# Advancement of Women: A Baha'i Perspective

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> Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Peter J. Khan, Advancement of Women: A Baha'i Perspective, Wilmette, IL: Bahá'í Publishing, 1998, bahai-library.com.
> ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
> 
> Advancement of Women
> 
> A Bahá’í Perspective
> 
> Janet Khan and
> Peter J. Khan
> Bahá’í Publishing, 415 Linden Avenue, Wilmette, Illinois 60091-2844
> Copyright © 1998, 2003 by Janet A. Khan and Peter J. Khan
> 
> All rights reserved. Published 2003
> 
> Printed in the United States of America
> O6 05 04 03 4 3 2 1
> 
> Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
> 
> Khan, Janet A. (Janet Adrienne), 1940–
> 
> Advancement of Women : a Bahá’í perspective / Janet A. Khan
> and Peter J. Khan.
> 
> p. cm.
> 
> Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. ISBN 1-931847-
> 03-7 (softcover)
> 
> 1. Women in the Bahai Faith. 2. Women’s rights–Religious
> aspects–Bahá’í Faith. 3. Bahai faith–Doctrines. I. Khan, Peter. II.
> Title.
> 
> BP370.K48 2003
> 
> 297.9’3178344-dc21 2002155577
> 
> Book design by Suni D. Hannan
> Cover photograph by Susan Davis
> This digital edition is made possible by the kind permission of the
> copyright holder ©
> Dr Janet Khan
> and the publisher,
> Bahá’í Publishing Trust,
> Wilmette, USA
> 
> eBook version 1.0 - 2022
> Contents
> 
> Advancement of Women
> 
> Preface
> 
> 1 The Transformation of Human Society
> 
> The Equality of Women and Men
> 
> The Teachings of Bahá’u’lláh
> 
> The Process of Change
> 
> 2 Defining ‘Equality’
> 
> The Significance of Equality
> 
> A Brief Historical Survey
> 
> Bahá’í Teachings on Equality
> 
> The Bahá’í Approach to Implementation
> 
> The Present Day
> 
> 3 Family Dynamics and Peace
> 
> The Family as Matrix
> 
> Traditional Family Values and Warfare
> Bahá’í Family Values and Peace
> 
> 4 Women and Bahá’í Law
> 
> Equality and Law
> 
> The Nature of Bahá’í Law
> 
> Women and the Laws of Personal Conduct
> 
> Financial Rights
> 
> Service on Bahá’í Institutions
> 
> The Application of Bahá’í Law
> 
> 5 Implementing Equality: The Ministries of Bahá’u’lláh and
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
> 
> Belief and Practice
> 
> The Actions of Bahá’u’lláh
> 
> The Role of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
> 
> The Power of Example
> 
> 6 Implementing Equality: The Role of Shoghi Effendi and the
> Universal House of Justice
> 
> The Formative Age of the Bahá’í Dispensation
> 
> The Role of Shoghi EFfendi
> 
> The Role of the Universal House of Justice
> 7 Practicing Equality
> 
> The Moral Imperative
> 
> Translating the Bahá’í Teachings into Practice
> 
> Applying the Principle of Equality of the Sexes
> 
> Facing the Future with Confidence
> 
> Appendix
> 
> Two Wings of a bird: The Equality of Women and Men
> 
> Bibliography
> 
> Glossary
> Preface
> 
> This book is about a belief system that stands unique in the field of
> religion, in the magnitude of its commitment to the advancement of
> women. The Bahá’í Faith aims to create unity between the diverse
> elements of humankind. Essential to the attainment of that allembracing unity is the Bahá’í principle of the equality of the sexes.
> The implementation of this principle is revolutionizing relationships
> among peoples. It has implications for relationships within marriage
> and in the family, in the workplace, in the educational curriculum, and
> in all aspects of social and professional life.
> 
> In little more than 150 years, the Bahá’í Faith has become established
> in all parts of the planet. It is now recognized as the second most
> widely spread religion in the world. Under the leadership of the
> women and men serving on 180 Bahá’í National Spiritual Assemblies
> throughout the world, notable progress has been made in achieving
> recognition of the equality of the sexes within diverse cultural settings.
> 
> Those committed to the advancement of women regard organized
> religion as a formidable obstacle to the attainment of their goal. Far
> too often, over the span of recorded history, religious practice has been
> marked by the subjugation of women, their relegation to an inferior
> position, and the denial of their human rights. It is little wonder that
> the quest for the equality of women and men has so often given rise to
> conflict with traditional religious authority. In recent years,
> movements emerging within the major faiths with the avowed aim of
> the emancipation of women have found their progress severely
> hampered by the weight of the historical record and by the theology of
> discrimination that has become an integral part of orthodox belief.
> 
> Yet it is undeniable that religion reaches to the roots of motivation and
> inspiration. It has a potential beyond that of any other force in human
> life to effect a fundamental change in deeply entrenched values and to
> create a community in which new values are expressed in action. Thus
> the power of religion, focused on the advancement of women, is
> capable of achieving a degree of success far beyond that accessible
> through social or political movements or through appeal to economic or
> philosophic arguments.
> 
> Advancement of Women provides a detailed treatment of the aims,
> actions, and accomplishments of the worldwide Bahá’í community in
> its pursuit of the vast task before it-that of dismantling the barriers to
> the liberation of women and of creating a dynamic and supportive
> community of men and women united in their commitment to the
> worthy ideal of the equality of the sexes. The book illustrates the
> crucial role the equality principle plays in achieving unity and freedom
> for both women and men at all levels of society. It describes work in
> progress, with much already accomplished at a foundational level, but
> with much more yet to be done.
> 
> The book may be divided into three parts. Chapters 1-4 explore in
> some detail the meaning of equality of the sexes and its relationship to
> the principles and practices of the major world religions. Among the
> issues discussed here are the practical implications of equality for the
> marriage relationship, for family life and the education of children, and
> for the civic and professional involvement of women in all aspects of
> society. Chapter 4 examines, from a Bahá’í perspective, devotional life
> at an individual and communal level, including the participation of
> women in the administrative institutions of the religion.
> 
> The second part, chapters 5 and 6, presents the historical record of the
> actions of Bahá’u’lláh, the Founder of the Faith, and of the successive
> Heads of the Bahá’í community subsequent to His passing in 1892, to
> foster the expression of the principle of equality in a community that
> originated in the Middle East, spread initially to Europe and North
> America, and was then established all over the world.
> 
> The final part, chapter 7, deals with practical courses of action open to
> those who are committed to the Bahá’í approach for promoting the
> advancement of women. Success requires the involvement of both
> women and men. The Bahá’í Faith advocates a unified and mutually
> supportive endeavor by both sexes, far removed from the adversarial
> relationship which all too often arises in the struggle for equality.
> 
> The book is written with the aim of sharing information and innovative
> strategies with all who seek to foster universal recognition of the
> equality of women and men and who yearn for the full participation of
> women in all aspects of life. It provides a record of the measures
> undertaken by a religion committed unequivocally to the principle of
> equality. Beyond that, it offers insight into the magnitude of the
> attitudinal and social changes required for the expression of this
> principle on an enduring basis. Although the work of promoting
> equality between women and men is far from complete, its ultimate
> success is assured.
> The Transformation of Human Society
> 
> The utterance of God is a lamp,
> whose light is these words: Ye are
> the fruits of one tree, and the leaves
> of one branch. Deal ye one with
> another with the utmost love and
> harmony, with friendliness
> and fellowship. . . . . So powerful is the
> light of unity that it can illuminate
> the whole earth.
> 
> –Bahá’u’lláh
> THE EQUALITY OF MEN AND WOMEN
> 
> To promulgate and implement the principle of the equality of the sexes
> throughout the world is one of the fundamental aims of the Bahá’í
> Faith. This objective is an integral element of the Bahá’í endeavor, in
> all parts of the planet, to foster adherence to justice as an enduring
> foundation for the unity of humankind and the development of an everadvancing world civilization.
> 
> From a Bahá’í perspective the role of religion is to bring about true
> liberty for the individual. This is accomplished through commitment to
> principles of belief which, when translated into practice, enable all to
> free themselves from the barriers impeding their spiritual development
> and thus to achieve their ordained purpose in life. Not only does this
> lead to liberty in its fullest sense, but it is also the means by which true
> happiness may be attained. The Bahá’í Faith is thus a religion of
> freedom and happiness, specifying that these ends are attained through
> observance of the laws prescribed by Bahá’u’lláh (1817-1892), the
> Founder of the Faith, and through self-discipline and restraint in
> curbing those elements of human nature that inhibit the flourishing of
> its spiritual elements.
> 
> The Bahá’í teachings can be considered appropriately from a historical
> perspective which encompasses the coming of Messengers, or
> Manifestations, of God at periodic intervals in various parts of the
> world over the span of thousands of years. Bahá’ís believe that each of
> these Manifestations of God gave teachings appropriate to the needs of
> the age in which He appeared, providing the inspiration and values for
> the advance of civilization and moving humanity forward toward a
> promised time of world unity, the emancipation of all peoples, and the
> inauguration of world civilization. Full expression of the equality of
> men and women is an integral and indispensable component of that
> stage in the spiritual and social evolution of humanity.
> 
> Central to Bahá’í belief is the acceptance of the claim of its Founder,
> Bahá’u’lláh, to be the Manifestation of God Who is the Promised One
> of all the preceding religious Dispensations, Whose purpose is to
> provide the means for spiritual reinvigoration and for the establishment
> of the long-anticipated time of freedom, equality, and unity. This book
> is devoted to an exploration of one aspect of His teachings, that of the
> equality of the sexes. However, the significance of this principle and
> the means for its implementation can only be assessed adequately
> within the context of the Bahá’í teachings as a whole.
> 
> THE TEACHINGS OF BAHÁ’U’LLÁH
> 
> The means set out in the Bahá’í teachings for attaining the ideals
> described above, and particularly the equality of the sexes, can best be
> appreciated by considering three closely related elements that are
> discussed in turn below.
> 
> A Statement of Principles
> 
> The Bahá’í teachings include principles that are directed to all aspects
> of human thought and conduct. They rest on the foundation of the
> spiritual transformation of the individual, which is accomplished
> through the renewal of one’s relationship with the Creator and with the
> Manifestation of God for this age. Fundamental to Bahá’í life are the
> devotional practices of prayer, daily reading of the Word of God,
> observance of an annual period of fasting, and the unceasing striving to
> internalize those spiritual values that have formed the intrinsic core of
> all religions in their authentic form.
> 
> The principles of the Bahá’í Faith include not only precepts addressed
> to the individual, but also those that aim at social change and
> transformation. To a Bahá’í, the ideal spiritual life does not conform to
> the traditional model of an individual engaged in solitary spiritual
> disciplines, remote from interaction with other people and removed
> from the transactions of social life. Rather, the Bahá’í teachings direct
> attention to the interactive relationship between individual and social
> development, calling for a holistic approach in which the actions of the
> individual and of the social organism mutually reinforce each other and
> give rise to evolutionary change. This is discussed in greater detail in
> chapter 7.
> 
> Thus the Bahá’í approach to the equality of the sexes cannot be
> reduced naively to the creation of a group of well-meaning individuals
> who seek to bring about attainment of this condition simply by
> repeatedly asserting its necessity and importance. It is embedded in a
> complex of intimately related principles that include such matters as
> the religious obligation of all Bahá’ís to strive to eradicate prejudice
> from their thinking, the commitment to all forms of education for both
> males and females, the exaltation of unity based on justice and
> adherence to principle, the recognition of the value of intellectual and
> scientific activity as an approach to truth-seeking that is
> complementary to that of authentic religion, and the emphasis placed
> on enhancing means of communication between people of diverse
> backgrounds, languages, and cultures.
> 
> The Bahá’í Administrative Order
> 
> It is depressingly familiar to all students of history that endeavors to
> attain high ideals and noble objectives are almost invariably doomed to
> ultimate failure as a consequence of an eventual loss of motivation, the
> inability to overcome deeply entrenched barriers of traditional thought
> and habit, the power of vested interests, and division and disunity
> among those who had initially united themselves in the pursuit of these
> goals.
> 
> A unique feature of the Bahá’í teachings is the provision that
> Bahá’u’lláh has made for perpetuating the unity and integrity of the
> Bahá’í community as it continues striving to implement these teachings
> over the centuries. In contrast to the religions that originated in distant
> times, succession of authority and the form of organization in the
> Bahá’í Faith are explicitly specified in writing by the Manifestation of
> God in His Book of the Covenant and in related passages of His
> writings. Such specific provisions assure unity in these vital aspects of
> Bahá’í community life, since deviation from such explicit prescription
> can only be accomplished by the self-contradictory rejection by a
> Bahá’í of a portion of the authentic writings of the Founder of the
> religion.
> 
> The Covenant of Bahá’u’lláh provides for the appointment of His
> eldest son, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (1844-1921), as His successor in authority as
> the Head of the Faith and Center of the Covenant, with well-defined
> functions that include authoritative exposition of the Bahá’í teachings.
> The reader will find Him referred to as “the Master” in some passages
> from the Bahá’í writings that are quoted in this book; “the Master” is a
> term used in recognition of His authority as an exponent of the Bahá’í
> teachings. In His Will and Testament ‘Abdu’l-Bahá continued this
> pattern of explicit written provisions concerning authority by formally
> ordaining the institutions of the Bahá’í Administrative Order, to which
> reference had hitherto been made in the writings of Bahá’u’lláh.
> 
> The Bahá’í Administrative Order has as its principal institutions the
> Guardianship and the Universal House of Justice. Shoghi Effendi
> (1897-1957), the eldest grandson of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, was appointed by
> Him as Guardian of the Bahá’í Faith and performed the prescribed
> functions-which included that of authentic interpretation-from the
> passing of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in 1921 until his own death in 1957. The
> Universal House of Justice, which was first elected in 1963 by
> delegates who had themselves been elected from National Bahá’í
> communities throughout the world, and which renews its membership
> by election every five years, is now the Head of the Bahá’í Faith.
> Included within its clearly prescribed functions are the authority to
> enact laws and ordinances that are not expressly set out in the Bahá’í
> writings and the authority to elucidate questions that are obscure in the
> teachings of Bahá’u’lláh.
> 
> The Bahá’í Administrative Order, functioning under the direction of the
> Universal House of Justice, consists, on the one hand, of elected
> National and Local Spiritual Assemblies, which are scattered over the
> entire length and breadth of the planet and which guide and coordinate
> the activities of the Bahá’í community. The Administrative Order also
> includes, on the other hand, eminent and devoted believers designated
> as Hands of the Cause of God, Counselors, Auxiliary Board members
> and their assistants, all of whom are appointed to provide a vital
> counseling and advisory function to the Spiritual Assemblies and to the
> believers generally under the guidance of an International Teaching
> Center.
> 
> A detailed exposition of the Bahá’í Administrative Order is far beyond
> the purposes of this book. However, certain features are of particular
> relevance to the theme of the achievement of equality of the sexes.
> There is no priesthood in the Bahá’í Faith and no ecclesiastical
> structure, thus removing that element of religious organization which
> has traditionally been associated with the suppression of women.
