example, justice is a very important virtue. Bahá’u’lláh
> says, “The best beloved of all things in My sight is Justice ...” (Hidden Words 3), If the individual were unsure how
> to exemplify this virtue, she could study the Bahá’í writings, for example, these words of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá: “Desire for
> others only that which you desire for yourselves” (Paris Talks 159). The individual then surmises that one way to
> manifest justice is to enact the Golden Rule. Conversely, selfish behavior or ill will toward others is not manifesting
> justice, so such limiting behavior must be overcome.
> 
> Indirect Strategies
> Indirect strategies involve controlling the learning process itself. As Oxford notes (Language 135), they are indirect
> because they support and manage learning but do not directly involve manipulation of what is to be learned.
> Although indirect strategies are often used in conjunction with direct strategies, research suggests that it is not the
> number of direct and indirect strategies employed which is important for success but rather the learner’s
> orchestration of them (see Ehrman and Oxford, “Cognition Plus”). Careful use of metacognitive strategies such as
> overviewing, paying attention, goal setting, and self-evaluation can increase the effectiveness of direct strategy use.
> Additional indirect strategies are affective strategies for managing emotions and providing self-encouragement, and
> social strategies for structuring interaction.
> 1. Metacognitive Strategies. The term “metacognitive” means “beyond, beside or with the cognitive” (Oxford,
> Language 136). The first of these, overviewing, comes from the work of cognitive psychologist David Ausubel (see
> Ausubel, Novak, and Hanesian, Educational Psychology) regarding the advantage of approaching a new learning
> task at a higher level of generality. This step aids the learner in processing the new material. Called the Advance
> Organizer, it is an orientation to the coming activity, explaining its purpose and procedures.
> Within the Bahá’í context, overviewing new sacred writings to be studied, asking oneself questions, and
> trying to understand the content of the new information promotes subsequent comprehehsion of new material. An
> excellent example of this is the interactive approach used in the Bahá’í Institute Process. Here, group-based study of
> the Bahá’í writings allows the collaborative creation of knowledge through Vygotskian social interaction. Bahá’í
> prayers and writings are often difficult to understand, not only because of their linguistic complexity but also
> because of their cultural grounding in Islam and the stylistic features of the Persian and Arabic languages. Reading
> about or discussing the Bahá’í writings assists the learner’s comprehension. Furthermore, such overviewing not only
> will enhance the establishment of links between what is already known and the new material but also will reinforce
> the individual’s ability to notice desired virtues in the actions of others around her.
> Goal setting, the second type of metacognitive strategy, is one of the most important determinants of
> success. Psychological research (see Pintrich, Brown, and Weinstein, Student Motivation) indicates that goal setting
> is a major factor in successful task performance, and educational studies have found that groups which set goals
> outperform all other types of groups (see Punnett, “Goal Setting and Performance” and “Goal Setting: An
> Extension”; Morgan, “Self-Monitoring”). Thus, setting goals for spiritual development and working toward those
> goals is essential. In addition, individuals should make use of the power of prayer to support their efforts:
> 
> We must supplicate Bahá’u’lláh to assist us to overcome the failings in our own characters, and also exert
> our own will power in mastering ourselves. (From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an
> individual believer, January 27, 1945, qtd. in Unfolding Destiny 442)
> 
> Regular self-appraisal is a critical step in determining the extent to which spiritual goals have been
> achieved. In The Hidden Words (Arabic 31), Bahá’u’lláh admonishes individuals to engage in daily reflection on
> their actions (11). The writings of Shoghi Effendi, in particular, refer to the need for “daily vigilance” (Advent of
> Divine Justice 30). Such evaluation includes both self-monitoring during attempts to behave in ways that exemplify
> virtues as well as assessment and reflection afterwards. Through careful and realistic self-appraisal, the feelings of
> remorse and regret that accompany the failure to manifest virtues and qualities can become feedback which
> facilitates successful behavior in the future. In cognitive psychology, appraisal theory is a well-researched new area
> (see Lewis, “Self-Organizing” for a survey) demonstrating that self-appraisal resulting from emotion as well as
> emotion resulting from appraisal provide significant feedback for cognitive restructuring.
