# Baha'i Epistemology

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> Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Peter Terry, Baha'i Epistemology, bahai-library.com.
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> 
> BAHA'I EPISTEMOLOGY
> Peter Terry, 2004
> 
> The subject of epistemology, that is, the standards or criteria or modes of knowledge, is one which
> has, of yet, received relatively little attention by scholars of the Bahá'í Faith. The present essay will
> attempt to introduce the statements of 'Abdu’l-Bahá which seem to bear most unmistakably upon
> this topic and in such a manner as will hopefully be conducive to clear understanding on the part of
> the reader and not to any particular interpretation on the part of the compiler.
> 
> The sources consulted are the following:
> 
> 'Abdu’l-Bahá, Tablet on the Inmost Heart, provisional translation by Steven Phelps and William
> McCants, March 2000; Persian text in "Min Makatib 'Abdu’l-Bahá," pp. 83-86
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha, Tablet to Dr. Auguste Forel; translated by Shoghi Effendi and published in "Star of
> the West," XIV:4, p. 102; reprinted in "Baha'i World Faith," p. 336
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha, "Mufavadat-i-'Abdu'l-Baha," chapter XL, p. 118; "Some Answered Questions,"
> chapter XL, p. 180
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha, "Mufavadat-i-'Abdu'l-Baha," chapter LXXXII, p. 219; "Some Answered Questions,"
> chapter LXXXIII, p. 341
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha interviewed by a reporter of the "Weekly Budget," 23 September 1911, reprinted in
> "'Abdu'l-Baha in London," pp. 120,121
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha at 15 Rue Greuze, Paris, on 10 November 1911; Persian text in "Khitábát," pp. 148-
> 157; in English translation, "Paris Talks," pp. 92-94
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha at the home of Mr. and Mrs. Maxwell, Montreal, Canada, 2 September 1912; Persian
> text in "Star of the West," V:6, Persian section; in "Khitábát," 1984 edition, pp. 540-541;
> transcription of English translation published in "The Promulgation of Universal Peace," pp. 311-
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha at the Open Forum, San Francisco, California on 10 October 1912; Persian text in
> "Star of the West," V:3, Persian section; and in "Khitábát," 1984 edition, pp. 600-601, 609-610;
> transcription of English translation by Dr. Aminu'llah Farid published in "The Promulgation of
> Universal Peace," pp. 355-356,357,361
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha at Hotel Ansonia, 17 April 1912, no Persian text; transcription of English translation
> by Dr. Aminu'llah Farid published in "Star of the West," III:10, pp. 10-11; VII:17, pp. 175-176;
> "The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 20
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha at Green Acre, 16 August 1912; no Persian text; transcription of English translation by
> Dr. Aminu'llah Farid published in "The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 253
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha at Green Acre, 17 August 1912; no Persian text; transcription of English translation by
> Dr. Aminu'llah Farid published in "Star of the West," VIII:7, pp. 76-80; in "The Promulgation of
> Universal Peace," pp. 261-262
> 
> "Abdul-Baha on Divine Philosophy," pp. 93,94-95
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, notes of Miss Alma Albertson, 30 November 1900; no Persian text; in
> Rabb B6, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette, Illinois; Barstow Collection #169A, in private hands
> (copy in possession of the compiler)
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, notes of Corinne True, 30 November 1900, in True B9, p. 16, National
> Bahá'í Archives, Wilmette, Illinois
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha to Miss Ethel Rosenberg, February-March 1901, Notes of Miss Rosenberg, no Persian
> text; copy of notes in Rabb B7, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette, Illinois; portion (in quotes)
> published in "Star of the West," VIII:9, pp. 114-15
> 
> STANDARDS OF KNOWLEDGE INTRODUCED
> "Knowledge has three degrees: opinion, science, illumination. The means or instrument of the first is sense;
> of the second dialectic; of the third, intuition."
> Plotinus, (Letter to Flaccus)
> (http://www.plotinus.com/who_was_plotinus.htm)
> 
> To begin with, in these sources we find the [mízán], variously translated as the standards, balances,
> or criteria of knowledge, enumerated in a few different ways. In the Tablet of the Inmost Heart,
> 'Abdu'l-Baha says:
> 
> "Therefore, know that all the peoples and kindreds possess four balances with which they weigh the
> realities [al-Haqá'iq], the significances [al-ma`án’], and the divine questions [al-masá'il]. All of them
> are imperfect, unable to quench the burning thirst or heal the sick. We shall therefore make mention
> of each one and demonstrate its limitation and inaccuracy…."
> 
> He concludes this survey of the "four balances" with these words:
> 
> "Therefore, it is evident that all of balances current among the people are defective and their
> conclusions are unreliable. Nay, they are confused dreams, doubts, and idle fancies that neither allay
> the sore athirst nor satisfy the seeker of knowledge [`irfán].
> As for the true, divine balance which never strayeth, and which ever apprehendeth the universal
> realities [al-Haqá'iq al-kulliyyah] and the sublime inner meanings [al-ma`án’ al-`aTH’mah], it is the
> balance of the inmost heart [mízánu'l-fu'ád], of which God hath made mention in the blessed verse."
> 
> It is thus evident that He has described five criteria of knowledge, four of which are possessed by
> the peoples of the world, all of which are unreliable; and one which is divine and infallible.
> 
> Likewise, in "Some Answered Questions" 'Abdu'l-Baha says:
> 
> "There are only four accepted methods of comprehension: that is to say, the realities of things are
> understood by these four methods…
> 
> "Know then: that which is in the hands of people, that which they believe, is liable to
> error…Therefore there is no standard in the hands of people upon which we can rely.
> "But the bounty of the Holy Spirit gives the true method of comprehension which is infallible and
> indubitable. This is through the help of the Holy Spirit which comes to man, and this is the
> condition in which certainty can alone be attained." (chapter LXXXIII, p. 343)
> 
> In His talk at Hotel Ansonia on 17 April 1912 'Abdu'l-Baha said:
> 
> "Briefly then, these four criteria according to the declarations of men are: first, sense perception;
> second, reason; third, traditions; fourth, inspiration…
> "Briefly, the point is that in the human material world of phenomena these four are the only existing
> criteria or avenues of knowledge, and all of them are faulty or unreliable. What then remains? How
> shall we attain the reality of knowledge? By the breaths and promptings of the Holy Spirit, which is
> light and knowledge itself. Through it the human mind is quickened and fortified into true
> conclusions and perfect knowledge. This is conclusive argument showing that all available human
> criteria are erroneous and defective, but the divine standard of knowledge is infallible." ("The
> Promulgation of Universal Peace," pp. 21, 22)
> 
> In other talks, 'Abdu'l-Baha indicated that there were only four standards of knowledge all told, and
> that what He identified above as the fifth criterion was a form of the fourth. Speaking in Europe in
> 1913, 'Abdu'l-Baha said:
> 
> "There are four means of knowledge…
> "So we have indicated the four criterions: the senses, reason, the sacred text, inspirations. There is
> no fifth…
> "I supplicate to God that you may become inspired with a like spirituality. In the West you have not
> the same prejudices; you have not that fire of oppression, but have complete liberty of belief. Work,
> pray, day and night, and you will see the splendors of the kingdom of El-Abha descending upon
> you." ("Abdul Baha on Divine Philosophy," pp. 93, 94, 95)
> 
> Likewise, speaking to pilgrims in 'Akka on 30 November 1900, as recorded in the notes of Miss
> Alma Albertson, 'Abdu'l-Baha said:
> 
> "Knowledge is measured by four things, viz., first, sensation (that is, the things understood by the
> five senses); second, reason; third, revelation; fourth, inspiration…
> "We have proven these three [sensation, reason, revelation] to be false, so there remains but one…
> "The Jews relied upon revelation as the true test, and they took this to prove Him. And because they
> believed in revelation, that was the only veil that covered them (kept them from believing). As they
> were veiled from Christ, they did not understand the revelation of the Bible, but had they believed in
> the explanations given by Christ, and which were inspired, they would have understood the
> meanings of these prophecies. Had they believed in the power of inspiration they would not have
> been veiled from His Bounty. As they did not understand the meaning of the revelation given by
> Christ they did not understand the revelation given in the Book, and these same revelations caused
> them to crucify Him. That is the way of the Nakazeen [Covenant-breakers].
> "They say we want only the Book of God, but as they are not understanding it, they lose the way, for
> it must be explained by one who is inspired to know its meaning." (Rabb B6; Barstow Collection
> #169A, pp. 9, 10)
> 
> This same talk is recorded by Miss Corinne True as follows:
> 
> "Intellect is measured by four things, one is feeling, the thing understood by the five senses. The
> second is understanding, the third revelation, and the fourth inspiration…
> "When the intellect is not perfect that the thing found out by it cannot be so, these three things
> [feeling, understanding, revelation] therefore prove to be false and only one remains…
> "The Jews said the best measure is revelation and they took this to prove Him, and it was their faith
> in revelation which caused them to be veiled from Him. Thus as they were veiled from Christ they
> didn't understand the revelations of the Bible, but had they listened to the explanations given by
> Christ, which were inspired, they would have found the meaning of the prophecies. Had they
> believed in the power of inspiration, they would not have been veiled from His Beauty. As they did
> not understand the revelation given by Christ, they didn't understand the revelations given in the
> books and these same revelations caused them to crucify Him. That is the way with the Nakazene
> [Covenant-breakers], they say we only want the Books of God, but as they do not understand them,
> they lose their way, for it must be explained by one who is inspired to know its meanings."
> (Corinne True B9, pp. 17, 18, 19)
> 
> In one of His talks with Miss Rosenberg, in winter of 1901, 'Abdu'l-Baha referred to three ways of
> apprehending truth [senses, reason, revelation] and then states that inspiration is the true standard for
> attainment to spiritual truth:
> 
> "There are three ways of apprehending Truth…
> "As we have before said in the account of this miracle [of walking on water], the disciples of Jesus
> attempted to sail over the Sea of Creation and Existence in the Ark of Argument and Reasonings,
> finding great difficulty and danger in proving the Truth by so doing. But when Christ, the Light of
> the world, who knew all things by the Light of the inner spiritual illumination, came to them in their
> boat, walking by His knowledge over the Ocean of Existence, and having no need of the Ark of
> Argument, then immediately they were at their desired haven."
> (Rabb B7, pp. 4,5)
> 
> In another of His talks, 'Abdu'l-Baha described knowledge as two-fold--this would appear to be a
> simplification of the four-fold model He employed in most of His talks:
> 
> "Knowledge is of two kinds: one is subjective ['ilm-i-wujudi {see Fourth Criterion: Intuition}], and
> the other objective ['ilm-i-Súri]; that is to say, an intuitive knowledge and a knowledge derived from
> perception ['ilm-i-taSSúri].
> "The knowledge of things which men universally have, is gained by reflection {see Second
> Criterion: Reason} or by evidence: that is to say, either by the power of the mind the conception of
> an object is formed, or from beholding an object the form is produced in the mirror of the heart
> [maraat qalb]." ("Mufavadat-i-'Abdu'l-Baha," XL, p. 118; "Some Answered Questions," XL, p. 180)
> 
> In one of His talks, at Green Acre Baha'i School on 16 August 1912, 'Abdu'l-Baha indicated that
> perfect knowledge could be attained through agreement of the four standards:
> 
> "Proofs are of four kinds: first, through sense perception; second, through the reasoning faculty;
> third, from traditional or scriptural authority; fourth, through the medium of inspiration. That is to
> say, there are four criteria or standards of judgment by which the human mind reaches its
> conclusions…
> "Consequently, it has become evident that the four criteria or standards of judgment by which the
> human mind reaches its conclusions are faulty and inaccurate. All of them are liable to mistake and
> error in conclusions. But a statement presented to the mind accompanied by proofs which the senses
> 
> can perceive to be correct, which the faculty of reason can accept, which is in accord with traditional
> authority and sanctioned by the promptings of the heart, can be adjudged and relied upon as
> perfectly correct, for it has been proved and tested by all the standards of judgment and found to be
> complete. When we apply but one test, there are possibilities of mistake. This is self-evident and
> manifest." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," pp. 253, 255)
> 
> These sources are of different degrees of reliability, and the consistency between the most reliable
> sources seems to indicate that 'Abdu'l-Baha defined epistemology in the following terms: there are
> four standards employed by humanity, and all of them are faulty and fallible; there is one divine
> standard which is accessible to those human beings who are gifted with the breaths of the Holy
> Spirit, and this standard is perfect and infallible.
> 
> We will now consider the four human criteria, as described by 'Abdu'l-Baha in the sources
> consulted.
> 
> FIRST CRITERION
> In one of His talks, 'Abdu'l-Baha described knowledge as twofold, and the second kind of
> knowledge, what He calls "objective" knowledge is, in one of its two manifestations, "gained..by
> evidence…from beholding an object the form is produced in the mirror of the heart". This would
> seem to be the criterion of the senses in operation:
> 
> "Knowledge is of two kinds: one is subjective ['ilm-i-wujudi {see Fourth Criterion: Intuition}], and
> the other objective ['ilm-i-Súri]; that is to say, an intuitive knowledge and a knowledge derived from
> perception ['ilm-i-taSSúri].
> "The knowledge of things which men universally have, is gained by reflection [see Second
> Criterion: Reason] or by evidence: that is to say, either by the power of the mind the conception of
> an object is formed, or from beholding an object the form is produced in the mirror of the heart
> [maraat qalb]." ("Mufavadat-i-'Abdu'l-Baha," XL, p. 118; "Some Answered Questions," XL, p. 180)
> 
> In the Tablet of the Inmost Heart and in most of His talks 'Abdu'l-Baha describes the first criterion
> of knowledge using specific terminology:
> 
> "The first balance is the balance of the senses [mízánu'l-Hiss], which is the method of most of the
> European philosophers in this age. They say that it is a perfect and complete balance, and that
> whatever is decided by it, no doubt or misgiving is attached thereto. The truth, however, is that the
> proofs limiting this balance are as clear as the Sun at midday. Verily, if thou dost look at the mirage,
> thou wilt see refreshing and drinkable water. Further, if thou dost gaze upon mirrors, thou wilt see
> forms within it and wilt be certain that it is unquestionably real. In reality, however, the forms are
> reflections in the glass and are nonexistent. Moreover, if thou dost look at a whirling point in the
> darkness, thou wilt think that it is a circle or an extended line. The reality is that it is nonexistent, but
> only appears so to the vision. Furthermore, if thou dost look at the firmament and its sparkling stars,
> thou wilt see them as tiny bodies. In reality, however, each one of them is a thousand times larger
> than the earth. If thou dost gaze at a shadow it appears still, but is really in motion; spokes appear
> unbroken but are actually disconnected; and the earth appears flat but is actually a sphere. Therefore,
> if it be established that the senses, of which the power of vision is, in itself, the most mighty sensory
> power, are a limited balance and an imperfect proof, then how can it be relied upon in ascertaining
> [`irfán] the divine truths, the heavenly signs, and the contingent phenomena?" ('Abdu'l-Baha, Tablet
> 
> on the Inmost Heart, provisional translation by Steven Phelps and William McCants, March 2000;
> Persian text in "Min Makatib 'Abdu'l-Baha," pp. 83-86)
> 
> "By materialists, whose belief with regard to Divinity hath been explained, is not meant
> philosophers in general, but rather that group of materialists of narrow vision that worship that
> which is sensed, that depend upon the five senses only, and whose criterion of knowledge is limited
> to that which can be perceived by the senses. All that can be sensed is to them real, whilst whatever
> falleth not under the power of the senses is either unreal or doubtful. The existence of the Divinity
> they regard as wholly doubtful." (Tablet of 'Abdu'l-Baha to Dr. Auguste Forel, published in "Star of
> the West," XIV:4, p. 102; reprinted in "Baha'i World Faith," p. 336)
> 
> "The first method [awwal miizaan] is by the senses [hiss], that is to say, all that the eye [ya'nii], the
> ear [gush], the taste [thaa'ifeh], the smell [shaammeh], the touch [laamseh] perceives, is understood
> by this method. Today this method is considered the most perfect by all the European philosophers,
> they say that the principal method of gaining knowledge is through the senses [miizaan hass]; they
> consider it supreme [muqaddas], although it is imperfect, for it commits errors." ("Mufavadat
> 'Abdu'l-Baha," 1908, p. 219; "Some Answered Questions," chapter 83, p. 341)
> 
> "The animal can neither recognize nor apprehend the spiritual power of man and makes no
> distinction between man and itself, for the reason that its susceptibilities are limited to the plane of
> the senses. It lives under the bondage of nature and nature's laws. All the animals are materialists.
> They are deniers of God and without realization of a transcendent power in the universe. They have
> no knowledge of the divine Prophets and Holy Books--mere captives of nature and the sense world.
> In reality they are like the great philosophers of this day who are not in touch with God and the Holy
> Spirit--deniers of the Prophets, ignorant of spiritual susceptibilities, deprived of the heavenly
> bounties and without belief in the supernatural power. The animal lives this kind of life blissfully
> and untroubled, whereas the material philosophers labor and study for ten or twenty years in schools
> and colleges, denying God, the Holy Spirit and divine inspirations. The animal is even a greater
> philosopher, for it attains the ability to do this without labor and study. For instance, the cow denies
> God and the Holy Spirit, knows nothing of divine inspirations, heavenly bounties or spiritual
> emotions and is a stranger to the world of hearts. Like the philosophers, the cow is a captive of
> nature and knows nothing beyond the range of the senses. The philosophers, however, glory in this,
> saying, 'We are not captives of superstitions; we have implicit faith in the impressions of the senses
> and know nothing beyond the realm of nature, which contains and covers everything.' But the cow,
> without study or proficiency in the sciences, modestly and quietly views life from the same
> standpoint, living in harmony with nature's laws in the utmost dignity and nobility." ('Abdu'l-Baha
> at the home of Mr. and Mrs. Maxwell, Montreal, Canada, 2 September 1912; Persian text in "Star of
> the West," V:6, Persian section; in "Khitabat," 1984 edition, pp. 540-541; transcription of English
> translation published in "The Promulgation of Universal Peace," pp. 311-312)
> 
> "The criterion of judgment in the estimation of western philosophers is sense perception [hiss].
> They consider that which is tangible or perceptible to the senses to be a reality--that there is no
> doubt of its existence. For example, we prove the existence of this light through the sense of sight;
> we visualize this room; we see the sun, the green fields; we use our sense of sight to observe them.
> The opinion of these philosophers is that such perception is reality, that the senses are the highest
> standard of perception and judgment, in which there can neither be doubt nor uncertainty...
> "As to the animal: It is endowed only with sense perception. It is lacking the reasonable perception.
> It cannot apprehend ideal realities. The animal cannot conceive of the earth as a sphere. The
> intelligence of an animal located in Europe could never have planned the discovery of the continent
> of America. The animal kingdom is incapable of discovering the latent mysteries of nature--such as
> 
> electricity--and bringing them forth ;from the invisible to the plane of visibility. It is evident that the
> discoveries and inventions transcend the animal intelligence. The animal cannot penetrate the
> secrets of genesis and creation. Its mind is incapable of conceiving the verity of ether. It cannot
> know the mysteries of magnetism because the bestowals of abstract reason and intellect are absent in
> its endowment. That is to say, the animal in its creation is a captive of the senses. Beyond the
> tangibilities and impressions of the senses it cannot accept anything. It denies everything. It is
> incapable of ideal perception and, therefore, a captive of the senses...
> "Notwithstanding this, some sagacious men declare: We have attained to the superlative degree
> of knowledge; we have penetrated the laboratory of nature, studying sciences and arts; we have
> attained the highest station of knowledge in the human world; we have investigated the facts as they
> are and have arrived at the conclusion that nothing is rightly acceptable except the tangible, which
> alone is a reality worthy of credence; all that is not tangible is imagination and nonsense.
> "Strange indeed that after twenty years training in colleges and universities man should reach
> such a station wherein he will deny the existence of the ideal or that which is not perceptible to the
> senses. Have you ever stopped to think that the animal already has graduated from such a
> university? Have you ever realized that the cow is already a professor emeritus of that university?
> For the cow without hard labor and study is already a philosopher of the superlative degree in the
> school of nature. The cow denies everything that is not tangible, saying, 'I can see! I can eat!
> Therefore, I believe only in that which is tangible!'
