Women and Wisdom in Scripture
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Exported from Holy-Writings.com on 2026-06-19
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Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters.
Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Baharieh Rouhani Ma'ani,
Women and Wisdom in Scripture, bahai-library.com.
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Women and Wisdom in Scripture

Baharieh Rouhani Ma‘ani

Gender equality was a far off dream before mid-nineteenth
century. People around the world, though separated in the past
by natural barriers and diverse in culture, race, language, belief
and creed, agreed on one thing: the way they regarded and
treated women as subordinates to men. The wellbeing of the
male half of humanity had occupied center place even in
scripture and adherence to tradition made unthinkable any
challenge to what appeared the ‘norm’. Women lived under the
thumb of men’s authority. To justify the subjection of women,
men resorted to ‘vain imaginings’ and ‘idle fancies’,1 quoting
scripture in support of their superiority. The belief that gender
inequality was sanctioned by religion and men’s superiority had
the support of scripture led to untold inequities perpetrated
against one half of humanity.
The inability to recognize the essential principle of the
oneness of humanity, coupled with proclivity to promote
fantasy, caused falsehood to appear as reality and concealed the
truth of gender equality under layers of ambiguity. The
uneducated masses, for their understanding of the letter and
spirit of religious teachings, depended almost exclusively on the
privileged few, who in the past reserved for themselves the right
to education and the authority to interpret scripture. The use
of biased language, a conventional medium for conveying
spiritual and social laws, enabled men to hold on to their
presumed superiority over women. The glimmers of hope that
gender equality would at last become a tangible reality
penetrated human conscience on a massive scale when the Báb
94                                            Lights of Irfán vol. 16

made His mission known in 1844, followed by Bahá’u’lláh’s
declaration of His mission in 1863. The creative forces
generated by the rapid succession of the twin Manifestations of
God one hundred and seventy years ago, created a fresh impulse
in the world and produced reverberations everywhere,
particularly in lands where freedom has been enjoyed as a right.
In this paper the treatment of women in religion, the direct
and indirect influence of the Babi and Bahá’í Faiths in raising
awareness about women’s plight and transforming attitudes
towards them across the globe, the role of linguistic biases in
degrading women’s status, the role of wisdom in preparing the
ground for gender equality, and finally the need for vigilance to
prevent past shortcomings from infiltrating our way of
thinking and behaving will be discussed.
Religion has been intricately linked to the degradation of
women’s status since time immemorial. In many parts of the
world it is still the case. Any voice raised in favor of the
restoration of women’s fundamental rights is silenced by
opponents, who invariably quote from scripture in defense of
their distorted views about women. To achieve the goal of
subjugating women, religious leaders realized that the key to
their success was keeping women ignorant. For that reason
attempts to free women from the bondage of ignorance
through education is even today fiercely rejected in countries
where religious fanaticism reigns. Those who go against
traditional practices and seek an education are regarded as
threat and their perceived acts of transgression are punishable
by death. Evidences of this skewed belief are still manifest
among fanatical and radical adherents of certain religious sects
in places like Afghanistan, Pakistan and parts of Africa. They
oppose the establishment of schools for girls and threaten the
lives of young women who seek education to advance their
situation in countries where religious fanaticism has been
gaining support.
Women and Wisdom                                              95

Bahá’u’lláh warns the “Oppressors on Earth” to withdraw
their hands from tyranny and has “pledged not to forgive any
man’s injustice. This is My covenant.” He says, “which I have
irrevocably decreed in the preserved tablet and sealed it with
My seal of glory.” [HW P64] He admonishes His followers: “The
friends of God must be adorned with the ornament of justice,
equity, kindness and love. As they do not allow themselves to
be the object of cruelty and transgression, in like manner they
should not allow such tyranny to visit the handmaidens of
God.”2 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá has acknowledged the injustices
perpetrated on the basis of gender: “Divine justice demands
that the rights of both sexes should be equally respected since
neither is superior to the other in the eyes of Heaven.” [PT 161]
Tyranny, injustice, oppression and inflicting harm on
vulnerable human beings have ever existed in the world. The
most glaring of all, however, has been the kind affecting more
than one half of the human race. This kind of tyranny has been
committed not only by primitive men against women, but also
by the civilized; not only by the ignorant, but also by the
erudite; not only by the ungodly, but also by the people of
faith. The question is why? This kind of tyranny prevented
women for eons from fulfilling their preordained measure. This
kind of inequity has been by far the most insidious committed
in the world. It has been the widest in scope and the longest in
duration.
It is insidious because it has been ongoing forever and
affected women at the family level, which is the most basic unit
of society, to organizations at the highest level and everything
in between. It has been the longest in duration because no one
knows when it began and it is yet to end worldwide. The
victims have endured maltreatment for countless generations
not only in the hand of their enemies but also the ones near and
dear to them, including the men they bore and reared. This is
indeed the saddest human drama played on the world stage for
countless centuries. How did it happen and why did it take so
long to address the injustices? Why was humanity so oblivious
96                                            Lights of Irfán vol. 16

of women’s plight and why it took so long to introduce
remedies, to right the wrong? Speculations about how it
happened are many and determining its genesis is most
difficult, but why it took so long is not difficult to ascertain.
Since the topic is women and wisdom in scripture, the focus
will be limited to the recordings of holy books, though women
have been oppressed within and outside the confines of
religion, which indicates that however it started, religion did
not remain immune from its effects.