> Entirely absent also are any means by which the views and
> assumptions of individual Bahá’ís can be incorporated into the body of
> Bahá’í belief, since authoritative interpretation and legislation are
> restricted to those institutions ordained by Bahá’u’lláh and clarified by
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. The process apparent in religious history, by which the
> freedom accorded to women by the Founder of each religion was
> gradually abridged or abrogated by dominant individuals or vested
> interests in later years, is prevented from taking root in the Bahá’í
> community, through the provisions of the Covenant, as described in
> chapter 7. The true purpose of religion is, as stated above, to liberate
> the human spirit and to foster initiative, freedom of thought, and
> creativity; the Bahá’í Administrative Order, by imposing sharp and
> precisely defined limits on authoritative interpretation, provides the
> freedom for the individual to practice these virtues and to express his or
> her individual interpretation and understanding of the teachings of this
> religion. Thus intellectual vitality is stimulated, cultural diversity is
> fostered, and legitimate rights of self-expression are safeguarded.
> 
> An administrative system that relies entirely on the goodness of people
> and which has no provision to protect itself against malicious or
> ambitious elements within its community will surely be vulnerable to
> disruption and distortion. The Bahá’í Administrative Order has
> carefully designed safeguards that have successfully preserved its
> integrity and unity after more than a century of attempts to divide it and
> pervert its aims; these are discussed in detail in books that analyze this
> Order. There is no legitimate means by which any individual can seize
> power or claim authority; the men and women who serve on the Faith’s
> consultative National and Local Spiritual Assemblies perform
> functions in guiding the affairs of the community that cannot be
> assumed by any individual. Their endeavors, under the supervision of
> the Universal House of Justice, ensure that the Bahá’í community
> remains committed unequivocally to the pursuit of its exalted
> objectives, including the establishment of the practice of the equality of
> the sexes.
> 
> The Use of Power
> 
> Power is indispensable to the accomplishment of all endeavors. A
> variety of forms are employed in the world today as individuals strive
> to have their views and aims accepted by the mass of the people-forms
> ranging from the power of persuasion to the coercive exercise of
> physical, economic, or military power, and including within this
> spectrum the power of large-scale financial resources and the power of
> influential persons.
> 
> The Bahá’í Faith is not oblivious to the need for power to accomplish
> its objectives of the transformation of individuals and of human society
> through the spread and implementation of its teachings. However, its
> approach to the use of power is radically different from the means
> listed above. It places its reliance on the mysterious spiritual powers of
> inspiration and motivation that are associated with accepting
> Bahá’u’lláh’s claim to be the Manifestation of God for this age and
> with the individual believer’s sincere and persistent striving to put into
> practice the teachings he or she has espoused. Without the assurance of
> this power, the Bahá’í teachings would be doomed to remain no more
> than an impractical dream and the followers of this Faith to be but
> well-meaning idealists vainly pursuing an unrealistic goal. With access
> to this spiritual power, change does occur, barriers are demolished, and
> dreams are translated into living reality.
> 
> THE PROCESS OF CHANGE
> 
> The Bahá’í Faith is a religion of change and regards all human beings
> as having the true purpose of participating in an ever-advancing
> civilization. Through the liberation of the human spirit and the practice
> of unified cooperation, the creative powers of humanity may be given
> full expression and may promote beneficial change and the enrichment
> of the life of all people.
> The historical process over a period of thousands of years has brought
> humanity to the present condition in which freedom, equality, and unity
> are both feasible and necessary as a consequence of the social,
> educational, and technological condition to which the world has
> advanced. One element of this condition is that the facilities now
> available to women for their emancipation and self-development are
> unprecedented.
> 
> The advance of this growing process has also given rise to a counterreaction that seeks to preserve the obsolescent outlook of earlier times
> and is resistant to change and innovation. The tumultuous present-day
> scene can thus be represented in terms of the simultaneous operation of
> processes of growth and decline. The tension between these two
> processes produces the antagonism and clashes of peoples, the fanatic
> extremism of the disoriented and the insecure, the breakdown of the
> social fabric, and the determination of conservative groups to resist the
> emancipation of women and the consequent changes in employment, in
> education, and in the dynamics of the family. The Bahá’í teachings
> give direction and focus to the growing process and are designed to
> accelerate its momentum and hasten the attainment of its objectives,
> upon which foundation an ever-advancing world civilization will be
> constructed. As the growing process continues to develop, the
> appropriateness and relevance of the Bahá’í teachings becomes more
> clearly evident to the unbiased observer, and the necessity of these
> teachings to produce harmony within and between individuals becomes
> more apparent.
> At this point in its development the worldwide Bahá’í community
> represents a steadily growing mass of people committed to the
> expression of all of the Bahá’í teachings, including those which pertain
> to the equality of the sexes. The Bahá’í community does not claim to
> have attained to the full expression of these precepts, and it is not
> difficult to notice examples of inadequacy in the practice of these
> teachings, most especially in cultural settings where age-old traditions
> have reinforced discrimination against women. It does, however, claim
> a consistent and unified commitment on the part of its administrative
> institutions to the implementation of these teachings, the result of
> which is a steady and relentless advance toward this exalted goal. Thus
> the Bahá’í community looks to the future with confidence that it will
> accomplish its objective to bring about equality of the sexes and that
> the liberation of women will be an essential component of the
> transformation of human society and the advance of civilization.
> 
> Defining ‘Equality’
> 
> . . . The position of women in the Bahá’í teachings
> . . . . is not only legal but also spiritual and educational.
> 
> –Shoghi Effendi
> 
> Only as women are welcomed into
> full partnership in all fields of human endeavor
> will the moral and psychological climate
> be created in which international peace
> can emerge.
> 
> –The Universal House of Justice
> THE SIGNIFICANCE OF EQUALITY
> 
> Universal acknowledgment of the equality of men and women is
> fundamental to peace and the survival of humanity. Implementation of
> the principle of equality challenges traditional practices, necessitates a
> reexamination of the long-held assumptions underlying all human
> relationships from the family to society at large, and even demands a
> reconsideration of the concept of individual identity. Because it is so
> interwoven with all other facets of life, the practice of the equality of
> the sexes impinges on all human beings–women and men alike.
> 
> A major obstacle to acceptance of the equality of women and men is
> the lack of a clear definition of the meaning of equality and the lack of
> understanding of how it applies in daily life. The absence of a
> definition leads to the expression of conflicting and often hotly
> contested views, a retreat into sexual stereotypes, and the projection of
> one’s worst fears onto the situation. Not only are people unclear about
> the meaning of equality, but, given the changes that have taken place in
> recent years in the structure of the family and in the degree of
> participation of women in society, the old certainties have been
> removed, and most individuals feel that they have no sure basis for
> evaluating the appropriateness of their behavior.
> 
> This chapter presents a brief survey of the manner in which women
> have been treated in ages past to provide a framework in which the
> significance of the Bahá’í teachings on the equality of men and women
> can best be appreciated. The basic features of these teachings are set
> out here, with certain aspects being discussed in greater detail in
> succeeding chapters.
> 
> A BRIEF HISTORICAL SURVEY
> 
> This brief survey is no more than an introduction to a complex and
> controversial subject about which much has been written and which
> will be seen in a clearer light as future scholars attach greater
> significance to it. A study of the treatment of women in ancient days is
> of value, not only as a useful subject of historical inquiry, but-even
> more important-because we believe that discriminatory attitudes
> toward women which were apparent at distant times find their echo in
> the modern day. Through the insights provided by the Bahá’í teachings
> it becomes apparent that a survey of the effect of religion on the status
> of women must also distinguish between the illumined attitudes toward
> women expressed by the Manifestations of God, Who were the
> Founders of the great religions of the world, and the unfortunate
> conduct and attitudes exhibited by many of the adherents of these
> religions in subsequent decades and centuries.
> 
> Attitudes towards Women in Antiquity
> 
> As the sciences of archaeology and anthropology continue to develop,
> greater insight will doubtless be obtained into the role of women in
> antiquity. While there is now impressive evidence that, in some areas,
> there were periods in which women occupied a position of power and
> even dominance in society, this was the exception rather than the rule.1
> The world was ruled by force, and pursuits dependent on physical
> strength-warfare, the hunting of animals, the construction of edifices
> were recognized as being vital to the survival of a social group in a
> hostile world. In such a setting women were often at a disadvantage
> and at the mercy of their menfolk. They were socialized to adopt a
> passive and subservient role when confronted with the aggressive
> attitudes that were characteristic of men engaged in a daily struggle for
> survival. Thus ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states,
> 
> The world in the past has been ruled by force, and man has dominated
> over woman by reason of his more forceful and aggressive qualities
> both of body and mind. But the balance is already shifting; force is
> losing its dominance, and mental alertness, intuition, and the spiritual
> qualities of love and service, in which woman is strong, are gaining
> ascendancy.2
> 
> In such times, with warfare prevalent, the demographic balance was
> altered by the killing of men in battle. This may have been one of the
> factors that gave rise to polygamy in the past. Our knowledge of the
> past is too fragmentary to permit a comprehensive analysis of the
> attitudes toward women which existed in the diverse cultures of the
> world over a vast span of time; it is possible, however, to identify some
> of the principal attitudes that were apparent. Studies in the psychology
> of women have characterized these attitudes as having a mythic form,
> representing beliefs that served to explain that which was mysterious
> and unknown. As social scientist Juanita Williams has pointed out,
> “The tenacity and continuity of these beliefs in different eras and
> cultures must mean that they serve potent needs in the human
> experience.”3
> One attitude found in many cultures derived from the association of the
> female of the species with Mother Nature as a source of fertility and the
> appearance of new life. Since nature was manifestly unfathomable,
> capricious, and uncontrollable, these characteristics became associated
> with women. The worship of fertility found its expression in the
> mythological mother goddesses of creation. In some cultures the need
> to appease nature and prevent it from exercising its violent and
> destructive potential on the frail inhabitants of its domain led to the
> sacrifice of girls and women at critical times in the succession of
> seasons. Woman, subject to the periodicity of natural biological
> processes, was regarded at such times as being intrinsically unclean
> and in need of ritual purification and seclusion.4 Even today there is a
> tendency to stigmatize women as irrational and unpredictable, to regard
> them as prisoners of uncontrollable hormonal influences, and to assess
> them as having minimal social value beyond the reproduction of the
> species and the performance of domestic duties. Societies under stress
> still tend to choose women as their scapegoats, blaming them for such
> complex problems as unemployment, the fragmentation of the family,
> and the rise of juvenile delinquency.
> 
> Another theme prevalent in certain areas was that of woman as an
> agent of evil, having access to powers that could divert men from the
> exalted purpose of their lives. Ambivalence about the mysterious
> powers of sexual attraction resulted in woman’s being condemned as an
> enchantress, sexually promiscuous, and irresistible if approached too
> closely. Hence women were to be veiled and confined to a restricted
> area lest they shamelessly tempt a virtuous male to fall from grace.
> Misfortunes were ascribed to the actions of witches, whose
> manipulation of evil forces could only be terminated by their
> execution. Vestiges of these attitudes are to be found today, even in
> those societies that pride themselves in their enlightenment, in the
> occasional tendency to blame victims of rape and sexual harassment for
> the violence and degradation to which they have been subjected.
> Woman was, in many parts of the world, considered to be inferior and
> thus not worthy of the rights assigned to men. She was weak and
> vulnerable, included in the property of the men, and required to carry
> out the most menial of tasks without any thought that she, too, might be
> a being of emotion, sensitivity, intelligence, and aspiration. As
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá says in commenting on the position of women in Asia in
> the past,
> 
> Formerly in India, Persia and throughout the Orient, she was not
> considered a human being. Certain Arab tribes counted their women
> in with the livestock. In their language the noun for woman also
> meant donkey; that is, the same name applied to both and a man’s
> wealth was accounted by the number of these beasts of burden he
> possessed. The worst insult one could hurl at a man was to cry out,
> “Thou woman!”5
> 
> It is impossible to comprehend adequately the degree of suffering and
> degradation one-half of the human race has endured over countless
> centuries in a world where force prevailed and dominance belonged to
> the physically strong and aggressive.
> 
> Teachings of the Manifestations of God
> It is a cardinal element of Bahá’í belief that Manifestations of God
> have come to humanity at intervals throughout history, each one
> revealing divine teachings that include a reiteration of eternal spiritual
> principles and an application of these principles to the needs and
> opportunities of the social milieu in which the Manifestation appears.
> 
> All Manifestations have taught that there is no spiritual distinction
> between men and women. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains that
> 
> . . . women are accounted the same as men, and God hath created all
> humankind in His own image, and after His own likeness. That is,
> men and women alike are the revealers of His names and attributes,
> and from the spiritual viewpoint there is no difference between them.
> Whosoever draweth nearer to God, that one is the most favored,
> whether man or woman.6
> 
> A consequence of the Bahá’í perspective on the revealed religions of
> the world is the belief that if it were possible to have access to the
> authentic record of the messages of the Manifestations who lived
> thousands of years ago, historical evidence in support of this viewpoint
> would be found. Such evidence is to be found in both the Bible and the
> Qur’an. In the Book of Genesis we read that “God created man in his
> own image ; male and female he created them” (Gen. 1: 277), thus
> affirming that men and women possess identical spiritual natures. The
> New Testament contains many examples of the spiritual equality that
> was expressed in the attitude of Jesus Christ toward women: The
> inclusion of women as well as of men in the parables, the healing of
> women and of men, and the crucial role assigned to Mary Magdalene
> are but a few examples of this perspective. Much insight might be
> obtained from John 4, which tells of the encounter between Jesus and
> the woman from Samaria; she is treated with a courtesy and respect
> that amazes the disciples, she is converted by Jesus to the new religion,
> and she becomes His emissary in proclaiming His coming to the
> Samaritans in the city of Sychar. The spiritual condition of women is
> described in the words of the New Testament, which says, “There is
> neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither
> male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Gal. 3: 28).
> 
> In several places in the Qur’an, Muḥammad sets out the spiritual
> equality of men and women. The following passage provides an
> example:
> 
> Surely the men who submit and the women who submit, and the
> believing men and the believing women, and the obeying men and the
> obeying women, and the truthful men and the truthful women, and the
> patient men and the patient women, and the humble men and the
> humble women, and the charitable men and the charitable women,
> and the fasting men and the fasting women, and the men who guard
> their chastity and the women who guard, and the men who remember
> Allāh much and the women who remember Allāh has prepared for
> them forgiveness and a mighty reward. (Qur’an 33: 358)
> 
> Here and in other passages of the Qur’an emphasis is placed on the
> lack of distinction between men and women in their quest for spiritual
> development and in their spiritual natures.
> 
> A distinction must be made between the spiritual equality of men and
> women, which is reiterated by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in the statement that “God
> has created all mankind, and in the estimation of God there is no
> distinction as to male and female,” and the expression of social equality
> in the rights and functions that were assigned to women in the life of
> the community. Because of the nature of the society in which each
> Manifestation appeared, the reaffirmation of spiritual equality was not
> matched by social equality in the authentic teachings of these religions.