> "Then why should we go to the colleges? Let us go to the cow." ('Abdu'l-Baha at the Open
> Forum, San Francisco, California on 10 October 1912; Persian text in "Star of the West," V:3,
> Persian section; and in "Khitabat," 1984 edition, pp. 600-601, 609-610; transcription of English
> translation by Dr. Aminu'llah Farid published in "The Promulgation of Universal Peace," pp. 355-
> 356,357,361)
> 
> "Materialists say, 'Where is the soul? What is it? We cannot see it, neither can we touch it.'
> "This is how we must answer them: However much the mineral may progress, it cannot
> comprehend the vegetable world. Now, that lack of comprehension does not prove the
> non-existence of the plant!
> "To however great a degree the plant may have evolved, it is unable to understand the animal world;
> this ignorance is no proof that the animal does not exist!
> "The animal, be he never [even] so highly developed, cannot imagine the intelligence of man,
> neither can he realize the nature of his soul. But, again, this does not prove that man is without
> intellect, or without soul. It only demonstrates this, that one form of existence is incapable of
> comprehending a form superior to itself.
> "This flower may be unconscious of such a being as man, but the fact of its ignorance does not
> prevent the existence of humanity.
> "In the same way, if materialists do not believe in the existence of the soul, their unbelief does not
> prove that there is no such realm as the world of spirit...
> "Materialists who reason in this way, and contend that we are unable to see the world of spirit, or to
> perceive the blessings of God, are surely like the animals who have no understanding; having eyes
> they see not, ears they have, but do not hear. And this lack of sight and hearing is a proof of nothing
> but their own inferiority; of whom we read in the Qur'an, 'They are men who are blind and deaf to
> the Spirit.' They do not use that great gift of God, the power of the understanding, by which they
> might see with the eyes of the spirit, hear with spiritual ears and also comprehend with a Divinely
> enlightened heart.
> "The inability of the materialistic mind to grasp the idea of the Life Eternal is no proof of the non-
> existence of that life.
> "The comprehension of that other life depends on our spiritual birth.
> "My prayer for you is that your spiritual faculties and aspirations may daily increase, and that you
> 
> will never allow the material senses to veil from your eyes the glories of the Heavenly illumination."
> ('Abdu'l-Baha in Paris, 10 November 1911; in Persian transcription, "Khitaabaat," pp. 148-157; in
> English translation, "Paris Talks," pp. 92-94)
> 
> "During my visit to London and Paris last year I had many talks with ;the materialistic philosophers
> of Europe. The basis of all their conclusions is that the acquisition of knowledge of phenomena is
> according to a fixed, invariable law--a law mathematically exact in its operation through the senses.
> For instance, the eye sees a chair; therefore, there is no doubt of the chair's existence. The eye looks
> up into the heavens and beholds the sun; I see flowers upon this table; I smell their fragrance; I hear
> sounds outside, etc. This, they say, is a fixed mathematical law of perception and deduction, the
> operation of which admits of no doubt whatever; for inasmuch as the universe is subject to our
> sensing, the proof is self-evident that our knowledge of it must be gained through the avenues of the
> senses. That is to say, the materialists announce that the criterion and standard of human knowledge
> is sense perception." ('Abdu'l-Baha at Hotel Ansonia, 17 April 1912, no Persian text; transcription
> of English translation by Dr. Aminu'llah Farid published in "Star of the West," III:10, pp. 10-11;
> VII:17, pp. 175-176; "The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 20)
> 
> "In cities like New York the people are submerged in the sea of materialism. Their sensibilities are
> attuned to material forces, their perceptions purely physical. The animal energies predominate in
> their activities; all their thoughts are devoted to the attractions of this world, without aspiration
> beyond the life that is vanishing and mortal. In schools and temples of learning knowledge of the
> sciences acquired is based upon material observations only; there is no realization of Divinity in
> their methods and conclusions--all have reference to the world of matter. They are not interested in
> attaining knowledge of the mysteries of God or understanding the secrets of the heavenly Kingdom;
> what they acquire is based altogether upon visible and tangible evidences. Beyond these evidences
> they are without susceptibilities; they have no idea of the world of inner significances and are utterly
> out of touch with God, considering this an indication of reasonable attitude and philosophical
> judgment whereof they are self-sufficient and proud.
> "As a matter of fact, this supposed excellence is possessed in its superlative degree by the animals.
> The animals are without knowledge of God; so to speak, they are deniers of Divinity and understand
> nothing of the Kingdom, they are utterly ignorant of spiritual things and uninformed of the
> supernatural world. Therefore, if it be a perfection and virtue to be without knowledge of God and
> His Kingdom, the animals have attained the highest degree of excellence and proficiency. Then the
> donkey is the greatest scientist and the cow an accomplished naturalist, for they have obtained what
> they know without schooling and years of laborious study in colleges, trusting implicitly to the
> evidence of the senses and relying solely upon intuitive virtues. The cow, for instance, is a lover of
> the visible and a believer in the tangible, contented and happy when pasture is plenty, perfectly
> serene, a blissful exponent of the transcendental school of philosophy. Such is the status of the
> material philosophers, who glory in sharing the condition of the cow, imagining themselves in a
> lofty station. Reflect upon their ignorance and blindness." ('Abdu'l-Baha at Green Acre, 17 August
> 1912; no Persian text; transcription of English translation by Dr. Aminu'llah Farid published in "Star
> of the West," VIII:7, pp. 76-80; in "The Promulgation of Universal Peace," pp. 261-262)
> 
> "First, through sense perception...This is a standard still held by the materialistic philosophers of the
> world. They believe that whatever is perceptible to the senses is a verity, a certainty and without
> doubt existent. For example, they say, 'Here is a lamp which you see, and because it is perceptible
> to the sense of sight, you cannot doubt its existence. There is a tree; your sense of vision assures
> you of its reality, which is beyond question. This is a man; you see that he is a man; therefore, he
> exists.' In a word, everything confirmed by the senses is assumed to be as undoubted and
> unquestioned as the product of five multiplied by five; it cannot be twenty-six nor
> 
> less than twenty-five. Consequently, the materialistic philosophers consider the criterion of the
> senses to be first and foremost." ('Abdu'l-Baha at Green Acre, 16 August 1912; no Persian text;
> transcription of English translation by Dr. Aminu'llah Farid published in "The Promulgation of
> Universal Peace," p. 253)
> 
> "Among scientists and philosophers a method of attaining knowledge is through the senses,
> principally through observation. Light shows us that light exists. Reality is limited to the
> perceptible thing; all that is not perceptible is subject to doubt." ("Abdul Baha on Divine
> Philosophy," p. 93)
> 
> "Knowledge is measured by four things, viz,., first, sensation (that is, the things understood by the
> five senses)...The European philosopher in this century is judging everything by sensation. He says
> the feeling is the right measure, that is, he says the sun exists, because he feels its heat; the lamp is
> burning because he sees its light." ('Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, notes of Miss Alma Albertson, 30
> November 1900, in Rabb B6, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette, Illinois)
> 
> "The European philosophers in this century are judging everything by the feelings. They say feeling
> is the right meaning, i.e. the sun exists, from the fact that one can feel its heat; the lamp is burning,
> because you can see its light." ('Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, notes of Corinne True, 30 November
> 1900, in True B9, p. 16)
> 
> "'First, the earthly way, by means of the five senses...The ancient philosophers and indeed the
> philosophers of all times have taught that the first method, that is by means of the five senses, was
> the one certain way of knowing truth.' For example, when we see a large mass of water, you know
> that it is the sea and nothing can contradict that fact." ('Abdu'l-Baha to Miss Ethel Rosenberg,
> February-March 1901, in Rabb B7, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette, Illinois; portion ('in single
> quotation marks') published in "Star of the West," VIII:9, pp. 114-15)
> 
> LIMITATIONS OF THE FIRST CRITERION
> This first standard, this first criterion and method of attaining to knowledge, to truth is recognized
> by all of us humans, and regarded by some of us as the only true standard. 'Abdu'l-Baha asserts that
> there are three other human standards and a divine standard beyond these which are significant paths
> to knowledge of the real. He discusses some of the inherent problems with this first criterion:
> 
> "The truth, however, is that the proofs limiting this balance are as clear as the Sun at midday. Verily,
> if thou dost look at the mirage, thou wilt see refreshing and drinkable water. Further, if thou dost
> gaze upon mirrors, thou wilt see forms within it and wilt be certain that it is unquestionably real. In
> reality, however, the forms are reflections in the glass and are nonexistent. Moreover, if thou dost
> look at a whirling point in the darkness, thou wilt think that it is a circle or an extended line. The
> reality is that it is nonexistent, but only appears so to the vision. Furthermore, if thou dost look at the
> firmament and its sparkling stars, thou wilt see them as tiny bodies. In reality, however, each one of
> them is a thousand times larger than the earth. If thou dost gaze at a shadow it appears still, but is
> really in motion; spokes appear unbroken but are actually disconnected; and the earth appears flat
> but is actually a sphere. Therefore, if it be established that the senses, of which the power of vision
> is, in itself, the most mighty sensory power, are a limited balance and an imperfect proof, then how
> can it be relied upon in ascertaining [`irfán] the divine truths, the heavenly signs, and the contingent
> phenomena?"
> (Tablet of the Inmost Heart)
> "Today this method is considered the most perfect of all by all the European philosophers, they say
> that the principal method of gaining knowledge is through the senses; they consider it supreme,
> although it is imperfect, for it commits errors. For example, the greatest of the senses is the power
> of sight. The sight sees the mirage as water, and it sees images reflected in mirrors as real and
> existent; large bodies which are distant appear to be small, and a whirling point appears as a circle.
> The sight believes the earth to be motionless, and sees the sun in motion, and in many similar cases
> it makes mistakes. Therefore we cannot trust it." ("Mufavadat 'Abdu'l-Baha," p. 219; "Some
> Answered Questions," p. 341)
> 
> "If the world of nature were perfect and complete in itself, there would be no need of such training
> and cultivation in the human world--no need of teachers, schools and universities, arts and crafts.
> The revelations of the Prophets of God would not have been necessary, and the heavenly Books
> would have been superfluous. If the world of nature were perfect and sufficient for mankind, we
> would have no need of God and our belief in Him. Therefore, the bestowal of all these great helps
> and accessories to the attainment of divine life is because the world of nature is incomplete and
> imperfect. Consider this Canadian country during the early history of Montreal when the land was
> in its wild, uncultivated and natural condition. The soil was unproductive, rocky and almost
> uninhabitable--vast forests stretching in every direction. What invisible power caused this great
> metropolis to spring up amid such savage and forbidding conditions? It was the human mind.
> Therefore, nature and the effect of nature's laws were imperfect. The mind of man remedied and
> removed this imperfect condition, until now we behold a great city instead of a savage unbroken
> wilderness. Before the coming of Columbus America itself was a wild, uncultivated expanse of
> primeval forest, mountains and rivers--a very world of nature. Now it has become the world of man.
> It was dark, forbidding and savage; now it has become illumined with a great civilization and
> prosperity. Instead of forests, we behold productive farms, beautiful gardens and prolific orchards.
> Instead of thorns and useless vegetation, we find flowers, domestic animals and fields awaiting
> harvest. If the world of nature were perfect, the condition of this great country would have been left
> unchanged.
> "If a child is left in its natural state and deprived of education, there is no doubt that it will grow up
> in ignorance and illiteracy, its mental faculties dulled and dimmed; in fact, it will become like an
> animal. This is evident among the savages of central Africa, who are scarcely higher than the beast
> in mental development.
> "The conclusion is irresistible that the splendors of the Sun of Truth, the Word of God, have been
> the source and cause of human upbuilding and civilization. The world of nature is the kingdom of
> the animal. In its natural condition and plane of limitation the animal is perfect. The ferocious
> beasts of prey have been completely subject to the laws of nature in their development. They are
> without education or training; they have no power of abstract reasoning and intellectual ideals; they
> have no touch with the spiritual world and are without conception of God or the Holy Spirit. The
> animal can neither recognize nor apprehend the spiritual power of man and makes no distinction
> between man and itself, for the reason that its susceptibilities are limited to the plane of the senses.
> It lives under the bondage of nature and nature's laws. All the animals are materialists. They are
> deniers of God and without realization of a transcendent power in the universe. They have no
> knowledge of the divine Prophets and Holy Books--mere captives of nature and the sense world. In
> reality they are like the great philosophers of this day who are not in touch with God and the Holy
> Spirit--deniers of the Prophets, ignorant of spiritual susceptibilities, deprived of the heavenly
> bounties and without belief in the supernatural power. The animal lives this kind of life blissfully
> and untroubled, whereas the material philosophers labor and study for ten or twenty years in schools
> and colleges, denying God, the Holy Spirit and divine inspirations. The animal is even a greater
> 
> philosopher, for it attains the ability to do this without labor and study. For instance, the cow denies
> God and the Holy Spirit, knows nothing of divine inspirations, heavenly bounties or spiritual
> emotions and is a stranger to the world of hearts. Like the philosophers, the cow is a captive of
> nature and knows nothing beyond the range of the senses. The philosophers, however, glory in this,
> saying, 'We are not captives of superstitions; we have implicit faith in the impressions of the senses
> and know nothing beyond the realm of nature, which contains and covers everything.' But the cow,
> without study or proficiency in the sciences, modestly and quietly views life from the same
> standpoint, living in harmony with nature's laws in the utmost dignity and nobility.
> "This is not the glory of man. The glory of man is in the knowledge of God, spiritual
> susceptibilities, attainment to transcendent powers and the bounties of the Holy Spirit. The glory of
> man is in being informed of the teachings of God. This is the glory of humanity. Ignorance is not
> glory but darkness. Can these souls who are steeped in the lower strata of ignorance become
> informed of the mysteries of God and the realities of existence…?" ('Abdu'l-Baha at the home of
> Mr. and Mrs. Maxwell, Montreal, Canada, 2 September 1912; Persian text in "Star of the West,"
> V:6, Persian section; in "Khitabat," 1984 edition, pp. 540-541; transcription of English, "The
> Promulgation of Universal Peace," pp. 310-312)
> 
> "In the estimation of the philosophers of the Orient, especially those of Greece and Persia, the
> standard of judgment is the intellect. They are of the opinion that the criterion of the senses is
> defective, and their proof is that the senses are often deceived and mistaken. That which is liable to
> mistake cannot be infallible, cannot be a true standard of judgment.
> "Among the senses the most powerful and reliable is that of sight. This sense views a mirage as a
> body of water and is positive as to its character, whereas a mirage is nonexistent. The sense of
> vision, or sight, sees reflected images in a mirror as verities, when reason declares them to be
> nonexistent. The eye sees the sun and planets revolving around the earth, whereas in reality the sun
> is stationary, central, and the earth revolves upon its own axis. The sense of sight sees the earth as a
> plane, whereas the faculty of reason discovers it to be spherical. The eye views the heavenly bodies
> in boundless space as small and insignificant, whereas reason declares them to be colossal suns.
> The sense of sight beholds a whirling spark of fire as a circle of light and is without doubt as to it,
> whereas such a circle is nonexistent. A man sailing in a ship sees the banks on either side as if they
> were moving, whereas the ship is moving. Briefly, there are many instances and evidences which
> disprove the assertion that tangibilities and sense impressions are certainties, for the senses are
> misleading and often mistaken. How, then, can we rightly declare that they prove reality when the
> standard or criterion itself is defective?" ('Abdu'l-Baha at the Open Forum, San Francisco,
> California on 10 October 1912; Persian text in "Star of the West," V:3, Persian section; and in
> "Khitábát," 1984 edition, pp. 600-601, 609-610; transcription of English translation by Dr.
> Aminu'llah Farid, in "The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 356)
> 
> "In Europe I told the philosophers and scientists of materialism that the criterion of the senses is not
> reliable. For instance, consider a mirror and the images reflected in it. These images have no actual
> corporeal existence. Yet if you had never seen a mirror, you would firmly insist and believe that
> they were real. The eye sees a mirage upon the desert as a lake of water, but there is no reality in it.
> As we stand upon the deck of a steamer, the shore appears to be moving, yet we know the land is
> stationary and we are moving. The earth was believed to be fixed and the sun revolving about it, but
> although this appears to be so, the reverse is now known to be true. A
> whirling torch makes a circle of fire appear before the eye, yet we realize there is but one point of
> light. We behold a shadow moving upon the ground, but it has no material existence, no substance.
> In deserts the atmospheric effects are particularly productive of illusions which deceive the eye.
> Once I saw a mirage in which a whole caravan appeared traveling upward into the sky. In the far
> North other deceptive phenomena appear and baffle human vision. Sometimes three or four suns,
> 
> called by scientists mock suns, will be shining at the same time, whereas we know that the great
> solar orb is one and that it remains fixed and single. In brief, the senses are continually deceived,
> and we are unable to separate that which is reality from that which is not." ("The Promulgation of
> Universal Peace," p. 21)
> 
> "But in the estimation of the divine philosophers this proof and assurance is not reliable; nay, rather,
> they deem the standard of the senses to be false because it is imperfect. Sight, for instance, is one of
> the most important of the senses, yet it is subject to many aberrations and inaccuracies. The eye
> sees the mirage as a body of water; it regards images in the mirror as realities when they are but
> reflections. A man sailing upon the river imagines that objects upon the shore are moving, whereas
> he is in motion, and they are stationary. To the eye the earth appears fixed, while the sun and stars
> revolve about it. As a matter of fact, the heavenly orbs are stationary, and the earth is turning upon
> its axis. The colossal suns, planets and constellations which shine in the heavens appear small, nay,
> infinitesimal to human vision, whereas in reality they are vastly greater than the earth in dimension
> and volume. A whirling spark appears to the sight as a circle of fire. There are numberless
> instances of this kind which show the error and inaccuracy of the senses. Therefore, the divine
> philosophers considered this standard of judgment to be defective and unreliable." ("The
> Promulgation of Universal Peace," pp. 253-254)
> 
> "Let us speak of the first criterion--that of the senses. Contemporary philosophers say, 'We have
> spent our time in universities and laboratories analyzing composition. We have not encountered the
> spirituality of God, or any sign of the soul's existence. We are people of truth; intelligent, learned
> men, but we can find no proof of the existence of a divine being.'
> "The senses mistake a mirage for water; the eyes see the sun move; your train or boat seems
> immobile and the landscape seems to pass by; planets look like fixed points of light; but they have
> measurable dimensions. A lighted point set in rotation appears like a circle. These examples show
> the senses subject to error. How can we put our trust in them?" ("Abdul Baha on Divine
> Philosophy," p. 94)
> 
> "It is no proof of intelligence to reject everything which does not strike the senses. Nay, rather, such
> a one is brother to the animal. The cow has no idea of God; she does not know the soul. So the only
> difference between her highness the cow and a materialistic philosopher is that the latter takes a
> great deal of trouble! It is not a special or exclusive privilege to be the prisoner of one's senses; the
> cow is the example of this theory." (Abdul Baha on Divine Philosophy, pp. 94-95)
> 
> "If you want to go by feeling we find upon examining it that it is not perfect. Why? Because the
> sight, which is the greatest of all the senses, and judges better than all the other senses, is sometimes
> mistaken. The sight judges the mirage to be water; when looking at the shadows judges it to be
> changeless; finds the mirage to be an ideal picture; when looking at a spark revolving in a circle
> thinks it is a circle of fire; when looking at the stars thinks they are very small, yet in reality they are
> larger than the earth; judges the earth on which we are living to be motionless, while the sun, which
> is motionless, seems to be revolving. Consequently, the measure of sensation is not true, for we find
> in its greatest agent so many defects that we can not but judge of the imperfections of the other
> senses." ('Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, notes of Miss Alma Albertson, 30 November 1900; both sources
> identical)
> 
> "If you want to go by feeling, you will find when looking at a thing that it is not perfect. Why?
> Because the sight, the greatest of all senses, is sometimes mistaken. The sight judges a mirage to be
> water, the shadow to be the thing itself, and an image to be an ideal picture; also when looking at a
> revolving spark that it is a circle of fire, at the stars that they are very small, when in reality some of
> 
> them are larger than the earth and when we look at this earth upon which we live, we judge it to be
> motionless, while the sun which is motionless seems to be revolving. Consequently the measure of
> the senses, feeling, is not true, for if we find in its greatest agent so many defects that we can but
> judge of the imperfections of other senses which go to make up the feeling (five senses)." ('Abdu'l-
> Baha to pilgrims, notes of Corinne True, 30 November 1900; see above.)