Treatment of Women in Religion

One of the areas of human life governed by religious law is
that of “relations among individuals and between individual and
society.”3 To accomplish the object of effecting “a
transformation in the whole character of mankind, a
transformation that shall manifest itself both outwardly and
inwardly, that shall affect both its inner life and external
conditions”, [KI 240] religion takes into consideration the
requirements of time, the capacity of the people it directs and
their potential for progress within a specific timeframe. This
human element has made it necessary for religion to use
‘wisdom’ in achieving the aim of spiritualizing human beings
and guiding them to carry forward an ever-advancing
civilization. To achieve this, judging by the recordings of holy
books, divine revelations in the past seem to have focused
attention and effort mostly on the male segment of humanity
and concerned themselves primarily with their interest. “In
former ages”, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá says, “men enjoyed ascendancy over
women because bodily might reigned supreme and the spirit was
subject to its dominion.”4 Constrained by the requirements of
time, which regarded physical strength and forceful nature the
criteria of superiority, a narrative granting men authority to
rule over women and requiring women to be subservient to
them was developed, promoted, widely accepted and
perpetuated for many thousands of years. This narrative stayed
current until mid-nineteenth century when the Báb made His
Women and Wisdom                                              97

Mission known, followed by Bahá’u’lláh’s revelation. Their
Advents revolutionized the affairs of humankind, accelerated
the process of its coming of age and drastically changed the
fortunes of womankind.
Women are endowed by Providence with attributes necessary
to bear and rear future generations. As nurturers and
protectors of life, they give of themselves to help fetuses grow
into perfect human beings. They sacrifice their own interest
that vulnerable infants may survive and flourish. As first
educators of humankind they have amazing capacity for tender-
heartedness, patience, forbearance, self-abnegation and love in
its purest form. These qualities are inherent in men as well but
it takes more effort and inducement to bring them to the fore.
The focus of scripture in the past on the edification of men,
therefore, may have been a requirement of wisdom. The
perceived preferential treatment of men was however exploited
to the full by those who reserved for themselves the right to
interpret scripture. They put women down at every
opportunity, pushed them into oblivion, deprived them of their
human rights, in short enslaved them. To hold on to what they
perceived to be their prerogative, when the founder of a
subsequent religion introduced improvement in the status of
women, they objected vehemently and did everything in their
power, including misinterpretation of scripture and imposition
of arbitrary restrictions until women lost the ground they had
gained and their status became even worse than what it was
previously.
References in the scriptures of the past to the nobility of
human soul and spiritual goodness of all did not establish
gender equality, neither succeeded in averting the sufferings
inflicted on women, because they were overshadowed by
references pointing to their status being inferior to men. In
fact no specific and categorical evidence is found in religions
predating the Báb and Bahá’u’lláh’s revelations advocating the
equality of the rights of women and men. The presence of
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references to the inferior status of women in scripture gave
way to the maltreatment of women in religion.
An examination of scriptures of the three religions we are
most familiar with shed light on this phenomenon. The first
chapter of the book of Genesis5 confirms that both men and
women were created in the image and likeness of God, enjoyed
equal status and were given similar functions to perform: “And
God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness ...
So God created man in his own image, in the image of God
created he him; male and female created he them. And God
blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and
multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it...” [Genesis 1:26-
28]

The structure of the passage is intriguing. The same thing
could have been said in a simpler fashion. Its complexity lent it
to misinterpretation and led to inequality of men and women.
We turn to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá for clarification of the term ‘man’ in
the above passage: “The biblical statement ‘Let us make man in
our image, after our likeness’ does not mean that woman was
not created. The image and likeness of God apply to her as
well.” [PUP 74] He then explains: “In Persian and Arabic there
are two distinct words translated into English as man: one
meaning man and woman collectively, the other distinguishing
man as male from woman the female. The first word and its
pronoun are generic, collective; the other is restricted to the
male. This is the same in Hebrew.” He adds: “To accept and
observe a distinction which God has not intended in creation is
ignorance and superstition....” [PUP 74] In this statement
‘Abdu’l-Bahá confirms the causes of gender inequality being
ignorance and superstition. These words are synonyms of ‘vain
imaginings’ and ‘idle fancies’, which Bahá’u’lláh has used to
highlight the causes of inequality.
Men and women might have initially enjoyed the equality
that the first chapter of the book of Genesis confirms. If that
was ever the case, it is not known how long it lasted, for no
Women and Wisdom                                               99

record of it exists. The process of men gaining ascendancy over
women seems to have been gradual. The pretext for the change
is recorded in the second and third chapters of the book of
Genesis. To justify women’s subjugation, an imaginative and
elaborate scenario was contrived. In brief, the story claims that
Adam was first formed and Eve was created from his rib. Eve
was deceived by a serpent and ate of the fruit of the forbidden
tree, of which Adam ate as well, fully aware that he was
disobeying the instructions of God. When he was called to
account for his transgression, he blamed Eve, his wife. As a
result, she was made to suffer the severest punishment: “Unto
the woman he said, I will greatly multiply thy sorrow and thy
conception; in sorrow thou shalt bring forth children; and thy
desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule over thee.”
[Genesis 3:16] Thus was sealed the fate of women for millennia
and tyranny against them reigned unchecked.
About the contrived story of creation ‘Abdu’l-Bahá says:

If we take this story in its apparent meaning, according
to the interpretation of the masses, it is indeed
extraordinary. The intelligence cannot accept it, affirm
it, or imagine it; for such arrangements, such details,
such speeches and reproaches are far from being those
of an intelligent man, how much less of the Divinity ...
Therefore, this story of Adam and Eve who ate from the
tree, and their expulsion from Paradise, must be thought
of simply as a symbol. [SAQ 123]

