Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Graham Hassall, The Modes and Intentions of Biography, bahai-library.com. ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 3:37 PM Page 71 Methodology Baha’i Studies Review, Volume 14 © Intellect Ltd 2008 Methodology. English language. doi: 10.1386/bsr.14.71/7 The Modes and Intentions of Biography Graham Hassall Abstract Keywords This paper explores a range of modes, intentions and problems of Baha’i biogra- Baha’i phy, in order to offer some initial observations on the ways in which biographical biography and literatures frame understandings of the individual in the context of community. It religion distinguishes between documentary, hagiological and critical modes of biography documentary as these have emerged in the diverse literature of the world’s religious traditions, as biography well as in the secular literature of the modern period. It suggests that much Baha’i hagiography biography has continued the traditions of remembrance and exempla, although exemplum and more critical works have also begun to appear. The quest to write ‘spiritual biogra- anti-exemplum phies’ that explore a subject’s inner life and journey remains difficult, due mostly to critical biography limitations on sources, since few subjects give adequate exposure to their inner thoughts. Rather than privilege one tradition above any other, Baha’i biographies have to date drawn on the skills of the craft elaborated across generations, reli- gions and cultures, while beginning to draw also on Baha’i scripture for inspiration productive of new insights into how lived lives can be depicted in literature. This paper seeks to explore some of the ‘moral implications’ for writing 1. The author would like biography from a Baha’i perspective.1 It proceeds by searching out the to thank Katayoun Hassall, Will C. van modes, intentions and problems of Baha’i biography in order to ground its den Hoonaard, Jack theoretical observations empirically and to point to some issues of method McLean, and several associated with biographical practice. A related purpose is to offer some anonymous reviewers for their comments initial observations on the ways in which biographical literatures frame on earlier drafts of understandings of the individual in the context of community. this paper. W. P. Biography, as distinguished from all other texts, places the life experience of Collins’s Bibliography of English-Language an individual (or individuals) at the centre of investigation. The Encyclopaedia Works on the Bābı̄ Britannica describes a biography as a ‘narrative which seeks, consciously and and Baahā’ ı̄ Faiths artistically, to record the actions and recreate the personality of an individual life 1844–1985 (Oxford: George Ronald, 1990, …’2 Other works such as histories and other types of commentary may well 505) has just over two consider the same person or people, but without placing them at the centre of hundred references to the investigation. There are, for instance, descriptions of Horace Holley in Gayle ‘biography’ as a subject and advises Morrison’s study of Louis Gregory,3 but the latter is at the centre of focus. the reader to look Similarly, Robert Stockman’s survey of the Baha’i Faith in America describes a also under ‘history’. great number of individuals, without seeking to write a biography of any one of This paper, even though examining a them.4 A further distinction can be made between biographies written about comparatively small oneself (autobiographies) rather than about others. The noblest goal of an auto- and recently biography is to examine one’s life and to share the results of this examination commenced tradition, BSR 14 pp. 71–86. © Intellect Ltd 2008 71 BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 3:37 PM Page 72 can only refer in brief with others. It requires the capacity to observe oneself at a distance. to the range of titles Autobiographies may also be written for other purposes, whether for the available. instruction of others or simply to record the times one has lived through and 2. Quoted in H. H. E. the events one has witnessed or participated in. Loofs, ‘Biographies in Stone: The Not all biographies intend to explore their subject in similar depth. Significance of Those that are essentially chronological and descriptive intend to document Changing Perceptions a life ‘for the record’. They seek, that is, to preserve or to record information of the Buddha Image in Mainland Southeast of interest about a person, and they seek remembrance (tadhkira) of a subject Asia for the without exploring the relationship between his or her values and actions, Understanding of and without placing these actions in some specific historical or sociocultural the Individual’s Place in Some Buddhist context. In the case of religious biographies, they offer an assurance that a Societies’, in Self and subject possessed the qualities of the spiritual and the virtues of the holy, Biography: Essays on but do not necessarily bring the reader any closer to an understanding of the Individual and Society in Asia the struggles and achievements of their actual existence. (ed. Wang Gungwu, A more complex biographical exercise presents relevant events in some Sydney: Sydney actual context, and examines the progression of the biographical subject University Press for the Australian through the conditions of their life. It takes the step of seeking the significance Academy of the of the subject’s existence, of extracting the essential from the myriad events Humanities, 1976), 9. and happenings in their life. For example, biographies of George Townshend5 3. G. Morrison, To Move and Louis Gregory seek to position their subjects in the context of their times. the World: Louis G. Gregory and the Advancement of Racial Biographic traditions Unity in America Traditions of biography and autobiography have evolved in each of the world (Wilmette: Bahā’ı̄ religions. Devoted at first to depicting the life of the prophet and the lives of Publishing Trust, 1982). the first disciples, they have expanded to include accounts of martyrs, saints 4. R. H. Stockman, The and holy men and women. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines this Bah ā’ ı̄ Faith in America Vol. II: Early Expansion, literature as ‘Hagiology’ – ‘literature that treats of the lives and legends of 1900–1912 (Oxford: saints’. But this literature in its original form was not as concerned with the George Ronald, 1995). details of an individualized life as with the generalized moral story that it 5. D. Hofman, George could be called on to tell. Such idealized biographies of saints that were the Townshend (Oxford: George Ronald, 1983). focus of medieval hagiographies, explain Averill and Nunley: 6. J. R. Averill and E. P. … were little concerned with the idiosyncrasies of individual lives. Their Nunley, Voyages of the purpose was to further Christian ideals, and medieval biographers felt free to Heart: Living an Emotionally Creative borrow anecdotes from one saint’s life to embellish the life of another. To the Life (New York: The extent that differences among people were accorded significance, such differ- Free Press, 1992), 12. ences were based on pre-established regional, class, and gender expectations. 7. Godzich continues: A person was born into a certain social station (a nobleman, say, or a serf), ‘The mechanism of and that station determined the meaning of his or her life.6 exemplum is simple: a singular happenstance is related so that it can The ‘exemplary’ purpose of such texts has recently been elaborated by serve as an instance of studies of the ‘broad injunctions’ found in Christian texts, in contrast to the a universal principle, ‘specific regulations’ found in Judaism: which can now be imposed as a moral imperative on the Inevitably, there arose a need to identify models of proper, and improper, recipient of the story. behaviour to compensate for the excessive laconism of the New Testament on The universal principle may have been this topic. Lives of saints were written and accounts of the lives of famous explicitly stated in pagans were scrutinized to extract from them the models that would guaran- revelation, but, more tee the moral uplifting of righteous Christians. We know these models under often than not, it is enough that it be the name of exempla, narratives of others’ lives, or of events in others’ lives, derived from the admitting of a moral lesson.7 72 Graham Hassall BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 3:37 PM Page 73 The Buddhist tradition offers a slightly different approach to biography, exemplum in such a which yields a somewhat similar result. According to Gungwu, the practice way that it is consistent with the rest of of biography was inhibited by the attempt to limit the ‘aggrandizement of revelation. There the self’ through placing little emphasis on ‘any individual self’ at any par- occurred thus a subtle ticular point or place in time: ‘Self was knowable but specific selves were shift in authority from revelation itself, not worth knowing except where they might show a capacity to merge with though it remains the universal, with the infinite and