> In the words of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, “From the beginning of existence until
> the Promised Day men retained superiority over women in every
> respect.” Referring again to the uniqueness of the social equality
> ordained in the message of Bahá’u’lláh, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states, “He
> establishes the equality of man and woman. This is peculiar to the
> teachings of Bahá’u’lláh, for all other religions have placed man above
> woman.”9
> 
> It is clear that the social position of women was advanced significantly
> by the account of the life of Jesus and by His teachings. Women were
> encouraged to participate fully in religious activities, and the record of
> the Acts of the Apostles indicates that women were engaged in regular
> study of the scriptures, in proclaiming the good news of the coming of
> the Son of God, and in forming part of a community in which their
> voice was heard and their opinions accorded respect. In matters of
> marriage and divorce, Jesus ordained that men and women be treated
> evenhandedly, thus giving women greater rights than they had
> previously been assigned. However, there was no prohibition on
> polygamy, and the selection of men as the twelve disciples formed the
> basis for the male hierarchy of the church, because there were no
> statements from Jesus setting out the rights of women to participate in
> the organization of the religious community.
> The Qur’an did much to raise the status of women, forbidding female
> infanticide, providing a limitation on polygamy and extending to
> women the right to initiate divorce proceedings, giving to women
> rights of inheritance and of retention of their own earnings, specifying
> a dowry to be given to the wife by her husband at the time of marriage,
> and prescribing an equitable approach to the resolution of marital
> discord. Despite such improvements, social equality was not ordained
> in the Qur’an; in setting out conditions for formulation of a contract
> governing the lending of money, either one man or two women are to
> witness the document. In the administration of the household the
> husband is given rights superior to those of his wife. The Qur’an
> states, in reference to the rights of men and women in marriage, ‘‘And
> women have rights similar to those against them in a just manner, and
> men are a degree above them” (Qur’an 2: 228).
> 
> A particularly important passage that is often quoted in discussions of
> the position of women is Qur’an 4: 34, which states,
> 
> Men are the maintainers of women, with what Allāh has made some
> of them to excel others and with what they spend out of their wealth.
> So the good women are obedient, guarding the unseen as Allāh has
> guarded. And (as to) those on whose part you fear desertion,
> admonish them, and leave them alone in the beds and chastise them.
> So if they obey you, seek not a way against them. Surely Allāh is
> ever Exalted, Great.
> 
> As might be expected, this passage has been the subject of considerable
> disagreement and controversy among Muslim commentators. The
> Arabic term nushúz, translated here as “desertion,” is described by
> eminent Arabic scholars as covering a wide range of meanings,
> including revolting against the husband; resisting, hating, and deserting
> him; leaving his place and taking up an abode which he does not like.
> Commentators agree that the three penalties set out are progressive,
> dependent on the degree of violation; for example, resistance to the
> husband’s authority is to be remedied with a simple admonition; if
> hatred is combined with resistance to authority, marital separation is to
> occur; in extreme cases, when there is desertion, hatred, and a state of
> revolt against the husband’s authority, chastisement, including corporal
> punishment, is permitted. It would be quite misleading to attempt to
> assess the appropriateness of such a set of penalties, which were
> designed for use in the social system of that period in history, according
> to present-day standards which assume an organized society and a
> developed legal system that has its own set of penalties for
> undermining the social order.
> 
> Religious Practice
> 
> The attitudes toward women set out in the Christian Gospels and in the
> Qur’an differ quite significantly from the approach to women that
> Christian and Muslim societies have exhibited in the statements of
> many of their religious leaders about women, in their laws regulating
> female conduct, and in their treatment of women. The hierarchies of
> both religions have consistently accorded women an inferior position
> that is not supported by the authoritative statements of their Founders
> and have, at times, even gone to the extreme length of denying the
> spiritual equality of men and women.
> Before examining this development in detail, it is worthwhile to inquire
> how so significant a departure from the principles set out in the
> statements of Christ and Muḥammad could have occurred. In essence,
> the discriminatory attitudes that existed in ancient times were permitted
> to reemerge and to become dominant, casting women back into the
> inferior position from which the Founders of these religions had sought
> to rescue them.
> 
> The Bahá’í teachings provide insight into the reasons for the failure of
> a religious community to preserve its pristine purity. They are
> manifold but include the following: the lack of a universally accepted
> source of authoritative interpretation of the words of the Founder, with
> the result that some crucial terms were open to being understood in a
> variety of ways, thereby giving rise, in certain instances, to a highly
> discriminatory interpretation; the assignment of unwarranted authority
> to the views of charismatic religious leaders, who were often
> unwittingly influenced by the discriminatory culture from which they
> arose, and whose words were given an authority equal to that of the
> Founder; the admission to the sacred canon of oral traditions, many of
> which were of questionable validity and accuracy, and which came to
> possess an authority equivalent to that of the Sacred Text; the
> unjustified generalizations made from the specific action of the
> Founder in a particular situation of which all the details are not known;
> the compromises made to the presentation of the new teachings to
> accommodate prevailing cultural views about the inferiority of women,
> motivated by the desire to make the religion more palatable to the
> masses and thus to increase the number of converts; and the vested
> interests of an exclusively male ecclesiastical establishment in
> preserving its position, privileges, and prerogatives through the
> suppression of women. The end result has been the inferior position
> assigned to women in much of the Christian and Islamic worlds. This
> brief analysis shows why great importance is attached to the Covenant
> of Bahá’u’lláh as the guarantor that the Bahá’í Dispensation will not be
> subject to the loss of integrity and purity that has occurred in the past,
> and why the provisions of the Covenant are regarded as occupying a
> central position in the Bahá’í prescription for the emancipation of
> women.
> 
> The Christian attitude toward women was strongly influenced by the
> epistles to the early churches, many of which were either written by, or
> are attributed to, Paul. While the advice and admonitions set out in
> these epistles may have been intended for a particular time and
> circumstance, their inclusion in the New Testament led to their being
> accorded a much more general applicability. Among the statements to
> be found there are that “the head of a woman is her husband” (1 Cor.
> 11: 3), that “any woman who prays or prophesies with her head
> unveiled dishonors her head” (1 Cor. 11: 5), and that “the women
> should keep silence in the churches. For they are not permitted to
> speak, but should be subordinate, as even the law says. If there is
> anything they desire to know, let them ask their husbands at home. For
> it is shameful for a woman to speak in church’’ (1 Cor. 14: 34-35).
> Statements such as these have no basis in the words of Jesus Christ
> and stand in striking contrast to His attitude toward women during His
> ministry.
> A particularly significant element of Paul’s view of women is set out in
> the following passage:
> 
> Let a woman learn in silence with all submissiveness. I permit no
> woman to teach or to have authority over men; she is to keep silent.
> For Adam was formed first, then Eve; and Adam was not deceived,
> but the woman was deceived and became a transgressor. (1 Tim.
> 2:11-14)
> 
> In this passage is to be found a revival of the pre-Christian view of
> woman as a source of evil and as a temptress, as well as the basis for
> what became the Christian view that woman, through Eve, was
> responsible for original sin. As stated in another epistle, “the serpent
> deceived Eve by his cunning” (2 Cor. 11:3). This literal interpretation
> of Genesis 3:1-7 was reinforced by Saint Augustine in the fifth century
> A.D. in his work The City of God, in which he follows Paul by
> asserting that the serpent, being commissioned by a fallen angel to
> bring about the fall of man from his pure condition, “tried his deceit
> upon the woman, making his assault upon the weaker part of that
> human alliance, that he might gradually gain the whole, and not
> supposing that the man would readily give ear to him, or be deceived,
> but that he might yield to the error of the woman.”10 The Christian
> doctrine of original sin is thus associated with a transgression induced
> by the weakness of Eve and by her temptation of Adam.
> 
> From a Bahá’í perspective this interpretation of Genesis is quite
> incorrect. In a talk, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá summarizes the account of Adam
> and Eve in Genesis, stating,
> If we take this story in its apparent meaning, according to the
> interpretation of the masses, it is indeed extraordinary. The
> intelligence cannot accept it, affirm it, or imagine it; for such
> arrangements, such details, such speeches and reproaches are far from
> being those of an intelligent man,11 how much less of the Divinity.12
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá clarifies that “this story of Adam and Eve who ate from
> the tree, and their expulsion from Paradise, must be thought of simply
> as a symbol,” and then offers a symbolic interpretation that is far
> removed from that enshrined in Christian theology. Abdu’l-Bahá
> rejects the doctrine of original sin as being “far from the justice of
> God” and asserts that “Such an idea is beyond every law and rule and
> cannot be accepted by any intelligent person.”13
> 
> Although it is beyond the scope of this work to attempt to trace the
> attitude toward women which developed in Christian theological
> thought through the centuries, mention needs to be made of Saint
> Thomas Aquinas since his work was destined to become a central
> element in the formulation of dogma in the Roman Catholic Church.
> His Summa Theologica, written in the thirteenth century A.D., aimed
> to provide a systematic treatment of the theological doctrines arising
> from the Scriptures and to present a rational justification for these
> doctrines. Aquinas’s view of women, derived in part from Aristotle, is
> that
> 
> As regards the individual nature, woman is defective and
> misbegotten, for the active force in the male seed tends to the
> production of a perfect likeness in the masculine sex; while the
> production of woman comes from defect in the active force or from
> some material indisposition . . .14
> 
> Aquinas goes on to state that, “as regards human nature in general,
> woman is not misbegotten, but is intended by nature, and ordered for
> the work of generation. “Having categorized woman as being fit only
> for childbearing, he contrasts her function with that of man, stating that
> man’s role is to participate in the sexual act, but that “man is yet further
> ordered to a still nobler vital action, and that is intellectual operation.”
> A logical consequence of the intellectual inferiority he ascribes to
> woman is his assertion that “woman is naturally subject to man,
> because in man the discretion of reason predominates.”15 This grossly
> distorted line of thought, far removed from the attitude and statements
> of Jesus Christ, may be regarded as contributing to the degrading
> mistreatment of women during the centuries of orthodox Christian
> influence on society, as well as to the psychological and physical abuse
> of women, to the denial of education and legal rights to women, to the
> suppression of their participation in religious leadership or in the
> intellectual activity of their community, and, in the more shameful
> periods of human history, to the condemnation of women as witches
> and as embodiments of evil, and to the idealization of the celibate state.
> 
> Turning now to Islam, one can see that the Muslim attitude toward
> women differed generally from that set down in the Qur’an. This is
> due to a combination of factors of which the predominant may be the
> authority given by Muslims to hadith, oral statements attributed
> traditionally to Muḥammad. These traditions came, ultimately, to
> possess an authority equivalent to that of the Qur’an in prescribing law
> and conduct. The major collections were formulated some two
> centuries after the death of Muḥammad and included a vast amount of
> spurious material; Al-Bukhari, the compiler of Al Sahih, a well-known
> collection, reported that he had assembled 600,000 hadith, of which he
> regarded only some 7,200 as authentic! An analysis of the
> circumstances under which spurious hadith were circulated revealed
> that some were formulated by people anxious to enhance their own
> reputation, while others arose from those seeking ideological advantage
> through the manufacture of hadith which reinforced their own
> viewpoint; other individuals who were the source of hadith can best be
> characterized as honest but mistaken. Beyond that, many hadith were
> subject to inadvertent distortion in the process of transmission from one
> person to another in the two hundred years intervening between a
> statement by Muḥammad and its inclusion in a compilation. Further
> problems arise from the tendency to generalize statements made by
> Muḥammad in response to specific and unusual circumstances, the
> precise details of which may well have been lost with the passage of
> time. Despite these limitations it must be admitted that not all hadith
> suffered from such defects, and some provide interesting and useful
> insights into the application of the principles set out in the Qur’an or
> into Muslim history.
> 
> The result of the attribution of authority to oral statements was a
> tendency to the reemergence of the highly discriminatory pre-Islamic
> attitudes toward women under the guise of hadith ascribed to
> Muḥammad. Fatima Mernissi, a contemporary Muslim author, has
> studied the origins of two such hadith, which had been accepted by Al-
> Bukhari after he had rejected 593,000 of his original collection of
> 600,000, and has shown them to be highly unlikely to be valid. These
> two hadith- “Those who entrust their affairs to a woman will never
> know prosperity” and “The dog, the ass, and woman interrupt prayer if
> they pass in front of the believer”–are indicative of the manner in
> which the rights conferred upon women in the Qur’an and the spiritual
> equality set out in that Book were undermined by some influential
> members of the male-dominated Muslim hierarchy through the use of
> hadith in the years following Muḥammad’s passing.16
> 
> Further diminution of the rights of women occurred as a consequence
> of a distortion of the intent of Qur’anic verses prescribing modesty of
> dress and conduct, resulting in the creation of a spurious justification
> for the veiling of women and their seclusion from the society outside
> the confines of the home; this may well be regarded as the reassertion
> of the ancient view that woman is a temptress from whom virtuous men
> are to be protected and that she is mentally inferior and thus
> unqualified for education or participation in the intellectual life of the
> community. The seclusion of women created conditions that
> reinforced male prejudices about the inferiority of women: Unable to
> secure education or to participate in those activities that would be
> culturally enriching, intellectually stimulating, or financially
> remunerative, women were condemned to ignorance and total
> dependence on the male members of their family. The feminine ideal
> became the docile woman who was totally submissive to her male
> authority: –initially her father and then her husband or her brothers and
> vulnerable to punishment, abuse, or desertion if she dared to show
> signs of self-assertiveness or independence. Some hadith falsely
> claimed that Muḥammad had remarked upon the high female
> population of hell, which was purportedly due to so many women’s
> being ungrateful and unfaithful to their husbands. Such views
> introduced distortions into a religion that had been successful in
> eliminating the worship of idols, endorsing women’s idolatrous
> worship of their husbands under penalty of consignment to the fires of
> hell.17
> 
> With the natural equilibrium arising from equality between the sexes
> disturbed, male arrogance and preoccupation with honor were inflated.
> An indolent wife became a sign of her husband’s affluence, and her
> engagement in work outside the home reflected adversely on his honor.
> If she produced female children, his honor was again debased, since the
> prevailing folklore held that the sex of the embryo was determined by
> that of the dominant parent.
> 
> The tendency to debase women into sexual objects was reinforced by
> the generally accepted scholarly interpretations of Qur’anic verses. An
> example is to be found in Qur’an 52: 20, where the rewards of the
> afterlife for faithful believers are suggested by the statement, “We shall
> join them to pure; beautiful ones,” who are designated by the Arabic
> term húr, the literal translation of which is generally taken to be “those
> who are pure. “Interpreters built upon this a vivid description of a male
> paradise in which an inexhaustible supply of beautiful virgin females
> were readily available for the sexual gratification of the male appetite.
> This licentious image has persisted despite the careful analysis of
> contemporary Muslim commentators such as Maulānā Muḥammad
> ‘Ali, who have shown, on the basis of the meaning and usage of the
> original Arabic words and of the Qur’anic statements that both men
> and women will enjoy the rewards of the afterlife, that the term húr
> should properly be taken to refer to spiritual insights and previously
> unknown truths.18
> 
> In summary, there are significant elements in the practice of both
> Christianity and Islam that have departed greatly from the teachings on
> spiritual equality given by their Founders. Traditional attitudes
> succeeded in diminishing the status and freedom that were prescribed
> for women, and untold millions of faithful female adherents of these
> religions consequently suffered lives of misery, degradation, and
> ignorance. The present-day reaction in some quarters to this
> distressing record of oppression has been, most unfortunately, to
> engage in condemnation of the Founders for the actions of their
> misguided or malicious followers, and some critics have proceeded to
> the extreme of advocating the discarding of religion itself as a
> necessary prerequisite to the emancipation of women. Neither of these
> views is valid. The Bahá’í Faith aims to use the power of religion to
> accomplish this necessary emancipation and has, in the provisions of
> the Covenant that is a crucial element of its teachings, carefully
> designed safeguards to avoid the distortion and deviation that have
> been so highly destructive of the aims of the Manifestations of God in
> past Dispensations.