Sadly the story was taken literally and led to an era of
tyranny and injustice engulfing one half of humanity. Even
today girls are prevented from going to school in some parts of
the world, young women seeking an education are shot in the
head,6 and it is all done in the name of religion! A story so
extraordinary in detail that according to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
“intelligence cannot accept it, affirm it, or imagine it”, found
currency among people who consider themselves intelligent and
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has been used to impose arbitrary restrictions on one half of
the human race.
The Books of Moses, probably the oldest religious
documents in existence, contain many inconsistencies. The
account of the creation of the first pair of human beings is a
major inconsistency and its effect on the cause of womanhood
has been devastating. It is not known how exactly the
inconsistency occurred. Each of the existing schools probably
taught its own version, which did not agree in every detail,
before they were consolidated into one. To achieve consensus,
the consolidators seem to have retained the inconsistencies they
could not resolve; the major issue being the status of women
which by then had suffered irretrievable setback. The
appearance of the two contradictory stories about the creation
of Adam and Eve in close proximity in the initial chapters of
Genesis “either laid the foundation for degrading women’s
status in religion or gave religious support to discriminatory
views already in circulation. It is noteworthy that the distorted
creation story was widely accepted and, together with the story
of the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden,
was used by theologians and priests in a way that had an adverse
effect on the popular view of women’s inherent nature.”7
The Manifestations of God who came after Moses
introduced measures to improve the status of women.
However, before the Advents of the Báb and Bahá’u’lláh, none
went as far as declaring gender equality, no doubt as a
consideration of wisdom, for gender inequality was so
entrenched that the pronouncement of equality would have
shocked those that most needed religion and would have kept
men outside the sphere of religious influence. Evidence shows
that whatever improvement was made by subsequent Divine
Educators, was lost almost immediately after He passed away.
Jesus Christ, during His ministry, accepted women into His
presence and treated them kindly. No indication can be found
in the statements He made that He ever put women down or
Women and Wisdom                                                101

degraded them in any way. On the contrary, He elevated them
at every opportunity. Women did well early in Christianity.
Mary Magdalene, titled by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá as the Pride of Men
arose with astonishing firmness and steadfastness after Christ’s
crucifixion. Through genuine love for the teachings of Jesus
she provided such inspired guidance that became the cause of
steadfastness and enthusiasm of His disciples.8 Walking in her
footsteps the early Christian women did well until St. Paul in
his letters introduced restrictions to check their advancement.
The justification for the restrictions was the ‘extraordinary’
story of the creation of Adam and Eve, as recorded in the
second and third chapters of the book of Genesis:

Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection. But I
suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority
over the man, but to be in silence. For Adam was first
formed, then Eve. And Adam was not deceived, but the
woman being deceived was in the transgression.
Notwithstanding she shall be saved in childbearing, if
they continue in faith and charity and holiness with
sobriety. [1 Tim. 2:11-15]

The tone and contents of St. Paul’s letters provide a window
into how early Christian men viewed the activities of the
women believers. The letters also disclose the women’s success,
especially in giving talks and teaching Christianity, which
caused alarm and disturbed some men who, instead of being
inspired by the women’s example, complained and expressed
concern. The situation must have been serious or St. Paul, who
advocated a break with the past, would not have upheld the
sanctions that had kept women backward. Sentences such as
“Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection” and “I
suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the
man, but to be in silence” reveal how strongly rooted was the
prejudice against women. Another letter from St. Paul, which
justifies the requirement for women to cover their heads,
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confirms his conviction that only man, the male, was created in
the image and glory of God, and that woman was of the man:

... a man indeed ought not to cover his head, for as
much as he is the image and glory of God: but the
woman is the glory of the man. For the man is not of the
woman; but the woman of the man. Neither is the man
created for the woman; but the woman for the man. [1
Cor. 11:7-9]

By sanctioning old restrictions on women, St. Paul revived
the contrived story of creation and deprived women, so soon
after Christ’s crucifixion, of their God-given rights. The
question then is: Why was appeasing the men so important and
why women had to continue to pay the price of appeasement?
Did wisdom have anything to do with it? Humanity had not yet
come of age and had to be treated according to its capacity.
Physical force was the criterion for superiority and men were
physically strong. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá says: “In former ages, men
enjoyed ascendancy over women because bodily might reigned
supreme and the spirit was subject to its dominion.”9 No
wonder then that the answer to men’s immaturity was pacifying
their aggressive nature in order to spiritualize them under the
canopy of religion. Fortitude has been the mark of women’s
strength. Their long suffering has helped the process of
realizing the goal of spiritualizing mankind. Now that the era
of justice has dawned presaging humanity’s coming of age, the
restoration of their rights is at hand.
Prophet Muhammad introduced a number of measures to
upgrade the status of women, which had steadily eroded for
countless centuries before His revelation. However He, too,
revealed laws commensurate with requirements of the time and
limitations of the people among whom He appeared. For
example, He reaffirms that man was first created and out of
him was created his wife: “O men, fear your Lord, who hath
created you out of one man, and out of him created his wife,
and from the two hath multiplied many men and women.” In
Women and Wisdom                                                 103

the same passage He admonishes His followers to “fear God by
whom ye beseech one another; and respect women, who have
borne you, for God is watching over you.”10 In fact He came
very close to advocating gender equality when He said: “The
women ought also to behave towards their husbands in like
manner as their husbands should behave towards them
according to what is just.” Regrettably He added: “... but the
men ought to have a superiority over them...”11 Another verse
of the Quran says: “Men shall have the preeminence above
women, because of those advantages wherein God hath caused
the one of them to excel the other, and for that which they
expend of their substance in maintaining their wives.”12 Here
again we see how popular traditional belief and people’s
immaturity made it impossible for gender equality to become a
guiding principle. Can the role wisdom played here in giving
men preeminence above women be denied?
The improvements that the Prophet Muhammad had made in
the status of women during His lifetime gradually lost their
efficacy due to misinterpretations of the ‘ulama, who imposed
severe restrictions on women. As a result, women continued to
suffer inhuman treatment in the name of religion. Referring to
their status before the revelation of the Báb and Bahá’u’lláh,
‘Abdu’l-Bahá says:

The status of woman in former times was exceedingly
deplorable, for it was the belief of the Orient that it was
best for woman to be ignorant. It was considered
preferable that she should not know reading or writing
in order that she might not be informed of events in the
world. Woman was considered to be created for rearing
children and attending to the duties of the household. If
she pursued educational course, it was deemed contrary
to chastity; hence women were prisoners of the
household. The houses did not even have windows
opening upon the outside world. [PUP 166, emphasis added]
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Women are seldom mentioned in Hinduism, Buddhism and
Confucianism. What has been handed down in both word and
practice point to women’s subordinate status in communities
adhering to these religions. (For cited examples, see Hope for a
Global Ethic by Brian D. Lepard, pp. 104, 106, 107.) Women
were also regarded inferior to men in Zoroastrianism.
References to them are hard to find, because Zoroastrian
scripture is unavailable in a language readily understood even
by ordinary Zoroastrians. That no Zoroastrian woman prior to
2011 held a position of authority is an indication that gender
equality was probably not a tenet of the religion. In 2011 the
Zoroastrian Council of Priests in Tehran (Anjoman-e-Mobedan)
“announced that for the first time in the history of Iran and of
the Zoroastrian communities worldwide women had joined the
group of mobeds (priests) in Iran as mobedyars (women
priests); the women hold official certificates and perform the
lower religious functions and can initiate people into the
religion.”13
In a number of His Tablets ‘Abdu’l-Bahá speaks of the
abasement suffered by women in the East, which confirms that
in the drama of men-women relationship, selfishness and
insatiable thirst for control triumphed over justice and fairness,
leaving one half of humanity at the mercy of the other half. He
says: “Formerly in India, Persia and throughout the Orient, she
was not considered a human being. Certain Arab tribes counted
their women in with the live stock.”14
It took humanity several thousand years to arrive at a point
in its maturity necessary for the recognition of a simple truth:
that having been created in the image and likeness of God, men
and women alike are the revealers of the names and attributes
of the Creator and enjoy equal rights. However, without the
generating influence of a divine revelation it would have been
impossible to bring about meaningful change in the psyche and
attitude of human beings, to embrace this truth. Since scripture
was responsible initially through the use of language in creating
ambiguity concerning the status of women, only scripture
Women and Wisdom                                               105

could put it right and produce a favorable atmosphere for its
enforcement. The morn of administering justice in the world
finally dawned in the nineteenth century when Bahá’u’lláh
proclaimed unambiguously the principle of gender equality as a
prerequisite for establishing unity of humankind, the pivotal
principle of His revelation:

All should know, and in this regard attain the splendors
of the sun of certitude, and be illumined thereby:
Women and men have been and will always be equal in
the sight of God. The Dawning-Place of the Light of
God sheddeth its radiance upon all with the same
effulgence. Verily God created women for men, and
men for women. The most beloved of people before
God are the most steadfast and those who have
surpassed others in their love for God, exalted be His
glory.15

He further confirmed that distinctions have been lifted from
between men and women:

Praised be God, the Pen of the Most High hath lifted
distinctions from between His servants and
handmaidens, and, through His consummate favours and
all-encompassing mercy, hath conferred upon all a
station and rank on the same plane. He hath broken the
back of vain imaginings with the sword of utterance and
hath obliterated the perils of idle fancies through the
pervasive power of His might.16

He reiterated the removal of all distinctions and confirmed that
believers, regardless of their gender, are regarded on the same
plane:

In this Day the Hand of divine grace hath removed all
distinctions. The servants of God and His handmaidens
are regarded on the same plane. Blessed is the servant
who hath attained unto that which God hath decreed,
106                                             Lights of Irfán vol. 16

and likewise the leaf moving in accordance with the
breezes of His will.17

Measures Taken to Establish Gender Equality

Bahá’u’lláh did not only reveal the principle of gender
equality, He also provided for its implementation. The right to
education is high among the provisions He has revealed,
education that is universal and compulsory. One of the reasons
gender inequality went unchallenged in the past was women’s
inability to know for themselves what the holy books had said.
As a result, they were unable to go to the source and enquire
from the centre of authority when things were vague or
appeared prejudicial and discriminatory. They operated in the
dark — the darkness of ignorance — and paid a high price for
following blindly what had been contrived. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá says:

... It is incumbent upon the girls of this glorious era to
be fully versed in the various branches of knowledge, in
sciences and the arts and all the wonders of this
preeminent time, that they may then educate their
children and train them from their earliest days in the
ways of perfection.18

He strongly refutes the argument that women’s capabilities do
not match those of men’s:

It has been objected by some that woman is not equally
capable with man and that she is deficient by creation.
This is pure imagination. The difference in capability
between man and woman is due entirely to opportunity
and education. Heretofore woman has been denied the
right and privilege of equal development. If equal
opportunity be granted her, there is no doubt she would
be the peer of man. History will evidence this. In past
ages noted women have arisen in the affairs of nations
and surpassed men in their accomplishments....19
Women and Wisdom                                              107

He advises the friends:

Devote ye particular attention to the school for girls,
for the greatness of this wondrous Age will be
manifested as a result of progress in the world of
women. This is why ye observe that in every land the
world of women is on the march, and this is due to the
impact of the Most Great manifestation, and the power
of the teachings of God.20