the eternal. There was, therefore, no unchallenged, to meaningful biography except where it might demonstrate how a few extra- experience, the past experience of the ordinary men conquered their selves.’8 exemplar. Moreover, China’s Confucian tradition elaborated Shih Chi, biographies exemplify- since the signifying ing a ‘Confucian moralism whose ultimate aim was to guide the conduct of economy of the exemplum follows statecraft’.9 In Japan such literary figures as Mori Ógai developed a ‘typol- the rule of logical ogy of virtue’ to describe a vast corpus of biographical literature.10 A similar abduction, in which a hagiographic intention also informs Islamic biography. Biographies of the law is derived from a singular instance to Prophet Muhammad were given the name sira, and the tradition of rijāl in then be generalized Shi‘a Islam focused on the study of the lives of the transmitters of the traditions to all instances, past of Islam.11 Eventually clergy and caliphs, saints and missionaries, were equally experience, as the law that is derived from it subject to written remembrance. In some parts of the Islamic world these are is given the status of known as tarjama, an Arabic term referring to both biography and autobiog- universal or general raphy.12 Tarjama marshalled the particulars of the lives of learned men into law (the distinction between universal settled categories: and general is not material in this case).’ The components include a genealogy, an account of formal education and W. Godzich, ‘Figuring out what matters; or, Qur’anic memorization, a list of teachers (often including close relatives, the microphysics of which indicates family support for religious learning), the books and sub- history’, in Making jects studied, and selections from the subject’s poetry, aphorisms, or other Sense in Life and Literature (ed. H. U. contributions to learning. Dates are provided whenever possible, since the Gumbrecht, ability to date events distinguishes the traditionally educated from the Minneapolis: University unlearned.13 of Minnesota Press, 1992), vii–xvi. As explained by Renard, the significance of the depiction of religious heroes 8. Wang Gungwu, ‘Introduction’, in in literature lies in that they ‘live and move in a world ordered according to Wang (ed.), Self and a divine plan’, and that they exist ‘only to reflect and point out God’s signs Biography, 2. and presence in creation’: 9. ‘Indeed, the shiden project in its entirety When they conquer they do so by God’s leave and power; and even when they may be interpreted as a biographical lose in time, as rejected prophets or martyrs for justice, they win in eternity. exploration of the Religious heroes function as custodians of hope against terrible odds, testify- following exemplary ing to the virtual certainty of ultimate victory. Their life stories bear witness to traits: self-sacrifice (kenshin); martial spirit the reality of a transcendent dimension in human experience. Most of all, (vuahi no awiahin); for- prophets and Friends of God represent the best of religious and cultural bearance, magnanimity, ideals in accessible form, perhaps too far away to attain fully but not so far as and generosity (kekku no michi); learning to discourage an attempt.14 (gakumon) self- reliance and inner Religious biography, of course, exists within a larger practice of biography, strength (Zuchi ni tanomu tokoro); and which in the modern period has become dominated by studies from popular indifference to material culture – cinema, literature, music and war. In the twentieth century biograph- or utilitarian standards ical endeavour came to include accounts of previously silenced voices – of (muyó).’ M. Marcus, Paragons of the ‘common’ people, of women and of the oppressed and marginalized, who Ordinary: The are now ‘writing back’ to their oppressors. In finding these voices, the practice Biographical Literature The Modes and Intentions of Biography 73 BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 3:37 PM Page 74 of Mori Ógai (Honolulu: of autobiography (i.e. writing one’s own story) has also burgeoned. With the University of Hawaii emergence of secularism in western society, the hagiographic function elabo- Press 1993), 10. rated within the religious traditions has been modified rather than com- 10. ibid 178. pletely rejected. Modern biographies generally avoid questions of ‘ultimate 11. A. Amanat, Resurrection purpose’,15 but proceed in the knowledge that ‘each human life recapitu- and Renewal: The Making of the Babi lates common human experience’.16 Movement in Iran, 1844–1850 (Ithaca: Biography in the Baha’i writings Cornell University Press, 1989), 35. There seems little need to defend the practice of either history or biography in Baha’i discourse. The writings of Baha’u’llah are replete with references 12. D. F. Eickelman, ‘Traditional Islamic to history; those of ‘Abdu’l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi similarly draw on past Learning and Ideas of events and persons when referring to present and even future concerns. the Person in the Baha’u’llah immortalized the lives of those devoted to his cause and he Twentieth Century’, in Middle Eastern Lives: referred to the lives of the past prophets and sages as being lives worthy of The Practice of emulation. Furthermore, Baha’u’llah described his own experiences in his Biography and Self- Tablets.17 Autobiographical references by him point to the worth of his expe- Narrative (ed. M. S. Kramer, Syracuse, NY: rience, and allow the reader to compare the records of that experience with Syracuse University those of the lives of previous prophets.18 Press, 1991) 35–9. ‘Abdu’l-Baha recalled the lives of kings, rulers and learned in The Secret 13. ibid 39. An exemplary of Divine Civilization and extolled sincere Babi and Baha’i believers in study of the Memorials of the Faithful.19 He suggested that contemplation of the lives of relationship between religious training and heroic Baha’is in Persia would set an example that others might aspire to power is found in R. follow, once advising that time be taken at the Nineteen Day Feast to: Mottahedeh, Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran … recount the high deeds and sacrifices of the lovers of God in Persia, and (New York: Simon & tell of the martyrs’ detachment from the world, and their ecstasy, and of how Schuster, 1985). the believers there stood by one another and gave up everything they had.20 14. J. Renard, Seven Doors to Islam: Spirituality Thus we see that the intention of a work such as Memorials of the Faithful and the Religious Life of Muslims (Berkeley: is to depict ‘ordinary’ people who, through their faith, do extraordinary University of California things. Such stories inspire because they show the effect of faith on ordi- Press, 1996), 77. nary people. 15. Increasingly, for Shoghi Effendi valued those who had served the Baha’i cause and referred instance, critical to them in the most admiring and loving language. He frequently sent epi- studies are taking into account psychological taphs when notified of the passing of individuals whose efforts to promote dimensions, as part of the Baha’i cause he cherished, and he instigated an ‘In Memoriam’ section an exploration of the from the fourth volume of The Bah ā’ ı̄ World, a tradition that continued through inner life. the remaining volumes of The Bahā’ı̄ World (vols. 4–20).21 The brief biogra- 16. R. B. Schwartz, phies that appear in official records, however, were never intended to set lim- ‘Johnson’s Johnson’, in James Boswell’s its as to the treatment of individual life stories. To the contrary, Shoghi Life of Samuel Effendi on several occasions referred to the need for further elaboration, which Johnson: Modern the pressure of his more compelling responsibilities as Guardian of the Baha’i Critical Interpretations (ed. H. Bloom, New Faith prevented him from exploring. York: Chelsea House, One feature that begins to emerge from a reading of Baha’i biographies 1986), 74. is the diversity of personalities depicted, and the seeming lack of limita- 17. A number of these tions on culture or social class represented. In what may be an unconscious appear in Epistle to evolution, the literature has, in the first 150 years of its tradition, produced the Son of the Wolf (Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ı̄ studies ranging from the twin ‘Great Souls’ (the Bab and Baha’u’llah) to Publishing Trust, 1988). their followers of stations high and low alike, and even those who worked His Tablet of the as servants and slaves.22 Holy Mariner (Bahā’ ı̄ 74 Graham Hassall BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 3:37 PM Page 75 The question as to whether accounts of the prophets are biographies or Prayers, Wilmette: some other form of literature is left aside in this essay – except to say that Bahā’ı̄ Publishing Trust, 1991, 220–8) any attempt to place them ‘outside’ risks dilution of scrutiny. The biographies can be regarded as of the central figures by Balyuzi combine the approaches of meticulous ‘metaphorical western scholarship and religious attachment to produce studies that are at autobiography’. David Ruhe has