> 
> BAHÁ’Í TEACHINGS ON EQUALITY
> 
> The principle of the oneness of humankind is described in the Bahá’í
> writings as the pivot around which all the teachings of Bahá’u’lláh
> revolve. Stressing the significance of this principle, the Universal
> House of Justice, in a letter written on its behalf, states,
> 
> It has widespread implications which affect and remold all dimensions
> of human activity. It calls for a fundamental change in the manner in
> which people relate to each other, and the eradication of those age-old
> practices which deny the intrinsic human right of every individual to be
> treated with consideration and respect.19
> 
> The equality of men and women is an important element in the
> achievement of the oneness of the human family. The Bahá’í Faith is
> the first revealed religion in the entire span of recorded history to have
> affirmed, as an integral element of its teachings, not only that the
> equality of women and men must be regarded as a spiritual reality, but
> that this equality must be expressed in both individual and social
> practice. This total commitment to the full expression of equality in all
> aspects of human life is a hallmark of the Bahá’í Faith. From the
> Bahá’í perspective, equality is not solely a matter of obtaining personal
> rights and opportunities. It is an essential prerequisite to the
> establishment of peace, and its attainment is indispensable for the full
> development of both men and women. The definition of equality
> expressed in the Bahá’í Faith is best discerned through consideration of
> the entire range of its teachings and cannot be summarized in a succinct
> phrase or statement.
> 
> The changes on a personal and social level necessary to make equality
> an established reality are far-reaching. The practice of equality
> requires not only basic changes in attitudes and behavior by both
> women and men but also a fundamental alteration to the structure of
> society to provide the necessary legal rights and to provide educational
> and employment opportunities for women. A distinguishing feature of
> the approach to change outlined in the Bahá’í writings is that it fosters
> the practice of equality by men and women in such a way as to
> preserve and indeed strengthen the fundamental unity of the family and
> society. The methods employed emphasize cooperation, mutual
> encouragement and support, and consultation.
> 
> A Spiritual and Social Principle
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh unequivocally asserts the spiritual equality of women and
> men. He states that ‘‘. All should know . . . women and men have
> been and will always be equal in the sight of God,” and He indicates
> that, “In this Day the Hand of divine grace hath removed all
> distinctions. The servants of God and His handmaidens are regarded
> on the same plane.” Bahá’u’lláh affirms that “The most beloved of
> people before God are the most steadfast and those who have surpassed
> others in their love for God. . . ”20
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá confirms that men and women alike are the revealers of
> the names and attributes of God, clearly stating that “from the spiritual
> viewpoint there is no difference between them.”21 In one of His Tablets
> He provides the following comment about the nature of the soul:
> 
> Know thou that the distinction between male and female is an exigency
> of the physical world and hath no connection with the spirit; for the
> spirit and the world of the spirit are sanctified above such exigencies,
> and wholly beyond the reach of such changes as befall the physical
> body in the contingent world.22
> In the same Tablet, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá provides insight into what is required
> now, in contrast to times past, in relation to the practical expression of
> this spiritual principle:
> 
> In former ages, men enjoyed ascendancy over women because bodily
> might reigned supreme and the spirit was subject to its dominion. In
> this radiant age, however, since the power of the spirit hath
> transcended that of the body and assumed its ascendancy, authority
> and dominion over the human world, this physical distinction hath
> ceased to be of consequence; and, as the sway and influence of the
> spirit have become apparent, women have come to be the full equals
> of men. Today, therefore, there is no respect or circumstance in
> which a person’s sex provideth grounds for the exercise of either
> discrimination or favor.23
> 
> As a spiritual principle, the equality of men and women has relevance
> to humankind as a whole. The equality of the sexes is, therefore, not
> an injunction that applies to only one-half of the human race. Its
> practice is a spiritual duty for all Bahá’ís, women and men alike. All
> Bahá’ís are required, as a matter of belief, to commit themselves to
> implementing it in their personal conduct, to encouraging its practice
> by others, and to fostering the means by which it is reflected in the
> operation of the institutions of society. In addition to emphasizing
> spiritual equality, the Bahá’í teachings clearly affirm that women’s
> moral qualities and intellectual abilities are equal to those of men and
> that women are entitled to rights and opportunities equal to those of
> men.
> In the Bahá’í writings are to be found specific practical provisions for
> promoting the equality of women and men, for fostering the
> development of full partnership, and for modifying the “harmful
> attitudes and habits” that stand in the way of the emancipation of
> women. From the Bahá’í perspective, there are a number of important
> prerequisites to the emancipation of women. These include the right of
> women to be respected as human beings, to be accorded civil and legal
> rights equal to those of men, and to have these rights protected by the
> society at large. In one of His Tablets Bahá’u’lláh explicitly states that
> women enjoy “a station and rank on the same plane” as men. ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá indicates that “Women have equal rights with men upon earth; in
> religion and society they are a very important element,” and He calls
> attention to the fact that “Divine Justice demands that the rights of both
> sexes should be equally respected since neither is superior to the other
> in the eyes of Heaven.”24
> 
> The Bahá’í writings spell out some of the implications of equal rights
> for women. Such rights include equality of opportunity in education
> and employment, the right to vote and to participate in government,
> and equality in all departments of life. It is important to recognize that
> these authoritative statements from the Bahá’í writings are regarded by
> Bahá’ís as expressions of the Divine Will; thus Bahá’ís regard it as a
> religious obligation to heed the call of these writings for changes in
> both attitudes and legal systems to accommodate this new reality. To
> deprive women arbitrarily of these rights and privileges is both
> immoral and unjust, a violation of God’s law. It has a detrimental
> effect on the individual woman’s sense of self and her peace of mind
> and undermines the “moral and psychological climate” of society.25
> The emancipation of women and the achievement of “full equality”
> demands the recognition that women and men alike are endowed with
> talents and abilities. In the words of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, “. . . it is well
> established that mankind and womankind as parts of composite
> humanity are coequal and that no difference in estimate is allowable,
> for all are human.”26 The achievement of equality requires that women
> have the opportunity to demonstrate their abilities by obtaining
> education and participating in all fields of human endeavor.
> 
> The Education of Girls and Women
> 
> The Bahá’í writings affirm that many of the differences apparent
> between women and men, the differing functions assigned to them, and
> the inequities that persist, are due to the fact that women have been,
> and in many parts of the world continue to be, deprived of education
> and the opportunity to develop those skills that would enable them to
> participate fully in society. In one of His talks ‘Abdu’l-Bahá makes the
> following observation:
> 
> The difference in capability between man and woman is due entirely to
> opportunity and education. Heretofore woman has been denied the
> right and privilege of equal development. If equal opportunity be
> granted her, there is no doubt she would be the peer of man.27
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá further stresses the role of education in establishing the
> equality of women:
> 
> . . . if woman be fully educated and granted her rights, she will attain
> the capacity for wonderful accomplishments and prove herself the
> equal of man. She is the coadjutor of man, his complement and
> helpmeet. Both are human; both are endowed with potentialities of
> intelligence and embody the virtues of humanity. In all human
> powers and functions they are partners and coequals. At present in
> spheres of human activity woman does not manifest her natal
> prerogatives, owing to lack of education and opportunity. Without
> doubt education will establish her equality with men.28
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá underlines the importance of according women
> opportunities equal to those open to men. He indicates that “The sex
> distinction which exists in the human world is due to the lack of
> education for woman, who has been denied equal opportunity for
> development and advancement,” and He states that “Equality of the
> sexes will be established in proportion to the increased opportunities
> afforded woman in this age.”29
> 
> In the Bahá’í teachings great emphasis is placed on the acquisition of
> knowledge in all of its forms, and education is highly valued.
> According to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, the education of each child is compulsory.
> He asserts that “Universal education is a universal law” and draws
> attention to the means, through the implementation of this instruction,
> for changing traditional and prejudiced attitudes, removing barriers
> between the sexes, and promoting recognition of the oneness of
> humanity.30 Writing on this subject, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states,
> 
> . . . inasmuch as ignorance and lack of education are barriers of
> separation among mankind, all must receive training and instruction.
> Through this provision the lack of mutual understanding will be
> remedied and the unity of mankind furthered and advanced.31
> 
> Likewise, the Universal House of Justice notes in a statement on peace
> that “ignorance is indisputably the principal reason for the decline and
> fall of peoples and the perpetuation of prejudice.” Consequently “No
> nation can achieve success unless education is accorded all its
> citizens.”32
> 
> The importance accorded to the education of girls and women in the
> Bahá’í Faith is unique in religious history and quite revolutionary in its
> vision. Going beyond statements that access to education is vital for
> the development of women so that they can play an equal part in
> society, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá also states that, under certain circumstances,
> preference is to be given to the education of girls. In His Tablets,
> calling attention to the responsibility of parents to educate all their
> children, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá clearly specifies that the “training and culture
> of daughters is more necessary than that of sons,” for girls will one day
> be mothers, and mothers are the first educators of each generation. If it
> is not possible, therefore, for a family to educate all the children,
> perhaps due to limitations on available resources, preference is to be
> given to daughters, thus opening the way to terminate the process by
> which ignorance is transmitted from one generation to the next through
> mothers deprived of education. The Universal House of Justice has
> reiterated the importance of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s instruction in calling upon
> “decision-making agencies” concerned with the “cause of universal
> education” “to consider giving first priority to the education of women
> and girls, since it is through educated mothers that the benefits of
> knowledge can be most effectively and rapidly diffused throughout
> society.”33
> 
> One outcome of the Bahá’í emphasis on the education of daughters is
> that it draws attention to the value of the girl child. This emphasis is
> significant because, in many cultures, the girl child has a lower status
> and enjoys fewer rights and opportunities than her brothers. Many
> societies traditionally apply a different and discriminatory set of values
> and expectations to the girl child. All too often family decisions about
> the distribution of food, the allocation of household chores, the extent
> of health care and access to schooling, benefit boys to the detriment of
> the welfare of girls.34
> 
> The commitment to the education of girls and women, from the
> inception of the Bahá’í Faith, is demonstrated by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s
> encouragement of the Persian Bahá’ís to establish schools for girls at a
> time when there were no formal provisions for the education of girls in
> Persian society. Drawing attention to the importance of this activity,
> He states, “Devote ye particular attention to the school for girls, for the
> greatness of this wondrous Age will be manifested as a result of
> progress in the world of women.”35 The role of the Bahá’í family in the
> education of its female children is set out in chapter 3, and the presentday contribution of the worldwide Bahá’í community to the education
> of girls and women is described in chapter 6.
> 
> Another outstanding feature of the Bahá’í teachings on the equality of
> the sexes is that they call for the adoption of an identical program of
> education for men and women. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá indicates that “Daughters
> and sons must follow the same curriculum of study,” and He affirms
> that if woman were “given the same educational opportunities or
> course of study, she would develop the same capacity and abilities.”36
> The introduction of a curriculum to be followed by both girls and boys
> would help to undercut the pervasive tendency to channel males and
> females into different fields of study irrespective of their capacities.
> Traditionally girls are encouraged to pursue such subjects as the
> humanities, social sciences, and domestic arts, while boys pursue the
> physical sciences, industrial arts, and the professions. As a result
> women and men tend to be segregated into different fields of work,
> having markedly different levels of remuneration. So pervasive is this
> tendency that it has reinforced the attitude that women have neither the
> ability nor the temperament to succeed in areas of work where men
> have traditionally predominated. The effects of adopting a curriculum
> that makes no distinction on the basis of sex will be profound and will
> give rise to far-reaching changes in society.
> 
> The Bahá’í teachings concerning the importance of educating girls and
> women are a vital means of bringing into existence the new definition
> of equality between the sexes. These teachings assert the value of
> women. They provide women with the opportunity to demonstrate their
> skills and abilities, to prepare themselves for active participation in all
> areas of human endeavor, and to perform more capably their function
> as mothers and educators of the next generation. They foster a
> reexamination of traditional attitudes toward girls and women, help to
> redress past discriminatory practices, and set the agenda for changing
> curricula and for removing existing sex-stereotyped barriers in the
> world of work.
> The Participation of Women in the World at Large
> 
> The function of motherhood and being the first educator of the new
> generation is assigned a high position in the Bahá’í teachings.
> However, this does not mean that the Bahá’í Faith seeks to confine the
> role of women to the domestic setting. On the contrary, the Bahá’í
> concept of the equality of women and men calls for women to be
> involved in all fields of activity, as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá affirms: “Women
> must advance and fulfill their mission in all departments of life,
> becoming equal to men.”37 The standard of full partnership defined in
> the Bahá’í writings calls for women to be invited to participate in all
> fields of human endeavor: Indeed, the concept of “women’s work” and
> “men’s work” will become largely irrelevant. This is in dramatic
> contrast to religious practice in past ages-and in some parts of the
> world at the present time-where women were expected to be occupied
> solely with domestic pursuits, leaving to men the involvement in
> commerce and the professions. The movement of women into a wider
> field of endeavor in the twentieth century has been at the cost of their
> being accused of betraying their ordained female role and being blamed
> for the stress on family unity and for the adolescent behavioral
> problems that have occurred in the contemporary period.
> 
> In the statements of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, women are called upon, among
> other things, to “enter confidently and capably the great arena of laws
> and politics” and to devote their “energies and abilities toward the
> industrial and agricultural sciences.”38 That ‘Abdu’l-Bahá mentions
> such pursuits should not be taken to imply that women should refrain
> from entering the multitude of other fields of professional activity He
> does not mention. It is interesting, however, to note that these
> particular fields have traditionally been restricted to males only and
> have been notorious for the degree of prejudice encountered by women
> seeking entry and acceptance therein.
> 
> The Bahá’í Faith calls for justice to be the controlling principle in the
> operation of social institutions to the extent that its governing
> institutions are designated to be Houses of Justice. The application of
> justice in such areas of employment as appointment, promotion, and
> remuneration will directly benefit women; furthermore, the Bahá’í
> moral code will protect women against workplace intimidation and
> harassment.
> 
> Women’s full and equal participation in the life of society is a
> prerequisite to peace. The Universal House of Justice has clarified that
> 
> The emancipation of women, the achievement of full equality
> between the sexes, is one of the most important, though less
> acknowledged prerequisites of peace. The denial of such equality
> perpetrates an injustice against one-half of the world’s population and
> promotes in men harmful attitudes and habits that are carried from the
> family to the workplace, to political life, and ultimately to
> international relations. There are no grounds, moral, practical, or
> biological, upon which such denial can be justified. Only as women
> are welcomed into full partnership in all fields of human endeavor
> will the moral and psychological climate be created in which
> international peace can emerge.39
> Education provides women with access to positions of authority in the
> world at large. Such prominent positions enable women to influence
> thought, to bring to bear peace-inducing attitudes in governmental and
> administrative settings, and to be involved in making decisions that
> affect the future of society. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá highlights the importance of
> women’s contribution to peace, asserting that “when women participate
> fully and equally in the affairs of the world . . . war will cease.” He also
> links the attainment of the equality of women and men with lasting
> peace: “When . . . the equality of men and women [shall] be realized,
> the foundations of war will be utterly destroyed. Without equality this
> will be impossible . . .”40 The role of the Bahá’í family in the
> promotion of peace is described in chapter 3.