> 
> "But when you reflect deeply you will see that this means of knowing is not to be absolutely relied
> upon. For instance, when you see a steamer, sailing along rapidly, the evidence of your sight tells
> you that the shore is moving, but you know this to be false. If you look at the sun your eyes assure
> you that it rises every day and travels across the sky, but science has disproved this. If you take a
> lighted stick, attached to a string and whirl it around very fast the appearance is that of a circle of
> fire--again 'people in the desert often see a most beautiful mirage of trees and water,
> but the nearer you approach this appearance [to this phantom], the more it fades away, and you
> begin to perceive its unreality. All this proves that the evidence of the senses alone is not to be
> relied on for conveying [conceiving] the truth.'" ('Abdu'l-Baha to Miss Ethel Rosenberg, in Rabb
> B7, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette, Illinois; portion (in quotations and with changes in
> brackets) published in "Star of the West," VIII:9, p. 114)
> 
> After presenting all of these arguments and proofs of the inaccuracy and limitations of this standard
> of knowledge, 'Abdu'l-Baha concludes:
> 
> "Therefore, if it be established that the senses, of which the power of vision is, in itself, the most
> mighty sensory power, are a limited balance and an imperfect proof, then how can it be relied upon
> in ascertaining [`irfán] the divine truths, the heavenly signs, and the contingent phenomena?"
> (Tablet of the Inmost Heart)
> 
> "The sight...makes mistakes. Therefore we cannot trust it." ("Some Answered Questions," p. 341)
> 
> "That which is liable to mistake cannot be infallible, cannot be a true standard of judgment...Briefly,
> there are many instances and evidences which disprove the assertion that tangibilities and sense
> impressions are certainties, for the senses are misleading and often mistaken. How, then, can we
> rightly declare that they prove reality when the standard or criterion itself is defective?" ("The
> Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 356)
> 
> "In brief, the senses are continually deceived, and we are unable to separate that which is reality
> from that which is not." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 21)
> 
> "There are numberless instances of this kind which show the error and inaccuracy of the senses.
> Therefore, the divine philosophers have considered this standard of judgment to be defective and
> unreliable." ("The Promulgation of Peace," pp. 253-254)
> 
> "These examples show the senses subject to error. How can we put our trust in them?" ("Abdul
> Baha on Divine Philosophy," p. 94)
> 
> "If you want to go by feeling we find upon examining it that it is not perfect. Why? Because the
> sight, which is the greatest of all the senses, and judges better than all the other senses, is sometimes
> mistaken…Consequently the measure of sensation is not true, for we find in its greatest agent so
> many defects that we can not but judge of the imperfections of the other senses." ('Abdu'l-Baha to
> pilgrims, notes of Miss Alma Albertson, 30 November 1900; identical in both sources)
> 
> "Consequently the measure of the senses, feeling, is not true, for we find in its greatest agent so
> many defects that we can but judge of the imperfections of the other senses which go to make up the
> feeling (five senses)." ('Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, notes of Corinne True, 30 November 1900; see
> above)
> 
> "All this proves that the evidence of the senses alone is not to be relied upon for conveying
> [conceiving] the Truth." ('Abdu'l-Baha to Miss Ethel Rosenberg; see above)
> 
> Both Baha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha characterize materialists, those who cleave to the evidence of the
> senses and deny the validity of other criteria for human knowledge, as misguided and out of touch
> with reality:
> 
> "Those who have rejected God and firmly cling to Nature as it is in itself are, verily, bereft of
> knowledge and wisdom. They are truly of them that are far astray. They have failed to attain the
> lofty summit and have fallen short of the ultimate purpose; therefore their eyes are shut and their
> thoughts differed…
> "When the eyes of the people of the East were captivated by the arts and wonders of the West, they
> roved distraught in the wilderness of material causes, oblivious of the One Who is the Causer of
> Causes, and the Sustainer thereof…" (Baha'u'llah, "Lawh-i-Hikmat," Tablets of Baha'u'llah, pp.
> 143-144)
> 
> "Materialists who reason in this way, and contend that we are unable to see the world of spirit, or to
> perceive the blessings of God, are surely like the animals who have no understanding; having eyes
> they see not, ears they have, but do not hear. And this lack of sight and hearing is a proof of nothing
> but their own inferiority; of whom we read in the Qur'an, 'They are men who are blind and deaf to
> the Spirit.' They do not use that great gift of God, the power of the understanding, by which they
> might see with the eyes of the spirit, hear with spiritual ears and also comprehend with a Divinely
> enlightened heart." ('Abdu'l-Baha in Paris; transcribed in Persian, "Khitaabaat," pp. 148-157;
> translated into English, "Paris Talks," p. 94)
> 
> COMMENTARY ON THE FIRST CRITERION
> 
> A brief comment may be in order. One of the Baha'i teachings is the harmony of science and
> religion. Another teaching is that true religion is in agreement with science and reason. And yet
> here we find 'Abdu'l-Baha indicating that most of Western science, which is largely based upon the
> evidence of the senses, falls short of constituting a true criterion for knowledge, and infallible guide
> to reality. It seems from this discussion of material science, that it is not necessarily compatible
> with the teachings of religion. Are we to conclude therefore that 'Abdu'l-Baha is referring to another
> science and another reason? Perhaps the science that is in harmony with religion is that science
> which is informed by divine guidance, and governed by spiritual principle?
> If so, then that science may be the divine philosophy of the East rather than the materialistic science
> of the West. Hence, if true religion is in agreement with science and reason, this need not imply that
> true religion must be conformable to whatever conclusions have been reached by those who employ
> the apparatus of materialistic science and materialistic reason, that is, the current sciences and
> philosophies that categorically deny the existence or the relevance of a revealed truth. Rather, it
> seems that the dominant influence of materialistic science and materialistic philosophy in the West
> have had consequences harmful to humanity:
> 
> "When the eyes of the people of the East were captivated by the arts and wonders of the West, they
> roved distraught in the wilderness of material causes, oblivious of the One Who is the Causer of
> Causes and the Sustainer thereof..." (Baha'u'llah, "Lawh-i-Hikmat," Tablets, p. 144)
> 
> "The civilization, so often vaunted by the learned exponents of arts and sciences, will, if allowed to
> overleap the bounds of moderation, bring great evil upon men. Thus warneth you He Who is the
> All-Knowing. If carried to excess, civilization will prove as prolific a source of evil as it had been
> of goodness when kept within the restraints of moderation. Meditate on this, O people, and be not
> of them that wander distraught in the wilderness of error." (Baha'u'llah, "Lawh-i-Zayn al-
> Muqarabin," Gleanings, CLXIII, pp. 342-343)
> 
> In what may be a related statement, 'Abdu-l-Baha writes:
> 
> "All the peoples of Europe, notwithstanding their vaunted civilization, sink and drown in this
> terrifying sea of passion and desire, and this is why all the phenomena of their culture comes to
> nothing...
> "A superficial culture, unsupported by a cultivated morality, is as 'a confused medley of dreams,'
> [Qur'an 12:44,21:5] and external lustre without inner perfection is 'like a vapor in the desert which
> the thirsty dreameth to be water.' [Qur'an 24:39] For results which would win the good pleasure of
> God and secure the peace and well-being of man, could never be fully achieved in a merely external
> civilization.
> "The peoples of Europe have not advanced to the higher planes of moral civilization, as their
> opinions and behavior clearly demonstrate." ('Abdu'l-Baha, "The Secret of Divine Civilization," pp.
> 60-61)
> 
> SECOND CRITERION
> In one of His talks, 'Abdu'l-Baha described knowledge as two-fold, and He noted that one of the
> forms of objective knowledge ['ilm-i-Suuri] is what He called "reason" ['aql] in other sources:
> 
> "Knowledge is of two kinds: one is subjective ['ilm-i-wujudi {see Fourth Criterion: Intuition}], and
> the other objective ['ilm-i-Súri]; that is to say, an intuitive knowledge and a knowledge derived from
> perception ['ilm-i-taSSúri].
> "The knowledge of things which men universally have, is gained by reflection {see Second
> Criterion: Reason} or by evidence {see First Criterion: Senses}: that is to say, either by the power of
> the mind ['aql] the conception of an object is formed, or from beholding an object the form is
> produced in the mirror of the heart [maraat qalb]." ("Mufavadat-i-'Abdu'l-Baha," XL, p. 118; "Some
> Answered Questions," XL, p. 180)
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha indicates that reason ['aql] is the distinctive attribute of the human being, which sets
> him apart from the animal kingdom:
> 
> "As for the second balance, which the Illuminati and the peripatetics rely
> upon, it is the balance of reason [al-mízánu'l-`aql’]. In like manner, the
> other schools of the first philosophers in the ancient and middle centuries
> depended upon it. They said that that which is judged by reason is firmly
> established, clear and indubitable, and that there is no doubt or defect
> 
> either in its foundations or its outcomes." (Tablet of the Inmost Heart)
> 
> "The knowledge of things which men universally have, is gained by reflection {see Second
> Criterion: Reason} or by evidence {see First Criterion: Senses}: that is to say, either by the power of
> the mind [bi-quwwat-i-'aqliyyih] the conception of an object is formed [taSSuur aan shay
> namAyand], or from beholding an object the form is produced [mashaahand shay Suurati] in the
> mirror of the heart [dar maraat-i-qalb]." ("Mufavadat-i-'Abdu'l-Baha," XL, p. 118; "Some
> Answered Questions," XL, p. 180)
> 
> "The human spirit [ammaa ruuh insaani] which distinguishes man from the animal [keh maabeh al-
> amtayaaz insaan az hayawaanist] is the rational soul [hamaan nafs naaTaqeh ast]; and these two
> names--the human spirit and the rational soul [ruuh insaani va nafs naaTaqeh]--designate one thing.
> This spirit, which in the terminology of the philosophers [hukamaa] is the rational soul [nafs
> naaTaqeh]. embraces all beings, and as far as human ability permits discovers the realities of things
> and becomes cognisant of their peculiarities and effects, and of the qualities and properties of
> beings. But the human spirit, unless assisted by the spirit of faith [ruuh iimaani], does not become
> acquainted with the divine secrets [asraar ilaahiyyeh] and the heavenly realities [haqaa'iq
> lahuutiyyeh]. It is like a mirror which, although clear, polished, and brilliant, is still in need of light.
> Until a ray of the sun reflects upon it, it cannot discover the heavenly secrets.
> "But the mind [ammaa 'aql] is the power of the human spirit [quvveh ruuh insaani ast]. Spirit is the
> lamp [ruuh bemanzaleh saraaj ast]; mind is the light which shines from the lamp ['aql bemanzaleh
> anvaar keh az saraaj saaTe' ast]. Spirit is the tree [ruuh bemanzaleh shakhrast], and the mind is the
> fruit [va 'aql bemathaabeh shmar]. Mind is the perfection of the spirit ['aql kamaal ruuh ast], and is
> its essential quality [va Safat matlaazemeh aanast], as the sun's rays are the essential necessity of the
> sun." ("Mufavadat 'Abdu'l-Baha," p. 159; "Some Answered Questions," LV, pp. 243-244)
> 
> "The first condition [avvaliyyeh] of intelligence in the world of nature [dar 'aalam Tabi'at] is the
> intelligence [idaraakaat] of the rational soul [nafs naaTaqeh]. In this intelligence and this power all
> men are sharers, whether they be neglectful or vigilant, believers or deniers. This human rational
> soul is God's creation; it contains and excels other creatures; as it is more noble and distinguished, it
> contains things. The power of the rational soul can discover the realities of things, comprehend the
> peculiarities of beings, and penetrate the mysteries of existence. All sciences, knowledge, arts,
> wonders, institutions, discoveries, and enterprises, come from the exercised intelligence of the
> rational soul. There was a time when they were unknown, preserved mysteries, and hidden secrets;
> the rational soul gradually discovered them and brought them out from the plane of the invisible and
> the hidden, into the realm of the visible. This is the greatest power of intelligence [iin a'zham
> quvveh idaraak] in the world of nature [dar 'aalam Tabii'at ast], which in its highest flight and
> soaring comprehends the realities [haqaaiiq], the properties [khavaaS], and the effects [aathaar] of
> the contingent beings [muhudaat amakaaniyyeh]...The intellectual power of the world of nature
> [quvaai ma'nuuyyeh 'aalam Tabiyy'at] is a power of investigation [quvaai matajasseh ast], and by its
> researches it discovers the realities of beings, and the properties of existences..." ("Mufavadat
> 'Abdu'l-Baha," p. 165; "Some Answered Questions," LVIII, 252-253)
> 
> "Man [insaan] is distinguished above the animals [hayawaan] through his reason ['aql]. The
> perceptions [idaraakaat] of man [insaan] are of two [duu] kinds [qasim]: tangible, or sensible
> [mahissuus], and reasonable [mi'aquul], whereas the animal [hayawaan] perceptions are limited to
> the senses [ahsaasaat], the tangible only. The tangible perceptions may be likened to this candle, the
> reasonable perceptions [mi'aquul] to the light. Calculations of mathematical problems and
> determining the spherical form of the earth are through the reasonable perceptions [mi'aquul]. The
> center of gravity is a hypothesis of reason. Reason itself is not tangible, perceptible to the senses.
> 
> Reason ['aql] is an intellectual verity or reality [haqiiqat]. All [jami'a]l qualities [Safaat] are ideal
> verities [haqaaiiq], not tangible realities [mehissuus niist]. For instance, we say this man is a
> scholarly man. Knowledge ['ilm] is an ideal attainment [haqiiqat me'aquuleh ast] not perceptible to
> the senses. When you see this scholarly man, your eye does not see his knowledge, your ear cannot
> hear his science, nor can you sense it by taste. It is not a tangible verity. Science ['ilm] itself is an
> ideal verity [haqiiqat me'aquuleh ast]. It is evident, therefore, that the perceptions idaraakaat] of
> man [insaan] are twofold [duu nuu' ast]: the reasonable [me'aquuleh] and the tangible, or sensible
> [mehisuuseh]...
> "Virtue, or perfection, belongs to man [insaan], who possesses both the capacity of the senses
> [idaraak mehisuusaat] and ideal perception [idaraak me'aquulaat]. For instance, astronomical
> discoveries are man's accomplishments. He has not gained this knowledge through his senses. The
> greater part of it has been attained through intellect, through the ideal senses. Man's inventions have
> appeared through the avenue of his reasonable faculties. All his scientific attainments [jami'a iin
> 'uluum ] have come through the faculty of reason [quwwat 'aquliyyat]. Briefly, the evidences of
> intellect or reason ['aql] are manifest [zhaahir] in man [insaan]. By them he is differentiated from
> the animal. Therefore, the animal kingdom ['aalam hayawaan] is distinct and inferior to the human
> kingdom ['aalam insaan]. ("Khitaabaat 'Abdu'l-Baha," pp. 601-603,604; "The Promulgation of
> Universal Peace," pp. 356-358 passim.)
> 
> "On the other hand, it is evident and true, though most astounding, that in man there is present this
> supernatural force or faculty which discovers the realities of things and which possesses the power
> of idealization or intellection. It is capable of discovering scientific laws, and science we know is
> not a tangible reality. Science ['ilm] exists in the mind of man as an ideal reality. The mind itself,
> reason [nafs 'aql] itself, is an ideal reality [haqiiqat me'aquuleh ast] and not tangible [mehisuuseh
> nist]." (Ibid., p. 609; Ibid., p. 360)
> 
> "Proofs are of four kinds...second, through the reasoning faculty." ("The Promulgation of Universal
> Peace," p. 253)
> 
> "God has bestowed the gift of mind upon man in order that he may weigh every fact or truth
> presented to him and adjudge whether it be reasonable. That which conforms to his reason he may
> accept as true, while that which reason and science cannot sanction may be discarded as imagination
> and superstition, as a phantom and not reality. Inasmuch as the blind imitations or dogmatic
> interpretations current among men do not coincide with the postulates of reason, and the mind and
> scientific investigation cannot acquiesce thereto, many souls in the human world today shun and
> deny religion. That is to say, imitations, when weighed in the scales of reason, will not conform to
> its standard and requirement. Therefore, these souls deny religion and become irreligious, whereas
> if the reality of the divine religions becomes manifest to them and the foundation of the heavenly
> teachings is revealed coinciding with facts and evident truths, reconciling with scientific knowledge
> and reasonable proof, all will acknowledge them, and irreligion will cease to exist. In this way all
> mankind may be brought to the foundation of religion, for religion is true reason and science, while
> all that is not conformable thereto is mere superstition..." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace,"
> p. 374)
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha identifies this second method of attaining to knowledge as that of the ancient
> philosophers:
> 
> "As for the second balance, which the Illuminati and the peripatetics [followers of Aristotle] rely
> upon, it is the balance of reason [al-mízánu'l-`aql]. In like manner, the other schools of the first
> philosophers in the ancient and middle centuries depended upon it. They said that that which is
> 
> judged by reason is firmly established, clear and indubitable, and that there is no doubt or defect
> either in its foundations or its outcomes." ('Abdu'l-Baha, Tablet on the Inmost Heart, provisional
> translation by Steven Phelps and William McCants, March 2000; Persian text in "Min Makatib
> 'Abdu'l-Baha," pp. 83-86)
> 
> "It is as thou hast written, not philosophers in general but narrow-minded materialists that are meant.
> As to deistic philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they are indeed worthy of esteem
> and of the highest praise, for they have rendered distinguished services to mankind..."We regard
> knowledge and wisdom as the foundation of the progress of mankind, and extol philosophers that
> are endowed with broad vision..." (Tablet to Dr. Forel, in "Star of the West," XIV:4, p. 102)
> 
> "Now concerning philosophers, they are of two schools. Thus Socrates the wise believed in the
> unity of God and the existence of the soul after death; as his opinion was contrary to that of the
> narrow-minded people of his time, that divine sage was poisoned by them. All divine philosophers
> and men of wisdom and understanding, when observing these endless beings, have considered that
> in this great and infinite universe all things end in the mineral kingdom, that the outcome of the
> mineral kingdom is the vegetable kingdom, the outcome of the vegetable kingdom is the animal
> kingdom and the outcome of the animal kingdom the world of man. The consummation of this
> limitless universe with all its grandeur and glory hath been man himself, who in this world of being
> toileth and suffereth for a time, with diverse ills and pains, and ultimately disintegrates, having no
> trace and no fruit after him. Were it so, there is no doubt that this infinite universe with all its
> perfections has ended in sham and delusion with no result, no fruit, no permanence and no effect. It
> would be utterly without meaning. They (the philosophers) were thus convinced that such is not the
> case, that this Great Workshop with all its power, its bewildering magnificence and endless
> perfections, cannot eventually come to naught. That still another life should exist is thus certain,
> and, just as the vegetable kingdom is unaware of the world of man, so we, too, know not of the
> Great Life hereafter that followeth the life of man here below. Our non-comprehension of that life,
> however, is no proof of its non-existence. The mineral world, for instance, is utterly unaware of the
> world of man and cannot comprehend it, but the ignorance of a thing is no proof of its non-
> existence. Numerous and conclusive proofs exist that go to show that this infinite world cannot end
> with this human life." ("Star of the West," XIV:4, p. 104)
> 
> "The second is the method [miizaan 'aql] of reason, which was that of the ancient philosophers, the
> pillars of wisdom [hikmat], that is the method [miizaan] of the understanding [adaraak]. They
> proved things by reason [be-aql], and held firmly to logical proofs [be-dalaa'il 'aquliyyeh], all their
> arguments were arguments of reason ['aquliiast]." ("Mufavadat 'Abdu'l-Baha," p. 219; "Some
> Answered Questions," pp. 341-42)
> 
> "In the estimation of the philosophers [falaasafeh] of the Orient [sharq], especially those of Greece
> [yunaan] and Persia [iiraan], the standard of judgment [miizaan adaraak] is the intellect ['aql]...