To fulfill the object of transforming humanity and inspiring
its adherents to organize their affairs according to a newly
revealed order, divine revelation pays close attention to the
capacity of people and requirements of the time it is destined
to stay relevant. As discussed earlier, recordings of Holy Books
indicate that men and women were created equal and given
responsibility to multiply, replenish the earth and subdue it.
However humanity’s proclivity to move away from the spirit of
religious teachings and its tendency to slide back to the way of
life to which it was attached previously caused it to comingle
divine teachings with stories and myths it had inherited from
earlier generations. Efforts to right the wrong and to restore
balance took several thousand years and culminated in
Bahá’u’lláh declaring categorically that distinctions have been
removed and gender equality restored. However, what had
taken root in the hearts and minds could not be obliterated
overnight, the ground had to be made ready for its worldwide
implementation. This colossal task fell on ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to
accomplish. This topic has been dealt with in detail in a paper
by this author, titled “Preparing Bahá’ís in the East and the
West to Embrace Gender Equality”.21 One of the Tablets
discussed in that paper is the one ‘Abdu’l-Bahá revealed in
response to Corinne True who had asked about the exclusion of
women from membership of the Universal House of Justice.
Contrary to what the generality of the friends believe, He did
not say women’s exclusion from membership of the House of
Justice was for a reason. He said it was “for a wisdom of Lord
108                                            Lights of Irfán vol. 16

God’s which will ere long be made manifest as clearly as the sun
at high noon.” But before addressing the question, He
emphasized:

in the sight of Bahá, women are accounted the same as
men, and God hath created all humankind in His own
image, and after His own likeness. That is, men and
women alike are the revealers of His names and
attributes, and from the spiritual viewpoint there is no
difference between them. Whosoever draweth nearer to
God, that one is the most favoured, whether man or
woman. How many a handmaid, ardent and devoted,
hath, within the sheltering shade of Bahá, proved
superior to the men, and surpassed the famous of the
earth.

The House of Justice, however, according to the
explicit text of the Law of God, is confined to men; this
for a wisdom of the Lord God’s, which will ere long be
made manifest as clearly as the sun at high noon. [SWAB
79-80]

Gender equality has always been a spiritual principle.
Bahá’u’lláh has confirmed, “Women and men have been and will
always be equal in the sight of God.”22 The mere reiteration of
that principle would not have gained women equal rights with
men, as attested by historical records, but the lifting of
distinctions from between women and men and granting them
all a station on the same plane did. What is different in His
dispensation is that gender equality is also a social principle
with vast implications for womanhood and humanity in general.
Another point in need of clarification is this: Initially the
friends even in North America, in keeping with their traditional
upbringing and mindset, assumed that women were barred from
serving on all Houses of Justice, local, national and
international.23 After a period of painstaking education,
‘Abdu’l-Bahá explained the intent of the law, which made it
Women and Wisdom                                                 109

possible for women to serve on all institutions of the Faith,
appointed and elected, except that of the Universal House of
Justice. Bahá’í women have served in the elected institutions of
the Faith many years before other women in the United States
gained the right to serve as elected representatives of the
inhabitants of that country.
When the Tablet addressed to Corinne True reached its
recipient and the contents became known, even though ‘Abdu’l-
Bahá had confirmed women’s exclusion from the membership
of the “House of Justice”, it was not sufficient. Some men,
among them a prominent Bahá’í in the United States,
complained because ‘Abdu’l-Bahá had said: “How many a
handmaid, ardent and devoted, hath, within the sheltering shade
of Bahá, proved superior to the men, and surpassed the famous
of the earth.” ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Tablet revealed in honour of
Thornton Chase speaks for itself:

It may be that letters addressed to the women believers
do indeed contain certain passages written by way of
encouragement, but the purpose of such passages is to
show that, in this new age, some of the women have
outshone some of the men — not that all women have
excelled all men! The members of the Spiritual Assembly
should do all they can to provide encouragement to the
women believers. In this dispensation one should not
think in terms of “men” and “women” all are under the
shadow of the Word of God and, as they strive the more
diligently, so shall their reward be the greater — be they
men or women or the frailest of people.24

In lands where religious fanaticism and gender bias against
women were extremely strong and impenetrable — Iran being
one of them — the process of preparing the community took
much longer and women’s membership on Bahá’í institutions
materialized in 1954, three years before the passing of Shoghi
Effendi.
110                                           Lights of Irfán vol. 16

This writer heard about the exclusion of women from
membership of the House of Justice before entering primary
school, many years before the institution of the Universal
House of Justice came into being. At that time in Iran Bahá’í
women were not yet eligible to serve even on local and national
elected bodies.25 Therefore it did not come as a surprise. As I
grew older, I heard men speculate on what could be the reason
for exclusion. I must admit most speculations were offensive
even to a very young girl that I was then. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Tablet
brought to me a measure of relief and comfort. Contrary to
speculations, He had given no reason for women’s exclusion
but spoken of “a wisdom of Lord God’s”, which He said, “will
ere long be made manifest as clearly as the sun at high noon.”
Armed with this ‘discovery’, I challenged the validity of the
speculations I had heard repeatedly. Some speculators
maintained that reason and wisdom were synonyms! I looked up
the definition of the two words and found out the difference.
Further research into the process that led to the degradation
of women’s status in religion opened the door to a new
understanding of the term ‘wisdom’, especially the kind that
human beings have been given the capacity to fathom. The kind
of wisdom that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá speaks about is that which “will
ere long be made manifest as clearly as the sun at high noon.” It
means that all have the ability to see and understand, unless
completely blind. This is the kind of wisdom that all Divine
Educators have used to improve women’s status without
startling the male population and arousing their vehement
objection. If not seen in this light, scripture would be
implicated in causing women their plight. Prejudices against
women were so entrenched, lack of education so widespread,
and misinterpretation of scripture so rampant that their status
deteriorated steadily until humanity became the recipient of a
revelation, which has revolutionized its affairs and set in
motion a process leading to the maturity of the human race.
‘Abdu’l-Bahá used supreme wisdom in the implementation of
the principle of gender equality. He said this Himself in a
Women and Wisdom                                               111

Tablet addressed to a group of women in Tihran, who wished to
see the principle in action before members of the community
were ready to embrace it:

I am endeavouring, with Bahá’u’lláh’s confirmations and
assistance, so to improve the world of the handmaidens
that all will be astonished ... Ye need to be calm and
composed, so that the work will proceed with wisdom,
otherwise there will be such chaos that ye will leave
everything and run away. “This newly born babe is
traversing in one night the path that needeth a hundred
years to tread.” In brief, ye should now engage in
matters of pure spirituality and not contend with men.
‘Abdu’l-Bahá will tactfully take appropriate steps. Be
assured. In the end thou wilt thyself exclaim, “This was
indeed supreme wisdom!” I appeal to you to obliterate
this contention between men and women....