included once faithful to and somehow detached from their subjects.23 David S. Ruhe ‘every crumb of autobi- acknowledges the hagiographic element in his biography of Baha’u’llah, ographical material’ by Robe of Light, and suggests also that a cold objectivity is neither possible Baha’u’llah in Robe of Light: The Persian Years nor desirable: of the Supreme Prophet Bahā’u’llāh 1817–1853 A natural tendency to reflect a feeling for Bahā’u’llāh well beyond hagiography (Oxford: George Ronald, 1994). must be moderated through such objectivity as is possible so soon after the life- time of the Prophet. Nevertheless, the author’s subjective emotional conviction 18. This, for instance, was one of the devices used has been sustained by a steadily deepening appreciation of the Great Soul.24 by the Bab to prove his own prophetic Ruhe points to a shift in perspective that is gaining ground in the ‘post- statement; see Amanat, Resurrection and modern period’. Consisting of many ungathered strands, it is a perspective Renewal, 193–8. that questions the certainties of much modern thought, particularly the Whatever difficulties idea that knowledge can be produced ‘objectively’, and in a way that deter- practitioners of Baha’i history may face, they mines some ‘absolute’ or ‘scientific’ truth. This new perspective is prepared do not equal those to admit its own boundaries, and to seek validity through disclosure of its facing anyone who own limited capacities to find meanings. Such a perspective finds many searches, for instance, for the ‘historical Jesus’. parallels that are useful in approaching Baha’i biographical literature. At this early stage in a new tradition, the lives of the central figures of 19. ‘Abdu’l-Baha, The Secret of Divine the Baha’i Faith have been presented anecdotally more than through com- Civilization (Wilmette, prehensive narrative.25 The life story of ‘Abdu’l-Baha has been told in such IL: Bahā’ ı̄ Publishing early studies as Myron Phelps’s The Life and Teachings of Abbas Effendi (New Trust, 1990); ‘Abdu’l- Baha, Memorials of the York: G. P. Putnam’s Son, 1903), and more recently in Balyuzi’s ‘Abdu’l- Faithful (Wilmette, IL: Bahā: Centre of the Covenant of Bahā’u’llāh (1971). ‘Abdu’l-Baha’s sister, Bahā’ ı̄ Publishing Bahiyyih Khanum, has only recently become the subject of close biographi- Trust, 1971). This latter book contains short cal observation.26 Shoghi Effendi has been the subject of an initial biogra- sketches of the lives phy by his widow, Ruhiyyih Rabbani,27 and of numerous memoirs by early of 73 followers of Baha’is. Baha’u’llah, including two women. ‘Abdu’l- Of the more than 50 individuals appointed ‘Hands of the Cause’ by Baha’s essays were Baha’u’llah and Shoghi Effendi, only a handful have to date been the subject written in 1915 and of serious (English-language) biographies. Accounts of Rahmatu’llah Muhajir published in Persian in Haifa in 1924. and Zikrullah Khadem have been written by family members, primarily using personal notebooks and diaries, with later revision and supplementa- 20. ‘Abdu’l-Baha, from a Tablet to an individual tion. Iran Muhajir considers the biography of her husband Rahmatu’llah Baha’i – translated Muhajir an incomplete record of the life of this man who ‘lived only to serve from the Persian, Bahā’u’llāh and who tried to carry out the instructions of the beloved Compilation of Compilations (Mona Guardian to the best of his ability’.28 The life story of Dorothy Baker has Vale: Bahā’ ı̄ been written by her granddaughter, Dorothy Gilstrap,29 that of Leroy Ioas by Publications Australia, his insightful daughter A. Chapman.30 Other Hands of the Cause who have 1991), vol. 1, 428. been the subject of biographical treatment include Martha Root,31 George 21. The Bahā’ ı̄ World (vols. 1–12, 1925–54, rpt. Townshend,32 Louis Gregory,33 William Sears,34 and John Esslemont.35 Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ ı̄ Barron Harper has produced a volume of essays on all Hands of the Cause Publishing Trust, 1980; in Lights of Fortitude.36 The majority of other Baha’i biographies focus on the vols. 13–14, Haifa: The Universal House of first adherents of the Baha’i Faith in particular countries, and on pioneering Justice, 1970–74; vol. activities.37 15–20, Haifa: Bahā’ ı̄ The Modes and Intentions of Biography 75 BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 3:37 PM Page 76 World Centre, Biography as exemplum 1976–98). The traditions of hagiography in both Islamic and Christian literature have 22. See for example, undoubtedly and quite understandably influenced much of early Baha’i bio- A. Q. Afnan, Black graphical literature. Elements of tarjama (Islamic hagiography) are clearly Pearls: Servants in the Households of the evident, for instance, in Nabil-i-A‘zam’s account of the Babis, The Dawn- Bā b and Bahā’u’llāh Breakers. So too is Mirza Abu’l-Fadl’s Short Sketch of the History and Lives of (Los Angeles: Kalimāt ˙ the Leaders of This Religion reflective of this style.38 Typical of scholarship in Press, 1988). both East and West at the time, Abu’l-Fadl does not detail his sources, but 23. H. M. Balyuzi, does show that he has considered the evidence ˙ of writers who were sup- Baha’u’llah (London: Baha’i Publishing portive of his subjects, as well as those who were not, and he supports only Trust, 1938);’Abdu’l- those facts he is confident of. Bahā: The Centre of More recent Baha’i literature also draws on the hagiographic and docu- the Covenant of Bahā’u’llāh (Oxford: mentary Islamic and Christian traditions. This includes many biographies George Ronald, 1972); that appear in the ‘In Memoriam’ section of volumes of The Bahā’ ı̄ World. The Bāb: Herald of the These are mostly based on the recollections of relatives or acquaintances Day of Days (Oxford: George Ronald, 1973); and seldom rely on extensive use of documentary sources. They intend to Bahā’u’llāh: a brief life, honour the memory of their subjects and to acknowledge their contribution followed by an essay on to the progress of the Baha’i Faith rather than to explore their individual con- the Manifestation of God entitled The Word tribution in detail. In fulfilling these functions, they encourage and inspire Made Flesh (Oxford: their readers and locate contemporary Baha’i activities against a background George Ronald, 1974); of worthy tradition. Furthermore, they establish a record of the past, which Bahā’u’llāh, The King of Glory (Oxford: acts as an essential collective memory – a consciousness of the past – that George Ronald, 1980). strengthens individuals and communities as they operate in the present.39 24. Ruhe, Robe of Light: Baha’i literature also includes several valuable collections of what might The Persian Years of the be termed ‘biographical essays’. Some of these are by a single author, such Supreme Prophet Bahā’u’llāh 1817–1853 as O. Z. Whitehead’s Some Early Bahā’¯ı s of the West, Some Bahā’¯ı s to Remember, (Oxford: George and Portraits of Some Bahā’ ı̄ Women;40 and Dipchand Khianra’s Immortals.41 Ronald, 1994), 180. Multi-authored collections of this genre include And The Trees Clapped Their 25. Some of these are Hands, edited by Claire Vreeland, Why They Became Bahā’ı̄ s, compiled by listed in G. Faizi, Annamarie Honnold, and S. Sundrum’s portraits of Malaysian Baha’is in Stories about Baha’i Funds (New Delhi: Mystic Connections.42 Bahā’ ı̄ Publishing These volumes of biographical essays each cohere around a specific Trust, 1993). theme. Whitehead’s first volume (Some Early Bah ā’ ı̄ s) narrates the lives of 26. The life of Bahiyyih 23 individuals who met ‘Abdu’l-Baha.43 The volume edited by Vreeland Khanum is currently includes both biographical and autobiographical accounts of pioneers, remembered in numerous histories while that compiled by Honnold presents 34 autobiographies and 101 and in the compilation biographies of ‘first generation Bahā’ı̄ s by 1963’. Khianra presents stories of of letters to and from Baha’is from the Indian subcontinent. Numerous essays from among these her, Bahı̄ yyih Khānum, The Greatest Holy Leaf: four sets of biographical essays rely on existing secondary sources and on A Compilation from the primary materials offered by subjects’ relatives and acquaintances; not one Bahā’ı̄ Sacred Texts and among them suggests any reliance on formally archived materials.44 Writings of the Guardian of the Faith and Baha’i biographical and autobiographical literature also includes an Bahı̄ yyih Khānum’s increasing number of works privately printed, or otherwise printed in small Own Letters (Haifa: numbers, by family members or Baha’i communities and institutions.45 Bahā’ı̄ World Centre 1982). J. A. Khan, Some works written in Arabic and Persian have been published in English Prophet’s Daughter: translation.46 The Life and Legacy For the most part these biographical essays are vehicles for exempla – for of Bahı̄ yyih Khānum: Outstanding Heroine inspiration and the consolidation of tradition. Such exemplary biogra- of the Bahā’ı̄ Faith phies are not inherently problematic, but they may become so when (Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ı̄ tension results from differences between a writer’s intentions and readers’ 76 Graham Hassall BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 3:37 PM Page 77 expectations, or else through the selective (non-)use of biographical evidence, Publishing Trust, leading in some instances to ‘biographies of denial’. 