> "The philosophers of the East consider the perfect criterion [miizaan] to be reason or intellect ['aql],
> and according to that standard [miizaan 'aql] the realities of all objects [haqiiqat har shay'i] can be
> proved; for, they say, the standard [miizaan] of reason and intellect ['aql] is perfect, and everything
> provable through reason [mi-'aquul] is veritable [haqiiqat]. Therefore, those philosophers consider
> all philosophical deductions to be correct when weighed according to the standard [miizaan] of
> reason ['aql], and they state that the senses [hiss] are the assistants and instruments of reason ['aql],
> and that although the investigation [taharrii] of realities [haqaa'iiq] may be conducted through the
> senses [hiss], the standard [miizaan] of knowing and judgment is reason ['aql] itself. In this way the
> philosophers of the East and West differ and disagree. The materialistic philosophers [falaasafeh] of
> the West [gharb] declare that man [insaan] belongs to the animal [haywaan] kingdom, whereas the
> 
> philosophers [falaasafeh] of the East [sharq]--such as Plato [aflaaTuun], Aristotle [arisTuu] and the
> Persians [falaasafeh iiraan]--divide the world ['aalam] of existence [wujud] or phenomena of life
> into two general categories or kingdoms ['aalam]: one [yekii] the animal kingdom ['aalam
> hayawaanii], or world ['aalam] of nature [Tabii'at], the other the human kingdom ['aalam insaanii],
> or world ['aalam] of reason ['aql]." ("Khitaabaat 'Abdu'l-Baha," pp. 601-603; "The Promulgation of
> Universal Peace," pp. 356-357)
> 
> "Among the Greeks and Romans the criterion of knowledge was reason--that whatever is provable
> and acceptable by reason must necessarily be admitted as true." ("The Promulgation of Universal
> Peace," p. 20)
> 
> "The second criterion is that of the intellect. The ancient philosophers in particular considered the
> intellect to be the most important agency of judgment. Among the wise men of Greece,
> Rome, Persia and Egypt the criterion of true proof was reason. They held that every matter
> submitted to the reasoning faculty could be proved true or false and must be accepted or rejected
> accordingly." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 254)
> 
> "God has created man and endowed him with the power of reason whereby he may arrive at valid
> conclusions. Therefore, man must endeavor in all things to investigate the fundamental reality. If
> he does not independently investigate, he has failed to utilize the talent God has bestowed upon him.
> I am pleased with the American people because, as a rule, they are independent seekers of the truth;
> their minds are actively employed instead of remaining idle and unproductive. This is most
> praiseworthy…" ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," pp. 312-313)
> 
> "Among the ancient philosophers the infallible way to knowledge was through logic. The different
> schools of logic weighed everything in the scales of cold scholasticism." ("Abdu'l-Baha on Divine
> Philosophy," p. 93)
> 
> "The Greeks (Plato, Aristotle, etc.) believe in the second way of measuring, viz., by the mind...
> "The old Greeks and Persians judged everything by the measure of the intellect." ('Abdu'l-Baha to
> pilgrims, 30 November 1900, notes of Miss Alma Albertson, Rabb B6, National Baha'i Archives,
> Wilmette, Illinois)
> 
> "Plato and Aristotle believed in the second, the mind or understanding...As to the measure of the
> intellect, the old Greek and Persians judged everything by this measure..." ('Abdu'l-Baha to
> pilgrims, 30 November 1900, notes of Corinne True, True B9, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette,
> Illinois)
> 
> "Second, 'the way by [of] argument and reasoning and all philosophers have taught that it was [is]
> possible to reach the knowledge of [all] Truth by this method...
> "'The ancient philosophers have also taught that by the Intellect (the second method of argument and
> reasoning) accurate and absolute knowledge of everything can be obtained.' They said that they
> could prove the existence of God by the existence of forces and motion, that is to say the mover and
> the thing moved. They explained that motion is impossible without one who causes movement."
> ('Abdu'l-Baha to Miss Ethel Rosenberg, February-March 1901, Rabb B7, National Baha'i Archives,
> Wilmette, Illinois; published with changes in brackets and in quotation marks, "Star of the West,"
> VIII:9, p. 114)
> 
> LIMITATIONS OF THE SECOND CRITERION
> While the divine philosophers acknowledge the importance of reason as an approach to the
> investigation of reality, they also point out some of its blind spots and fault lines. Baha'u'llah
> Himself indicates some of its limitations:
> 
> "God, the Exalted, hath places these signs in men, to the end that philosophers [muhaqiqiin] may not
> deny the mysteries of the life beyond nor belittle that which hath been promised them. For some
> hold to reason ['aql] and deny whatever reason comprehendeth not, and yet weak minds ['aqUl-i-
> Da'iifih] can never grasp the matters which we have related, but only the Supreme, Divine
> Intelligence ['aql kulli rabbAni] can comprehend them..." (SV:33)
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha confirms the above statement made by Baha'u'llah:
> 
> "All of these schools, by virtue of their reliance upon the balance of reason, have differed on all
> questions [al-masá'il] and their opinions are divided on all truths [al-Haqá'iq]. If the balance of
> reason is a just, accurate, and firm balance, then they should not differ in truths and questions, and
> the opinions of the former and latter generations should not diverge. Because of their conflict and
> their differences, therefore, it is established that the balance of reason is imperfect. Verily, if we
> were to conceive of a perfect balance and if thou wert to assess the weight of a hundred thousand
> souls with it, there would be no difference among them. Their lack of consensus, however, is
> sufficient and irrefutable proof of the deficiency of the balance of reason." ('Abdu'l-Baha, Tablet on
> the Inmost Heart, provisional translation by Steven Phelps and William McCants, March 2000;
> Persian text in "Min Makatib 'Abdu'l-Baha," pp. 83-86)
> 
> "The circle of this knowledge is very limited, because it depends upon effort and attainment."
> ("Mufavadat 'Abdu'l-Baha," p. 118; "Some Answered Questions," XL, p. 180)
> 
> "Notwithstanding this, they differed greatly, and their opinions were contradictory. They even
> changed their views; that is to say, during twenty years they would prove the existence of a thing by
> logical arguments [be-dalaa'il 'aquliyyeh], and afterwards they would deny it by logical arguments.
> So much so, that Plato at first logically proved [be-dalaa'il 'aqliyyeh] the immobility of the earth and
> the movement of the sun; later by logical arguments [be-'aqliyyeh] he proved that the sun was the
> stationary centre, and that the earth was moving. Afterwards the Ptolemaic theory was spread
> abroad, and the idea of Plato was entirely forgotten, until at last a new observer again called it to
> life. Thus all the mathematicians disagreed, although they relied upon arguments of reason. In the
> same way, by logical arguments [be-dalaa'il 'aqliyyeh], they would prove a problem at a certain
> time, then afterwards by arguments of the same nature [be-dalaa'il 'aqliyyeh] they would deny it.
> So, one of the philosophers would firmly uphold a theory for a time with strong arguments and
> proofs to support it, which afterwards he would retract and contradict by arguments of reason [be-
> daliil 'aqulii]. Therefore it is evident that the method [miizaan] of reason ['aqulii] is not perfect; for
> the differences of the ancient philosophers, the want of stability and the variations of their opinions,
> prove this. For if it were perfect, all ought to be united in their ideas and agreed in their opinions."
> ("Mufavadat 'Abdu'l-Baha," pp. 219-220; "Some Answered Questions," pp. 341-42)
> 
> "They observed the heavens and the motion of the chief planets, which they conceived to be caused
> by the movement of eight successive crystalline spheres enclosed within a ninth and outer one,
> which, by its action caused the others to move. But later philosophers have said that these
> crystalline spheres are non-existent, and that the planets are suspended by the force of gravitation,
> 
> attraction, etc., thus utterly contradicting ancient theories. These ancient philosophers also said that
> as they could observe no movement or change in the heavens, they were therefore pre-existent and
> eternal. All these statements have been refuted. It is therefore evident that we cannot rely on this
> second method of obtaining knowledge, to ensure absolute accuracy. 'Successive philosophers are
> always contradicting each other, and propounding diverse theories. If absolute knowledge were to
> be obtained by this means, the wisest philosophers would agree in saying the same things.'"
> ('Abdu'l-Baha to Miss Ethel Rosenberg, Rabb B7, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette, original
> capitalizations and wording not found in published version [in brackets]; "Star of the West," VIII:9,
> pp. 114-115)
> 
> "As to the second criterion--reason--this likewise is unreliable and not to be depended upon. This
> human world is an ocean of varying opinions. If reason is the perfect standard and criterion of
> knowledge, why are opinions at variance and why do philosophers disagree so completely with each
> other? This is a clear proof that human reason is not to be relied upon as an infallible criterion. For
> instance, great discoveries and announcements of former centuries are continually upset and
> discarded by the wise men of today. Mathematicians, astronomers, chemical scientists continually
> disprove and reject the conclusions of the ancients; nothing is fixed, nothing final; everything is
> continually changing because human reason is progressing along new roads of investigation and
> arriving at new conclusions every day. In the future much that is announced and accepted as true
> now will be rejected and disproved. And so it will continue ad infinitum." ("The Promulgation of
> Universal Peace," p. 21)
> 
> "But in the estimation of the people of insight this criterion is likewise defective and unreliable, for
> these same philosophers who held to reason or intellect as the standard of human judgment have
> differed widely among themselves upon every subject of investigation. The statements of the Greek
> philosophers are contradictory to the conclusions of the Persian sages. Even among the Greek
> philosophers themselves there is continual variance and lack of agreement upon any given subject.
> Great difference of thought also prevailed between the wise men of Greece and Rome. Therefore, if
> the criterion of reason or intellect constituted a correct and infallible standard of judgment, those
> who tested and applied it should have arrived at the same conclusions. As they differ and are
> contradictory in conclusions, it is an evidence that the method and standard of test must have been
> faulty and insufficient." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 254)
> 
> "While they were thinking they became of different opinions. Discord and differences only show
> the measure of intellect to be untrue, for they all had the same intellect, and were this the true
> standard they would never have disagreed. Another reason which disproves this is that the
> philosopher first agreed that the atom could not be divided, but now it is believed that it can be
> divided. At first it was believed that the firmament was divided into spheres, and that all the stars
> moved together, but now it is believed that each has its own orbit. The proof of today is that the
> theory of the ancient philosophers was based on an incorrect foundation. One of the disproofs is
> that it was formerly believed that the sun revolved around the earth and caused day and night, but
> now it is believed that the earth revolves around the sun. Both have judged this by their intellect;
> consequently this proves the measure of intellect to be incorrect." ('Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims,
> November 1900, notes of Miss Alma Albertson, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette, Illinois)
> 
> "As to the measure of intellect, the old Greek and Persians judged everything by this measure and
> while they are thinking that this is the only way, they themselves begin to differ and disagree, and
> this fact only shows that the measure of intellect is not true, for they all have the same intellect, and
> were this the true standard they would have never disagreed. Another reason which disproves this is
> that the philosophers first agreed that the atoms could not be divided; now it is believed they can be
> 
> divided. At first it was believed the firmament was divided into spheres, and is that it was formerly
> believed that the sun revolved around the earth to cause the day, but now that the earth revolves
> around the sun. While all the philosophers have intellect for their standard, the change of their
> opinions and basis proves that it is not the true one to go by." ('Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, 30
> November 1900, notes of Corinne True, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette, Illinois)
> 
> To reiterate and summarize, 'Abdu'l-Baha plainly states that reason, the special faculty of the
> rational soul or human spirit, is fallible, and, divisive:
> 
> "Therefore it is evident that the method of reason is not perfect; for the differences of the ancient
> philosophers, the want of stability and the variations of their opinions, prove this. For if it were
> perfect, all ought to be united in their ideas and agreed in their opinions." ("Some Answered
> Questions," p. 342)
> 
> "If reason is the perfect standard and criterion of knowledge, why are opinions at variance and
> why do philosophers disagree so completely with each other? This is a clear proof that human
> reason is not to be relied upon as an infallible criterion." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace,"
> p. 21)
> 
> "Therefore, if the criterion of reason or intellect constituted a correct and infallible standard of
> judgment, those who tested and applied it should have arrived at the same conclusions. As they
> differ and are contradictory in conclusions, it is an evidence that the method and standard of test
> must have been faulty and insufficient." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 254)
> 
> "The proof of today is that the theory of the ancient philosophers was based on an incorrect
> foundations...consequently this proves the measure of intellect to be incorrect." ('Abdu'l-Baha to
> pilgrims, 30 November 1900, notes of Miss Alma Albertson, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette,
> Illinois)
> 
> "The proof of today is that the ancient philosophy was based on an incorrect foundation...While all
> the philosophers have intellect for their standard, the change of their opinions and basis proves that
> it is not the true one to go by." ('Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, 30 November 1900, notes of Corinne
> True, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette, Illinois)
> 
> "All these statements have been refuted. '[But] It is therefore [omitted in publication] evident that
> we cannot rely on this second method of obtaining knowledge, to ensure absolute accuracy."
> ('Abdu'l-Baha to Miss Ethel Rosenberg, February-March 1901, Rabb B7, National Baha'i Archives,
> Wilmette, Illinois)
> 
> COMMENTARY ON THE SECOND CRITERION
> Why should the conclusions of the philosophers, the logicians, the scientists agree? Because there is
> only one reality--reality is created by God not constructed by human beings. This has been
> discussed in the statement of principles related to Baha'i epistemology, at the outset of this study.
> 
> A brief comment may be in order. One of the teachings of Baha'u'llah indicates that science and
> religion are and should be in harmony with one another. Another related teaching proclaims that
> true religion is in agreement with science and reason. It has already been suggested that "science" in
> 
> this context may not refer to the methodologies and hypotheses of the physical and social sciences
> as currently conceived, those based on atheistic, materialistic assumptions and principles. The
> science which is undoubtedly in harmony with religion is that science which is called divine
> philosophy [hikmat ilahi] in the Baha'i Writings.
> 
> Baha'u'llah appears to distinguish two varieties of intellect/reason which inform our consciousness,
> one of which is not only fallible but an insufficient instrument for the investigation of the
> metaphysical, while the other is the ideal means for that attainment:
> 
> "God, the Exalted, hath placed these signs in men, to the end that philosophers [muhaqiqin] may not
> deny the mysteries of the life beyond, nor belittle that which hath been promised them. For some
> hold to reason ['aql] and deny whatever reason ['aql] comprehendeth not, and yet weak minds ['aqul
> da'ifeh] can never grasp the matters which we have related, but only the Supreme, Divine
> Intelligence ['aql kulli rabbani] can comprehend them:
> How can feeble reason ['aql jaz'i]
> encompass the Qur'an,
> Or a spider snare a phoenix in her web?"
> (Baha'u'llah, "Haft Vadi," Persian text in "Athar-i-Qalam-i-A'la," volume III, pp. 126-127; English
> translation in "Seven Valleys," p. 33)
> 
> "Here reason ['aql] signifieth the divine, universal mind ['aql kulli rabbani], whose sovereignty
> enlighteneth all created things--nor doth it refer to every feeble brain ['aql naaqS]; for it is as the
> wise Sana'i hath written:
> How can feeble reason ['aql jaz'i]
> encompass the Qur'an,
> Or a spider snare a phoenix in her web?"
> (Baha'u'llah, "Chahar Vadi," Persian text in "Athar-i-Qalam-i-A'la," volume III, pp. 144-145);
> English translation in "Four Valleys," p. 53)
> 
> "We entreat the learned men of the Bayan not to follow in such ways, not to inflict, at the time of
> Mustaghath, upon Him Who is the divine Essence, the heavenly Light, the absolute Eternity, the
> Beginning and the End of the Manifestations of the Invisible, that which hath been inflicted in this
> day. We beg them not to depend upon their intellect, their comprehension and learning, nor to
> contend with the Revealer of celestial and infinite knowledge." (Baha'u'llah, "Kitab-i-Iqan," English
> translation, p. 248)
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha also explained this teaching of Baha'u'llah:
> 
> "But the universal divine mind [ammaa 'aql kulli ilaahi] which is beyond nature [keh maavara'
> Tabbi'at ast], is the bounty of the Pre-existent Power. This universal mind is divine ['aql kulli
> ilaahiiast]; it embraces existing realities, and it receives the light of the mysteries of God. It is a
> conscious power [aan quvveh 'aalameh ast], not a power of investigation and of research [nah
> quvveh majajasseh matahasseh]...the heavenly intellectual power [ammaa quvveh 'aaqleh
> malakuutiyyeh] which is beyond nature [keh maavaraa' Tabiyy'at ast], embraces things and is
> cognisant of things, knows them, understands them, is aware of mysteries, realities, and diviine
> significations, and is the discoverer of the concealed verities of the Kingdom. This divine
> intellectual power [iin quvveh 'aqliyyeh ilaahiyyeh] is the special attribute of the Holy
> Manifestations and the Dawning-places of prophethood [makhSuuS bemazhaahar meqaddaseh va
> maTaale' nubuvvat ast]; a ray of this light [partuvi azin anvaar] falls upon the mirrors of the hearts
> of the righteous [bar maraayaai quluub abraar zand], and a portion and a share of this power comes
> 
> to them through the Holy Manifestations [keh naSib va bahreh azin quvveh nuvaasTeh mazhaahar
> muqaddaseh baran]." ("Mufavadat 'Abdu'l-Baha," p. 165; "Some Answered Questions," LVIII, p.
> 253)
> 
> THIRD CRITERION
> Having considered the way of the senses and the way of the intellect we next come to the way of
> "tradition":
> 
> "The third balance is the balance of tradition [al-mízánu'n-naql’]. This, too, is defective, and the
> people cannot rely upon it since tradition is understood through reason and weighed in its balance. If
> the foundation of reason is deficient, how is it possible that the understanding of the
> tradition will be consistent with reality or lead to certitude? Verily, this matter is clear and
> manifest." ('Abdu'l-Baha, Tablet on the Inmost Heart, provisional translation by Steven Phelps and
> William McCants, March 2000; Persian text in "Min Makatib 'Abdu'l-Baha," pp. 63-66)
> 
> "The third method [miizaan] of understanding is by tradition [naqal], that is, through the text
> [naSuuS] of the Holy Scriptures [kitab muqaddaseh]; for people say: in the Old and New
> Testaments, God spoke thus." ("Mufavadat 'Abdu'l-Baha," p. 220; "Some Answered Questions," p.
> 342)
> 
> "A third standard nor criterion is the opinion held by theologians that traditions or prophetic
> statement and interpretations constitute the basis of human knowing...For religious traditions are the
> report and record of understanding and interpretation of the Book." ("The Promulgation of
> Universal Peace," p. 20, 22)
> 
> "Proofs are of four kinds:..third, from traditional or scriptural authority...
> "The third criterion or standard of proof is traditional or scriptural--namely,, that every statement or
> conclusion should be supported by traditions recorded in certain religious books..." ("The
> Promulgation of Universal Peace," pp. 253,254)
> 
> "As to religious people their criterion has ever been the sacred text which must be accepted as final.
> One is not allowed the slightest reflection. 'The word of God,' they say, 'is truth.' For them
> everything outside direct revelation is viewed with doubt." ("Abdul Baha on Divine Philosophy,"
> pp. 93-94)
> 
> "The agnostics are those who do not believe in revelation, and the religious nations are those who do
> believe in revelation...The religious nations base their belief upon revelation...When the religious
> nations want to judge they say it should be judged by Moses, by Christ, by Mohammed; that is, they
> determine all things by the heavenly revelation." ('Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, 30 November 1900,
> notes of Miss Alma Albertson, Rabb B6, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette, Illinois)
> 
> "The Agnostics are those who do not believe in Revelation, and religious nations are those who are
> believing in Revelation. As to the religious nations, they are based upon revelation...As to the
> religious nations, when they want to judge, they do so by the heavenly revelations given by Moses,
> Christ and Mohammed." ('Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, 30 November 1900, notes of Corinne True,
> True B9, pp. 16,17)
> 
> "'There is yet a third method of acquiring knowledge,--by revelation, or the Inspired Books;'"
> ('Abdu'l-Baha to Miss Ethel Rosenberg, Rabb B7, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette, Illinois;
> published in "Star of the West," VIII:9, p. 115)
> 
> It is the interpretation of the Holy Book rather than the Holy Book "in itself" which is being
> considered as a criterion, and this standard is not without flaws:
> 
> "All of these schools, by virtue of their reliance upon the balance of reason, have differed on all
> questions [al-masá'il] and their opinions are divided on all truths [al-Haqá'iq]. If the balance of
> reason is a just, accurate, and firm balance, then they should not differ in truths and questions, and
> the opinions of the former and latter generations should not diverge. Because of their conflict and
> their differences, therefore, it is established that the balance of reason is imperfect. Verily, if we
> were to conceive of a perfect balance and if thou wert to assess the weight of a hundred thousand
> souls with it, there would be no difference among them. Their lack of consensus, however, is
> sufficient and irrefutable proof of the deficiency of the balance of reason." (Tablet of the Inmost
> Heart)
> 
> "This method equally is not perfect, because the traditions [naqal] are understood [idaraak] by the
> reason ['aql]. As the reason itself [nafs-i-'aql] is liable to err, how can it be said that in interpreting
> the meaning of the traditions it will not err, for it is possible for it to make mistakes, and certainty
> cannot be attained. This is the method of the religious leaders; whatever they understand and
> comprehend from the text of the books, is that which their reason unmderstands [idaraakaat
> 'aqqliyyat] from the text, and not necessarily the real truth [haqiiqat]; for the reason ['aql] is like a
> balance [mithal], and the meanings contained in the text of the Holy Books are like the thing which
> is weighed [mithal]. If the balance is untrue, how can the weight be ascertained?" ("Mufavadat
> 'Abdu'l-Baha," p. 220; "Some Answered Questions," pp. 342-43)
> 
> "When we consider the third criterion--traditions--upheld by theologians as the avenue and standard
> of knowledge, we find this source equally unreliable and unworthy of dependence. For religious
> traditions are the report and record of understanding and interpretation of the Book. By what means
> has this understanding, this interpretation been reached? By the analysis of human reason. When
> we read the Book of God, the faculty of comprehension by which we form conclusions is reason.