> 
> Complementary not Uniformity
> 
> One of the most interesting questions raised in recent years as the quest
> for fuller understanding of the relationship between the sexes proceeds
> is that of the differences between men and women in other than the
> obvious physical characteristics. At one extreme are to be found those
> who insist that there are no other differences and that a rigid insistence
> on absolute equality of function and treatment should prevail. The
> other extreme accommodates those who regard men and women as
> fundamentally different in nature and characteristics. Such a
> perspective promotes stereotypical views of men as being distinguished
> by their rationality and women by their intuition, a characterization that
> can very easily be used as a basis for the discriminatory treatment of
> women and their exclusion from professions that are dependent on the
> power of rational thought. Attempts to resolve this question simply by
> observing present-day behavior are of limited value because such
> conduct occurs in a society that continues to reflect the traditional
> segregation of roles as well as the lack of equality and denial of
> opportunity accorded to women. Genetic and neurophysiological
> studies are at an early stage but will doubtless provide much useful
> information as they proceed in the future.
> 
> The vital contribution of the Bahá’í Faith to this interesting and
> complex issue is found in statements that refer to the complementarity
> of the functions of men and women. This implies that there would be
> some differences of function within the context of equality. Writing on
> this theme, the Universal House of Justice states,
> 
> That men and women differ from one another in certain
> characteristics and functions is an inescapable fact of nature and
> makes possible their complementary roles in certain areas of the life
> of society; but it is significant that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá has stated that in this
> Dispensation ‘‘Equality of men and women, except in some negligible
> instances, has been fully and categorically announced.”41
> 
> The Bahá’í writings employ a number of graphic images to illustrate
> the similarities and differences that exist between women and men and
> the character of the relationship between them. For example, ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá states,
> 
> The world of humanity has two wings–one is women and the other
> men. Not until both wings are equally developed can the bird fly.
> Should one wing remain weak, flight is impossible. Not until the
> world of women becomes equal to the world of men in the acquisition
> of virtues and perfections, can success and prosperity be attained as
> they ought to be.42
> 
> The wings of a bird are structurally equivalent and perform similar
> functions. They are simply attached to opposite sides of the bird’s
> body, and one is not inherently to be preferred over the other. Both
> must work in cooperation for the bird to fly. Likewise, though
> differences exist between men and women, these differences are not so
> great as to prevent them from performing essentially similar functions.
> The qualities of the one reinforce those of the other. Each is
> indispensable to the other, and one wing cannot function adequately in
> isolation from the other.
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá provides another simple but profound example of the
> equal and complementary relationship that should exist between
> women and men, stating that in the “world of humanity”
> 
> There is a right hand and a left hand, . . . functionally equal in service
> and administration. If either proves defective, the defect will
> naturally extend to the other by involving the completeness of the
> whole; for accomplishment is not normal unless both are perfect. If
> we say one hand is deficient, we prove the inability and incapacity of
> the other; for single-handed there is no full accomplishment.43
> 
> Just as it is well-nigh impossible to complete even the most simple
> task–such as tying a knot–with only one hand, so the contribution of
> women is indispensable in the functioning of society. Women’s
> qualities and skills cannot be discounted as “optional extras” in the
> work of the world.
> Such analogies are very powerful in illustrating the significance of this
> relationship. The Bahá’í concept of complementarity stresses the
> equality and mutual interdependence between men and women and
> recognizes that, in certain instances, women’s contributions may differ
> from men’s. It affirms the value of both and recognizes that one cannot
> be legitimately undervalued simply because it derives from the female
> part of the world of humanity. It underscores the importance of the full
> partnership of women and men in all areas of human endeavor.
> 
> THE BAHÁ’Í APPROACH
> TO IMPLEMENTATION
> 
> The Bahá’í approach to implementing the principle of the equality of
> men and women is multifaceted. It involves individuals, women and
> men, Bahá’í institutions, and all members of the community. Some of
> the major features of the Bahá’í approach are set out below, while the
> application of this approach is described in chapters 5, 6, and 7.
> 
> Creating the Psychological Climate for Change
> 
> As described earlier, the Bahá’í Faith is intrinsically a religion of
> change, and its approach to the attainment of the sweeping change in
> human society associated with the universal recognition of the equality
> of men and women involves promoting in the Bahá’í community a
> positive attitude toward change as well as the patience and confidence
> necessary as the community proceeds toward that goal.
> 
> This climate of change is fostered when men and women examine their
> assumptions about women in light of the new reality set out in the
> Bahá’í writings. It calls for accepting the new definition of women’s
> station and role in society, recognizing the concerted effort required of
> individual women and men and the community as a whole to modify
> negative and outdated attitudes and habits, and encouraging women’s
> development and full participation in all areas of life.
> 
> Willingness to change is facilitated by a non-adversarial attitude in the
> Bahá’í community, with the believers being patient and understanding
> toward each other. Bahá’ís are encouraged to be tolerant of the diverse
> attitudes that may be manifested in the process of change, but such
> tolerance is not to be confused with complacency about conduct that
> does not correspond to that which is prescribed in the Bahá’í teachings.
> Collaboration between women and men, mutual encouragement,
> consultation and shared decision-making, and the commitment and
> support of the community for change are the hallmarks of the Bahá’í
> approach to implementing the principle of equality.
> 
> Another important element in creating the psychological climate that
> will facilitate change is the unified understanding of the believers about
> what is required of them in expressing the equality of men and women.
> Such a unified understanding is attainable through use of methods that
> are integral to Bahá’í community functioning, including consultation
> and reference to the Bahá’í institutions, and ultimately to the Universal
> House of Justice if necessary, of any matters that are obscure or are the
> source of differences. As a result, believers can approach the process
> of change confident that they are proceeding in the right direction,
> irrespective of the difficulties they may encounter along the way.
> 
> Designing the Future
> The implementation of the principle of the equality of women and men
> within the Bahá’í community is not left to chance. It results from
> promulgation of a clear vision of the ideal Bahá’í community life,
> which forms a basis for planful activity that is designed to create the
> future. The activities are of several kinds. They aim to instill and
> sharpen individual and community understanding of the principle of
> equality, to encourage the adoption of the value of equality and its
> practice, and to gain community support for implementing the principle
> in individual and social life.
> 
> Commitment to the ideal of equality gives rise to a determination to
> create a model community, one in which equality is truly practiced.
> The vision of the ideal community acts as a magnet to inspire and
> motivate individual and community alike to take steps to introduce
> changes so as to bring personal and social behavior into accord with the
> ideal. Commitment to the ideal also gives inspiration and courage to
> pursue the steps required for change.
> 
> One implication of having the ideal clearly in front of the community,
> on the horizon, is the realization that as we move toward the horizon,
> the horizon moves ahead, and the landscape changes. As time goes by
> in the journey toward the future, the understanding of the principle of
> equality, and consequently the way in which it is practiced, will most
> likely change. Increased understanding allows the Bahá’ís to reach
> enhanced levels of personal transformation and to plan new activities
> that enable all members of the community to implement the principle
> of equality more fully on a societal level. Both chapters 5 and 6
> illustrate the progressive enlargement of the scope of Bahá’í activities
> in the promotion of equality.
> 
> Educational programs are designed both to enhance individual
> understanding of the principle and to provide opportunities for women
> and men to put the principle into action. Such programs aim to create a
> community that manifests the shared vision and which represents the
> gradual attainment of equality. Examples of these educational
> programs are set out in chapter 7.
> 
> Methodology
> 
> Involving, as it does, fundamental changes in ingrained individual
> values and discriminatory social systems, the implementation of the
> principle of equality will not come about immediately, nor simply
> because well-meaning people support the ideal and consider such
> support sufficient to change the social reality. Rather, the Bahá’í
> approach to achieving equality aims to establish the practice of equality
> of women and men on a firm foundation. It is characterized by the
> implementation of the spiritual principle in an evolutionary manner
> over a long period of time, sustained by a commitment to fundamental
> change and nurtured by educational programs designed to assist
> individuals and communities to gradually bring attitudes and actions
> into conformity with the spiritual principle. The approach is, therefore,
> non-utopian; it is realistic and evolutionary, proceeding in a phased
> manner, yet never losing sight of the long-term goal. While the
> approach may not satisfy the impatient, it has the advantage of leading
> to enduring change. The record of accomplishment described in
> chapters 5 and 6 supports this assertion.
> 
> Planning for change, which consists of concrete steps for a more
> conscious and thorough application of the spiritual principles of
> equality, is fostered by the Spiritual Assembly’s acting in consultation
> with the members of the community. The Assembly not only supports
> the efforts of individual Bahá’ís to implement the principle of equality
> in daily life, but it arranges activities that both stress the importance of
> the principle and engage community members in actions that lead to a
> consolidation of behaviors that reflect equality. The planned activities
> enable individuals and the Bahá’í community to take the next step in
> their personal and collective development. A fuller description of the
> role of the Spiritual Assembly in facilitating changes in values and
> actions is given in chapter 7.
> 
> THE PRESENT DAY
> 
> The history of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries can well be
> regarded as a chronicle of human endeavor for emancipation, equality,
> and freedom. The efforts of women in the nineteenth century, and
> especially those in the Western world, to win such rights as access to
> education and participation in intellectual and commercial activities
> outside the home were followed by the quest for suffrage and for active
> involvement in the process of governance.
> 
> Many powerful forces are now at work to promote the fuller expression
> of the equality of the sexes. Technological advances, including
> computerization, automation, and a comprehensive system of
> worldwide communication, have provided the means for women to
> lead fuller lives. Jobs in industry, agriculture, and construction, which
> previously required physical strength, have been transformed such that
> their principal requirement is now technical skill in the use of complex
> instruments. Distance learning and telecommuting have enabled both
> men and women to receive education and to participate in professional
> endeavors from their homes or from remote locations. Equalopportunity legislation and the provision of legal redress for those
> exposed to sexual harassment in the workplace have combined to
> facilitate the entrance of women into a wider sphere of remunerative
> activity. Television and radio programs have awakened hope and
> aspiration in women living in countries where they are deprived of
> their human rights, as they have become informed of the more
> enlightened circumstances in which women reside elsewhere in the
> world.
> 
> A realistic assessment of the present-day condition must not ignore or
> underestimate the strength and potential of those repressive forces that,
> in many parts of the world, seek to reverse the advances of recent
> decades and to return women to the narrow and confining world from
> which they have sought emancipation. As a society in transition
> experiences turmoil and upheaval, there is a growing tendency to make
> women the scapegoats for a variety of social problems, ignoring the
> root causes of these social maladies in the loss of values now afflicting
> humanity. People, insecure and uncertain about the future, hanker for
> an idealized past age of calm and stability with which was associated a
> sharp demarcation of sex roles and a lesser involvement of women in
> the affairs of the world. Increasing violence toward women and
> increasing aggression against the physically weaker members of the
> community offer further evidence of the profoundly disordered state of
> society, as does the general breakdown of law and order everywhere.
> The ominous rise in religious fanaticism and extremism among so
> many of the major faiths of humankind takes as one of its primary aims
> the repression of women.
> 
> Within this setting of simultaneously operating forces of emancipation
> and repression, the Bahá’í community is working, seeking to effect that
> fundamental transformation of values which will lead to an enduring
> change in human behavior. Although the achievement of its objectives
> is aided immeasurably by the forces of positive change, the Bahá’í
> Faith must inevitably be confronted by the entrenched forces of
> repression. It does not underestimate the magnitude of the challenge
> before it, but approaches its task with supreme confidence in the power
> of the spiritual forces associated with the Bahá’í Revelation to
> reinforce the endeavors of the Bahá’ís in all parts of the planet.
> 
> Family Dynamics and Peace
> 
> The denial of . . . equality
> perpetrates an injustice against
> one-half of the world’s population
> and promotes in men harmful
> attitudes and habits that are
> carried from the family to the
> workplace, to political life, and
> ultimately to international relations.
> 
> –The Universal House of Justice
> THE FAMILY AS MATRIX
> 
> Chapter 2 mentioned one of the most widespread concerns about
> implementing the principle of the equality of men and women: that it
> will lead to the disruption of family structure, bringing about marital
> breakdown, a rise in family disorder, and a general disturbance of the
> stability of human society. Supporters of this view have no difficulty
> in finding examples where radical feminism, expressed in an
> aggressive and adversarial attitude toward men, has created such
> conditions; this, in turn, provides ready ammunition for those who
> would mistakenly assert that the quest for equality is contrary to the
> natural order and that its abandonment is necessary for the preservation
> of marriage and a stable home in which children can be raised. If their
> aim is to preserve the time-honored patriarchal family structure, then it
> cannot be denied that the practice of the equality of the sexes will
> severely disrupt that form.
> 
> The purpose of this chapter is to explore the Bahá’í perspective on the
> impact of equality on the family and social relations. The Bahá’í
> teachings call for a new form of family dynamics, based on equality,
> that provides a family structure appropriate to the present age and
> intrinsically far stronger than that of ages past, a family structure that
> offers to all of its members–husband, wife, and children–a level of
> fulfillment and satisfaction otherwise inaccessible.
> 
> Beyond that, the Bahá’í faith asserts that there is an intimate
> connection between this new approach to family functioning and the
> attainment and preservation of world peace.
> The Bahá’í writings disclose a positive and inspiring vision of the
> future. They stress the inevitability of world peace–a peace based on
> the practice of moral and spiritual values and on the recognition of the
> oneness of the human family; a peace that embodies the emancipation
> and full partnership of women and men, that signals the unity and
> maturity of the human race; a peace that can be hastened by means of
> active and conscious choices by individuals to support its emergence.
> Not only do the Bahá’í writings underline the relationship between
> equality and peace, but they also stress the important role of the family
> as the environment in which attitudes are acquired attitudes that can be
> either harmful or conducive to peace.
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá sees the family as a microcosm of the family of nations.
> He calls attention, in the following statement, to the impact of the
> psychological climate of the family and the effects of the behavior of
> individual members on the peace and security of the whole:
> 
> Compare the nations of the world to the members of a family. A
> family is a nation in miniature. Simply enlarge the circle of the
> household, and you have the nation. Enlarge the circle of nations,
> and you have all humanity. The conditions surrounding the family
> surround the nation. The happenings in the family are the happenings
> in the life of the nation. Would it add to the progress and
> advancement of a family if dissensions should arise among its
> members, all fighting, pillaging each other, jealous and revengeful of
> injury, seeking selfish advantage? Nay, this would be the cause of the
> effacement of progress and advancement. So it is in the great family
> of nations, for nations are but an aggregate of families.44
> Highlighting the challenge confronting each individual and each family
> in choosing attitudes and actions that promote unity and peace,
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá offers the following exhortation:
> 
> Consider the harmful effect of discord and dissension in a family;
> then reflect upon the favors and blessings which descend upon that
> family when unity exists among its various members. What
> incalculable benefits and blessings would descend upon the great
> human family if unity and brotherhood were established!45
> 
> In this chapter we explore ways in which the family serves as the
> matrix for the acquisition of values. We examine the source of some of
> the “harmful attitudes and habits” that originate in the family and the
> means by which they are transmitted to the workplace, to the world of
> policies, and to international relations.46 This approach demonstrates
> how the Bahá’í concept of the family, based on the explicit teachings of
> the Faith, serves to transform the moral and psychological climate and
> to promote positive attitudes and behavior in its individual members,
> contributing thereby to the creation of peace.