2005); M. Momen, ‘The family and early The life story of Fatimah Zarin Taj Baraghani (also known as T ahirih = life of Tahirih Qurrat ˙ is one ‘The pure one’, and Quratu’l-‘Ayn = ‘Solace of the eyes’), for instance, al-‘Ayn’, Bahā’ ı̄ Studies still to be imagined from within its prism of both eastern and western bio- Review 11 (2003), 35–52. graphic traditions. Being female, her learning did not satisfy the criteria of tarjama, and only her individual brilliance has saved her from being 27. R. Rabbani, The Priceless Pearl (London: silenced like so many of her sister believers, as lamented in Bahiyyih Bahā’ ı̄ Publishing Nakhjavani’s insightful Asking Questions: Trust, 1969). 28. I. F. Muhājir, The pages of Nabil’s Dawn-Breakers are filled with countless women. They ride Dr Muhā jir, Hand of the beside their husbands and sacrifice their children. They are humiliated, beaten Cause of God, Knight of Bahā’u’llāh (London: and raped. They are paraded on horseback as the heads of their sons and Bahā’ı̄ Publishing husbands are held aloft on pikes. They carry stones and build forts; they cut off Trust, 1992), xvi. This their hair and use it to bind together the fracturing guns at Nayriz. They were no biography takes a straightforward doubt among those who helped grind the bones of dead horses and who rushed approach to the genre out under cannon fire to gather the new grass to eat at Fort Shaykh Tabarsi. But of biography, and many they have no names and Nabil does not go out of his way to mention them …47 details noted in haste by Dr Muhajir while on his travels appear to As a martyr for her Faith, her persona as ‘heroine’ is more familiar than her have been transferred individuality. An instance of difference between author’s intention and reader’s directly into the book without verification. expectation on the subject of T ahirih occurred in a critic’s response to Martha ˙ Root’s biography, Tahirih the Pure: Iran’s Greatest Woman.48 F. W. Ebner, who 29. D. F. Gilstrap, From Copper to Gold: The received a copy of Miss Root’s book at the time of her visit to China in 1938, Life of Dorothy Baker wrote in the North-China Daily News: (Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ ı̄ Publishing Trust, 1999). Were this book written primarily to show the life and influence of a nineteenth- 30. A. I. Chapman, Leroy Ioas: Hand of the century Persian woman who suffered martyrdom in her attempt to emancipate Cause of God (Oxford: women, it would have resulted in a unique contribution to oriental biography. George Ronald, 1998). However, the author’s interest in her subject, Hadrat-i-Tahirih, Her Highness 31. M. Garis, Martha the Pure One, has been secondary to her interest in the promotion of the Root: Lioness at the Bahā’ı̄ Faith. The review does not take exception to the purpose of the book as Threshold (Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ı̄ Publishing conceived by the author. He merely states that the ostensible purpose of the Trust, 1983). book seems to be of secondary concern.49 32. D. Hofman, George Townshend (Oxford: While Miss Root gathered much of her material first hand, in Iran, her treat- George Ronald, 1983). ment of the life story of Quratu’l-‘Ayn emphasized her role as champion of 33. G. Morrison, To Move women’s emancipation and Babi heroine rather than her individuality. the World: Louis G. Ebner, on the other hand, was evidently more interested in T ahirih’s indi- Gregory and the viduality as poetess and religious reformer.50 ˙ Advancements of Racial Unity in America Another instance of tension between biography as exemplum and narra- (Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ ı̄ tion of a unique life is related by anthropologist Michael Fischer. During Publishing Trust, 1982). extensive fieldwork in Yazd, Iran, Fischer befriended Nurū’llah Akhtar-Khāvar ı̄ , 34. M. R. Sears, Bill: A a Baha’i employed to handle international affairs at the Kerakhshan wool- Biography of Hand of the Cause of God spinning and weaving mill. Akhtar-Khavari was a courageous advocate of his William Sears (Eloy, Faith, who was executed by the Khomeini government in 1980. In re-presenting AZ: Desert Rose the story of his life, Fischer recognized that ‘two stories’ could be told: Publishing, 2003). 35. M. Momen, Dr. J. E. The more powerful one is of the exemplary figure, the modern man who had Esslemont (London: Bahā’ ı̄ Publishing decided to operate in a very conservative society, not to badger or embarrass Trust, 1975). The Modes and Intentions of Biography 77 BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 3:37 PM Page 78 36. B. Harper, Lights of it, but to show a new and open mode of behaviour. The challenge here is to Fortitude: Glimpses show how one operates in such a society: it is almost an ethnographic chal- into the Lives of the Hands of the Cause of lenge, the kind of challenge that requires the eye of a novelist for local colour God (Oxford: George and knowledge of local detail. It is a challenge to describe how a society Ronald, 1997). changes, sometimes moving in reactionary self-destructive directions, but 37. See, for example, nonetheless irrevocably changes, in ways involving considerable internal conflict. R. Weinberg, Ethel The exemplary individual as well as all other individuals have to make choices, Jenner Rosenberg: The Life and Times of have to negotiate pragmatic as well as moral decisions. England’s Outstanding The other narrative that can be told – by far the weaker story, I think – is to Baha’i Pioneer Worker turn Akhtar-Khavari into a standard Bahā’ı̄ martyr. It is this that I fear will be (Oxford: George Ronald, 1995). his fate. I fear it not only because I will no longer recognize my friend, but also L. Rowden, Hidden because he was larger than such stereo-typing allows. His personality (like Bounties: Memories of every human being’s) was unique: it was also graceful, informed, and forceful, Pioneering on the Magdalen Archipelago and thus worth preserving.51 (Ontario: Nine Pines Publishing, 1994). Fischer’s understandable concern is that hagiographic treatment of Akhtar- 38. Abu’l-Fadl Khavari would have a moulding effect, which would ‘disembody’ the ˙ [Gulpaygani], The authentic self. He sees the ‘typing’ of an individual as ‘martyr’ as a reduc- Baha’i Proofs (Hujaja’l- Bahiyyih) and A Short tion of the subject, a shrinking of personhood into a brave but futile heroism. Sketch of the History He regards the legacy of Nuru’llah Akhtar-Khavari not as ‘a dialogue of and Lives of the Leaders martyrdom with Shi’ism’ but ‘the possibility of living in Yazd as if it were the of This Religion (Wilmette, IL: Baha’i twentieth century, as if one could live without fear of religious fanaticism, as Publishing Trust, 1983). if people could live and let live each by his or her own lights’.52 His purpose 39. Other examples is not to ‘denigrate the suffering or the heroism of Bahā’ı̄ martyrs’ but to include M. Gooljar, ‘raise for discussion the possibilities for more effective ways of countering The Teachers of the Baha’i Faith: The World the genocidal atrocities of the Khomeini regime’. is One Country and A survey of Baha’i biographical literature suggests that Fischer’s fear Mankind its Citizens has not been realized. In the first place, despite the many deaths of (New York: Vantage Press, 1986). Babis and Baha’is in the nineteenth century and the continued martyr- dom of Baha’is in both pre- and post-revolutionary Iran, these martyr- 40. O. Z. Whitehead, Some Early Bahā’ ı̄ s of doms have not necessarily led to biographies of hagiographic intent and the West (Oxford: ‘martyrdom’ trope.53 Second, the appearance of such literature, when it George Ronald, 1976); does eventually emerge, need not betray the individuality of the subject Some Bahā’ ı̄ s to Remember (Oxford: in the way that Fischer fears. For sacrifice of self is regarded as hon- George Ronald, 1983); ourable in the Baha’i tradition as in those of the past, and lives that have Portraits of Some been offered with the purest of motives will be remembered among the Bahā’ ı̄ Women (Oxford: George exemplary. Ronald, 1996). 