> Reason is mind. If we are not endowed with perfect reason, how can we comprehend the meanings
> of the Word of God? Therefore, human reason, as already pointed out, is by its very nature finite
> and faulty in conclusions. It cannot surround Reality Itself, the Infinite Word. Inasmuch as the
> source of traditions and interpretations is human reason, and human reason is faulty, how can we
> depend upon its findings for real knowledge?" ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," pp. 21-22)
> 
> "The third criterion or standard of proof is traditional or scriptural--namely, that every statement or
> conclusion should be supported by traditions recorded in certain religious books. When we come to
> consider even the Holy Books--the Books of God--we are led to ask, "Who understands these
> books? By what authority of explanation may these Books be understood?" It must be the authority
> of human reason, and if reason or intellect finds itself incapable of explaining certain questions, or if
> the possessors of intellect contradict each other in the interpretation of traditions, how can such a
> criterion be relied upon for accurate conclusions?" ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 254)
> 
> "The test of logic is just as imperfect, for were this criterion perfect there would never have been the
> continual clash of opinion as to the sacred texts. How can they be interpreted by logic if the means
> be at fault?" ("Abdul Baha on Divine Philosophy," p. 94)
> 
> "As the third measure, that of revelation: This is known by the intellect, and when the intellect is not
> perfect, how can the thing found out be perfect." ('Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, 30 November 1900,
> notes of Miss Alma Albertson, Rabb B6, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette)
> 
> "As to the third measure, Revelation, it is known by understanding. When the intellect is not perfect
> that the thing found out by it cannot be so..." ('Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, 30 November 1900, notes
> of Corinne True, True B9, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette)
> 
> "…'but the difficulty in this case is that every person's interpretation of the Book is colored by his
> own individuality. In the time of Jesus Christ, the Jews were prevented from accepting Him, by
> clinging to the literal interpretation of their Book.' They searched their Scriptures and Prophecies
> and said, *What we find in these writings does not agree with what we know of this man of
> Nazareth, but it is rather against His claim.*" ('Abdu'l-Baha to Miss Ethel Rosenberg, Rabb B7,
> National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette, Illinois; published version in SW:VIII:9, p. 115,
> noted in quotation marks with changes in brackets)
> 
> LIMITATIONS OF THE THIRD CRITERION
> 
> Again we find that the failure of human beings to reach agreement in their perceptions of one reality
> is the cause of the insecurity and unreliability of this standard. Three stumbling blocks to such clear
> judgment are noted, all originating in human nature, each one capable of perverting the truth--
> individuality, literalism and the finite and faulty nature of reason--whereby Scripture is interpreted.
> One is reminded in considering this standard of a number of Baha'u'llah's statements, some of which
> are cited below:
> 
> "It is incumbent on these servants that they cleanse the heart--which is the wellspring of divine
> treasures--from every marking, and that they turn away from imitation [taqliid], which is following
> the traces [athaar] of their forefathers and sires, and shut the door of friendliness and enmity upon all
> the people of the earth." ("Seven Valleys," p. 5)
> 
> "…man can never hope to attain unto the knowledge of the All-Glorious, can never quaff from the
> stream of divine knowledge and wisdom, can never enter the abode of immortality, nor partake of
> the cup of divine nearness and favour, unless and until he ceases to regard the words and deeds of
> mortal men as a standard for the true understanding and recognition of God and His Prophets."
> ("Kitab-i-Iqan," pp. 3-4)
> 
> "Inasmuch as it hath been clearly shown that only those who are initiated into the divine mysteries
> can comprehend the melodies uttered by the Bird of Heaven, it is therefore incumbent upon every
> one to seek enlightenment from the illumined in heart and from the Treasuries of divine mysteries
> regarding the intricacies of God's Faith and the abstruse allusions in the utterances of the Daysprings
> of Holiness. Thus will these mysteries be unraveled, not by the aid of acquired learning, but solely
> through the assistance of God and the outpourings of His grace. 'Ask ye, therefore, of them that
> have the custody of the Scriptures, if ye know it not.' [Qur'an 16:43]
> "But, O my brother, when a true seeker determines to take the step of search in the path leading to
> the knowledge of the Ancient of Days, he must, before all else, cleanse and purify his heart, which is
> the seat of the revelation of the inner mysteries of God, from the obscuring dust of all acquired
> knowledge, and the allusions of the embodiments of satanic fancy. He must purge his breast, which
> is the sanctuary of the abiding love of the Beloved, of every defilement, and sanctify his soul from
> 
> all that pertaineth to water and clay, from all shadowy and ephemeral attachments. He must so
> cleanse his heart that no remnant of either love or hate may linger therein, lest that love blindly
> incline him to error, or that hate repel him away from the truth. Even as thou dost witness in this
> day how most of the people, because of such love and hate, are bereft of the immortal Face, have
> strayed far from the Embodiments of the divine mysteries, and shepherdless, are roaming through
> the wilderness of oblivion and error." ("Kitab-i-Iqan," pp. 191-193)
> 
> Likewise, in many Tablets and talks, 'Abdu'l-Baha refers to this standard as "dogmatic beliefs" and
> "blind imitations of ancestral forms and the influence of mere human opinion":
> 
> "The first is the independent investigation [taharrii] of truth [haqiiqat]; for blind imitation [taqliid] of
> the past will stunt the mind. But once every soul inquireth into truth [taharrii haqiiqat], society
> ['aalam insaanii] will be freed from the darkness [zhalamaat] of continually repeating [taqliid] the
> past." ("Mantakhabaatii az makaatiib haDrat 'Abdu'l-Baha," #202, p. 240; "Selections from the
> Writings of 'Abdu'l-Baha," #202, p. 248)
> 
> "Among these teachings was the independent investigation [taharrii] of reality [haqiiqat] so that the
> world of humanity ['aalam insaanii] may be saved from the darkness [zhalamaat] of imitation
> [taqliid] and attain to the truth [be-haqiiqat]..." ("Mantakhabaatii," #227, p. 287; "Selections from
> the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Baha," #227, p. 298)
> 
> "But by religion [diin] is meant that which is ascertained by investigation [diin tahqiiqii] and not that
> which is based on mere imitation [taqliidii], the foundations [asaas] of Divine Religions [adyaan
> ilahii] and not human imitations [taqliid basharii]." ("Mantakhabaatii," #227, p. 292; "Selections
> from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Baha," #227, p. 303)
> 
> "But inasmuch as this century ['aSar] is the century ['aSar] of the revelation [zhuhuur] of reality
> [haqiiqat] --praise be to God! [al-hamdu'lillah]--the thoughts [afkaar] of men are being directed
> toward the welfare and unity [wahdat] of humanity ['aalam insaanii]. Daily the mirage of imitations
> [taqliid] is passing away, and the ocean of truth [yaay haqiiqat] is surging more tumultuously. All
> the existing nations had a divine foundation of truth or reality [haqiiqat] originally, which was
> intended to be conducive to the unity and accord of mankind, but the light of that reality gradually
> became obscured. The darkness [zhalamaat] of superstitions [avhaam] and imitations [taqliid]
> came and took its place, binding the world of humanity ['aalam bashar] in the chains and fetters of
> ignorance. Enmity arose among men, increasing to such an extent that nation strove against nation
> in hatred and violence. War has been a religious and political human heritage.
> "Now it is enough! We must investigate [taharrii] reality [haqiiqat]. We must put away these
> superstitions [avhaam]." ("Khitaabaat 'Abdu'l-Baha," p. 337; "The Promulgation of Universal
> Peace," pp. 39-40)
> 
> "The first teaching of Baha'u'llah is the investigation [taharrii] of reality [haqiiqat]. Man must seek
> reality [taharri haqiiqat] himself, forsaking imitations [taqliid] and adherence to mere hereditary
> forms. As the nations are following imitations [taqliid] in lieu of truth and as imitations [taqliid] are
> many and various, differences of belief have been productive of strife and warfare. So long as these
> imitations [taqliid] remain, the oneness [wahdat] of the world of humanity ['aalam insaanii] is
> impossible." ("Khitaabaat 'Abdu'l-Baha," pp. 447-448; "The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p.
> 180)
> 
> "We will investigate independently, free from the restrictions of dogmatic beliefs [bayaniim], blind
> imitations of ancestral forms [taqliid cheh agar] and the influence of mere human opinion [taqliid
> 
> bashad har yek]...("Khitaabaat 'Abdu'l-Baha," p. 611; "The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p.
> 361)
> 
> "Although the divine teachings are truth and reality, yet with the passage of time thick clouds
> envelop and obscure them. These clouds are imitations and superstitions; they are not the
> fundamentals...
> "The first teaching of Baha'u'llah is the duty incumbent upon all to investigate reality. What does it
> mean to investigate reality? It means that man must forget all hearsay and examine truth himself,
> for he does not know whether statements he hears are in accordance with reality or not. Wherever
> he finds truth or reality, he must hold to it, forsaking, discarding all else; for outside of reality there
> is naught but superstition and imagination." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 62)
> 
> "Now the people of religion have lost sight of the essential reality of the spiritual springtime. They
> have held tenaciously to ancestral forms and imitations, and because of this there is variance, strife
> and altercation among them. Therefore, we must now abandon these imitations and seek the
> foundation of the divine teachings..." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 127)
> 
> "In view of this, shall blind imitations of ancestral forms and theological interpretations continue to
> guide and control the religious life and spiritual development of humanity today? Shall man, gifted
> with the power of reason, unthinkingly follow and adhere to dogma, creeds and hereditary beliefs
> which will not bear the analysis of reason in this century of effulgent reality?" ("The Promulgation
> of Universal Peace," pp. 140-141)
> 
> "First, investigate reality. Man must leave imitation and seek reality. The contemporaneous
> religious beliefs differ because of their allegiance to dogma. It is necessary, therefore, to abandon
> imitations and seek their fundamental reality." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 169)
> 
> "God has not intended man to imitate blindly his fathers and ancestors. He has endowed him with
> mind, or the faculty of reasoning, by the exercise of which he is to investigate and discover the truth,
> and that which he finds real and true he must accept. He must not be an imitator or blind follower of
> any soul. He must not rely implicitly on the opinion of any man without investigation; nay, each
> soul must seek intelligently and independently, arriving at a real conclusion and bound only by that
> reality. The greatest cause of bereavement and disheartening in the world of humanity is ignorance
> based upon blind imitation." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 291)
> 
> "God has created man and endowed him with the power of reason whereby he may arrive at valid
> conclusions. Therefore, man must endeavor in all things to investigate the fundamental reality. If
> he does not independently investigate, he has failed to utilize the talent God has bestowed upon him.
> I am pleased with the American people because, as a rule, they are independent seekers of the truth;
> their minds are actively employed instead of remaining idle and unproductive. This is most
> praiseworthy…
> "First, man must independently investigate reality, for the disagreements and dissensions which
> afflict and affect humanity primarily proceed from imitations of ancestral beliefs and adherences to
> hereditary forms of worship. These imitations are accidental and without sanction in the Holy
> Books. They are the outcomes of human interpretations and teachings which have arisen, gradually
> obscuring the light of divine meaning and causing men to differ and dissent." ("The Promulgation
> of Universal Peace," pp. 312-313, 314)
> 
> "The attainment of these virtues, both material and ideal, is conditioned upon intelligent
> investigation of reality, by which investigation the sublimity of man and his intellectual progress is
> 
> accomplished. Forms must be set aside and renounced; reality must be sought. We must discover
> for ourselves where and what reality is. In religious beliefs nations and peoples today are imitators
> of ancestors and forefathers. If a man's father was a Christian, he himself is a Christian; a Buddhist
> is the son of a Buddhist, a Zoroastrian of a Zoroastrian. A gentile or an idolator follows the
> religious footsteps of his father and ancestry. This is absolute imitation. The requirement in this
> day is that man must independently and impartially investigate every form of reality." ("The
> Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 327)
> 
> "The first teaching is that man should investigate reality, for reality is contrary to dogmatic
> interpretations and imitations of ancestral forms of belief to which all nations and peoples adhere to
> tenaciously. These blind imitations are contrary to the fundamental basis of the divine religions, for
> the divine religions in their central and essential teaching are based upon unity, love and peace,
> whereas these variations and imitations have ever been producive of warfare, sedition and strife.
> Therefore, all souls should consider it incumbent upon them to investigate reality." ("The
> Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 372)
> 
> "In past centuries the nations of the world have imagined that the law of God demanded blind
> imitation of ancestral forms of belief and worship...There has been no investigation of the essential
> underlying basis of reality." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 443)
> 
> COMMENTARY ON THE THIRD CRITERION
> 
> It is evident to the unbiased reader of these comments, that Baha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha regarded
> this third standard, the criterion of human knowledge, to be unreliable. Further confirmation of this
> point is found in the Persian and Arabic meanings of the actual term employed by 'Abdu'l-Baha in
> the original texts, to describe this criterion--"naql". In Arabic "naql" has many meanings, but those
> which seem to apply here are "tradition; report, account" (Weir, p. 1166). In Persian "naql," a loan
> word from Arabic, also has a considerable variety of meanings, including "history, narrative,
> relation, report, account, theme, tale, story" (Steingass, p. 1420). Also, "naql" in Persian can mean
> "imitating" (Steingass, p. 1420). When 'Abdu'l-Baha speaks of "blind imitation" He uses the term
> "taqliid" and this Arabic word means "imitation; copying; blind, unquestioning adoption (of
> concepts or ideas); uncritical faith" (Weir, p. 920), and "investing with authority; investiture;
> imitation, representation; mimicry; counterfeiting; religious show, without real piety; hypocrisy"
> (Steingass, p. 316). Hence, there is a direct connection between the terms "naql" and "taqliid" and
> both are used by 'Abdu'l-Baha to refer to a standard of knowledge which He and Baha'u'llah
> repudiate as a source for authoritative understanding of reality.
> 
> FOURTH CRITERION
> "Knowledge is of two kinds: one is subjective ['ilm-i-wujudi {see Fourth Criterion: Intuition}], and
> the other objective ['ilm-i-Súri]; that is to say, an intuitive knowledge and a knowledge derived from
> perception ['ilm-i-taSSúri].
> "The knowledge of things which men universally have, is gained by reflection {see Second
> Criterion: Reason} or by evidence: that is to say, either by the power of the mind the conception of
> an object is formed, or from beholding an object the form is produced in the mirror of the heart
> [maraat qalb]." ("Mufavadat-i-'Abdu'l-Baha," XL, p. 118; "Some Answered Questions," XL, p. 180)
> 
> We arrive at the fourth criterion, which is recognized by an even smaller group of human beings,
> including the so-called psychics, occultists, witches, mystics and other esoterics. The faculty of
> intuition is described by 'Abdu'l-Baha:
> 
> "As for the fourth balance, it is the balance of inspiration [mi’zAnu'l-'ilhAm]. Verily, inspiration
> consisteth of inclinations of the heart [khuT'Atin qalbiyyatin]. And the whisperings of Satan are also
> inclinations which arrive successively upon the heart by the agency of the soul. If there occureth to
> the heart a certain idea or question, how is it to be known whether it is an inspiration of the All-
> Merciful or a whispering of Satan?" ('Abdu'l-Baha, Tablet on the Inmost Heart, provisional
> translation by Steven Phelps and William McCants, March 2000; Persian text
> in"Min Makatib 'Abdu'l-Baha," pp. 83-86)
> 
> "Knowledge is of two kinds: one is subjective ['ilm vujuudi], and the other objective [see First
> Criterion: Senses and Second Criterion: Reason]; that is to say, an intuitive knowledge ['ilm
> tahqqiqi] and a knowledge derived from perception...the knowledge of being ['ilm vujuudi], is
> intuitive [tahqqiqi ast], it is like the cognisance and consciousness that man has of himself.
> "For example, the mind and the spirit of the man ['aql insaan va ruuh insaan] are cognisant of the
> conditions and states of the members and component parts of the body, and are aware of all the
> physical sensations; in the same way they are aware of their power, of their feelings, and of their
> spiritual conditions. This is the knowledge of being ['ilm vujuudiist] which man realises and
> perceives; for the spirit surrounds the body, and is aware of its sensations and powers. This
> knowledge is not the outcome of effort and study ['ilm beaktasaab va tahSiil niist]; it is an existing
> thing [amriist], it is an absolute gift [vujuudi muuhabat mahaD ast]." ("Mufavadat 'Abdu'l-Baha,"
> pp. 118-119; "Some Answered Questions," XL, pp. 180-181)
> 
> "There is still another, a fourth criterion, upheld by religionists and metaphysicians who say that the
> source and channel of all human penetration into the unknown is through inspiration." ("The
> Promulgation of Universal Peace," pp. 20-21)
> 
> "The fourth criterion I have named is inspiration through which it is claimed the reality of
> knowledge is attainable. What is inspiration? It is the influx of the human heart." (The
> Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 22)
> 
> "Proofs are of four kinds: fourth, through the medium of inspiration
> "The fourth standard is that of inspiration. In past centuries many philosophers have claimed
> illumination or revelation, prefacing their statements by the announcement that 'this subject has been
> revealed through me' or 'thus do I speak by inspiration.' Of this class were the philosophers of the
> Illuminati [Ishraqiyyun]. Inspirations are the promptings or susceptibilities of the human heart."
> ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," pp. 253, 254)
> 
> "Inspiration is the fourth criterion. Occultists say, 'I have had a revelation. This truth has been
> revealed to me.' For them everything outside direct revelation is viewed with doubt." ("Abdul
> Baha on Divine Philosophy," pp. 93-94)
> 
> "As to the measure of inspiration, it is said that the subject has been revealed by inspiration;
> that is, it has been understood by the power of inspiration..." ('Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, 30
> November 1900, notes of Miss Alma Albertson, Rabb B6, NBA, Wilmette)
> 
> "As to inspiration, it is said that the subject has been revealed by inspiration, i.e. by a power outside
> of oneself..." ('Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, 30 November 1900, notes of Corinne True, True B9, NBA,
> 
> Wilmette)
> 
> "'...the spiritual way, by which man receives knowledge from the inner light or inspiration...the
> disciples of Jesus attempted to sail over the Sea of Creation [and Existence] in the Ark of Argument
> and Reasoning[s], finding great difficulty and danger in proving the Truth by so doing. But when
> Christ, the Light of the world, who knew all things by the light of [the] inner spiritual illumination,
> came to them in their boat, walking by His Knowledge over the Ocean of Existence, and having no
> need of the Ark of Argument, then immediately they were at their desired haven.'"" ('Abdu'l-Baha
> to Miss Ethel Rosenberg, Rabb B7, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette, original capitalizations and
> wording not found in published version [in brackets]; "Star of the West," VIII:9, 115)
> 
> There is a highly descriptive reference to the Illuminati [Ishraqiyyun] by 'Abdu'l-Baha, in His
> address before the Society of Friends in London, on 12 January 1913:
> 
> "The second kind of philosophy was that of the Illuminati, or followers of the inner light. The
> schools of this philosophy were held in silence. Meditating, and turning their faces to the Source of
> Light, from that central Light the mysteries of the Kingdom were reflected in the hearts of these
> people. All the Divine problems were solved by this power of illumination...When they assemble in
> their meeting-house they sit silently and contemplate; their leader opens with a certain proposition,
> and says to the assembly 'You must meditate on this problem.' Then, freeing their minds from
> everything else, they sit and reflect, and before long the answer is revealed to them. Many abstruse
> divine questions are solved by this illumination.