> 2. Affective Strategies. As used in the social sciences, the term “affective” refers to an individual’s “affect” or
> emotional state, Included are attitudes, feelings, motivations, and values. In second-language learning, affective
> strategies enable learners to gain control of their emotional condition during the learning process (Oxford, Language
> 164–66). Individuals often become frustrated and discouraged because of failure to manifest spiritual qualities, and
> management of these feelings is an important component of success. Individuals must be patient with themselves,
> realizing that transformation occurs slowly and is subject to internal processing constraints. As Shoghi Effendi
> notes:
> 
> ... not everyone achieves easily and rapidly the victory over self. What every believer ... should realize is
> that the Cause has the spiritual power to re-create us if we make the effort (From a letter written on behalf
> of Shoghi Effendi to an individual believer, January 27, 1945, qtd. in Unfolding Destiny 442)
> 
> Furthermore, the Bahá’í writings urge individuals to look away from themselves and, rather than brooding
> on their lack of success, to rise to action and move forward:
> 
> Regarding your own condition: He strongly urges you not to dwell on yourself. Each one of us, if
> we look into our failures, is sure to feel unworthy and despondent, and this feeling only frustrates our
> constructive efforts and wastes time. (From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an individual
> believer, October 13, 1947, qtd. in Unfolding Destiny 447)
> 
> When developing spiritual qualities and virtues, the best course is to avoid excessive self-preoccupation and to
> continue to work toward specific goals and objectives.
> Specific affective strategies to control negative emotions are the use of prayer, meditation, music, and
> laughter, as well as frequent readings of prayers and sacred writings that emphasize the nobility of human nature and
> the ever-present forces of divine confirmation waiting to assist those who make efforts. Writing in a diary or journal
> is useful to keep track of events and feelings and to manage an overly severe appraisal cycle. Participation in Bahá’í
> study groups and deepenings can lead to the sharing of feelings and the support of friends.
> 3. Social Strategies. Social strategies mediate communication and are of particular importance since the
> manifestation of many virtues takes place during interaction with others. As one Bahá’í educator has noted, the
> Bahá’í Faith represents a massive paradigm shift in the concept of human relations (Diehl, “Exploration and
> Integration” 38). In cultures such as the United States, competition is the basis for many aspects of human
> relationships, yet the Bahá’í view is based on cooperation and consultation, and the core of the Bahá’í teachings
> regarding human relationships is love. ‘Abdu’1-Bahá instructs:
> 
> You must be exceedingly kind and loving toward each other, willing to forfeit life in the pathway of
> another’s happiness. You must be ready to sacrifice your possessions in another’s behalf.... Your utmost
> desire must be to confer happiness upon each other. (Promulgation 215)
> 
> In order to manifest virtues associated with love, such as kindness, compassion, courtesy, forgiveness,
> friendliness, and helpfulness18 during interpersonal relations, strategies such as asking questions to facilitate mutual
> understanding and approaching interaction in a cooperative spirit are essential. Successful consultation and other
> forms of interaction are enabled when individuals practice the strategies of empathizing with others and of becoming
> aware of others’ thoughts and feelings through asking questions and direct observation. Keeping silent so as to
> process fully what the other person is saying is another important strategy that receives support in the Bahá’í
> writings.
> 
> Strategy Training
> In strategy training, learners are taught specific direct and indirect strategies and then urged to apply these strategies
> to their situation. Although many strategies take place mentally and cannot be directly assessed (Oxford, Language
> 194), cooperation with others, consulting during decision making rather than competing, and asking questions for
> clarification and understanding of the other person’s views are observable. The individual can observe herself
> putting these strategies into operation and can also notice them in the actions of others. Oxford suggests six steps
> that can be applied to the spiritualization process (Language 204):
> 1. Determining One’s Needs. What are the virtues and qualities the individual most wants to develop? These should
> be identified and written down so as to focus attention. Passages from the Bahá’í writings dealing with the selected
> virtues should be collected and reviewed regularly. Specific prayers for the attainment of virtues should be said.
> 2. Determining Appropriate Strategies and Combining Them in a Program of Strategy Use. The individual’s
> conscious commitment and effort are involved during this important step. Research indicates that learners who
> actively use a combination of strategies tend to be more successful than those who do not report planned strategy use
> (see Oxford and Leaver, “A Synthesis”).
> 3. Considering Individual Preferences. The learner’s cultural background, dominant intelligence type, and
> individual learning style preference may predispose some types of strategies to be more successful than others.