41. Immortals (New Delhi: Anti-exemplum Baha’i Publishing Trust, If there exists a ‘true path’ for human endeavour and the refinement of 1988) recounts the character, there also exists a path of ‘waywardness’. Where one is a path of lives of 16 outstanding Indian Baha’is. Many faithfulness, the other is that of deceit, and one role of biography is to clar- of these brief ify the distinction between the two. Thus the central figures of the Baha’i biographies draw on Faith exalted the character and actions of the praiseworthy and noted the the author’s personal acquaintance with the condition of its opponents for the purpose of instructing others in right subjects, in addition to conduct. drawing on previously The extent to which accounts can vary in their evaluation of an individ- published sources. Some outstanding ual’s place in Babi and Baha’i history is illustrated in studies of the life of Baha’is, such as the Persian activist Jamālu’d-D ı̄ n ‘al-Afghā n ı̄ ’ (1838/9–1897). Afghani was Isfandı̄ yār Bakhtı̄ yār ı̄ , an Iranian of considerable intellectual and political capacity who wove 78 Graham Hassall BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 3:37 PM Page 79 deception into every phase of his eventful life. Renowned Persianist Nikkie Narayenrao Vakil and Keddie suggests that Afghani saw himself as a ‘kind of prophet or messiah, Pritam Singh are to an extent already known destined to reform, reawaken, and reunite the Muslim world and free it outside India; accounts from its infidel conquerors’.54 While there is no doubt that Afghani knew of the lives of others, much about the teachings of the Bab, his association was with Azali Babis – such as Knight of Baha’u’llah to Daman, principally Shaykh Ahmad Rūh ı̄ and Mı̄ rz ā Āqā Khān Kirmānı̄ .55 Kedourie Ghulām-’Alı̄ Ibrāhı̄ mjı̄ has suggested that during˙ ˙ his last years in Istanbul Afghani associated with Kurlawala, are a signifi- ‘Persian Bāb ı̄ s prominent in the dissemination of heterodoxy, and active in cant contribution. As men were considerably subverting the authority of the Persian Government’,56 and suggests that an freer than women in anti-Babi article attributed to Afghani in the fifth volume of Butrus al- Indian society, only four Bustānı̄ ’s encyclopaedia Dā’irat al-Ma‘ārif published in Beirut in 1881 was women are described in Immortals, although written by Bustani himself.57 Shoghi Effendi, however, is clear in his assess- several other chapters ment of Afghani’s relationship to the early Baha’is, and describes Afghani include mention of as one of those ‘enemies who have sedulously sought to extinguish the work achieved by men in partnership with light of Bahā’u’llāh’s Covenant’: their wives. 42. C. Vreeland, And The The scheming Jamālu’d-Dı̄n Afghani, whose relentless hostility and powerful Trees Clapped Their influence had been so gravely detrimental to the progress of the Faith in Near Hands (Oxford: Eastern countries, was, after a chequered career filled with vicissitudes, George Ronald, 1994); A. Honnold, Why They stricken with cancer, and having had a major part of his tongue cut away in an Became Bahā’ ı̄ s (New unsuccessful operation perished in misery.58 Delhi: Bahā’ ı̄ Publishing Trust, 1994); S. Sundrum, In this passage Shoghi Effendi combines judgement of character (‘the Mystic Connections: scheming Jamālu’d-D ı̄ n’) with matters of historical fact relating to his polit- Stories of Some Early ical and physical decline. While few biographies have been written to date Bahā’ ı̄ s of Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur: Bahā’ı̄ about those who occupied themselves in active opposition to the central Publishing Trust of Baha’i figures and to the Baha’i community itself, the references to their Malaysia, 2003.) actions in such works as Shoghi Effendi’s God Passes By suggests that such 43. The volume also studies will in time be required in the ongoing search for historical under- includes the story of Queen Marie of standing of past events.59 Studies of the life of Mason Remey, for instance, Romania. will be required to understand the positive contributions made in his earlier 44. I make this observation life and the circumstances leading to his tragic defection following the cautiously, for an essay passing of Shoghi Effendi, and also to correct the inaccuracies in both fact by this writer about and interpretation offered in works such as that by Spataro.60 Florence and Harold Fitzner that appears in And The Trees Partial biographies Clapped Their Hands There are many individuals whose lives as Baha’is are only partially uncov- relied greatly on archived materials, but ered in the biographical literature. These include the famous film actress footnotes to the essay Carole Lombard, who did not live long after becoming a Baha’i; Queen were removed in Marie of Romania, whose allegiance to Baha’i principles is only marginally keeping with the style and format of the explored in the otherwise masterful study by Pakula,61 even if more fully volume; other essays developed by Marcus;62 and August Forel, world-renowned Swiss scientist, in these works may whose life is partially explored by Vader.63 have followed a similar path from research Roy Wilhelm (1875–1951), the trusted servant of ‘Abdu’l-Baha designated to publication. a ‘herald of Bahā’u’llāh’s Covenant’ and later a Hand of the Cause by 45. Some recent examples Shoghi Effendi, is known to Baha’is for his service on the Baha’i Temple include H. Falahi- Unity Board (from 1909) and the North American National Assembly (from Skuce, A Radiant Gem: its inception in 1922 until 1946, when he retired at the age of 71); and especially A Biography of Jinab-i Fadil-i Shirazi (Victoria, for the property in New Jersey which became the East Coast Baha’i commu- BC: Trafford Publishing, nity’s first summer school. Less well known is the fact that Wilhelm rose 2004); B. Fitzpatrick- The Modes and Intentions of Biography 79 BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 3:37 PM Page 80 Moore, My African from being a high-school drop-out to become one of the largest coffee Heart (Johannesburg: brokers in North America, a story better told in the pages of the New York Bahā’ı̄ Publishing Trust, 1999); T. K. Times.64 Perhaps even less well known are the troubled formative years that Foroughi (ed.), My prepared Wilhelm for a life of service. As recalled by Wilhelm’s butler, Love is My Stronghold Walter Blakely: (New Delhi: Bahā’ı̄ Publishing Trust, 1995); F. Mayberry, The Great Roy was born in Zainsville, Ohio. He went to school; when he got to high Adventure (Manotick, school he didn’t like it so he ran away. His people found him and brought him Ontario: Nine Pines Publishing, 1994); back, then he ran again the second time, and he told me he covered his tracks P. Matchett, Down thoroughly. He got a job as a pottery salesman on the road, what they called a Memory Lane: The ‘drummer’ in those days, and he used to go all over the US selling pottery, Autobiography of an Irish Baha’i (Bangor, and finally he told me he saved up $750. It was like $7,500 now, and a confi- Co. Down: privately dence man came and cheated him out of it, which he said was a good thing, published, 1999). B. because he never got cheated again. Sims, In the Light of the Rising Sun: Memoirs of Roy Wilhelm used to write to the Guardian every day. I used to mail them a Baha’i Pioneer to for him, and he used to get a letter back about once a week. He sent the Japan (Tokyo: Bahā’ı̄ Guardian an automobile, a brand new Buick, the best ever made. I picked it Publishing Trust, 2002). out, because Roy said ‘you pick it out Walter, and pick out all the parts he will 46. Haydar Ali, Stories need for a number of years, 10 years’.65 from The Delight of Hearts: The Memoirs of Hā j ı̄ Mı̄ rzā Haydar-‘Al ı̄ Two valuable studies of recent times treat the lives of John Birks ‘Dizzie’ (trans. A. Q. Faizı̄ , Los Gillespie and Bernard Leach.66 Leach’s Baha’i affiliation is widely known, Angeles: Kalimāt Press, 1980); A. but his struggles with religious ideas and values are only revealed through ‘Al ı̄ zād, Years of the meticulous scholarship of Cooper, an author principally concerned with Silence: The Bahā’ ı̄ s in Leach as potter but aware of the significance of the potter’s Baha’i commit- the USSR, 1938–1946: The Memoirs of ments.67 While Shipton’s study of Gillespie similarly focuses his subject Asadu’llāh ‘Al ı̄ zād from an artistic rather than religious point of view, his treatment of Gillespie’s (trans. B. R. Ma‘ani, Baha’i commitments leaves the reader keen to know more.68 Oxford: George Ronald, 1999). The black American philosopher Alain Locke (1886–1954) is another whose activities within the Baha’i community have only recently been 47. B. Nakhjavani, Asking Questions: A Challenge assessed, with most biographies focusing on his achievements as philoso- to Fundamentalism pher and writer.69 The Baha’i literature, conversely, notes Locke’s involve- (Oxford: George ment in race amity conferences in the 1920s without examining in any detail Ronald, 1990). his work in philosophy.70 Will van den Hoonaard has recently explored the 48. M. Root, Tahirih the notion of partial biography.71 In the Australian context, the life of ‘Burnam Pure: Iran’s Greatest Woman (New York: Burnam’, who gained fame for his upholding of Aboriginal rights (in 1988 Bahā’ı̄ Publishing he marked the bicentenary of Australia’s ‘founding’ by claiming the White Committee, 1938). Cliffs of Dover on behalf of Australia – mocking Captain Cook’s act two 49. North-China Daily hundred years earlier claiming the Australian continent on behalf of the News, 13 September 1938. British crown) and documentation of Aboriginal culture, as depicted by Norst,72 could almost be mistaken as the story of a person other than Harry 50. Ebner: ‘A modern biographer might well Penrith (1933?