> "Some of the great questions unfolding from the rays of the Sun of Reality upon the mind of man
> are: the problem of the reality of the spirit of man; of the birth of the spirit; of its birth from this
> world into the world of God; the question of the inner life of the spirit and of its fate after its
> ascension from the body.
> "They also meditate upon the scientific questions of the day, and these are likewise solved.
> "These people, who are called 'Followers of the inner light,' attain to a superlative degree of power,
> and are entirely freed from blind dogmas and imitations. Men rely on the statements of
> these people; by themselves--within themselves--they solve all mysteries.
> "If they find a solution with the assistance of the inner light, they accept it, and afterwards they
> declare it: otherwise they would consider it a matter of blind imitation. They go so far as to reflect
> upon the essential nature of the Divinity, of the Divine revelation, of the manifestation of the Deity
> in this world. All the divine and scientific questions are solved by them through the power of the
> spirit." ('Abdu'l-Baha, "Paris Talks," pp. 173-174 passim.)
> 
> The opening of this talk was corrected by 'Abdu'l-Baha in a Tablet cited in "Star of the West":
> 
> About one thousand years ago a society was formed in Persia called the Society of the Friends, who
> gathered together for silent communion with the Almighty. [This talk opens with the words, "About
> 600 years ago." This Society was founded in the city of Hamadan six hundred years ago and has
> nothing to do with this {Baha'i} movement. It is almost disbanded, but under different names and
> forms one may come across them in Persia. They were called the Society of Sokoutyyoun, that is,
> the "Silent Ones." --from a Tablet of 'Abdu'l-Baha to Ella G. Cooper, translated and mailed from
> Haifa 3/19/1916 and published in SW:VIII:14, p. 204]
> 
> LIMITATIONS OF THE FOURTH CRITERION
> As we have seen, the divine philosophers have a very high regard for this method of knowing, this
> standard of truth. However, there is one very serious pitfall to this criterion as well. 'Abdu'l-Baha
> explains the nature of the fourth criterion, and this pitfall in these passages:
> 
> "As for the fourth balance, it is the balance of inspiration
> [mízánu'l-'ilhám]. Verily, inspiration consisteth of inclinations of the
> heart [khuTœrátin qalbiyyatin]. And the whisperings of Satan are also
> inclinations which arrive successively upon the heart by the agency of the
> soul. If there occureth to the heart a certain idea or question, how is it
> to be known whether it is an inspiration of the All-Merciful or a whispering
> of Satan?" (Tablet of the Inmost Heart)
> 
> "What is inspiration? It is the influx of the human heart. But what are satanic promptings which
> afflict mankind? They are the influx of the heart also. How shall we differentiate between them?
> The question arises: How shall we know whether we are following inspiration from God or satanic
> promptings of the human soul?" ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 22)
> 
> "Inspirations are the promptings or susceptibilities of the human heart. The promptings of the heart
> are sometimes satanic. How are we to differentiate them? How are we to tell whether a given
> statement is an inspiration and prompting of the heart through the merciful assistance or through the
> satanic agency?" ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 254)
> 
> "Inspiration, what is it? Whence comes it? Is that which reaches our heart divine or satanic? How
> can we judge?" ("Abdul Baha on Divine Philosophy," p. 94)
> 
> In some of the Tablets of Baha'u'llah and the addresses of 'Abdu'l-Baha, two kinds of intuitive
> and inspired knowledge are referred to:
> 
> "Know verily that Knowledge is of two kinds: Divine and Satanic. The one welleth out from the
> fountain of divine inspiration; the other is but a reflection of vain and obscure thoughts. The source
> of the former is God Himself; the motive-force of the latter the whisperings of selfish desire. The
> one is guided by the principle: 'Fear ye God; God will teach you;' the other is but a confirmation of
> the truth: 'Knowledge is the most grievous veil between man and his Creator.' The former bringeth
> forth the fruit of patience, of longing desire, of true understanding, and love; whilst the latter can
> yield naught but arrogance, vainglory and conceit." ("Kitab-i-Iqan," p. 69)
> 
> "But the spirit of man has two aspects: one divine, one satanic; that is to say, it is capable of the
> utmost perfection, or it is capable of the utmost imperfection." ("Some Answered Questions,"
> XXXVI, pp. 164-165)
> 
> "Man has two aspects: the physical, which is subject to nature, and the merciful or divine, which is
> connected with God. If the physical or natural disposition in him should overcome the heavenly and
> merciful, he is, then, the most degraded of animal beings; and if the divine and spiritual should
> triumph over the human and natural, he is, verily, an angel." ("The Promulgation of Universal
> Peace," p. 41)
> 
> "The reality underlying this question is that the evil spirit, Satan or whatever is interpreted as evil,
> refers to the lower nature in man. This baser nature is symbolized in various ways. In man there are
> two expressions: One is the expression of nature; the other, the expression of the spiritual realm."
> ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," pp. 294-295)
> 
> "It is evident that human personality appears in two aspects: the image or likeness of God, and the
> 
> aspect of Satan. The human reality stands between these two: the divine and the satanic." ("The
> Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 464)
> 
> Baha'u'llah critiques this standard of knowledge in other Tablets:
> 
> "And among the people is he who layeth claim to inner knowledge, and still deeper knowledge
> concealed within this knowledge. Say: Thou speakest false! By God! What thou dost possess is
> naught but husks which We have left to thee as bones are left to dogs." ("Kitab-i-Aqdas," #36)
> 
> "Whatsoever the Creator commandeth His creatures to observe, the same must they diligently, and
> with the utmost joy and eagerness, arise and fulfil. They should in no wise allow their fancy to
> obscure their judgment, neither should they regard their own imaginings as the voice of the
> Eternal…They that are the worshipers of the idol which their inner imaginations have carved, and
> who call it Inner Reality, such men are in truth accounted among the heathen. To this hath the All-
> Merciful borne witness in His Tablets. He, verily, is the All-Knowing, the All-Wise."
> (GL:CLX:337, 338)
> 
> To summarize, inasmuch as man is susceptible to satanic as well as divine inspiration, this
> fourth criterion is not entirely reliable, not infallible. Is man doomed to imperfect
> knowledge? Is the human condition relegated to uncertainty?
> 
> FIFTH CRITERION
> To reiterate, 'Abdu'l-Baha clearly states that all human standards of knowledge are faulty and
> fallible:
> 
> "Therefore, know that all the peoples and kindreds possess four balances with which they weigh the
> realities [al-Haqá'q], the significances [al-ma`án’], and the divine questions [al-masá'il]. All of them
> are imperfect, unable to quench the burning thirst or heal the sick. We shall therefore make mention
> of each one and demonstrate its limitation and inaccuracy...Therefore, it is evident that all of
> balances current among the people are defective and their conclusions are unreliable. Nay, they are
> confused dreams, doubts, and idle fancies that neither allay the sore athirst nor satisfy the seeker of
> knowledge [`irfán]." ('Abdu'l-Baha, Tablet of the Inmost Heart, provisional translation by William
> McCants and Steven Phelps, March 2000; Persian text in "Min Makatib 'Abdu'l-Baha,"pp.83-86)
> 
> "Know then: that which is in the hands of people, that which they believe, is liable to error. For, in
> proving or disproving a thing, if a proof is brought forward which is taken from the evidence of our
> senses, this method, as has become evident, is not perfect; if the proofs are intellectual the same is
> true, or if they are traditional such proofs also are not perfect. Therefore there is no standard in the
> hands of people upon which we can rely." ("Some Answered Questions," LXXXIII, p. 343)
> 
> "Briefly, the point is that in the human material world of phenomena these four are the only existing
> criteria or avenues of knowledge, and all of them are faulty and unreliable." ("The Promulgation of
> Universal Peace," p. 22)
> 
> "Consequently, it has become evident that the four criteria or standards of judgment by which the
> human mind reaches its conclusions are faulty and inaccurate. All of them are liable to mistake and
> error in conclusions." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 255)
> 
> "We have proven these three to be false." ('Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, 30 November 1900, notes of
> Miss Alma Albertson, Rabb B6, National Baha'i Archives, Wilmette, Illinois)
> 
> Likewise, Baha'u'llah indicates the fallibility of all human learning:
> 
> "Amongst the people is he whose learning hath made him proud, and who hath been debarred
> thereby from recognizing My Name, the Self-Subsisting; who, when he heareth the tread of sandals
> following behind him, waxeth greater in his own esteem that Nimrod. Say: O rejected one! Where
> now is his abode? By God, it is the nethermost fire. Say: O concourse of divines! Hear ye not the
> shrill voice of My Most Exalted Pen? See ye not this Sun that shineth in refulgent splendour above
> the All-Glorious Horizon? For how long will ye worship the idols of your evil passions? Forsake
> your vain imaginings, and turn yourselves unto God, your Everlasting Lord." (Baha'u'llah, "Kitab-i-
> Aqdas," #41)
> 
> "Therefore, hath it been said: 'Knowledge is a light which God casteth into the heart of whomsoever
> He willeth.' It is this kind of knowledge which is and hath ever been praiseworthy, and not the
> limited knowledge that hath sprung forth from veiled and obscured minds. This limited knowledge
> they even stealthily borrow one from the other, and vainly pride themselves therein!" (Baha'u'llah,
> "Kitab-i-Iqan," p. 46)
> 
> Is there a standard of human knowledge which is entirely reliable, under all circumstances?
> As a matter of fact, 'Abdu'l-Baha answers this question, and in the affirmative. He indicates
> the existence of a fifth standard of knowledge, a fifth criterion of truth. His answer is found in
> these numerous references:
> 
> "O thou who standeth in the Path of God, turning unto Him and seeking wisdom from the lights of
> His knowledge! Know that in the blessed verse which hath been revealed in the Qur'‡n, by the truth
> of that exalted utterance, it is said: "The inmost heart [fu'ád] lies not about what it hath seen"
> [53:11]. It is a hidden mystery, a well-guarded symbol, a resplendent truth, an all-comprehending
> affair, a perspicuous token and a convincing proof unto those in the realm of existence who bow
> down and prostrate. In the exposition of its truth, we desire to unfold the details of the balances of
> discernment [mawáz’ni'l-'idrák] that the people possess, and to explain and refute them, so that it
> will be evident and clearly proven that the divine balance is the inmost heart, the fountain-head of
> guidance [ar-rashád]...As for the true, divine balance which never strayeth, and which ever
> apprehendeth the universal realities [al-Haqá'iq al-kulliyyah] and the
> sublime inner meanings [al-ma`‡n’ al-`aTH’mah], it is the balance of the inmost heart [m’zánu'l-
> fu'ád], of which God hath made mention in the blessed verse. It is an effulgence of the brilliant
> lights of the Divine Outpouring, the secret of the All-Merciful, the manifestation of sincere faith,
> and the lordly sign. Verily it is an ancient outpouring, a manifest light and a mighty bounty. Should
> God favor with this gift one of His chosen ones, showering it upon one of His loved ones possessing
> certitude, verily he will draw nigh unto that station of which 'Ali (upon him be peace)
> hath spoken, "If the veil be lifted, I would not increase in certitude!" Speculation and argumentation
> are the utmost degree of weakness and understanding, for the result is dependent upon the
> exigencies of the lesser and greater propositions, so that, however thou orderest these terms, an
> outcome is obtained which cannot be implicitly relied upon: hence the differing opinions of the
> philosophers. Therefore, O thou who hast turned towards God, purify thine inmost heart from all
> impediments to righteousness [as-sadád] in the reality of true guidance [ar-rashád], and weigh all
> divine questions with this just, accurate, and glorious balance which God hath elucidated in the
> unerring Qur'an and the Great Announcement, that thou mayest drink from the fount of certitude,
> 
> savor the truth of certitude, be guided unto the Straight Path, and walk in the way of righteousness.
> Praise be to God, the Lord of the worlds!" ('Abdu'l-Baha, Tablet of the Inmost Heart, provisional
> translation by William McCants and Steven Phelps, March 2000; Persian text in "Min Makatib
> 'Abdu'l-Baha," pp. 83-86)
> 
> Baha'u'llah used the same term in some of His Writings to refer to the human seat of certain
> knowledge:
> 
> "Thy heart [fu'ad] is My home; sanctify it for My descent. Thy spirit [ruh] is My place of
> revelation; cleanse it for My manifestation." (Baha'u'llah, Arabic Hidden Word #59)
> 
> "Such are the mysteries of the Word of God, which have been unveiled and made manifest, that
> haply thou mayest apprehend the morning light of divine guidance, mayest quench, by the power of
> reliance and renunciation, the lamp of idle fancy, of vain imaginings, of hesitation, and doubt, and
> mayest kindle, in the inmost chamber of thine heart [fu'ad], the new-born light of divine knowledge
> and certitude." (Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-Iqan, p. 49)
> 
> "Therefore, O brother! kindle with the oil of wisdom the lamp of the spirit within the innermost
> chamber of thy heart [fu'ad], and guard it with the globe of understanding, that the breath of the
> infidel may extinguish not its flame nor dim its brightness. Thus have We illuminated the heavens
> of utterance with the splendours of the Sun of divine wisdom and understanding, that thy heart may
> find peace, that thou mayest be of those who, on the wings of certitude, have soared unto the heaven
> of the love of their Lord, the All-Merciful." (Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-Iqan, p. 61)
> 
> In another context, 'Abdu'l-Baha speaks of this certain knowledge which transcends the need
> for arguments:
> 
> "These obvious arguments are adduced for weak souls; but if the inner perception be open, a
> hundred thousand clear proofs become visible. Thus, when man feels the indwelling spirit, he is in
> no need of arguments for its existence..." ("Some Answered Questions," II, p. 7)
> 
> "The descent of the Holy Spirit is not like the entrance of air into man; it is an expression and a
> simile, rather than an exact or a literal image. No, rather it is like the entrance of the image of the
> sun into the mirror; that is to say, its splendour becomes apparent in it." ("Some Answered
> Questions," XXIV, p. 122)
> 
> "But if the human spirit will rejoice and be attracted to the Kingdom of God, if the inner sight
> becomes opened, and the spiritual hearing strengthened, and the spiritual feelings predominant, he
> will see the immortality of the spirit as clearly as he sees the sun, and the glad tidingd signs of God
> will encompass him." ("Some Answered Questions," LX, p.262)
> 
> "But the bounty of the Holy Spirit [ruuh al-quds] gives the true method of comprehension [miizaan
> Sahaj] which is infallible and indubitable. This is through the help of the Holy Spirit [ruuh al-quds]
> which comes to man, and this is the condition [maqaam] in which certainty [yaqiin] can alone be
> attained." ("Mufavadat 'Abdu'l-Baha," p. 220; "Some Answered Questions," LXXXIII, p. 343)
> 
> "Then our life will be revivified, we shall enjoy eternal existence, be refreshed with the breath of
> the Holy Spirit and become informed of the mysteries of creation. Then we shall be inspired to
> upraise the standard of the oneness of humanity; we shall take a portion of the divine grace and
> become resplendent with the rays of the heavenly luminary; then the human race will mirror forth
> 
> the attributes of the eternal kingdom and will move like a peaceful sea and each individual will
> appear as a wave. As we look upon the sea, we will comprehend it as the sea of God; as we look
> upon the waves, we will realize that they are the souls of humanity. The sun is one; all light is one;
> the rays are one; it shines on all." ('Abdu'l-Baha, Divine Philosophy, pp. 171-172)
> 
> "I hope that through the breath of the Holy Spirit the mysteries may become disclosed to thee, for
> without this channel it is impossible and unattainable. Turn thine attention to the days of His
> Highness the Christ; some people imagine that without the Messianic outpourings, it is possible to
> attain to Truth, but this very imagination became the cause of their deprivation.
> "O thou maid-servant of God! Whenever thou art desiring to talk and answer questions, turn thy
> face toward the Kingdom of ABHA and beseech for assistance; then loosen thy tongue. Thou wilt
> behold at that time how thou art able to answer all the questions!
> "O thou maid-servant of God! The aim of the theosophists is to attain to Truth, but the Truth is
> unattainable except through the favor of the Holy Spirit. The light hath a center and if one desire to
> seek it otherwise but from the center, he can never attain to it." ("Tablets of Abdul-Baha Abbas,"
> volume III, p. 592)
> 
> "I now assure thee, O servant of God, that, if thy mind become empty and pure from every mention
> and thought and thy heart attracted wholly to the Kingdom of God, forget all else besides God and
> come in communion with the Spirit of God, then the Holy Spirit will assist thee with a power which
> will enable thee to penetrate all things, and a Dazzling Spark which enlightens all sides, a Brilliant
> Flame in the zenith of the heavens, will teach thee that which thou dost not know of the facts of the
> universe and of the divine doctrine. Verily, I say unto thee, every soul which of safety and infuse in
> them the Spirit of Life, the Holy Spirit will inspire that soul with evidences, proofs and facts and the
> lights will shine upon it from the Kingdom of God." ("Tablets of Abdul-Baha Abbas," volume III,
> pp. 706-707)
> 
> "The reading of history brings us to the conclusion that all truly great men, the benefactors of the
> human race, those who have moved men to love the right and hate the wrong and who have caused
> real progress, all these have been inspired by the force of the Holy Spirit [be-ruuh al-quds]...
> "The unusual intellects, for instance, of Plato, Aristotle, Pliny and Socrates, have not influenced men
> so greatly that they have been anxious to sacrifice their lives for their teachings; whilst some of
> those simple men so moved humanity that thousands of men have become willing martyrs to uphold
> their words; for these words were inspired by the Divine Spirit of God [ruuh al-quds]...
> "We understand that the Holy Spirit is the energizing factor in the life of man. Whosoever receives
> this power is able to influence all with whom he comes into contact.
> "The greatest philosophers without this Spirit are powerless, their souls lifeless, their hearts dead!
> Unless the Holy Spirit breathes into their souls, they can do no good work. No system of
> philosophy has ever been able to change the manners and customs of a people for the better.
> Learned philosophers, unenlightened by the Divine Spirit, have often been men of inferior morality;
> they have not proclaimed in their actions the reality of their beautiful phrases...
> "An humble man without learning, but filled with the Holy Spirit, is more powerful than the most
> nobly-born profound scholar without that inspiration. He who is educated by the Divine
> Spirit can, in his time, lead others to receive the same Spirit." ('Abdu'l-Baha, talk in Paris, 18
> November 1911, "Khitaabaat-i-'Abdu'l-Baha," pp. 179-181; "Paris Talks," pp. 163-165 passim.)
> 
> "Freedom is not a matter of place. It is a condition. I was thankful for the prison, and the lack of
> liberty was very pleasing to me, for those days were passed in the path of service, under the utmost
> difficulties and trials, bearing fruits and results.
> "Unless one accepts dire vicissitudes, he will not attain. To me prison is freedom, troubles rest me,
> 
> death is life, and to be despised is honour. Therefore, I was happy all that time in prison. When one
> is released from the prison of self, that is indeed release, for that is the greater prison. When this
> release takes place, then one cannot be outwardly imprisoned. When they put my feet in stocks, I
> would say to the guard, 'You cannot imprison me, for here I have light and air and bread and water.
> There will come a time when my body will be in the ground, and I shall have neither light nor air
> nor food nor water, but even then I shall not be imprisoned.' The afflictions which come to
> humanity sometimes tend to centre the consciousness upon the limitations, and this is a veritable
> prison. Release comes by making of the will a Door through which the confirmations of the Spirit
> come...
> "The confirmations of the Spirit are all those powers and gifts which some are born with (and which
> men sometimes call genius), but for which others have to strive with infinite pains. They come to
> that man or woman who accepts his life with radiant acquiescence." ("'Abdu'l-Baha in London," pp.
> 120,121)
> 
> "What then remains? How shall we attain the reality of knowledge? By the breaths and promptings
> of the Holy Spirit, which is light and knowledge itself." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p.
> 22)
> 
> "The only true Explainer of the Book of God is the Holy Spirit, for no two minds are alike, no two
> can comprehend alike, no two can speak alike. That is to say, from the mere human standpoint of
> interpretation there could be neither truth nor agreement." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace,"
> p. 212)
> 
> "These are the interpretations of Christ Himself. Reflect upon them, and the meanings of the Holy
> Books will become clear as the sun at midday.
> "The Holy Books have their special terminologies which must be known and understood.