He closed the Tablet with these words: “No one can on his own
achieve anything. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá must be well pleased and
assist.”26
‘Abdu’l-Bahá engaged in a process of educating the believers
to embrace gender equality.27 The insurmountable obstacles in
the way were different in nature and magnitude in the East and
West. He gently addressed the objections and refuted them
with loving compassion. Regarding the argument that woman
has been created deficient, He says:

It has been objected by some that woman is not equally
capable with man and that she is deficient by creation.
This is pure imagination. The difference in capability
between man and woman is due entirely to opportunity
and education. [PUP 133]
112                                            Lights of Irfán vol. 16

The Role of Language in Perpetuating Women’s Plight

The opening lines of US Declaration of Independence
reiterates in essence what the first chapter of the book of
Genesis affirms but leaves out the clarification about both male
and female having been created in God’s’ image:

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are
created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator
with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are
Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. — That to
secure these rights, Governments are instituted among
Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the
governed.28

The word ‘men’ appears twice in the passage: the first is lower
case, the second capitalized. The one is probably general, the
other specific. Who knows which is which, for when
pronounced they sound alike. Also the ‘consent of the
governed’ is determined through voting. Since the American
women did not have the right to vote when the Declaration of
Independence was written in 1776, it is assumed that their
consent or lack thereof was of no consequence. No wonder
then that US Declaration of Independence did not achieve
gender equality. It was through civil liberty and education that
the eyes of women were opened and the fire of longing for
emancipation blazoned in their hearts. Some women became
anti-slavery activists and campaigned in earnest for its
abolition. Having been oppressed and subjugated for countless
centuries, they understood what slavery entailed and how
abhorrent a practice it was. One of the women activists,
Lucretia Mott, a Quaker minister, attended as a delegate the
World Anti-Slavery Convention held in London, England in
1840, but was refused the right, along with other female
delegates attending the Convention, to speak. In fact they were
asked to leave. The refusal to seat the women delegates was the
motivating factor for Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the
Women and Wisdom                                             113

wife of another delegate from the United States, to get together
and discuss the need for holding “a convention to discuss the
rights of women.”29 That convention took place in Seneca Falls,
New York, in the summer of 1948 at about the same time the
Conference of Badasht was held.
To deliberate on the plight of women and propose changes
to mitigate the effect of maltreatment and injustices they had
suffered, the gathering produced a document known as the
Declaration of Sentiments, which stipulates: “We hold these
truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are created
equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain
inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty and the
pursuit of happiness....”
The simultaneous occurrence of these two events in venues
thousands of miles apart with the theme of breaking away from
traditions of the past, as well as the role that women played in
the proceedings of both are truly astounding. Although the
agenda of the two conferences was rejection of the status quo,
the outcome was very different. Those assembled at Seneca
Falls forged ahead with their aims. Fully cognizant of the role
that linguistic biases had played in the degradation of women’s
status in religion, they took measures to arrest the process and
right the wrong. The organizer, Elizabeth Cady Stanton,
financed the production of a women’s bible. She also financed
the work of the women activists.
At Badasht Conference only one woman participated in the
proceedings. She was known as Qurratu’l-`Ayn and became
better known as Tahirih (the Pure). She was one of the central
players at the Conference. To declare the dawn of a New Day
and the emancipation of women through the Bab’s Advent, she
appeared unveiled in an assemblage of men, who confessed
belief in the Báb but were utterly unprepared to see the
unveiled face of a woman adherent of the nascent Faith. By
removing her veil, something strictly imposed on women by
Islamic tradition and upheld fiercely by religious leaders,
114                                          Lights of Irfán vol. 16

Tahirih proclaimed the dawn of a new Era and the invalidation
of traditions that had kept women backward. She was sentenced
to death for espousing the nascent Cause and executed in 1852,
the year Bahá’u’lláh received intimation of His Mission while
imprisoned in the Siyah Chal (Black Pit) of Tihran. Shoghi
Effendi refers to “this great Babi heroine” as “the first woman
suffrage martyr, who, at her death, turning to the one in whose
custody she had been placed, had boldly declared: ‘You can kill
me as soon as you like, but you cannot stop the emancipation
of women.’” [GPB 75]
What prompted Tahirih at Badasht and some North
American women at Seneca Falls to go against the norm was
directly related to the maltreatment of women and the denial of
their God-given rights. Slavery and women’s subjugation are
kindred subjects. They are ancient practices, heinous and
oppressive. However, the two differ in one respect: Slavery
became a burden on man’s conscience long before did the
maltreatment of women.
Those desirous of having power over women and controlling
their affairs perceive gender inequality as a matter sanctioned
in scripture. Keeping women ignorant and under the thumb of
the authority of men is one thing all religious zealots agree to
uphold. To give credence to their misinterpretations, they use
linguistic nuances as the vehicle. To prevent women from
recognizing and taking action against maltreatment, they have
made it look as though God has intended men to be superior in
creation. As gender inequality is seemingly based on scripture,
its eradication only scripture could sanction. Granting women
equality with men through legislation is insufficient. Even the
United Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights,30
adopted by UN General Assembly on 10 December 1948, a
hundred years after the conferences held at Badasht and Seneca
Falls31 has been ineffective to restore to women their rights in
countries ruled by religious law. Moreover, whatever is given at
will can be taken away at will, and examples of this are
Women and Wisdom                                                115