–1997), by which name this individual was known within the find in Tahirih all the Baha’i community from the time of his first association with it in 1956 until qualities which build a his passing. fascinating story. Miss Root has suggested Not all biographical subjects were in the public eye, and another source these – a medieval of ‘partiality’ in accounts is the obscurity of the subject, generally through society in the lack of documentation. Thus Hellaby’s account of Sarah Ann Ridgway nineteenth century, the daughter of a admits after 90 pages exploring the life of the first Baha’i in the north of Mohammedan priest England that ‘We have really very little to go on in trying to find out what who has cast aside the kind of a personality Sarah Ann Ridgway was and of what kind of character. 80 Graham Hassall BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 3:37 PM Page 81 Until she became a Baha’i there is literally no information to be unearthed veil, one who contrary on the matter…’73 to custom carried on religious controversies Apart from the investigation of lives lived in loyalty to the Covenant of with men and publicly Baha’u’llah, there remains too the issue of lives lived outside it, or in wilful took part in religious opposition to it. A small number of biographies focus on subjects who conferences. The author has described were not Baha’is, but whose lives intersected significantly with the Baha’i Tahirih as a “poetess revelation. These include Edward Granville Browne, the Cambridge orien- whose work is sought talist who devoted some three decades to the study of the Babi movement. by scholars in every land”, yet but two of Balyuzi’s study Edward Granville Browne and the Bahā’ı̄ Faith does not her poems are trans- explore all facets of the scholar’s life and work, but focuses, as the title lated in an appendix. suggests, on his activities and publications in relation to the religion and Oriental scholars of the character of Lord community of the Bab. More specifically, Balyuzi writes from the perspec- Curzon, Valentine tive of one who has examined Browne’s early and later writings and who is Chirol and Sir Francis puzzled at his increasingly contradictory and oftentimes disapproving con- Younghusband have written of Tahirih with clusions.74 admiration. Abundant Biography, it seems, cannot aspire to full re-presentation of a subject’s testimony of her life. Its function and purpose is, rather, to select and present facets of that remarkable personality and gifts exists. Yet life which the biographer finds important. In doing so, biography offers this book cannot commentary on the significance of that life, and on the uniqueness of that satisfy those who life. In contemporary terms, one commentator has suggested, ‘The biogra- want an unbiased interpretation of that pher imposes pattern on experience to declare the comprehensibility of personality.’ North- human existence. Learning of other people, we learn of ourselves.’75 To aid China Daily News, the task of finding and commenting on meaning, biography makes use of 13 September 1938. such devices as metaphor and critique. 51. M. M. J. Fischer and M. Abedi, Debating Muslims: Cultural Biography as metaphor Dialogues in St Augustine wrote in his Confessions: Postmodernity and Tradition (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Many things … are done, which seem disallowable to men and yet are Press, 1990). See approved by thy testimony; and many things again are commended by men, chapter 4, ‘Social which by thy testimony are condemned. For the appearance of the act is often Change and the Mirrors of Tradition: different from the intention of him that doth it; and the precise circumstances Bahā’ı̄ s of Yazd’, 247–8. of the time, which are hidden from us, must often vary.76 Mr Nuru’llah Akhtar- Khavari was one of seven Iranian Baha’is The Christian tradition of biography developed metaphors with which to martyred in Yazd on describe the evolution of the religious life, and against which to compare the 8 September 1980, see specifics of the life of their subject. Vincent Brummer explains a three-stage The Bahā’ı̄ World, vol. 18, 1979–1983, 291. growth process within the Christian tradition of mysticism, commencing with purification (or purgation), followed by illumination (or enlightenment) 52. ibid 249–50. and finally ecstasy (or union). In the stage of purification one learns repen- 53. One of the few tance, self-denial and humility.77 This first stage is one of self-knowledge, a monographs in English focusing on stage in which the ‘spirit of God inflames our will with love. This is a love the theme is M. Labib, that is chaste, holy and ardent.’78 The third level, union, is not possible in the The Seven Martyrs of mortal realm, although enlightened mystics may gain glimpses of it. Hurmuzak (trans. M. Momen, Oxford: If a metaphor such as Brummer’s is accepted, the biographical task George Ronald, 1981). becomes that of making evident the progress of the spirit as it becomes 54. N. R. Keddie, refined through the tests it encounters and endures in the material world. The ‘Sayyid Jamal ad-Din stages of search, love, knowledge, unity, contentment, wonderment, poverty “Al-Afghani”: A Case of Posthumous and absolute nothingness explored in Baha’u’llah’s mystical work The Charisma?’, in Seven Valleys refers to stages that souls traverse in life in varying degrees Philosophers and Kings: The Modes and Intentions of Biography 81 BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 3:37 PM Page 82 Studies in Leadership of intensity, which relate to varying degrees of capacity. This model has been (ed. D. A. Rustow, explored in systematic theologies79 but has seldom provided the foundation New York: George Braziller, 1970) p. 170. for biographical study. The literary subject might render the biographer’s task easy by depicting his or her spiritual state on paper, but few people 55. I am grateful to Dr Moojan Momen for are so inclined, and the interpretation of their interior journey on the basis pointing out these of their exterior one remains extremely difficult. The most accessible bio- associations to me: graphical subjects are those who themselves engaged in literature. Thus email 20 May 2005. biographer Wendy Heller found Lidia Zamenhof a subject at once tragic 56. E. Kedourie, Afghani and accessible.80 Zamenhof was the daughter of Ludwik Zamenhof, a and ‘Abduh: An Essay on Religious Unbelief Polish Jew who created the language of Esperanto. She devoted herself to and Political Activism propagation of the Baha’i teachings through the medium of Esperanto lan- in Modern Islam guage and culture, until her life was terminated by the Nazis of Hitler’s (London: Frank Cass & Co., 1966), 20. Germany. Heller’s treatment of Zamenhof’s restless life excels in narrating her life journey against the backdrop of pre-war Europe, when Baha’i com- 57. ‘All that connects it with Afghani is the last munities laboured innocently in the context of a mounting maelstrom. sentence, which says: “This is what the well- The life cycle known Sayyid Kamal al-Din al-Afghani and More frequent use has been made of life cycles – the pilgrimage from child- others have related hood, to adolescence, to adulthood. This physical progression provides a concerning them.” It metaphor for the spiritual journey that gives meaning to the physical: it may, of course be true that, sceptic as he offers a view on the quest for life – the conquering of self, the overcoming was, Afghani had little of desire; it seeks to examine the ways in which periods of crisis and test use for the involved contributed to the subject’s growth and development. and abstruse specula- tions of the Bāb, but Various motifs recur in the depiction of the life cycle of an individual this would not prevent believer in the Faith of Baha’u’llah. These include the process of conver- him from collaborating sion/confirmation of faith, socialization (becoming familiar with the value with his followers in a political cause.’ system of the community), conversion encounters (acts of teaching the 58. Shoghi Effendi, God Faith to others), acts or episodes of service (e.g. participation in adminis- Passes By (Wilmette, tration, propagation, scholarship and learning, defence of the Baha’i Faith). IL: Baha’i Publishing Among the most successful biographies in exploring the life cycle are Committee, 1944), 317. those by Marzieh Gail. In Summon Up Remembrance81 and Arches of the 59. Biographies of those Years82 Gail graciously introduces the reader to the world as lived in by her who opposed the Baha’i central figures parents, Ali Kuli Khan and Florence Breed, quite possibly the first include R. Hollinger, Persian–American marital alliance and certainly a meeting of culture and ‘Ibrahim George learning on both sides. As a child witness to much that she records, Gail Kheiralla and the Bahā’ı̄ Faith in America’, in gives an account that benefits from her intimate association with her char- From Iran East and acters, and permits the reader not merely an understanding of the involve- West, Studies in Babi ment of Khan and Breed in the affairs of the Baha’i community – whether in and Baha’i History, vol. 2 (ed. J. R. Cole Persia, Palestine, Turkey, France or the United States – but insights into the and M. Momen, Los influences that shaped the development of their characters, and the forces Angeles: Kalimāt Press, in the world at large that shaped their destinies. 