> 
> TRADITIONAL FAMILY VALUES AND WARFARE
> 
> We show here that the traditional family gives rise to harmful attitudes
> which are inevitably expressed also in the wider society, leading to
> aggression and conflict. The creation of enduring peace and unity in
> the world thus depends on the transformation of this form of family
> structure.
> 
> The Patriarchal Family
> Throughout recorded history women have been denied full social
> equality with men. A natural consequence of this situation was the
> primary role assigned to the husband in marriage and in the family,
> which gave rise to patriarchy as the ideological form into which such
> relationships have been cast. In its broadest sense, patriarchy consists
> of a set of beliefs and values about the nature of men and women and
> about their relative worth and their roles in society. It is supported by
> social institutions and backed by implicit or explicit threats of
> violence.47
> 
> The significance of the family is that, as indicated in the passages from
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá quoted above, it constitutes the setting in which attitudes
> and values are not only formed and expressed but transmitted to the
> next generation. That which is learned in the family setting is then
> expressed far more widely in the larger society and, ultimately, in the
> behavior of decision-makers on a national level in their relationships
> with people of other nations and races.
> 
> The patriarchal family, which is characterized by the
> “institutionalization of male dominance over women and children,” has
> been, until recent decades, the structure found universally. Even in the
> present day it still represents the family structure most commonly
> found in most of the world. In such a family, with divorce being highly
> discouraged or impossible, husband and wife are bound together in a
> relationship of inequality; this disparity of rights becomes the kernel,
> embedded in the matrix of the family relationship, from which grow
> the attitudes apparent today. In some instances the love between the
> couple, their spiritual qualities, or the pressing need to meet external
> challenges from famine, warfare, or natural disasters give rise to
> cooperative relationships and to attitudes distinguished by mutual
> respect and consideration. All too often, however, the sense of
> inequality between male and female facilitates the development of a
> differentiation of treatment that has been amplified over a vast number
> of generations. This sense of inequality and differentiation of
> treatment, in the words of the Universal House of Justice, promote “in
> men harmful attitudes and habits that are carried from the family to the
> workplace” and beyond to all levels of society.48
> 
> While it is beyond the scope of this chapter to review the evolution of
> patriarchy, it is possible to identify three harmful effects deriving from
> that system and from its lack of equality in the treatment of women
> within the family. The first of these effects is the categorization of
> women as a group subordinate to the dominant male group, with the
> women and girls being assigned a place in the family structure
> subordinate to their fathers, brothers, husbands, and, in extreme but not
> uncommon instances, to their sons.
> 
> The implications of this attitude are profound. As Jean Baker Miller, a
> contemporary psychologist, has written,
> 
> Once a group is defined as inferior, the superiors tend to label it as
> defective or substandard in various ways. . .
> 
> Dominant groups usually define one or more acceptable roles for the
> subordinate. Acceptable roles typically involve providing services that
> no dominant group wants to perform for itself …. Functions that a
> dominant group prefers to perform, on the other hand, are carefully
> guarded and closed to subordinates. Out of the total range of human
> possibilities, the activities most highly valued in any particular culture
> will tend to be enclosed within the domain of the dominant group; less
> valued functions are relegated to the subordinates.
> 
> Subordinates are usually said to be unable to perform the preferred
> roles. Their incapacities are ascribed to innate defects or deficiencies
> of mind or body, therefore immutable and impossible of change or
> development. It becomes difficult for dominants even to imagine that
> subordinates are capable of performing the preferred activities. More
> importantly, subordinates themselves can come to find it difficult to
> believe in their own ability.49
> 
> The operation of the dynamic described by Miller has direct application
> in the family in which women are regarded as subordinate to men. It
> gives rise to a condition defined by Gerda Lerner, a contemporary
> writer on patriarchy, as “paternalistic dominance,” which
> 
> describes the relationship of a dominant group, considered superior,
> to a subordinate group, considered inferior, in which the dominance is
> mitigated by mutual obligations and reciprocal rights. The dominated
> exchange submission for protection, unpaid labor for maintenance. In
> the patriarchal family, responsibilities and obligations are not equally
> distributed among those to be protected: the male children’s
> subordination to the father’s dominance is temporary; it lasts until
> they themselves become heads of households. The subordination of
> female children and of wives is lifelong. Daughters can escape it
> only if they place themselves as wives under the
> dominance/protection of another man. The basis of paternalism is an
> unwritten contract for exchange: economic support and protection
> given by the male for subordination in all matters, sexual service, and
> unpaid domestic service given by the female.50
> 
> The patriarchal family underlines the traditional view, which held sway
> for many centuries, that women were intellectually inferior and hence
> incapable of intellectual development or education, that their views
> should be disregarded, and that, in times of scarcity, the female family
> members should have lesser access to the food than should the men.
> From such a position it is but a small additional step to decide that the
> inferior individual should be compelled to be obedient to her husband
> or father, even if this requires use of force or violence. Another
> consequence of the relegation of women to an inferior role in the
> family has been, in some instances, sexual abuse in the form of marital
> rape or incest, in attempted justification for which is offered the
> spurious argument that the woman concerned is, in essence, the
> property of the male.
> 
> Closely related to the first harmful effect of patriarchy, the
> subordination of women, is the second harmful effect, which is the
> inculcation of attitudes that are restrictive or even crippling in both
> women and men. Women are expected to be submissive and nonassertive and to refrain from showing initiative or being venturesome.
> By contrast men in such a family setting are socialized into being
> aggressive and competitive even to the point of violence and are
> discouraged from manifesting such attributes as sensitivity, generosity,
> and a sense of caring, lest they be stigmatized as effeminate and
> lacking in masculinity.
> Psychologists call attention to the fact that healthy personality
> development involves equal and complementary emphasis on
> individuality and relatedness for both women and men. They note that
> the underdevelopment of interpersonal relatedness in men and of a
> sense of self in women results in both sexes’ being deprived of their
> full potential as human beings. In Western cultures men as a group
> generally tend to give more attention to self-development and to
> underemphasize interpersonal relatedness. On the other hand, women
> are usually more developed in the interpersonal realm. Relational
> development represents both a culturally undervalued strength and a
> vulnerability because women risk losing themselves in their
> relationships.51 Such an analysis illuminates the significance of
> statements by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá that restriction on the expression of
> equality for women has the effect of damaging the development of
> men. He states,
> 
> The world of humanity consists of two parts: male and female. Each is
> the complement of the other. Therefore, if one is defective, the other
> will necessarily be incomplete, and perfection cannot be attained.
> There is a right hand and a left hand in the human body, functionally
> equal in service and administration. If either proves defective, the
> defect will naturally extend to the other by involving the completeness
> of the whole; for accomplishment is not normal unless both are
> perfect.52
> 
> He further states, “As long as women are prevented from attaining their
> highest possibilities, so long will men be unable to achieve the
> greatness which might be theirs.”53 One could quite properly construct
> on this foundation a self-interest argument for men to exert themselves
> to work for the equality of the sexes on the basis that such a condition
> would liberate men to develop aspects of their personality that have
> been stunted by the society of inequality and would thus lead them to a
> greater sense of fulfillment and contentment.
> 
> The third harmful effect of patriarchy, which is closely related to the
> two effects already described, is the creation of a rigid sense of role
> definition between the sexes that goes far beyond a simple division of
> labor and is characterized by certain functions’ being reserved for each
> sex. Some justification could perhaps have been provided in the past
> for such discrimination, because of variation in physical strength.
> However, in practice the distinction was more commonly based on the
> notion that female household members belonged to the dominant male.
> The confinement of women to domestic pursuits was thus a means of
> preserving his property from loss. The resulting rigid role distinction
> was reinforced by the discriminatory view that women lacked the
> powers of rational thought that men enjoyed. The stereotype of the
> irrational, emotional female was reinforced by denial of facilities for
> her education and for her access to information about the world from
> other sources.
> 
> Traditional sex-role expectations have created separate worlds for the
> sexes and have interfered with the mutual communication and respect
> needed for the development of equal and non-exploitive relationships
> between men and women. These rigid role expectations have also been
> found to contribute to the likelihood of depression, family violence,
> and sexual abuse of female children.54
> A patriarchal family structure of the form described will necessarily be
> vulnerable to strain or disruption as its female members claim their
> right to be treated as equals, and in this sense there is some validity to
> the criticism that implementing the Bahá’í teachings on this subject
> would indeed weaken that particular form of family; however, the
> response to such criticism is not to retreat into inequality but rather to
> create a new, stronger, and more fulfilling family structure. Despite the
> likelihood of some initial disruption, Bahá’ís are confident that a
> stronger, more balanced family structure than was possible under the
> old patriarchal system can be built on the firmer foundation of two
> equal partners in marriage. While the strictly patriarchal family is
> gradually being modified in many parts of the world, there is also a
> tendency to return to its inflexibility and hierarchy in societies where
> there is insecurity and disorder. The advance of education for women
> and the movements for human rights and emancipation are beginning
> to create a climate in which increasing numbers of men are more likely
> to admit the legitimacy of equal rights for women, even on those
> occasions when their conduct is deficient, paternalistic, or hypocritical.
> 
> Great emphasis is placed on the need for wisdom and unity and on the
> evolutionary nature of change in implementing the Bahá’í teachings.
> Such an approach minimizes the disruption experienced by a family
> that is practicing the principle of sexual equality, and all who are
> involved have the opportunity to adjust progressively to the new
> conditions, to lovingly help and encourage each other, and to become
> aware of the resulting benefits to the entire family. It should be
> recognized, however, that appeals for such a progressive approach to
> implementation can also be used, under some circumstances, as an
> excuse for procrastination or avoidance of constructive action-a
> shortsighted and ethically improper strategy that will often yield
> dislocation and disunity in the longer term.
> 
> The Transmission of Attitudes to the Wider Society
> 
> As the Universal House of Justice states, the “harmful attitudes and
> habits” that result from the denial of equality to women “are carried
> from the family to the workplace, to political life, and ultimately to
> international relations.”55 The relationship between the manifest needs
> on a world scale-such as world peace and harmonious relationships
> between peoples and nations-is only now becoming clear to those who
> are deeply concerned about the betterment of society.
> 
> The family is where individuals first learn, by example and by how
> they are treated, how people relate to each other and how they ought to
> relate to each other. Parents tend to shape a child’s attitudes and
> behaviors by a variety of means: articulating expectations about how
> boys and girls should act, reinforcing desired behaviors, punishing
> those forms of conduct that are considered unacceptable, and providing
> models for the child to emulate. At an early age children are able to
> state clearly the stereotypical expectations regarding appropriate and
> inappropriate behaviors for women and men.56
> 
> Emphasizing the role of the family as a matrix for the transmission of
> values and attitudes, a report by the Center for Partnership Studies calls
> attention to the importance to the wider society of the expression of
> human rights, including women’s rights within the family, stating that
> as long as violations of human rights are condoned in people’s most
> intimate relations-the relations between women and men and parents
> and children-not only will these continue in family relations from
> generation to generation, but so also will human rights violations
> outside the family. For it is in our intimate relations that we first
> learn, and continually apply, equitable or inequitable standards for
> human relations. And it is also here that we learn to accept, or reject,
> authoritarian rule and violence as a means of conflict resolution.57
> 
> Susan Moller Okin, a political scientist concerned with social justice,
> has underlined the need for justice within the family unit. She makes
> the point that women will not be able to gain equality in politics, at
> work, or in any other sphere until there is justice within the family.
> She asserts that a just family is an essential foundation to a just society,
> stating,
> 
> unless the first and most formative example of adult interaction
> usually experienced by children is one of justice and reciprocity,
> rather than one of domination and manipulation or of unequal
> altruism and one-sided self-sacrifice, and unless they themselves are
> treated with concern and respect, they are likely to be considerably
> hindered in becoming people who are guided by principles of
> justice.58
> 
> If the structure of the family is that of dominance and subordination,
> the attitudes learned within the home are ultimately amplified and
> projected on the world scene. Those who are accustomed to dominate
> will regard others who appear to be different-be they of another gender,
> race, class, ethnic group, or nation-as being appropriate for
> subjugation, even if this has to be accomplished by force. The concept
> of human rights will become perverted, with the subordinates being
> denied equal treatment, and thus regarded as partaking of a lesser
> degree of humanity. This becomes apparent in the epithets and
> caricatures used to characterize opponents during warfare, in the denial
> that such antagonists also have human sensitivities and emotions, and
> in the pitiful attempts to justify genocide or torture on the basis of
> sweeping generalizations about the segment of humankind that is being
> oppressed.
> 
> The fostering of male aggression within the family setting provides the
> predisposition to achieve the dominance described above through
> warfare, violence, and conquest. Military prowess is taken to be an
> expression of masculinity, and conquerors are exalted to the rank of the
> heroes of a victorious nation.
> 
> Fathers are encouraged not only to expose their sons to experiences
> that will bring out latent tendencies toward aggression and domination
> through violent sports and recreational pursuits, but also to prevent
> mothers from exerting a restraining influence. This aggression is
> expressed not only in the military sphere but also in the realm of
> business and economic activity; some popular books on management
> advocate the development of a “killer instinct” from the earliest age as
> the best preparation for success in business.
> 
> Rigid sex-role definition extends beyond the family environment into
> the manner in which society is organized and into restrictions on the
> participation of women in professional activities and in public affairs.
> Riane Eisler, a cultural historian with a special interest in the rights of
> women, describes the effect of inequality between the sexes on the
> totality of society. She draws attention to the “fundamental correlation
> between sexual inequality and a generally unjust, unequal and violent
> form of social organization.”59
> 
> Women are, in such a setting, largely confined to service positions in
> employment, where they are expected to be subservient. Those who
> aspire to advancement and promotion by moving out of the subservient
> role are likely to be criticized for being “unfeminine.” Little importance
> is attached to their education, and the ignorance they exhibit as a result
> of the deprivation of opportunities for learning is taken as fulfilling the
> prejudiced assessment of their lack of capacity and confirming their
> intellectual inferiority to men.
> 
> This restriction of women from involvement in the wider society has a
> direct effect on the prolongation of warfare. As ‘Abdu’l-Bahá points
> out,
> 
> Woman by nature is opposed to war; she is an advocate of peace.
> Children are reared and brought up by the mothers who give them
> the first principles of education and labor assiduously in their behalf
> Consider, for instance, a mother who has tenderly reared a son for
> twenty years to the age of maturity. Surely she will not consent to
> having that son torn asunder and killed in the field of battle.