> Physicians have their own peculiar terms; architects, philosophers have their characteristic
> expressions; poets have their phrases; and scientists, their nomenclature." ("The Promulgation of
> Universal Peace," p. 246)
> 
> "We have proven these three to be false, so there remains but one. There is no nation among the
> religious nations but that is waiting for the appearance of some one. The Jews for the Messiah.
> There are many happy references in the Bible and in the prophecies showing the coming of the
> Messiah. He is to have a sword. He will rule all the land from east to west. He will spread the
> religion of the Bible. At His appearance all will believe in Moses, and also during His reign there
> will be justice; viz., the justice will be so great that a wolf and lamb will be friends, the eagle and
> dove will feed in the same nest, and the mouse and the serpent will live together, the lion and the
> lamb shall lie down together' and when we compare the revelations and our intellect we find them
> incorrect. The Jews, while waiting the coming of Jesus, found not the sword, nor the throne, and He
> did not even have a mat to sit upon, and they saw that, instead of dominating the earth, He did not
> possess two feet of earth. Then they found the prophecies were not fulfilled, for the commands were
> not circulated upon the earth. As to justice and fairness, there was no sign of it, for they made Jesus
> ride on a donkey, and at last they crucified Him. The Jews relied upon revelation as the true test,
> and they took this to prove Him. And because they believed in revelation, that was the only veil that
> covered them (kept them from believing). As they were veiled from Christ, they did not understand
> the revelation of the Bible, but had they believed in the explanations given by Christ, and which
> were inspired, they would have understood the meanings of these prophecies. Had they believed in
> the power of inspiration they would not have been veiled from His Bounty. As they did not
> understand the meaning of the revelation given by Christ they did not understand the revelation
> given in the Book, and these same revelations caused them to crucify Him. That is the way with the
> 
> Nakazeen.
> "They say we want only the Book of God, but as they are not understanding it, they lose the way, for
> it must be explained by one who is inspired to know its meaning. It is promised in the Gospel that
> the Paraclete will come and that He (Christ) will come again. There will be some signs.
> Mohammed came according to the Gospels. As the Christians looked only to the literal meaning,
> they did not believe in Him. The believers in Christ were veiled from knowing Mohammed by the
> misunderstanding of the prophecies, just as the Jews were veiled from knowing Christ..." ('Abdu'l-
> Baha to pilgrims, 30 November 1900, notes of Miss Alma Albertson, Rabb B6, NBA, Wilmette)
> 
> "When the intellect is not perfect that the thing found out by it cannot be so, these three things
> therefore prove to be false and only one remains.
> "There is no nation among the religious nations who are not waiting for some one, i.e. the Jews are
> waiting for the Messiah, for there are many references which show this in the Bible, and many
> prophecies which show His coming. He will have a sword in His hand. He will rule all nations
> from East to West. He will spread the religion of the Bible. All will believe in Moses and justice
> will be so mighty manifest that a wolf and a lamb will be friends. The eagle and the dove will feed
> in the same nest and the mouse and the serpent will live together in peace. But when we compare
> this revelation to our intellect we find it will be impossible. The Jews while awaiting the coming of
> Christ didn't find Jesus thus. He didn't have even a mat to sit upon and they saw that instead of
> dominating the earth, he hadn't two feet of earth to call His own and then they found the prophecies
> were not literally fulfilled, the commands of Moses were not circulated upon the earth, for Jesus
> changed the law (the Sabbath) and as to justice, they found no signs of it, for they made Jesus ride
> on a donkey, and at last they killed Him. The Jews said the best measure is revelation and they took
> this to prove Him, and it was their faith in revelation which caused them to be veiled from Him.
> Thus as they were veiled from Christ they didn't understand the revelations of the Bible, but had
> they listened to the explanations given by Christ, which were inspired, they would have found out
> the meaning of the prophecies. had they believed in the power of inspiration, they would not have
> been veiled from His Beauty. As they did not understand the revelation given by Christ, they didn't
> understand the revelations given in the books and these same revelations caused them to crucify
> Him. That is the way with the Nakazeen, they say we only want the Books of God, but as they do
> not understand them, they lose their way, for it must be explained by one who is inspired to know its
> meanings. And it is also promised in the Gospels that the Advocate will come and there would be
> signs of His Advent. But when Mohammed came (as the Christians' own Gospel foretold), they
> would not accept Him, because they held to the literal meaning. The believers in Christ were held
> from accepting Mohammed by misinterpreting the proofs in the same way that the Jews were veiled
> from Christ..." ('Abdu'l-Baha to pilgrims, 30 November 1900, notes of Corinne True, True B9,
> NBA, Wilmette)
> 
> How are we to tell the difference between divine inspiration and animal intuition, or the influx
> of the satanic spirit? 'Abdu'l-Baha wrote, in a Tablet to an American correspondent:
> 
> "As to the difference between inspiration and imagination: Inspiration is in conformity with the
> Divine Texts, but imaginations do not conform therewith. A real, spiritual connection between the
> True One and the servant is a luminous bounty which causeth an ecstatic (or divine) flame, passion
> and attraction. When this connection is secured (or realized) such an ecstasy and happiness become
> manifest in the heart that man doth fly away (with joy) and uttereth melody and song. Just as the
> soul bringeth the body in motion, so that spiritual bounty and real connection likewise moveth (or
> cheereth) the human soul." ("Tablets of Abdu'l-Baha Abbas," volume I, 1908, p. 195)
> 
> In one of His talks He gave substantially the same answer:
> 
> I have been asked a question: “How can we know when our actions meet with the approval of
> God?” Sometimes passion incites us to action; the laws of nature attract us, we obey our senses; the
> other incentive is the comprehension of the direction of God. We must find out if our actions are
> divinely inspired and if they do not conform, then it is our sensations which speak. Let us ever
> weigh our deeds in the scales of the divine teaching.
> (Abdu'l-Baha, Divine Philosophy, p. 102)
> 
> Baha'u'llah alludes to the same standard in many of His Tablets, including the following:
> 
> "O thou who hast surrendered thy will to God! By self-surrender and perpetual union with God is
> meant that men should merge their will wholly in the Will of God, and regard their desires as utter
> nothingness beside His Purpose. Whatsoever the Creator commandeth His creatures to observe, the
> same must they diligently, and with the utmost joy and eagerness, arise and fulfil. They should in
> no wise allow their fancy to obscure their judgment, neither should they regard their own imaginings
> as the voice of the Eternal. In the Prayer of Fasting We have revealed: 'Should Thy Will decree that
> out of Thy mouth these words proceed and be addressed unto them, 'Observe, for My Beauty's sake,
> the fast, O people, and set no limit to its duration,' I swear by the majesty of Thy glory, that every
> one of them will faithfully observe it, will abstain from whatsoever will violate Thy law, and will
> continue to do so until they yield up their souls unto Thee.' In this consisteth the complete surrender
> of one's will to the Will of God. Meditate on this, that thou mayest drink in the waters of everlasting
> life which flow through the words of the Lord of all mankind, and mayest testify that the one true
> God hath ever been immeasurably exalted above His creatures. He, verily, is the Incomparable, the
> Ever-Abiding, the Omniscient, the All-Wise. The station of absolute self-surrender transcendeth,
> and will ever remain exalted above, every other station.
> "It behoveth thee to consecrate thyself to the Will of God. Whatsoever hath been revealed in His
> Tablets is but a reflection of His Will. So complete must be thy consecration, that every trace of
> worldly desire will be washed from thine heart. This is the meaning of true unity.
> "Do thou beseech God to enable thee to remain steadfast in this path, and to aid thee to guide the
> peoples of the world to Him Who is the manifest and sovereign Ruler, Who hath revealed Himself
> in a distinct attire, Who giveth utterance to a Divine and specific Message. This is the essence of
> faith and certitude. They that are the worshipers of the idol which their imaginations have carved,
> and who call it Inner Reality, such men are in true accounted among the heathen. To this hath the
> All-Merciful borne witness in His Tablets. He, verily, is the All-Knowing, the All-Wise."
> (GL:CLX:337-338)
> 
> Baha'u'llah has referred to inspiration by the Holy Spirit as the manifestation of the Divine
> Intellect:
> 
> "God, the Exalted, hath placed these signs in men, to the end that philosophers may not deny the
> mysteries of the life beyond nor belittle that which hath been promised them. For some hold to
> reason and deny whatever reason comprehendeth not, and yet weak minds ['aquul-i-D'a'ifeh] can
> never grasp the matters which we have related, but only the Supreme, Divine intelligence ['aql
> kulli rabbaani] can comprehend them:
> How can feeble reason encompass the Qur'an,
> Or the spider snare a phoenix in her web?"
> (Baha'u'llah, "Haft Vadi," in "Athar-i-Qalam-i-'Ala," volume II, pp. 126-127; "Seven Valleys," p.
> 33)
> 
> "If the wayfarer's goal be the dwelling of the Praiseworthy One [mahmuud], this is the station of
> 
> primal reason [maqaam be-'aql miishuud] which is known as the Prophet and the Most Great Pillar
> [maqaam-i-mahmuud]. Here reason signifieth the divine, universal mind ['aql kulli rabbaani],
> whose sovereignty enlighteneth all created things--nor doth it refer to every feeble brain ['aql
> naaqS]; for it is as the wise Sana'i hath written:
> How can feeble reason encompass the Qur'an,
> Or the spider snare a phoenix in her web?
> Wouldst thou that the mind should not entrap thee?
> Teach it the science of the love of God!"
> (Baha'u'llah, "Chahar Vadi," in "Athar-i-Qalam-i-'Ala," volume II, pp. 144-145; "Four Valleys," p.
> 52)
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha explains this divine mind and distinguishes it from the rational mind of man:
> 
> "But the universal divine mind [ammaa 'aql kulli ilaahi] which is beyond nature [keh maavaraa'
> Tabii'at ast], is the bounty of the Pre-existent Power. This universal mind is divine ['aql kulli
> ilaahiist]; it embraces existing realities, and it receives the light of the mysteries of God. It is a
> conscious power [aan quvveh 'aalameh ast], not a power of investigation and of research [nah
> quvveh matajasseh matahasseh]...This divine intellectual power [iin quvveh 'aqliyyeh ilaahiyyeh] is
> the special attribute of the Holy Manifestations and the Dawning-places of prophethood [makhSuuS
> bemazhaahar meqaddaseh va maTaale' nubuvvat ast]; a ray of this light [partuvi aziin anvaar] falls
> upon the mirrors of the hearts of the righteous [bar maraayaai quluub abraar zand], and a portion
> and a share of this power comes to them from the Holy Manifestations [keh naSib va bahreh aziin
> quvveh nuvaasTeh mazhaahar muqaddaseh barand]." ("Mufavadat 'Abdu'l-Baha," p. 145; "Some
> Answered Questions," LVIII, p. 253)
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha also indicates that through the Baha'is, the peoples of the world will be enabled
> to draw upon the divine mind:
> 
> "God hath chosen the friends, and He hath favoured them with His guidance and boundless grace.
> His purpose is this, that we, all of us, should strive with our whole hearts to offer ourselves up, guide
> others to His path, and train the souls of men—until these frenzied beasts change to gazelles in the
> meadows of oneness, and these wolves to lambs of God, and these brutish creatures to angelic hosts;
> till the fires of hatred are quenched, and the flame coming out of the sheltered vale of the Holy
> Shrine doth shed its splendours; till the foul odour of the tyrant’s dunghill is blown away, and
> yieldeth to the pure, sweet scents that stream from the rosebeds of faith and trust. On that day will
> the weak of intellect draw on the bounty of the divine, Universal Mind, and they whose life is but
> abomination will seek out these cleansing, holy breaths." ('Abdu'l-Baha, Selections from the
> Writings of 'Abdu'l-Baha, p. 271)
> 
> In another passage, 'Abdu'l-Baha calls this divine mind--as manifested in the human being--
> the spirit of faith, distinguishing it thereby from the human spirit:
> 
> "Know that, generally, there are five divisions of the spirit...But the spirit of man has two aspects:
> one divine, one satanic; that is to say, it is capable of the utmost perfection, or it is capable of the
> utmost imperfection. If it acquires virtues it is the mst noble of the existing beings, and if it acquires
> vices it becomes the most degraded existence.
> "The fourth degree of spirit is the heavenly spirit; it is the spirit of faith [ruuh-i-iimAni] and the
> bounty of God; it comes from the breath of the Holy Spirit, and by the divine power it becomes the
> cause of eternal life. It is the power which makes earthly man heavenly, and the imperfect man
> 
> perfect. It makes the impure to be pure, the silent eloquent; it purifies and sanctifies those made
> captive by carnal desires; it makes the ignorant wise." ("Mufavadat 'Abdu'l-Baha," p. XX; "Some
> Answered Questions," XXXVI, p. 165)
> 
> "It has been explained that spirit is universally divided into five categories...But the human spirit,
> unless assisted by the spirit of faith [ruuh-i-imaani], does not become acquainted with the divine
> secrets and the heavenly realities. It is like a mirror which, although clear, polished, and brilliant, is
> still in need of light. Until a ray of the sun reflects upon it, it cannot discover the heavenly
> secrets." ("Mufavadat 'Abdu'l-Baha," p. 159; "Some Answered Questions," LV, p. 244)
> 
> The dependency of ordinary human beings upon the Manifestations is reiterated in other
> passages:
> 
> All else besides them are to be regarded as mirrors capable of reflecting the glory of these
> Manifestations Who are themselves the Primary Mirrors of the Divine Being, if ye be not devoid
> of understanding. No one hath ever escaped them, neither are they to be hindered from achieving
> their purpose. (Baha'u'llah, Gleanings from the Writings of Baha'u'llah, p. 74)
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha refers to this kind of knowledge in yet another way:
> 
> "Since the Sanctified Realities, the universal Manifestations of God, surround the essence and
> qualities of the creatures, transcend and contain existing realities and understand all things, therefore
> their knowledge is divine knowledge ['ilm ilaahi ast], and not acquired [nah aknasaabi]: that is to
> say, it is a holy bounty [ya'ni fayD qudsi ast], it is a divine revelation [va ankashaaf rahmaani]."
> ("Mufavadat 'Abdu'l-Baha," pp. 118-119; "Some Answered Questions," XL, pp. 180-181)
> 
> Baha'u'llah refers to this divine intuitive knowledge of the Manifestations of God in these
> passages, among others, of His Writings:
> 
> "Were the earth of their hearts to remain unchanged, how could such souls who have not been taught
> one letter, have seen no teacher, and entered no school, utter such words and display such
> knowledge as none can apprehend? Methinks they have been molded from the clay of infinite
> knowledge, and kneaded with the water of divine wisdom. Therefore, hath it been said: 'Knowledge
> is a light which God casteth into the heart of whomsoever He willeth.' It is this kind of knowledge
> which is and hath ever been praiseworthy, and not the limited knowledge that hath sprung forth from
> veiled and obscured minds. This limited knowledge they even stealthily borrow one from the other,
> and vainly pride themselves therein!" (Baha'u'llah, "Kitab-i-Iqan," p. 46)
> 
> "Yea, inasmuch as the peoples of the world have failed to seek from the luminous and crystal
> Springs of divine knowledge the inner meaning of God's holy words, they therefore have
> languished, stricken and sore athirst, in the vale of idle fancy and waywardness." (Baha'u'llah,
> "Kitab-i-Iqan," p. 105)
> 
> "Consider, how can he that faileth in the day of God's Revelation to attain unto the grace of the
> 'Divine Presence' and to recognize His Manifestation, be justly called learned, though he may have
> spent aeons in the pursuit of knowledge, and acquired all the limited and material learning of men?
> It is surely evident that he can in no wise be regarded as possessed of true knowledge. Whereas, the
> most unlettered of all men, if he be honored with this supreme distinction, he verily is accounted as
> one of those divinely-learned men whose knowledge is of God; for such a man hath attained the
> acme of knowledge, and hath reached the furthermost summit of learning." (Kitab-i-Iqan, pp. 145-
> 
> 146)
> 
> "Nay, whatsoever proceedeth from these Mines of divine Wisdom and these Treasuries of eternal
> knowledge is truth, and naught but the truth. The saying: 'Knowledge is one point, which the foolish
> have multiplied' is a proof of Our argument, and the tradition: 'Knowledge is a light which God
> sheddeth into the heart of whomsoever He willeth' a confirmation of Our statement." (Kitab-i-Iqan,
> p. 184)
> 
> "Secrets are many, but strangers are myriad. Volumes will not suffice to hold the mystery of the
> Beloved One, nor can it be exhausted in these pages, although it be no more than a word, no more
> than a sign. 'Knowledge is a single point, but the ignorant have multiplied it.'" (Baha'u'llah, "Seven
> Valleys," pp. 24-25)
> 
> "O Essence of Negligence! Myriads of mystic tongues find utterance in one speech, and myriads of
> hidden mysteries are revealed in a single melody; yet, alas, there is no ear to hear, nor heart to
> understand." (Baha'u'llah, "Persian Hidden Words," #16)
> 
> "That which is preeminent above all other gifts, is incorruptible in nature, and pertaineth to God
> Himself, is the gift of Divine Revelation. Every bounty conferred by the Creator upon man, be it
> material or spiritual, is subservient unto this. It is, in its essence, and will ever so remain, the Bread
> which cometh down from Heaven. It is God's supreme testimony, the clearest evidence of His truth,
> the sign of His consummate bounty, the token of His all-encompassing mercy, the proof of His most
> loving providence, the symbol of His most perfect grace. He hath, indeed, partaken of this highest
> gift of God who hath recognized His Manifestation in this Day.
> "Render thanks unto thy Lord for having vouchsafed unto thee so great a bounty. Lift up thy voice
> and say: All praise be to Thee, O Thou, the Desire of every understanding heart!" (Baha'u'llah,
> "Lawh-i-Na'matu'llah," in "Gleanings," XCV, p. 195)
> 
> "It hath already been abundantly demonstrated that in that divinely-appointed Day the majority of
> them that have sought and attained His holy court have revealed such knowledge and wisdom, a
> drop of which none else besides these holy and sanctified souls, however long he may have taught
> or studied, hath grasped or will ever comprehend. It is by virtue of this power that the beloved of
> God have, in the days of the Manifestation of the Day Star of Truth, been exalted above, and made
> independent of, all human learning. Nay, from their hearts and the springs of their innate powers
> hath gushed out unceasingly the inmost essence of human learning and wisdom." (Baha'u'llah,
> "Lawh-i-Hadi," in "Gleanings," CXXIV, pp. 263-264)
> 
> In various of His Tablets, Baha'u'llah has written of the station in which certitude is reached:
> 
> "And if, confirmed by the Creator, the lover escapes from the claws of the eagle of love, he will
> enter the Valley of Knowledge [malakut ma'rifat] and come out of doubt [shakab] into certainty
> [yaqiin], and turn from the darkness [Zalamat] of illusion to the guiding light of the fear of God. His
> inner eyes [chashm-i-baSir] will open and he will privily converse with his Beloved; he will set ajar
> the gate of truth [haqiiqat] and piety, and shut the doors of vain imaginings." (Baha'u'llah,
> AQA:III:102; "Seven Valleys," p. 11)
> 
> "O fleeting shadow! Pass beyond the baser stages of doubt [bigadhar] and rise to the exalted heights
> of certainty [yaqiin]. Open the eye of truth [chashm-i-haqq], that thou mayest behold the veilless
> Beauty and exclaim: Hallowed be the Lord, the most excellent of all creators!" (Baha'u'llah,
> "Persian Hidden Words," #9)
> 
> "O son of desire! Give ear unto this: Never shall mortal eye [chashm-i-fAnii] recognize the
> everlasting beauty [jamAl-i-bAqii], nor the lifeless heart [dil-i-mardih] delight in aught but in the
> withered bloom. For like seeketh like, and taketh pleasure in the company of its kind." (Baha'u'llah,
> "Persian Hidden Words," #10)
> 
> "O son of dust! Blind thine eyes, that thou mayest behold My beauty; stop thine ears, that thou
> mayest hearken unto the sweet melody of My voice; empty thyself of all learning, that thou mayest
> partake of My knowledge; and sanctify thyself from riches, that thou mayest obtain a lasting share
> from the ocean of My eternal wealth. Blind thine eyes, that is, to all save My beauty; stop thine ears
> to all save My word; empty thyself of all learning save the knowledge of Me; that with a clear vision
> [chashm-i-pAk], a pure heart [dil-i-Tayyab] and an attentive ear [gUsh-i-laTiif] thou mayest enter
> the court of My holiness." (Baha'u'llah, "Persian Hidden Words," #11)
> 
> "O man of two visions [dU chashm]! Close one eye [chashmii barband] and open the other
> [chashm-i-bargushA]. Close one to the world [barband ya'nii az 'Alam] and all that is therein, and
> open the other [bargushA ya'nii] to the hallowed beauty of the Beloved." (Baha'u'llah, "Persian
> Hidden Words," #12)
> 
> "Such are the mysteries of the Word of God, which have been unveiled and made manifest, that
> haply thou mayest apprehend the morning light of divine guidance, mayest quench, by the power of
> reliance and renunciation, the lamp of idle fancy, of vain imaginings, of hesitation, and doubt, and
> mayest kindle, in the inmost chamber of thine heart, the new-born light of divine knowledge."