1984), 95–134. Much is known of the life of Gail describes the heroic without creating generic heroes or heroines, Mason Remey, a Hand and in this she follows Ruhe in instinctively developing another of the of the Cause who broke ‘ungathered strands’: the new framework for observation of lived lives does the Covenant following the death of Shoghi not seek to be prescriptive, does not set up ‘personas’ modelling or some- Effendi, although no how defining a set of ‘ideal’ behaviours. That modernist effort to standardize scholarly treatment of our every action, to stifle difference, to create categories which we can his life has appeared. clearly label as ‘the heroic’ teacher or defender of the faith, or the ‘stalwart’ 60. F. C. Spataro, Charles and tragic martyr or saint, has been dismissed. Here instead is an effort to Mason Remey and the see subjects in their individuality, to find qualities of humility, of love, of 82 Graham Hassall BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 3:37 PM Page 83 brilliance, of courage, in their specific locations, rather than in some prede- Baha’i Faith (New York: fined categories into which our infinitely diverse characters must somehow Carlton Press, 1987). be put. Instead is the project of finding heroic acts in the ordinary and 61. H. Pakula, The Last everyday, of observing the saintly in the common believer, as in the extraor- Romantic: A Biography of Queen Marie of dinary person of some other time and place. Here is a biography of difference, Roumania (London: of identification and examination of that sense of individuality that is to be Weidenfeld & achieved in the context of community. Here is celebration of the subject’s Nicolson, 1985). consciousness of individual worth, of being at one with other believers and 62. D. L. Marcus, Her community rather than of being the same as all other believers. Eternal Crown: Queen Marie of Romania and the Baha’i Faith Reformulating the biographical framework (Oxford: George Most contemporary biography seeks to convey not merely the facts and Ronald, 2000). example of a subject’s life, but interpretation and even evaluation of it. 63. J. P. Vader, For the Most importantly, this critical approach has been encouraged by the pre- Good of Mankind: August Forel and the sumption that an author occupies some superior and objective vantage Baha’i Faith (Oxford: point from which to view, and judge, the subject. ‘In the recent past’, it has George Ronald, 1984). been suggested, 64. 9 July 1921, 8:7 – criticizes arbitrary reg- ulations in new tariff the usefulness of a ‘critical biography’, one that purports to connect life and bill; 15 March 1925, work, was thought to consist mainly in giving the work a limiting context … IX, 18:3 – praises Today, when the range of critical approaches has widened beyond the nar- commercial arbitration; 4 January 1936, 14:7 – row verities of formal criticism, we are permitted an ampler view of critical letter on calendar biography. To understand any literary work requires, to begin with, a grasp charges; 21 November of its genre and of its historical context. Equally essential is a personal 1937, IV, 9:7 – letter on calendar; context … that biography provides to put the subject’s work in adequate 21 December 1951, 27:5. perspective. The work never provides sufficient information in itself for 65. Interview with Walter proper interpretations.83 Blakely, 28 August 1984, Burbank, Los Angeles. Exponents of the critical mode of biography suggest its superiority over tra- 66. Mention of Leach ditional hagiography, and over mere chronologies and purely descriptive brings to mind works. It could be argued, however, that extreme practices of both critical Leach’s lifelong friend Mark Tobey, the Baha’i biography and hagiography are best avoided, and that the most satisfactory artist responsible for biography emerges from critical examination that constructs and contextu- introducing Leach to alizes more than it merely deconstructs a life story. the Baha’i Faith. While Tobey’s Baha’i The Baha’i writings provide immense insight into the nature of man and affiliation is well the purpose of existence and can assist in formulating the criteria upon documented in work which sound biographical enquiry may proceed. They create, on the other examining his role in modern art, it cannot hand, a dilemma for the writer of biography. We know that humans are be said that his life imperfect; the Baha’i teachings also tell us not to dwell on the faults of oth- has yet been given ers. Since we also know that in the discipline of biography the biographer is full biographical consideration. Recent challenged to reveal the life of the subject, how can such a life be revealed academic work without displaying imperfections, and at the same time avoiding simple includes E. R. Kelley, hagiography? If we are to reveal our subject – and we know subjects are ‘Mark Tobey and the Bahai Faith: New imperfect – then we will reveal blemishes of character. But if we are true to Perspectives on the the facts as we find them, and reveal blemishes of character, then we are Artist and His exposing the faults of others, and this appears to be contrary to the spirit of Paintings’, Ph.D. thesis, University of the Baha’i teachings.84 If, furthermore, we sift the facts to present a partial Texas at Austin, 1983. picture of our subject, dwelling only on those aspects that we think will The classic treatments show our subject in a positive light, we are in danger of distorting the real- are W. C. Seitz, Mark Tobey (New York: The ity of ‘things as they are’: how might the biographer resolve this dilemma? Museum of Modern The Modes and Intentions of Biography 83 BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 3:37 PM Page 84 Art, 1962), and W. First, I suggest, the intention of Baha’i biography is not to critique for Schmied, Mark Tobey critique’s sake, but to explore the relationship between a subject’s con- (London: Thames & Hudson, 1966). scious purpose and the fruit of the enactment of that purpose. Baha’i biographies are not stories of selves engaged in rational strategies towards 67. E. Cooper, Bernard Leach: Life and Work fixed objectives, but voyages of beings through time and space, being (New Haven: Yale tested as they approach stations of spirituality. Baha’i biography, in other University Press, 2003). words, attempts the depiction of enlightened ontological states, in which 68. A. Shipton, Groovin’ life meanings constructed in unique and specific circumstances accord with High: The Life of Dizzy universal theological foundations; each human being has a specific path to Gillespie (Oxford: Oxford University tread, partly preordained, partly self-defined; each has a rational soul and a Press, 1999). physical form, and possesses capacities of spirit, intellect and moral capac- 69. C. Buck, Alain Locke: ity which the life journey presents with opportunities to either develop or Faith and Philosophy ignore, through the voluntary application of will. Interactions with the (Los Angeles: Kalimāt worlds of nature, of culture and of the spirit refine the soul for entry to a Press, 2005). Johnny Washington, A Journey future (post-physical) life: such is the journey – should the biographer into the Philosophy of attempt to depict it. Alain Locke (Westport, Second, since we understand that the highest capacities inherent in the CT: Greenwood Press, 1994). person are to know (to seek knowledge of God), to love and to act, these 70. Locke, who taught at capacities should emerge in biography, through consideration of an individ- Howard University, ual’s spiritual concerns, mental development, relationships with others and chaired sessions at use of will. In writing about the mind of an individual, furthermore, such an the first ‘race amity’ convention in approach would be informed by the relationship between the spirit and the Washington in May intellect as this is explained in the Baha’i writings. 1921 and spoke at sub- The juxtaposition of scriptural passages, which at one time stress indi- sequent conferences in New York and vidual ‘nothingness’ and at another celebrate individual worth suggests not Philadelphia (The contradictory elements within the Baha’i writings but the range of levels Bahā’ı̄ World, vol. 2, available for interpreting the worth of the self, and the individual life. 1926–28, 23, 283). His essay ‘impressions of Advocacy of self-effacement does not denote lessening of individual value, Haifa’ appeared in The just as promotion of universal values does not deny the importance of par- Bahā’ı̄ Yearbook, 1925, ticularity. Stories of the self thus find their importance at different levels. We 81–8, and was repeated in The Bahā’ı̄ World, must decide on some understanding of the self as the combined effects of vol. 2, 1926–28, 125–7 physical, spiritual and intellectual selves. A mature biographer may feel and The Bahā’ı̄ World, confident to offer an evaluation of a subject’s life; but those who write vol. 3, 1928–30, 280–2. An ‘In Memoriam’ within a Baha’i perspective will temper their evaluation of the worth of the article by Charlotte life of another human being through consciousness of the biographer’s own Linfoot appeared in limited access to a suitable plane from which to judge. Baha’u’llah’s admo- The Bahā’i World, vol. 13, 1954–63, 894–5. nitions to observe the good and to ignore the shortcomings of others dis- courage the hasty passing of judgement. The more we consider the 71. W. C. van den Hoonard, ‘Biographical immensity of the task, however, the less we feel inclined to assume the role Zoning and Bahai of ‘judging observer’. Biographical Writing: No biography can fully ‘represent’ a life story. It can, at best, provide a The Case of Rose Henderson’, Baha’i well-intentioned ‘re-presentation’ of that story. Furthermore, the qualities of Studies Review 12 such a re-presentation are determined by several factors, including the (2004), 50–66. intentions of the author and the nature of the records disclosed. 