> Therefore, as woman advances toward the degree of man in power
> and privilege, with the right of vote and control in human
> government, most assuredly war will cease; for woman is naturally
> the most devoted and staunch advocate of international peace.60
> The creation of a society in which there is equality between the sexes
> will doubtless liberate men to participate more fully in processes such
> as child rearing that conduce to the development of greater sensitivity
> and tenderheartedness. Beyond that, at a time when the world stands
> so urgently in need of peace, the greater involvement of women in
> decision-making and governance is of vital importance so that their
> experience in nurturance and the preservation of harmony may exert a
> beneficial influence on humanity’s quest for peace.
> 
> BAHÁ’Í FAMILY VALUES AND PEACE
> 
> An entirely new model for the family is provided by the Bahá’í
> teachings. This form of family structure expresses equality and
> provides a means by which all family members can develop attitudes
> and patterns of behavior that are conducive to a peaceful and
> harmonious society.
> 
> The Bahá’í Family
> 
> The distinctiveness of the Bahá’í family, as prescribed in the Bahá’í
> teachings, is that it rests on the foundational principles of the equality
> of the sexes and respect for the rights of all members of this social unit.
> 
> The attitude and relationship between husband and wife in a Bahá’í
> marriage play a determining role in the manner in which the family
> functions and in the values the couple inculcates in the new generation.
> In the selection of a marriage partner, both man and woman are to be
> left free from interference from others and are called upon to strive to
> become well informed of each other’s character. An example of the
> application of the principle of equality is found in the fact that either
> one is free to propose marriage, as stated by Shoghi Effendi in a letter
> written on his behalf: “. . . there is absolute equality between the two,
> and . . . no distinction or preference is permitted…”61
> 
> This spirit of equality carries through to the actual marriage ceremony,
> which contains no statement of subservience of one partner to the other,
> but rather directs them to a mutual endeavor to conform their lives to
> the Will of God. As is discussed in chapter 4, the sense of equality is
> reinforced by the provision of a dowry to be given by the husband to
> the wife, an implication of which is his endorsement of her right to the
> ownership of property and the disposition of resources.
> 
> The nature of the Bahá’í family should be considered within the
> context of a marriage in which equality between husband and wife is
> affirmed and practiced as a matter of course.
> 
> Within the family setting the rights of all members must be respected.
> This contrasts with the traditional patriarchal family, in which the
> father and the other male members enjoy privileges at the expense of
> the females. It also contrasts with the authoritarian family, in which the
> rights of the children are denied and the parents are subject to no
> restraint in the treatment of their children in such matters as education,
> discipline, and duties. In the Bahá’í context, where a sound foundation
> is to be set for the unity of the family, no one member has the right to
> usurp or infringe on the rights of the others. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states,
> 
> The integrity of the family bond must be constantly considered, and
> the rights of the individual members must not be transgressed. The
> rights of the son, the father, the mother–none of them must be
> transgressed, none of them must be arbitrary. Just as the son has
> certain obligations to his father, the father, likewise, has certain
> obligations to his son. The mother, the sister and other members of
> the household have their certain prerogatives. All these rights and
> prerogatives must be conserved. . . 62
> 
> The preservation of the rights and prerogatives of the individual family
> members ensures that respect is accorded to all, irrespective of sex or
> age. It encourages an appreciation for the unique contribution that each
> can make to the family and fosters individual development,
> collaboration, mutual support, and a more equitable sharing of tasks
> and resources. The practice of equality within the context of family
> unity creates a nurturing and positive climate that helps to lay the
> foundation for full partnership between the members and thereby
> further strengthens the family unit.
> 
> THE ROLE OF PARENTS
> 
> The Bahá’í writings define, in broad terms, the primary responsibilities
> of the mother and father along lines that may well appear to be, at first
> sight, conventional. The distinctive feature of the Bahá’í approach is
> that the roles of mother and father are not rigidly exclusive and are best
> seen within the context of mutual support and cooperation. There is
> considerable flexibility in the functions assigned to each, and changes
> and adjustments can be made to suit particular family situations,
> including the interests and capacities of each party to the marriage.
> Within this degree of role flexibility, the Bahá’í teachings set out a
> complex of duties and responsibilities that the members of the family
> have toward each other and toward the family as a whole. Shoghi
> Effendi, in a letter written on his behalf, states that
> 
> The task of bringing up a Bahá’í child is the chief responsibility of the
> mother, whose unique privilege is indeed to create in her home such
> conditions as would be most conducive to both his material and
> spiritual welfare and advancement. The training which a child first
> receives through his mother constitutes the strongest foundation for his
> future development. . . 63
> 
> This statement should not be taken to imply that the father has no part
> in influencing the conditions within the home, or that he is not to
> consider himself responsible for playing a role in the early training of
> the child as circumstances permit.
> 
> According to the Universal House of Justice, “a corollary of this
> responsibility of the mother is her right to be supported by her
> husband–a husband has no explicit right to be supported by his wife.”64
> This imposes a spiritual obligation on the husband to make every effort
> to secure employment in order to support his family. The husband’s
> responsibility to support the wife has revolutionary implications in
> those cultures in which the women currently do a disproportionate
> share of the work, including growing the food, collecting water and
> fuel, and generally taking care of the survival needs of the family.
> 
> While the man has primary responsibility for the financial support of
> the family, it must also be noted that this function is not inflexibly fixed
> and can be adjusted to suit particular family situations. There is
> nothing in the Bahá’í teachings to preclude a wife from assuming the
> role of major breadwinner or a husband from taking principal
> responsibility for care of the children and of the home, if the couple
> chooses to do so.
> 
> The role of mothers is rehabilitated within the Bahá’í context and given
> importance beyond the immediate family setting. Motherhood is not
> only concerned with the rearing of children, it is also allied with no less
> exalted an aim than the attainment of peace. While mothers have the
> chief and primary responsibility to be the first educators of the next
> generation, they are not excluded from the world at large, as they
> would be in a rigidly patriarchal social structure, nor are men excluded
> from participation in homemaking activities. Bahá’ís envisage and
> indeed support the involvement of women and men in both the private
> and public spheres of activity.
> 
> Fathers not only have the major responsibility to provide for the
> financial support of the wife and family and to pay for the education of
> the children, but they also have a significant part to play in the
> education of the children. In the Kitáb-i-Aqdas (literally, “the Most
> Holy Book”), the chief repository of Bahá’u’lláh’s laws, He reveals,
> “Unto every father hath been enjoined the instruction of his son and
> daughter in the art of reading and writing and in all that hath been laid
> down in the Holy Tablet.” The Universal House of Justice affirms chat
> the father’s responsibility to educate his children is “so weighty that
> Bahá’u’lláh has stated that a father who fails to exercise it forfeits his
> rights of fatherhood.”65 Commenting further on the important role of
> the father in this regard, the House of Justice states in a letter written
> on its behalf,
> The great importance attached to the mother’s role derives from the
> fact that she is the first educator of the child. . . . This does not mean
> that the father does not also love, pray for, and care for his baby, but
> as he has the primary responsibility of providing for the family, his
> time to be with his child is usually limited, while the mother is
> usually closely associated with the baby during this intensely
> formative time when it is growing and developing faster than it ever
> will again during the whole of its life. As the child grows older and
> more independent, the relative nature of its relationship with its
> mother and father modifies and the father can play a greater role.66
> 
> It should be noted that, rather than prescribing that fathers should spend
> less time with the children than the mothers, the House of Justice
> appears to be describing the situation that now exists in many countries
> in the world.
> 
> Hence the roles of the mother and father are neither narrowly defined
> nor mutually exclusive. Each has a part to play in nurturing and
> educating the children, and both can be breadwinners. It is clear from
> the statement of Bahá’u’lláh cited above and from the following extract
> from the writings of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá that the educational responsibilities
> of the parents apply to daughters as well as to sons:
> 
> . . . it is enjoined upon the father and mother, as a duty, to strive with
> all effort to train the daughter and the son, to nurse them from the
> breast of knowledge and to rear them in the bosom of sciences and
> arts. Should they neglect this matter, they shall be held responsible
> and worthy of reproach in the presence of the stern Lord.67
> COLLABORATION, COOPERATION,
> AND ENCOURAGEMENT
> 
> Though cooperation is basic to society, in many existing family settings
> men very early in life tend to learn to expect females to serve them.
> For men to cooperate and to share, therefore, may well be interpreted
> by them as a personal loss or, at best, an act of altruism. The Bahá’í
> model of the family demonstrates a new approach both to the
> relationship between the sexes and to the marital relationship. It is a
> model in which selfishness, aggression, and the use of force are to be
> eliminated and replaced by cooperation and consultation.
> 
> In one of His Tablets Abdu’l-Bahá stresses the importance of
> cooperation and reciprocity to the progress of human society. He
> states,
> 
> Were one to observe with an eye that discovereth the realities of all
> things, it would become clear that the greatest relationship that
> bindeth the world of being together lieth in the range of created things
> themselves, and that co-operation, mutual aid and reciprocity are
> essential characteristics in the unified body of the world of being,
> inasmuch as all created things are closely related together and each is
> influenced by the other or deriveth benefit therefrom, either directly
> or indirectly. . .
> 
> And thus when contemplating the human world thou beholdest this
> wondrous phenomenon shining resplendent from all sides with the
> utmost perfection, inasmuch as in this station acts of cooperation,
> mutual assistance and reciprocity are not confined to the body and to
> things that pertain to the material world, but for all conditions, whether
> physical or spiritual, such as those related to minds, thoughts, opinions,
> manners, customs, attitudes, understandings, feelings or other human
> susceptibilities. In all these thou shouldst find these binding
> relationships securely established. The more this interrelationship is
> strengthened and expanded, the more will human society advance in
> progress and prosperity. Indeed without these vital ties it would be
> wholly impossible for the world of humanity to attain true felicity and
> success.68
> 
> Central to cooperation and sharing is a recognition of the equality and
> interdependence of the family members. Appreciation of mutuality
> encourages women and girls to endeavor to develop themselves and to
> enrich their own lives, and it increases the likelihood that their efforts
> will not be misinterpreted as an attempt to diminish or imitate men.
> Such appreciation also enhances the likelihood that men will actively
> encourage and support women’s efforts for self-development, since
> they understand the relationship between the development of women
> and the greater development of the family unit and of the society at
> large. The development of girls and women is not at the expense of the
> male members of the family, and it accrues to the good of the family
> unit.
> 
> Understanding the link between the development of women and girls
> and the fuller development of the family has implications not only for
> the personal enrichment and self-esteem of the female members, but it
> also discourages rigid role definition and influences the willingness of
> men and women to share family tasks and resources. Such
> understanding will progressively create an environment in which girls
> and women are no longer deprived of an adequate share of the food and
> access to educational opportunities and health care, and in which
> females cease to be forced to undertake an inequitable share of the
> work that must be done within the family. Likewise, the greater
> malleability of roles enables women to seek employment and to
> participate fully in the public sphere and frees up men to share a
> number of functions that have been traditionally regarded as “women’s
> work,”
> 
> It is interesting to note the benefits of this greater flexibility and
> sharing. A number of social scientists have observed that the fullest
> development of both boys and girls is more likely if both parents are
> actively engaged in parenting so that an infant can become deeply
> attached to both. Greater involvement by fathers in childrearing could
> result in a cultural shift away from exaggerated individualism.
> Psychologists writing on the changing roles of men have found a
> positive relationship between improved mental health in men and their
> contributing in a significant way to household and family tasks; they
> have also drawn attention to the value of sharing the nurturing role–it
> tends to increase personal sensitivity and foster empathy, qualities that
> are linked to the development of a sense of justice.69
> 
> DECISION-MAKING
> 
> The Bahá’í approach to group decision-making and interaction is based
> on a distinctive process of consultation. This process is used in the
> functioning of Bahá’í administrative institutions such as Spiritual
> Assemblies. But consultation is not restricted to decision-making
> groups; it applies also to the interaction between the participants in
> Bahá’í meetings such as National and Unit Conventions and Nineteen
> Day Feasts, whose purpose is to ensure that issues are properly
> ventilated, that a unity of vision is established, and that suggestions and
> recommendations are made to the decision-making body.
> 
> Within the Bahá’í family are found the application of the principles of
> Bahá’í consultation in these two forms: as a means of decision-making
> and as a process for the thorough exploration of issues and the
> attainment of unity of vision. It is clear that the ultimate decisionmaking role is assigned to the parents and that the children are
> expected to obey their parents. As the Universal House of Justice
> explains in a letter written on its behalf,
> 
> The members of a family all have duties and responsibilities towards
> one another and to the family as a whole, and these duties and
> responsibilities vary from member to member because of their natural
> relationships. The parents have the inescapable duty to educate their
> children–but not vice versa; the children have the duty to obey their
> parents–the parents do not obey the children.70
> 
> This duty does not, however, empower the parents to act in an
> authoritarian manner, for the Universal House of Justice, in a letter
> written on its behalf, refers to “the principle that the rights of each and
> all in the family unit must be upheld, and the advice that loving
> consultation should be the keynote, that all matters should be settled in
> harmony and love. . . ”71
> Bahá’í consultation is distinguished by the spirit of inquiry into what is
> best for all concerned, rather than by a desire to prove oneself right or
> an aim to pressure the group to accept one’s view. Thus the
> participants are urged not to be possessive about their own ideas, but
> rather to offer these views with an attitude of detachment, regarding
> them as a contribution to the group as it strives to reach its conclusions.
> 
> Essential to the successful functioning of the consultative process is its
> atmosphere and the freedom that each participant has to express his or
> her views without fear of being belittled, humiliated, insulted, or
> ignored. Such an atmosphere can only be established on the secure
> bases of acceptance of the oneness of humankind and the equality of
> the sexes, and recognition of the importance of courtesy and respect in
> all manner of human relations.
> 
> The Bahá’í teachings provide the foundation for the believers’ conduct
> in their individual and collective activities. Thus the consultation of
> the parents and the entire family is, in its essence, an inquiry into the
> application of the values and precepts of the Bahá’í Faith to the issue at
> hand. It is, in a very real sense, an expression of devotion to God and
> the commitment of the family members to walk in His path and to do
> that which will be pleasing to Him.
> 
> When applied within the family setting, consultation represents another
> significant element of the Bahá’í model of family life. In this context,
> consultation is described by the Universal House of Justice as the
> “panacea’’ for family problems, provided, of course, it is conducted in
> the right spirit and in the appropriate manner. The Universal House of
> Justice states in a letter written on its behalf,
> Bahá’u’lláh . . . stressed the importance of consultation. We should
> not think this worthwhile method of seeking solutions is confined to
> the administrative institutions of the Cause. Family consultation
> employing full and frank discussion, and animated by awareness of
> the need for moderation and balance, can be the panacea for domestic
> conflict.72
> 
> The consultative decision-making of husband and wife must
> necessarily be carried out in a spirit of equality, far removed from the
> adversarial approach and patriarchal tone that is found so often in the
> wider society. Although it follows the form used in Bahá’í community
> consultation, it differs from such gatherings in the manner in which it
> handles situations in which unanimity cannot be reached-at which time
> the larger group relies on a majority vote, with the obligation of all
> group members to give their full support to the majority decision. The
> Universal House of Justice provides the following guidance for
> applying Bahá’í consultation to parental decision-making:
> 
> In any group, however loving the consultation, there are nevertheless
> points on which, from time to time, agreement cannot be reached. In a
> Spiritual Assembly this dilemma is resolved by a majority vote. There
> can, however, be no majority where only two parties are involved, as in
> the case of a husband and wife. There are, therefore, times when a wife
> should defer to her husband, and times when a husband should defer to
> his wife, but neither should ever unjustly dominate the other. In short,
> the relationship between husband and wife should be as held forth in
> the prayer revealed by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá which is often read at Bahá’í
> weddings: “Verily, they are married in obedience to Thy command.