> Several large projects have investigated individual differences such as personality type,19 attitudes, strategy use,
> aptitude, and motivation, and confirm their relationship to learning success (summarized in Carrell, Prince, and
> Astika, “Personality Types”). Positive correlations were observed between personality types and preference for
> certain strategies. In the spiritualization process, this is a valid consideration. Individuals should be aware of their
> personality type and should select strategies that are easy and appealing to use.
> 4. Preparing Materials and Activities. Preparation of materials and activities can include the preparation of Bahá’í
> writings on desirable virtues, the organization of study groups, participation in the Bahá’í Institute Process, and the
> keeping of a Virtues Diary.
> 5. Actively Applying Strategies to a Learning Situation. This article has suggested that practicing strategy use is a
> critical step in the spiritualization process.
> 6. Evaluating and Revising Strategy Use. The individual should evaluate the effectiveness of strategies and, if
> necessary, revise their use. Research indicates that strategy training is most effective when learners understand why
> a particular strategy is useful, how it can be transferred to different tasks, and how they can evaluate success (see the
> summary in Oxford and Leaver, “A Synthesis”). The research on appraisal discussed above provides empirical
> support for the significance of evaluation and accompanying emotional factors in self-organization.
> 
> Conclusion
> This article has presented an analysis of the spiritualization process and has presented evidence from the Bahá’í
> writings that suggests it may be age—sensitive, occurring easily in the child through appropriate moral education
> and training, but only by attention and effort in the adult. In attempting to describe the cognitive nature of
> spiritualization in adults, perhaps more questions have been raised than answered. However, this report is
> exploratory and hypothesis generating rather than hypothesis testing, and it has identified important areas for future
> research, particularly investigations of strategy use during the study of Bahá’í writings, participation in community
> and administrative activities, and in personal development.
> As an aid to spiritualization, specific learning strategies from the field of education have been presented,
> with suggestions for their application to the development of virtues. These strategies can provide individuals with a
> powerful, active means to control their own spiritualization process.
> 
> Notes
> 
> 1. For a layperson’s overview of cognitive psychology, see Eysenck and Keane’s excellent Cognitive
> Psychology: A Student’s Handbook.
> 2. For a discussion of the controversial history of memory research, see Schwartz and Reisberg, Learning
> and Memory. See Smyth, et al., Cognition in Action for descriptions of the processing pathways for various sensory
> inputs.
> 3. Jackendoff is a leading researcher linking the field of generative linguistics and cognitive psychology.
> He investigates the relationship of language structure (syntax) to meaning (semantics) and suggests that the two are
> usually linked. He also argues that meaning is stored in the mind in two ways: An algebraic format for concepts (i.e.,
> [HAS-A-BACK] for chair), and a three-dimensional geometric format for perceptual information.
> 4. For a technical presentation of research on the creation of semantic knowledge and representations, see
> the theme issue of Memory 3 (1995): 3, 4.
> 5. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá cautions that both inspiration and satanic promptings are the “influx of the human heart”
> (Promulgation 22), so an important question is how they can be differentiated. The Holy Spirit is “light and
> knowledge itself” (Promulgation 22) and only it can provide the necessary knowledge to distinguish between
> inspiration anti erroneous thinking. “Through it [the Holy Spirit] the human mind is quickened and fortified into tree
> conclusions sod perfect knowledge” (Promulgation 22). Elsewhere, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá says that the “spirit of man is the
> meeting between man and God” (Promulgation 239). This suggests that there is an interface between cognition and
> the Holy Spirit whereby the latter guides and informs the former (Promulgation 21). The nature of this interface is
> an important area for future psychological investigation.
> 6. Interestingly, a strong body of evidence supporting the existence of innate, age-sensitive linguistic
> parameters, which are “set” upon receiving minimum input, comes from studies of songbirds. Between the ages of
> ten and fifteen days, the hatchlings of birds such as chaffinches must be exposed to the song of the mate of their
> species in order to acquire song ability. After this period, they are unable to learn to sing (see Demers, “Linguistics
> and Animal Communication”). Additional arguments supporting an innate human linguistic system are the existence
> of regular syntax in pidgin and Creole languages (simplified languages for communication between two or more
> linguistic groups), and the new field of genetic linguistics, which investigates inherited language disabilities (see
> Harley, The Psychology of Language). Furthermore, recent neurobiological results obtained from brain scans
> indicate that languages learned in childhood are actually located in a different part of the brain from languages
> learned by adults (Nature [July 12, 1997]).