72. M. J. Norst, Burnum Biographies are ‘source-dependent’, in that the extent to which the life of Burnum: A Warrior for another may be ‘re-presented’ depends much on the quality and quantity of Peace (East Roseville: Kangaroo Press, 1999). records – written or otherwise – that remain. To textualize lived experience is to theorize it, to place a grid on it. The tarjama and hagiography are 73. M. Hellaby, Sarah Ann Ridgway (Oxford: examples of such grids. They provide conventions and criteria for appraising George Ronald, 2003). a subject’s acts. Least accessible are ‘inner motives’, which are rarely exposed, 84 Graham Hassall BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 3:37 PM Page 85 except perhaps in autobiographical accounts, which are in and of them- 74. H. M. Balyuzi, Edward selves not a guarantee of authenticity. Granville Browne and the Bahā’ ı̄ Faith A well-crafted biography grounded in Baha’i texts would address the (London: George nature of the individual person, noting his or her elemental qualities and Ronald, 1970). underlying motivations. It would, furthermore, be informed by past tradi- Nineteenth- and twentieth-century Iran tions. Existing traditions of biography need not be rejected. To the contrary, yielded a number of the positive functions of each must necessarily be drawn on in the quest for individuals who were more encompassing approaches to life writing. Certain steps are required, not Baha’is but whose relationships with the however, to transform brief adulatory and uncritical accounts into more Baha’i community substantial biographies. These seek to position a subject in context and, await closer investiga- beyond that, seek to make a judgement, or an evaluation, of the subject’s tion. One thinks of the nationalists Malkam significance. I have suggested also that a biography should examine Khan and Jamalu’d-Din notions of public and private selves and distinguish between active and ‘Al-Afghani’. passive, or contemplative, facets of individual existence – between the capacity 75. Patricia Meyer Spacks, to reflect and the will to act. Such ‘spiritual biography’ – if it can be so called – ‘Gossip’, in Bloom (ed.), James Boswell’s Life of must additionally be constructed on the bases of well-considered conceptions Samuel Johnson, 144. of the terms ‘person’ and ‘society’. But all of these biographical objectives 76. St Augustine, The are subject to the availability of evidence and literary devices that can Confessions of St use this evidence to ‘re-present’ their subject. The self is always in some Augustine (London: Collins 1957), 84–5. relation to an order and biography is text that seeks to represent this 77. V. Brummer, The Model relationship. of Love: A Study in On the foundation of the arguments laid out in brief above, Baha’i biog- Philosophical Theology raphy is essentially the depiction in literature of moral heroism. Its expo- (Cambridge: Cambridge University nents and readers must, therefore, consider deeply what concept of hero Press, 1993). It is they seek to establish. We are most familiar with the hero/heroine whose interesting to note that exploits are apparent in the physical world and in the ‘public’ arena, and these conditions are expressed in the Baha’i whose travels and exploits are well documented in the source literature. But Long Obligatory Prayer. the concept of the heroic conveyed in Baha’i scriptures includes heroes and 78. ibid 62. ‘Chaste love’ heroines whose arenas for victory are the ‘inner life’, or the life at home in means, to Brummer, the family – lives far less accessible to the biographical process. The ‘hero’, love for the sake of love thus, need not be famous, and what is ‘heroic’ need not be ‘public’. itself, not for some other interest. He gives Thornton Chase led a significant Baha’i life which examination shows to be the example of a one of daily and for the most part anonymous struggle.85 An integrating and servant who may love unifying personality may not be one that takes the lead, stands out, and his master for the wages he is paid, rather breaks new ground. Such an integrating personality may make no specific, than through any love outstanding contribution and hence not attract individual attention. But invoked by the master’s such a life is quite an achievement, an outstanding contribution in its own personal qualities. way, worthy of celebration, worthy of examination. In this category we can 79. See, particularly, J. Savi, The Eternal Quest For include such works as Douglas’s description of her parents’ mixed-race God: An Introduction to marriage,86 and Szepesi’s account of life as a migrant.87 The life of Thomas the Divine Philosophy of Breakwell was short, undocumented, but spiritually potent.88 ‘Abdu’l-Bahā (Oxford: George Ronald, 1989); In this essay I have suggested that the contexts in which Baha’i biogra- and J. A. McLean, phy is written include each of the existing cultural and religious traditions. Dimensions in The hagiographic traditions of Christianity and Islam have influenced Baha’i Spirituality (Oxford: George Ronald, 1994). biographies toward depictions of subjects as exemplars, as heroes, saints 80. W. Heller, Lidia: The and martyrs. In the ‘modern’ biography the ‘religious’ or ‘spiritual’ orientation Life of Lidia Zamenhof, of life stories has given way to more secular views of the origins, character Daughter of Esperanto and motivation of the ‘human spirit’. The modernist tradition has also (Oxford: George Ronald, 1985). allowed for representations of ‘ordinary’ believers, and for critical accounts 81. M. Gail, Summon Up that value factual accuracy as much as representations of ‘ideal’ personas. Remembrance (Oxford: George Ronald, 1987). The Modes and Intentions of Biography 85 BSR_14_06_meth_Hassall.qxd 10/13/07 5:37 PM Page 86 82. M. Gail, Arches of the Rather than privilege one of these traditions above any other, however, this Years (Oxford: George paper has suggested that the Baha’i biographical project, in keeping with Ronald, 1991). the facility that underlies Baha’i theological and philosophical pursuits, 83. F. Brady, ‘James Boswell: Theory and accommodates a range of biographical devices. This flexibility in approach Practice of Biography’, will allow Baha’i authors to continue to draw on the skills of the craft elabo- in Bloom (ed.), James rated across many generations, divergent cultures and traditions, yet draw Boswell’s Life of Samuel Johnson, 99–100. on the Baha’i scriptures for inspiration productive of new insights into how 84. I am thinking here lived lives can be depicted in literature. also of the seeming impossibility of Suggested citation knowing the ‘real’ person, as opposed to Hassall, G. (2008), ‘The Modes and Intentions of Biography’, Baha’i Studies Review knowing the ‘façade’ 14, pp. 71–86. doi: 10.1386/bsr. 14. 71/7 that a subject presents to the world. In the context of Japanese Contributor details culture, Takeo Doi, The Dr Graham Hassall is Professor of Governance at the University of the South Pacific, Anatomy of Self: The Suva, Fiji Islands. He is working on biographies of Effie Baker, and Clara and Hyde Individual in Japanese Dunn. In 2005 his chapter ‘The Baha’i Faith in the Pacific’, appeared in Vision and Society (New York: Kodansha, 1986), Reality in Pacific Religion: Essays in Honour of Niel Gunson (Pandanus Press, Canberra). refers to the omote E-mail: hassall_g@usp.ac.fj (the ‘face’, or the front of things) and the ura (that which is hidden, for instance, that which remains secret in the mind). The Baha’i writings warn of the error of cultivating a public persona that differs markedly from the ‘inner life and private character’ which is only known to God; contemporary philosophers speak of ‘authenticity’ in the construction of identity. 85. R. H. Stockman, Thornton Chase: First American Bahā’ı̄ (Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ı̄ Publishing Trust, 2002). 86. D. Douglas and B. Douglas, Marriage, Beyond Black and White: An Interracial Family Portrait (Wilmette, IL: Bahā’ı̄ Publishing Trust, 2002). 87. A. Szepesi, Dreams, Nightmares and Dreams Again (New Liskeard, Ontario: White Mountain Publications, 2000). 88. R. Lakshman-Lepain, The Life of Thomas Breakwell (London: Bahā’ı̄ Publishing Trust, 1998). 86 Graham Hassall