provided repeatedly in history. A case in point is the situation
of women in Iran before and after the Islamic Revolution.
In North America, the cradle of freedom, women rights
activists have been unable to have the equal rights amendment
ratified. The amendment to the US Constitution designed to
guarantee equal rights for women was first proposed in 1923.
Although it passed both houses of Congress by 1972, sufficient
number of state legislatures did not vote in favor it by the
deadlines the Congress had set. The opposition was based on a
number of reasons, traditional gender roles pre-eminent among
them. As a result, it has not yet become the law. Further efforts
are being made at the federal and state levels to have it
adopted. During His travels in the West, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá spoke
repeatedly about the subject. The following is an example:

Neither sex is superior to the other in the sight of God.
Why then should one sex assert the inferiority of the
other, withholding just rights and privileges as though
God had given His authority for such a course of
action? [PT 161]

The underlying purpose of divine revelations, Bahá’u’lláh
says, “hath been to educate all men, that they may, at the hour
of death, ascend, in the utmost purity and sanctity and with
absolute detachment, to the throne of the Most High” [GWB
157]. To educate humanity, the Revealers of religion have had to
use the medium of language, which like everything in life is
subject to change. The earliest religious records that have
survived, regardless of how they were worded in the original
language, have been translated to a language highly prejudicial
to the cause of womanhood, as discussed earlier. Using
masculine terms, such as ‘man’, ‘men’ and pronouns, such as
‘he’, ‘his’ and ‘him’ indistinctively regardless of whether they
refer to man, the male, or to humanity in general have worked
to women’s disadvantage. The realization of gender equality, a
vital aspect of the principle of unity of humankind, requires
116                                              Lights of Irfán vol. 16

dealing with this dilemma, which has been a major cause of the
degradation of women since time immemorial.
The capacity of language to convey meanings other than
those traditionally assigned to words has been exploited in
every respect but that of gender equality. The time seems
propitious to let the use of unbiased language rid humanity of
the remaining barriers intervening between it and the full
realization of gender equality.
Bahá’u’lláh’s writings are revealed in both Persian and
Arabic. These two languages are very different in the way the
pronouns are used. Unlike Persian, a non-gender-specific
language, which uses the same pronoun for God and third
singular person whether man or woman, Arabic is gender
specific, it uses different pronouns when referring to a man or
a woman. It also uses the plural of masculine pronoun for
referring to humanity in general.32
The problem of using masculine pronoun whether it refers to
God, to man specifically or to humanity in general is
accentuated when Persian Writings are translated to English,
because all non-gender-specific Persian terms and pronouns are
changed to masculine. Since translations to all other languages
are based on the English approved version, this linguistic bias is
promoted and perpetuated throughout the Bahá’í world,
making it most difficult, if not impossible, to control their
ramifications throughout the dispensation.
Looking deeper into challenges that lack of linguistic clarity
poses for translators of Bahá’í Writings provides us with
valuable insights. In a Tablet revealed in Persian regarding the
membership of the Supreme Tribunal, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá says:

... the question of universal peace, about which
Bahá’u’lláh says that the Supreme Tribunal must be
established: although the League of Nations has been
brought into existence, yet it is incapable of establishing
universal peace. But the Supreme Tribunal which
Women and Wisdom                                                   117

Bahá’u’lláh has described will fulfill this sacred task with
the utmost might and power. And His plan is this: that
the national assemblies of each country and nation —
that is to say parliaments — should elect two or three
persons who are the choicest men of that nation, and are
well informed concerning international laws and the
relations between governments and aware of the
essential needs of the world of humanity in this day...
From among these people the members of the Supreme
Tribunal will be elected, and all mankind will thus have a
share therein, for every one of these delegates is fully
representative of his nation... [SWAB 305]

After the English translation of the Tablet was published in
Selections from the Writings of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and quoted in the
compilation on Peace, the phrase ‘the choicest men of that
nation’ was found to be inaccurate. In the original Persian
‘Abdu’l-Bahá says ‘the choicest persons’, not ‘the choicest men’.
When the mistranslation was brought to the attention of the
Universal House of Justice, it instructed the responsible
department to look into the matter. After thorough
investigation, the phrase was changed to ‘the choicest of that
nation’, which is not gender specific. Publishing Trusts were
then informed to make the correction. It is not known how
many made the correction and informed the friends, who had
purchased earlier versions. Meanwhile, unaware of this
development, the friends continue to quote in their writings
and speeches the phrase that proved to be inaccurate. As late as
November 2012, a Nineteen Day Feast letter, circulated in the
United States, quoted ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s statement on the subject
of peace and Supreme Tribunal, which did not reflect the
correction. As a result, some Bahá’ís are of the opinion that
women are ineligible for membership of the Supreme Tribunal,
in contradiction to what the Universal House of Justice has
stated in a letter to the National Spiritual Assembly of the
Bahá’ís of New Zealand, which had asked the Supreme Body
118                                          Lights of Irfán vol. 16

about the eligibility of women for membership on the Supreme
Tribunal:

With regard to the status of women, the important
point for Bahá’ís to remember is that in face of the
categorical pronouncements in Bahá’í Scripture
establishing the equality of men and women, the
ineligibility of women for membership of the Universal
House of Justice does not constitute evidence of the
superiority of men over women. It must also be borne
in mind that women are not excluded from any other
international institution of the Faith. They are found
among the ranks of the Hands of the Cause. They serve
as members of the International Teaching Centre and as
Continental Counsellors. And, there is nothing in the
Text to preclude the participation of women in such
future international bodies as the Supreme Tribunal.33