> (KI:49)
> 
> "Were the eye of the heart to open, it would surely perceive that the words revealed from the heaven
> of the will of God are at one with, and the same as, the deeds that have emanated from the Kingdom
> of divine power." (KI:57-58)
> 
> "Therefore, O brother! kindle with the oil of wisdom the lamp of the spirit within the innermost
> chamber of thy heart, and guard it with the globe of understanding, that the breath of the infidel may
> extinguish not its flame nor dim its brightness. Thus have We illuminated the heavens of utterance
> with the splendours of the Sun of divine wisdom and understanding, that thy heart may find peace,
> that thou mayest be of those who, on the wings of certitude, have soared unto the heaven of the love
> of their Lord, the All-Merciful." (KI:61)
> 
> "Only when the lamp of search, of earnest striving, of longing desire, of passionate devotion, of
> fervid love, of rapture, and ecstasy, is kindled within the seeker's heart, and the breeze of His loving-
> kindness is wafted upon his soul, will the darkness of error be dispelled, the mists of doubts and
> misgivings be dissipated, and the lights of knowledge and certitude envelop his being. At that hour
> will the mystic Herald, bearing the joyful tidings of the Spirit, shine forth from the City of God
> resplendent as the morn, and, through the trumpet-blast of knowledge, will awaken the heart, the
> soul, and the spirit from the slumber of negligence. Then will the manifold favours and outpouring
> grace of the holy and everlasting Spirit confer such new life upon the seeker that he will find himself
> endowed with a new eye, a new ear, a new heart, and a new mind. He will contemplate the manifest
> signs of the universe, and will penetrate the hidden mysteries of the soul. Gazing with the eye of God,
> he will perceive within every atom a door that leadeth him to the stations of absolute certitude."
> (KI:195-196; BWF:107)
> 
> "When the channel of the human soul is cleansed of all worldly and impeding attachments, it will
> 
> unfailingly perceive the breath of the Beloved across immeasurable distances, and will, led by its
> perfume, attain and enter the City of Certitude. Therein he will discern the wonders of His ancient
> wisdom, and will perceive all the hidden teachings from the rustling leaves of the Tree--which
> flourisheth in that City. With both his inner and outer ear he will hear from its dust the hymns of
> glory and praise ascending unto the Lord of Lords, and with his inner eye will he discover the
> mysteries of "return" and "revival." How unspeakably glorious are the signs, the tokens, the
> revelations, and splendours which He Who is the King of names and attributes hath destined for that
> City! The attainment of this City quencheth thirst without water, and kindleth the love of God
> without fire. Within every blade of grass are enshrined the mysteries of an inscrutable wisdom, and
> upon every rosebush a myriad nightingales pour out, in blissful rapture, their melody." (Kitab-i-
> Iqan, pp. 197-198)
> 
> "Do thou beseech God to enable thee to remain steadfast in this path, and to aid thee to guide the
> peoples of the world to Him Who is the manifest and sovereign Ruler, Who hath revealed Himself
> in a distinct attire, Who giveth utterance to a Divine and specific Message. This is the essence of
> faith and certitude." (GL:CLX:338)
> 
> Baha'u'llah indicates that the measure of all things is not human, but divine:
> 
> "Say: O leaders of religion! Weigh not the Book of God with such standards and sciences as are
> current amongst you, for the Book itself is the unerring Balance established amongst men. In this
> most perfect Balance whatsoever the peoples and kindreds of the earth possess must be weighed,
> while the measure of its weight should be tested according to its own standard, did ye but know it."
> (Baha'u'llah, "Kitab-i-Aqdas," #99)
> 
> "Give ear unto the verses of God which He Who is the sacred Lote-Tree reciteth unto you. They are
> assuredly the infallible balance, established by God, the Lord of this world and the next. Through
> them the soul of man is caused to wing its flight towards the Dayspring of Revelation, and the heart
> of every true believer is suffused with light." (Ibid., #148)
> 
> "Say: This is the infallible Balance which the Hand of God is holding, in which all who are in the
> heavens and all who are on the earth are weighed, and their fate determined, if ye be of them
> that believe and recognize this truth." (Ibid., #183)
> 
> Furthermore, Baha'u'llah does not leave the question of the interpretation of His Writings
> unresolved:
> 
> "Whoso interpreteth what hath been sent down from the heaven of Revelation, and altereth its
> evident meaning, he, verily, is of them that have perverted the Sublime Word of God, and is of the
> lost ones in the Lucid Book." (Baha'u'llah, "Kitab-i-Aqdas," #105)
> 
> "O people of the world! When the Mystic Dove will have winged its flight from its Sanctuary of
> Praise and sought its far-off goal, its hidden habitation, refer ye whatsoever ye understand not in the
> Book to Him Who hath branched from this mighty Stock." (Ibid., #174)
> 
> "The Will of the divine Testator is this: It is incumbent upon the Aghsan, the Afnan and My Kindred
> to turn, one and all, their faces towards the Most Mighty Branch. Consider that which We have
> revealed in Our Most Holy Book [#121]: 'When the ocean of My presence hath ebbed and the Book
> of My Revelation is ended, turn your faces toward Him Whom God hath purposed, Who hath
> branched from this Ancient Root.' The object of this sacred verse is none other except the Most
> 
> Mighty Branch." (Baha'u'llah, "Kitab-i-'Ahd," Tablets, p. 221)
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha, the Most Mighty Branch (Ghusn-i-A'zam) has elaborated on this theme:
> 
> "The only true Explainer of the Book of God is the Holy Spirit, for no two minds are alike, no two
> can comprehend alike, no two can speak alike. That is to say, from the mere human standpoint of
> interpretation there could be neither truth nor agreement." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace,"
> p. 212)
> 
> "Inasmuch as great differences and divergences of denominational belief had arisen throughout the
> past, every man with a new idea attributing it to God, Baha'u'llah desired that there should not be
> any ground or reason for disagreement among the Baha'is. Therefore, with His own pen He wrote
> the Book of His Covenant, addressing His relations and all people of the world, saying, 'Verily, I
> have appointed One Who is the Centre of My Covenant. All must obey Him; all must turn to Him;
> He is the Expounder of My Book, and He is informed of My purpose. All must turn to Him.
> Whatsoever He says is correct, for, verily, He knoweth the texts of My Book. Other than He, no one
> doth know My Book.'...
> "Therefore, you must read the Tablets of Baha'u'llah. You must read the Tablet of the Branch and
> regard that which He has so clearly stated. Beware! Beware! lest anyone should speak from the
> authority of his own thoughts or create a new thing out of himself. Beware! Beware! According to
> the explicit Covenant of Baha'u'llah you should care nothing at all for such a person. Baha'u'llah
> shuns such souls. I have expounded these things for you, for the conservation and protection of the
> teachings of Baha'u'llah, in order that you may be informed, lest any souls shall deceive you and lest
> any souls shall cause suspicion among you." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," pp. 323-324)
> 
> "Inasmuch as there was no appointed explainer of the Book of Christ, everyone made the claim to
> authority, saying, 'This is the true pathway and others are not.' To ward off such dissensions as
> these and prevent any person from creating a division or sect the Blessed Perfection, Baha'u'llah,
> appointed a central authoritative Personage, declaring Him to be the expounder of the Book. This
> implies that the people in general do not understand the meanings of the Book, but this appointed
> One does understand. Therefore, Baha'u'llah said, 'He is the explainer of My Book and the Center of
> My Testament.' In the last verses of the Book instructions are revealed, declaring that, 'After Me,'
> you must turn toward a special Personage and 'whatsoever He says is correct.' In the Book of the
> Covenant Baha'u'llah declares that by these two verses this Personage is meant...Many utterances are
> directed against the violators of the Covenant, the purpose being that no dissension should arise in
> the blessed Cause; that no one should say, 'My opinion is this'; and that all may know Who is the
> authoritative expounder and whatsoever He says is correct." ("The Promulgation of Universal
> Peace," p. 382)
> 
> "Any opinion expressed by the Center of the Covenant is correct, and there is no reason for
> disobedience by anyone. Be watchful, for perchance there may be violators of the Covenant among
> you. Do not listen to them. Read the Book of the Covenant. All have been commanded to obey the
> Covenant, and the first admonition is addressed to the sons of Baha'u'llah, the Branches: 'You must
> turn to the appointed Center; He is the expounder of the Book.'" ("The Promulgation of Universal
> Peace," p. 386)
> 
> "To ensure unity and agreement He has entered into a Covenant with all the people of the world,
> including the interpreter and explainer of His teachings, so that no one may interpret or explain the
> religion of God according to his own view or opinion and thus create a sect founded upon his
> individual understanding of the divine Words. The Book of the Covenant or Testament of
> 
> Baha'u'llah is the means of preventing such a possibility, for whosoever shall speak from the
> authority of himself alone shall be degraded...Praise be to God! Baha'u'llah left nothing unsaid. He
> explained everything. He left no room for anything further to be said. Yet there are some who for
> the sake of personal interest and prestige will attempt to sow the seeds of sedition and disloyalty
> among you." ("The Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 456)
> 
> 'Abdu'l-Baha appointed Shoghi Effendi to interpret the Writings of Baha'u'llah and His own
> Writings after His passing:
> 
> "After the passing away of this wronged one, it is incumbent upon the Aghsan, the Afnan of the
> Sacred Lote-Tree, the Hands of the Cause of God and the loved ones of the Abha Beauty to turn
> unto Shoghi Effendi the youthful branch branched from the two hallowed and sacred Lote-Trees
> "The sacred and youthful branch, the guardian of the Cause of God as well as the Universal House
> of Justice, to be universally elected and established, are both under the care and protection of the
> Abha Beauty, under the shelter and unerring guidance of His Holiness, the Exalted One (may my
> life be offered up for them both). Whatsoever they decide is of God." ("Will and Testament," p.
> 11)
> 
> And Shoghi Effendi wrote, concerning the infallibility of 'Abdu'l-Baha in the interpretation of
> Baha'u'llah's Writings:
> 
> "That 'Abdu'l-Baha is not a Manifestation of God, that He gets His light, His inspiration and
> sustenance from the Fountain-head of the Baha'i Revelation; that He reflects even as a clear and
> perfect Mirror the rays of Baha'u'llah's glory, and does not inherently possess that indefinable yet
> all-pervading reality the exclusive possession of which is the hallmark of Prophethood; that His
> words are not equal in rank though they possess an equal validity with the utterances of Baha'u'llah."
> ("World Order of Baha'u'llah," Wilmette: BPT, 1991, p. 139)
> 
> Likewise, in a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi in 1956, which was supplied to the
> author by the Research Department of the Baha'i World Centre:
> 
> "The Guardian's infallibility covers interpretation of the revealed word, and its application.
> Likewise any instructions he may issue having to do with the protection of the Faith, or its well-
> being, must be closely obeyed, as he is infallible in the protection of the Faith. He is assured the
> guidance of both Baha'u'llah and the Bab, as the Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Baha clearly
> reveals."
> 
> COMMENTARY ON THE FIFTH CRITERION
> How are we human beings to attain to perfect knowledge which is suitable to our station?
> According to Baha'u'llah, 'Abdu'l-Baha, and Shoghi Effendi, there are FOUR ways:
> 
> 1. Through the minds and hearts of the believers, informed through the inspiration of the Holy
> Spirit, whereby the faithful souls reflect a ray of light from the Sun of Reality manifest in the
> prophetic station of Baha'u'llah--in the footsteps of the Illuminati [Ishraqiyyun]:
> 
> "If they find a solution with the assistance of the inner light, they accept it, and afterwards they
> declare it: otherwise they would consider it a matter of blind imitation. They go so far as to reflect
> upon the essential nature of the Divinity, of the Divine revelation, of the manifestation of the Deity
> in this world. All the divine and scientific questions are solved by them through the power of the
> spirit...
> "Through the faculty of meditation man attains to eternal life; through it he receives the breath of the
> Holy Spirit--the bestowal of the Spirit is given in reflection and meditation.
> "The spirit of man is itself informed and strengthened during meditation; through it affairs of which
> man knew nothing are unfolded before his view. Through it he receives Divine inspiration, through
> it he receives heavenly food." ('Abdu'l-Baha, "Paris Talks," pp. 174,175)
> 
> 2. Through our knowledge of the most recent Word of God, that is, the recorded words of
> Baha'u'llah, and, His infallible depiction of the Persons and Teachings of all previous Manifestations
> of God.
> 
> 3. Through the infallible interpretations of the Word of God by 'Abdu'l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi;
> and the infallible elucidations of the Baha'i teachings by the Universal House of Justice.
> 
> 4. Through perfect agreement between the four human criteria of knowledge, as stated by 'Abdu'l-
> Baha in one of His talks:
> 
> "But a statement presented to the mind accompanied by proofs which the senses can perceive to be
> correct, which the faculty of reason can accept, which is in accord with traditional authority and
> sanctioned by the promptings of the heart, can be adjudged and relied upon as perfectly correct, for
> it has been proved and tested by all the standards of judgment and found to be complete." ("The
> Promulgation of Universal Peace," p. 255)
> 
> This statement seems to be confirmed in the following citation from 'Abdu'l-Baha' Tablet to Dr.
> Auguste Forel:
> 
> "Thus man cannot grasp the Essence of Divinity, but can, by his reasoning power, by observation,
> by his intuitive faculties and the revealing power of his faith, believe in God, discover the bounties
> of His Grace." (`Abdu'l-Baha, Tablet to August Forel, p. 15)
> 
> There are also many counsels from 'Abdu'l-Baha enjoining consultation, which is a bringing
> together of differing points of view, which may be analogous to the reconciliation of four standards
> of truth:
> 
> "Therefore, if the religions investigate reality and seek the essential truth of their own foundations,
> they will agree and no difference will be found. But inasmuch as religions are submerged in
> dogmatic imitations, forsaking the original foundations, and as imitations differ widely, therefore,
> the religions are divergent and antagonistic. These imitations may be likened to clouds which
> obscure the sunrise; but reality is the sun. If the clouds disperse, the Sun of Reality shines upon all,
> and no difference of vision will exist. The religions will then agree, for fundamentally they are the
> same. The subject is one, but predicates are many." (PUP:126)
> 
> "Inasmuch as human interpretations and blind imitations differ widely, religious strife and
> disagreement have arisen among mankind, the light of true religion has been extinguished and the
> unity of the world of humanity destroyed. The Prophets of God voiced the spirit of unity and
> agreement. They have been the Founders of divine reality. Therefore, if the nations of the world
> forsake imitations and investigate the reality underlying the revealed Word of God, they will agree
> and become reconciled. For reality is one and not multiple." (PUP:141)
> 
> "We are considering the divine plan for the reconciliation of the religious systems of the world.
> Baha'u'llah has said that if one intelligent member be selected from each of the varying religious
> systems, and these representatives come together seeking to investigate the reality of religion, they
> would establish an interreligious body before which all disputes and differences of belief could be
> presented for consideration and settlement. Such questions could then be weighed and viewed from
> the standpoint of reality and all imitations be discarded. By this method and procedure all sects,
> denominations and systems would become one." (PUP:233-234)
> 
> "When you assemble, you must reflect the lights of the heavenly Kingdom. Let your hearts be as
> mirrors in which the radiance of the Sun of Reality is visible. Each bosom must be a telegraph
> station--one terminus of the wire attached to the soul, the other fixed in the Supreme Concourse--so
> that inspiration may descend from the Kingdom of Abha and questions of reality be discussed. Then
> opinions will coincide with truth; day by day there will be more progression, and the meetings will
> become more radiant and spiritual. This attainment is conditioned upon unity and agreement. The
> more perfect the love and agreement, the more the divine confirmations and assistance of the
> Blessed Perfection will descend. May this prove to be a divine meeting, and may boundless
> bestowals come down upon you. Strive with all your hearts and with the very power of life that
> unity and love may continually increase. In discussions look toward the reality without being self-
> opinionated. Let no one assert and insist upon his own mere opinion; nay, rather, let each
> investigate reality with the greatest love and fellowship. Consult upon every matter, and when one
> presents the point of view of reality itself, that shall be acceptable to all." (PUP:183)
> 
> Inasmuch as 'Abdu'l-Baha repeatedly affirmed the oneness of reality, the oneness of truth, it seems
> that these four ways to infallible knowledge may be regarded as facets of one standard of unitive
> knowledge. Hence, the agreement of the four human criteria, in order to be entirely reliable, must
> be in agreement with the teachings of Baha'u'llah, and with the divinely-inspired interpretations of
> 'Abdu'l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi as well as the infallibly-guided elucidations of the Universal
> House of Justice. This unitive knowledge may be related to the advice given by Shoghi Effendi to
> believers in their attempts to understand the Baha'i teachings:
> 
> "These various statements must be taken in conjunction with all the Bahá'í teachings; we cannot get
> a correct picture by concentrating on just one phrase." (From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi
> Effendi, dated 7 June 1946, quoted in "Arohanui: Letters to New Zealand," p. 85)
> 
> "He feels that many of the perplexities that arise in your mind could be dissipated if you always
> conceived of the teachings as one great whole with many facets. Truth may, in covering different
> subjects, appear to be contradictory, and yet it is all one if you carry the thought through to the
> end...." (From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, dated 24 February 1947, quoted in "The
> Importance of Deepening," p. 228)
> 
> "Likewise he is constantly urging them to really study the Bahá'í teachings more deeply. One might
> liken Bahá'u'lláh's teachings to a sphere; there are points poles apart, and in between the thoughts
> and doctrines that unite them..." (From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, dated 5 July
> 1947, quoted in "The Importance of Deepening," pp. 228-229)
> 
> "We must not take many of 'Abdu'l-Baha's statements as dogmatic finalities, for there are other
> points which when added to them round out the picture." (From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi
> Effendi, 7 June 1946; Arohanui: Letters to New Zealand, no.80, p.88; Messages to the Antipodes,
> p.241)
> 
> CONCLUSIONS
> This survey clearly indicates that, according to Bahá’u’lláh and 'Abdu’l-Bahá, the evidence of the
> sciences, and the claims of the physical and social sciences are not to be relied upon or regarded as
> of certain reality. Likewise is this true of theology, philosophy, mathematics and linguistics--among
> other fields which represent the systematic study of non-material phenomena. Finally, intuition and
> inspiration are also not to be entirely trusted. In all things, we must refer to the divine standard. In
> conclusion, the compiler is reminded of two passages from Bahá’u’lláh’s Writings, both of which
> remind us of the essentially humble position of the man or woman of true learning:
> 
> "Consider, how can he that faileth in the day of God's Revelation to attain unto the grace of the
> 'Divine Presence' and to recognize His Manifestation, be justly called learned, though he may have
> spent aeons in the pursuit of knowledge, and acquired all the limited and material learning of men?
> It is surely evident that he can in no wise be regarded as possessed of true knowledge. Whereas, the
> most unlettered of all men, if he be honoured with this supreme distinction, he verily is accounted as
> one of those divinely-learned men whose knowledge is of God; for such a man hath attained the
> acme of knowledge, and hath reached the furthermost summit of learning." (Baha'u'llah, "Kitab-i-
> Iqan," pp. 145-146)
> 
> "This confession of helplessness which mature contemplation must eventually impel every mind to
> make is in itself the acme of human understanding, and marketh the culmination of man's
> development." (Bahá’u’lláh, "Lawh-i-Hadi," in "Gleanings," LXXXIII, pp. 165-166)
> 
> "The station of absolute self-surrender transcendeth, and will ever remain exalted above, every other
> station." (Bahá’u’lláh, "Gleanings," CLX, p. 338)
>
> — *Baha'i Epistemology (Used by permission of the curator)*