> 7. A similar nativist argument for cognition itself has been proposed (see Jackendoff, Semantic Structures)
> whereby the language of thought already exists in the mind as preexisting semantic categories. Such considerations
> derive from philosophic rationalists such as Plato and Descartes, who maintained that certain fundamental ideas are
> innate. Opposing this argument are the ideas of the empiricists such as Locke and Hume, who maintain that all
> knowledge is derived from experience—the tabula rasa (blank tablet) concept.
> 8. It is suggested that myelination of neuron connections is responsible fur critical period effects (see
> Pulvermuller and Schumann. “Neurobiological Mechanisms”). Here, the cell axons become coated with a protective
> cover of myelin to facilitate the flow of electricity and preserve automatized behavior, but the plasticity of the cell in
> forming new connections is thereby severely limited. Thus, new learning takes place more slowly.
> 9. For a thorough review of the evidence supporting the critical-period hypothesis in language learning, see
> Long, “Maturational Constraints on Language Development.” For a discussion of critical-period effects on UG, see
> Johnson and Newport, “Critical Perios Effects on Universal Properties of Language.”
> 10. Connectionism, considered by many to be an important new paradigm explaining psychological
> function, is a theory based on the activation and interaction of a large number of simple, neuron-like processing
> units. Connectionist models are also referred to as neural networks or parallel distributed processing (PDP) models.
> 11. The biological basis for many forms of behavior is now well established for a range of organisms,
> including humans. For example, various mental disorders save been shown to be mediated by chemical imbalances
> in the brain, and in the field of sociobiology, researchers such as Wilson (Sociobiology) have argued for the
> existence of genetically determined behavior such as altruism, suggesting that it confers survival advantages for a
> species, although not for the individuals who sacrifice themselves so that their offspring can live. However,
> arguments for the importance of free will over biological determinism emphasize that undesirable human behavior
> such as war, violence, and aggression are not inevitable and can be changed. For further discussion, see Avila,
> Biology: Investigating Life on Earth.
> 12. In fairness, it should be mentioned that some researchers reject this type of psychosemantic model of
> cognition, suggesting that it reduces cognition to linguistic limitations (see Bogdan, Grounds for Cognition).
> However, it will be seen that Vygotsky’s view’ is quite different from the arguments of linguistic determinism used
> at the turn of the century to suggest that groups who spoke more concrete languages, such as Native American
> languages, were mentally less developed than those linguistic groups whose languages commonly expressed
> abstractions.
> 13. The term “higher order/level mental processes” refers to cognitive functions such as logical memory,
> selective attention, reasoning, and analysis, as well as metacognitive activities such as problem solving (see Donato
> and McCormick, “A Sociocultural Perspective”).
> 14. See the 1992 theme issue of Educational Psychologist 27.4 on the neurobio]ogy of the creation of
> meaning through interaction.
> 15. See the interdisciplinary articles in Kaspar and Ketlerman, Communication Strategies.
> 16. Russian philosopher Mikhail Bakhtin (1895–1975) presents a view of cognitive development that is
> similar to Vygotsky’s interactionist perspective, suggesting that learning is assimilation of others’ discourse. Bakhtin
> writes, “Internally persuasive discourse... is, as it is affirmed through assimilation, tightly interwoven with ‘one’s
> own word.’ In the everyday rounds of our consciousness, the internally persuasive word is half-ours and half-
> someone else’s” (Bakhtin, Dialogic Imagination 345). Thus, memorization of prayers and sacred writings empowers
> the individual with the discourse of the Manifestation. The Holy Word enters the individual’s language of thought,
> transforming it and thereby becoming her “own word.”
> 17. Popov, Popov, and Kavelin, Virtues Guide gives specific exercises for practicing fifty-two virtues.
> 18. A list of social values (virtues) found in the Bahá’í writings appears in Allen, “Centering a Secular
> Education” 28.
> 19. Personality type is usually measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Myers, The Myers-Briggs
> Type Indicator). This instrument has four bipolar scales based on Jungian psychology: Extroversion/Introversion;
> Sensing Perception/Intuitive Perception; Thinking Judgment/Feeling Judgment; Judging/Perceiving Styles for
> Dealing with the Outside World (Myers and McCaulley, Manual). An individual is described by the combination of
> her positions on these four scales.
> 
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> — *Strategies for Spiritualization (Used by permission of the curator)*