Another example is the retranslation of a phrase in a Tablet
from ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to Corinne True about the ineligibility of
women for membership of the Universal House of Justice. The
retranslated phrase reads: “for, as hath been stated in the text
of the Book, both the head and the members of the House of
Justice must be men.” When the retranslation was carefully
checked against the original text of the Tablet, it became clear
that it was inaccurate. The inaccuracy was reported,
investigated and corrected to read: “...for, as hath been stated
in the text of the Book, both the head and the members of the
House of Justice are men.”34
One of the many blessings that members of the worldwide
Bahá’í community enjoy is the duty and privilege of immersing
themselves in the ocean of Bahá’u’lláh’s Words and of using the
writings of the authorized Interpreters to enhance their
understanding of the verities enshrined in His revelation. They
also enjoy the right to seek clarification from the Supreme
governing Body of the Bahá’í Faith regarding anything that
appears obscure, or in the case of translations, anything that
Women and Wisdom                                                119

might be inaccurate. No matter how careful the translators of
Sacred Writings are and how meticulously the process of review
is, the possibility of human error cannot be completely ruled
out. The believers familiar with the languages of revelation
(Persian and Arabic) would render a valuable service if they paid
careful attention to translations and compared them against the
original. If anything looks or feels inaccurate in meaning or
appearance, report it to the right authority and make sure that
it is documented. It would also be most helpful for the
translators to be extra mindful of any and all traditional
pitfalls.
Having a clear vision about men and women enjoying equal
rights has tremendous ramifications not only for this
dispensation but also for the distant future. In light of
Bahá’u’lláh’s statement that “... were He to pronounce one of
the leaves to be the manifestation of all His excellent titles,
unto no one is given the right to utter why or wherefore, and
should one do so he would be regarded as a disbeliever in God
and be numbered with such as have repudiated His Truth”, [TB
185] the appearance of female Manifestations of God in future
is not beyond the realm of possibility. What we do and say
today undoubtedly has repercussions in the future. Our words
and actions today have the potency to intensify the afflictions
or mitigate their effects when the time for renewal comes again.
Let us all work for a prejudice-free society and remember the
words of the Universal House of Justice:

World order can be founded only on an unshakeable
consciousness of the oneness of mankind, a spiritual
truth which all the human sciences confirm.
Anthropology, physiology, psychology, recognize only
one human species, albeit infinitely varied in the
secondary aspects of life. Recognition of this truth
requires abandonment of prejudice — prejudice of every
kind — race, class, colour, creed, nation, sex, degree of
material civilization, everything which enables people to
120                                                        Lights of Irfán
vol. 16

consider themselves superior to others. Acceptance of
the oneness of mankind is the first fundamental
prerequisite for reorganization and administration of
the world as one country, the home of humankind.
Universal acceptance of this spiritual principle is
essential to any successful attempt to establish world
peace...35

NOTES
Women: Bahá’í Writings on the Equality of Men and Women, the Bahá’í
Publishing Trust, London, Revised edition 1990, #2.
Women, #58
The Kitab-i-Aqdas, Introduction,
Women, #10.
The King James translation of the Bible, from which this and other
quotations cited in this article are taken, is based on the Greek translation
of the Hebrew original of the Book.
Malala, the Pakistani young girl who survived a vicious attempt on her life
by religious fundamentalists in that country, is a case in point.
Article by this author in The Journal of Bahá’í Studies, volume 8, number
1, p. 47.
From a previously unpublished Tablet in Persian, revealed jointly in honor
of Jinab-i-Mirza Mu’min and his wife. Mirza Mu’min’s wife seems to be
the sister of Jinab-i Ibn-i-Abhar.
Women, number 10
The Quran, trans. by George Sale (London, Frederick Warne and Co.), p.
71.
Ibid, p. 32
Ibid, p. 77
“Women’s Ordination” in Zoroastrianism, quoted in Wikipedia.
Women, #28
Women, #58.
Women, #2
Women, #3
Women, #46
Women and Wisdom                                                             
121

Women, #47
Women, #52
Lights of ‘Irfan Book 12, at
http://irfancolloquia.org/100/ma'ani_equality
Women, number 58, also Compilation of Compilations, vol. II, p. 379
It was as late as 1920 when women in America gained the right to vote.
Women, #19
The election of Bahá’í women in Iran to Local and National Spiritual
Assemblies was a goal of Shoghi Effendi’s Ten Year Global Plan. The goal
was accomplished at Ridvan 1954.
Women, #13
For a detailed account, see “Preparing Bahá’í Communities in the East
and
West to Embrace Gender Equality” by this author, Lights of ‘Irfan, book
twelve, pp 195-218
The Declaration of Sentiments (Seneca Falls Convention, 1848)
ibid.
“The General Assembly recognizes that the inherent dignity and the equal
and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the
foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, human rights
should be protected by the rule of law, friendly relations between nations
must be fostered, the peoples of the UN have affirmed their faith in
human rights, the dignity and the worth of the human person, the equal
rights of men and women and are determined to promote social progress,
better standards of life and larger freedom and have promised to promote
human rights and a common understanding of these rights.” (Simplified
Version of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights”, Summary of
Preamble)
The full text is published by the United Nations on its website.
This subject has been dealt with in considerable detail in “The Effect of
Philosophical and Linguistic Gender Biases on the Degradation of
Women’s Status in Religion”, Journal of Bahá’í Studies, vol. 8, number
1.
Letter from the Universal House of Justice to the National Spiritual
Assembly of the Bahá’ís of New Zealand dated 31 May 1988.
Secretariat letter dated 14 October 1987, attaching a memorandum from
the Research Department, of the same date.
The Promise of World Peace. Quoted in Women, #35
    — Women and Wisdom in Scripture (Used by permission of the curator)