> Cause them to become the signs of harmony and unity until the end of
> time.”73
> 
> Elaborating on this deference, a letter written on behalf of the House of
> Justice states, “… there are times when the husband and the wife
> should defer to the wishes of the other. Exactly under what
> circumstances such deference should take place, is a matter for each
> couple to determine.”74 It is evident that the procedure of deference in
> the case of disagreement is open to abuse through insistence and
> denigration and could, under adverse circumstances, degenerate into a
> reversion to the patriarchal decision-making that is antithetical to the
> Bahá’í teachings on the equality of the sexes. The Bahá’í approach to
> the relationship between husband and wife cannot be reduced to the
> mechanical application of a set of procedural rules; it requires instead
> the fostering of love, respect, and mutual consideration so that matters
> such as decision-making can be handled properly.
> 
> Family consultation plays a vital role in building and maintaining
> family unity and in training the children to develop good judgment and
> the capability to examine complex issues fully and dispassionately. It
> may well be expected that, as the children grow up, the range of issues
> that are considered in family consultation will be extended, and the
> parents’ reliance in their decision-making on the conclusions arrived at
> during family consultation will increase.
> 
> A novel feature of Bahá’í community life is that some individuals are
> assigned certain functions without being given powers of decisionmaking greater than those of other members of a group; these functions
> may, in the case of a Spiritual Assembly, include those of acting as a
> point of reference, of convening meetings, or of executive action in
> carrying out the consultative decisions. A similar flexibility applies
> within the Bahá’í family, together with a corresponding absence of
> superiority in decision-making. Although the Universal House of
> Justice states, in a letter written on its behalf, that “it can be inferred
> from a number of the responsibilities placed upon him, that the father
> can be regarded as the ‘head’ of the family,” it also points out, in
> response to a request for further elucidation of this matter, that
> 
> by inference from a number of responsibilities placed upon him, the
> father can be regarded as the “head” of the family. However, this
> term does not have the same meaning as that used generally. Rather,
> a new meaning should be sought in the light of the principle of the
> equality between men and women, and of statements of the Universal
> House of Justice that neither husband nor wife should ever unjustly
> dominate the other. The House of Justice has stated previously, in
> response to a question from a believer, that use of the term “head”
> “does not confer superiority upon the husband, nor does it give him
> special rights to undermine the rights of the other members of the
> family. “It has also stated that if agreement cannot be reached
> following loving consultation, “there are times . . . when a wife
> should defer to her husband, and times when a husband should defer
> to his wife, but neither should ever unjustly dominate the other”; this
> is in marked contrast to the conventional usage of the term “head”
> with which is associated, frequently, the unfettered right of making
> decisions when agreement cannot be reached between husband and
> wife.75
> The emphasis on consultation should not be taken to imply that the
> individual family members are unduly restricted in the exercise of
> initiative or the expression of diversity. The purpose of the Bahá’í
> teachings is to foster the fullest expression of the talents, capabilities,
> and interests of all, and this can only be accomplished if an appropriate
> degree of freedom is accorded to each family member. Certain issues
> are reserved for individual decision-making, and none is more
> important than that of the right of religious belief Shoghi Effendi states,
> in a letter written on his behalf,
> 
> It is one of the essential teachings of the Faith that unity should be
> maintained in the home. Of course this does not mean that any
> member of the family has a right to influence the faith of any other
> member; and if this is realized by all the members, then it seems
> certain that unity would be feasible.76
> 
> In the matter of selecting a prospective marriage partner, family
> consultation can well serve as a means of clarifying issues and
> obtaining valuable advice. Nevertheless, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá writes,
> 
> As for the question regarding marriage under the Law of God: first
> thou must choose one who is pleasing to thee, and then the matter is
> subject to the consent of father and mother. Before thou makest thy
> choice, they have no right to interfere.77
> 
> Although the couple wishing to marry are free to reach their decision
> without interference from the parents, it would be quite natural for
> them to turn to their parents for advice and counsel in the process of
> exercising their choice, and such a warm and loving interaction is far
> removed from that which might be characterized as interference. The
> parents have, as stated above, the freedom to give or refuse that consent
> which is a prerequisite for Bahá’í marriage to take place.
> 
> The Bahá’í Family’s Contribution to Creating Peace
> 
> The redefinition of family contained in the writings of the Bahá’í Faith
> fosters a transformation in the moral and psychological climate of the
> family. It addresses, thereby, a number of the problems associated with
> patriarchy, problems that are linked to the perpetuation of attitudes of
> inequality and dominance, the assignment of women to sex-stereotyped
> roles, their virtual confinement to the private sphere of activity, and
> their exclusion from positions of public decision-making. Such
> attitudes and discriminatory behaviors not only limit the development
> of the individual, both male and female, but they also prevent the
> expression of peace-inducing attitudes and actions and, as a result,
> deprive women of the opportunity to enjoy full partnership with men in
> the family and in society at large.
> 
> In the Bahá’í view, enduring peace can only exist when unity is
> achieved. Bahá’u’lláh attests that “The well-being of mankind, its
> peace and security, are unattainable unless and until its unity is firmly
> established.”78 The attainment of the equality of men and women is a
> vital prerequisite to achieving the oneness of humanity, since the
> continued existence of discriminatory attitudes and practices is a
> lingering source of discord and conflict.
> 
> The Bahá’í family serves as a model for the transmission of attitudes
> and skills that are calculated to undermine the very foundations of war.
> It addresses the essential prerequisites of peace by aiming to achieve
> unity in human relationships and the acceptance of the equality of
> women and men. Its approaches include changing fundamental
> attitudes and values, teaching behaviors and skills that foster peace, and
> facilitating the involvement of women in the public sphere, where they
> can bring to bear their unique capabilities in the service of peace and
> international arbitration.
> 
> CHANGING ATTITUDES
> 
> Parents are concerned with teaching and modeling the values and
> behaviors that they hold dear and that they want their children to
> acquire. The commitment of husband and wife to equality, service, and
> loving solicitude, and their efforts to practice these attitudes and values
> in daily life have a far greater impact on children’s behavior than mere
> oral instruction and training.
> 
> Within a Bahá’í family husband and wife are coequal. They are
> encouraged to act as a team, to appreciate the contribution made by the
> other, and to offer each other mutual support and encouragement. They
> are committed to demonstrating respect for all family members and a
> real appreciation for the girl as well as the boy child, helping, thereby,
> to counteract the preference for males and the all-too-pervasive
> superiority and self-importance of boys that exists in many different
> cultures of the world–attitudes that give rise to aggressive conduct and
> warfare. Parents also protect the rights of all family members. They
> endeavor to ensure the fair and equitable distribution of resources and
> family tasks and, by sharing roles, help to break down artificial barriers
> between “men’s work” and “women’s work.”
> Because the practice of the equality of women and men is enjoined in
> the Bahá’í religion, its implementation is a spiritual responsibility for
> all members of the Bahá’í community. Consequently the attitudes and
> behaviors associated with equality must be taught to both male and
> female family members. Equality cannot be achieved merely by
> training the daughters. Real and fundamental social change will come
> about only as both men and women, together, act on this spiritual
> principle. Furthermore, community support of the individual’s effort to
> align his or her behavior with the spiritual standard is important to
> cement the desired attitudes and actions.
> 
> TEACHING THE SKILL OF CONSULTATION
> 
> One of the major contributions of the family to peace is that it provides
> its members with the opportunity to learn the important skill of
> consultation for use in the wider society in which the family members
> participate through their professional and social endeavors. In addition
> to serving as an effective means for decision-making and peaceful
> conflict resolution, consultation is a vehicle for putting into practice the
> attitudes and values associated with peace and justice. Decisions are
> made in the light of spiritual principles. They reflect the group’s
> understanding of the truth of the matter under discussion and its effort
> to arrive at a solution that is equitable and just. Such decisions are
> willingly supported by the community.
> 
> Children who are taught the skill of consultation recognize that one
> may be different but equal. They learn to be more concerned with the
> good of all and less motivated by self-interest, to solve problems and
> make decisions without recourse to violence or threat, and they
> understand the importance and wisdom of obedience to, and support of,
> a decision once it is made. These insights are very relevant to their
> future participation in decision-making in government and in the realm
> of international relations, where even after decisions are finally made,
> all too often, these conclusions tend not to be supported either by those
> who participated in the decision-making or by those on whose lives the
> decisions impinge.
> 
> Fostering Women’s Development and Participation
> 
> Bahá’í families place great importance on the moral and intellectual
> education of all children. However, because girls grow up to be
> mothers, and mothers are the first educators of the next generation,
> special emphasis is accorded to the education of daughters. ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá states that
> 
> . . . it is incumbent upon the girls of this glorious era to be fully
> versed in the various branches of knowledge, in sciences and the arts
> and all the wonders of this preeminent time, that they may then
> educate their children and train them from their earliest days in the
> ways of perfection.79
> 
> He further encourages the Bahá’ís to
> 
> . . . teach the young girls and the children, so that the mothers may
> educate their little ones from their earliest days, thoroughly train
> them, rear them to have a goodly character and good morals, guide
> them to all the virtues of humankind, prevent the development of any
> behavior that would be worthy of blame, and foster them in the
> embrace of Bahá’í education.80
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá spells out the implications of inculcating such qualities
> into the next generation:
> 
> Thus shall these tender infants be nurtured at the breast of the
> knowledge of God and His love. Thus shall they grow and flourish,
> and be taught righteousness and the dignity of humankind, resolution
> and the will to strive and to endure. Thus shall they learn
> perseverance in all things, the will to advance, high-mindedness and
> high resolve, chastity and purity of life. Thus shall they be enabled to
> carry to a successful conclusion whatsoever they undertake.81
> 
> It is interesting to observe that the qualities ‘Abdu’l-Bahá calls for are
> those required to achieve worthy and challenging ends. It is also of
> note that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá calls for the development of such qualities in
> both girls and boys.
> 
> Access to education is a vital means of compensating for the past lack
> of opportunities for women to acquire training and to develop their
> skills and capacities and thereby demonstrate that their abilities have
> merely been latent. Education is a prerequisite to women’s equal
> participation in the work-force so that they can be welcomed into full
> partnership by their male colleagues and can bring to bear the values of
> cooperation, negotiation, and service. When this occurs, their voices
> will be heard and listened to with respect in the councils of the world.
> Then will women have the moral and temporal authority to refuse to
> send their sons to war, to become a vital force for peace-building.
> The family that is committed to the equality of women and men can
> hasten the advent of peace by helping to lower the barriers to women’s
> participation in education and, indeed, in the world at large. This can
> be achieved first by providing the means-both time and money-to allow
> the female members to obtain an education, then by encouraging them
> to study, to acquire the qualities called for by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, to
> persevere in their efforts and to have the courage to excel in all fields
> of human endeavor and, finally, by taking pride in their
> accomplishments.
> 
> The unique significance of the family’s potential contribution to the
> development of society and the attainment of peace becomes clear in
> the light of the following statement from ‘Abdu’l-Bahá:
> 
> When all mankind shall receive the same opportunity of education
> and the equality of men and women be realized, the foundations of
> war will be utterly destroyed. Without equality this will be
> impossible because all differences and distinction are conducive to
> discord and strife. Equality between men and women is conducive to
> the abolition of warfare for the reason that women will never be
> willing to sanction it.82
> 
> Women and Bahá’í Law
> 
> We make mention of the
> handmaidens of God at this time
> and announce unto them the glad-tidings
> of the token of the mercy
> and compassion of God and His
> consideration for them . . .
> 
> –Bahá’u’lláh
> EQUALITY AND LAW
> 
> The Bahá’í Faith affirms the equality of the sexes, and its teachings
> express this equality in all aspects of practical life on both an individual
> and social level. The purpose of chapter 4 is to explore those aspects
> of the Bahá’í teachings that are especially pertinent to the role and
> functions of women in their activities as members of the Bahá’í Faith.
> 
> As will be evident from the discussion set out here, the pertinent issues
> are far from simple, due to the necessity to accommodate differences in
> function while maintaining equality. Some reference to this matter has
> been made in chapter 2 and is further emphasized in the following
> extract from a letter written by the Universal House of Justice:
> 
> Concerning your questions about the equality of men and women,
> this, as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá has often explained, is a fundamental principle
> of Bahá’u’lláh; therefore the Laws of the Aqdas should be studied in
> the light of it. Equality between men and women does not, indeed
> physiologically it cannot, mean identity of functions. In some things
> women excel men, for others men are better fitted than women, while
> in very many things the difference of sex is of no effect at all.83
> 
> To explore this question adequately, it is necessary to consider first the
> unique features of Bahá’í law. It differs markedly from the law found
> in other religions in ways that affect profoundly the manner in which
> Bahá’í law is applied to women. Such a consideration forms a
> framework in which to examine in some detail certain Bahá’í laws
> found in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas (the Book of Laws) and in other passages of
> Bahá’u’lláh’s writings.
> THE NATURE OF BAHÁ’Í LAW
> 
> Bahá’í law differs fundamentally from those systems of law that are
> designed principally to regulate and harmonize the interaction of all
> elements of society and to bring about equity and justice in human
> relations. By contrast, Bahá’í law has as its ultimate aim, in the words
> of the Universal House of Justice, “the relationship of the individual
> soul to God and the fulfillment of its spiritual destiny.”84 To attain this
> spiritual purpose requires a system of law that expresses justice and
> promotes harmony. However, it must never be forgotten that the
> ultimate purpose is a spiritual one, and hence the full justification for
> some components of this law may not readily be apparent to
> individuals who fail to take into consideration the spiritual dimension
> of creation. There is a vital element of faith in the acceptance of Bahá’í
> law, but this should not be confused with blind faith. Adherence to
> Bahá’í law comes as a consequence of using the human faculties,
> including the power of reason, to independently investigate
> Bahá’u’lláh’s claim to be a Manifestation of God before committing
> oneself to acceptance of this claim and the consequences that derive
> from it.
> 
> Closely associated with such a perspective is the fact that some of the
> laws of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas have been described, in a letter written on
> behalf of the Guardian, as “formulated in anticipation of a state of
> society destined to emerge from the chaotic conditions that prevail
> today.”85 The form of that future society is not yet evident, although
> one can be certain that it must necessarily include full equality between
> the sexes. The social functions of some of the provisions of the Kitábi-Aqdas will not be fully apparent until that future society has emerged
> and the need for regulation of certain aspects of conduct becomes clear.
> 
> Bahá’í law is applied progressively to the followers of the Faith at the
> discretion of the Head of the Faith as the community matures in its
> practice of the laws already in force and in its understanding of its
> distinctive identity. Such a practice of progressive application is not
> unique to the Bahá’í Dispensation. For example, in Islam in the days
> of Muḥammad, the interdiction on the consumption of alcohol was
> introduced gradually through initial discouragement, followed by the
> admonition not to recite prayers while intoxicated, leading ultimately to
> prohibition of the drinking of alcohol. An example of progressive
> application in a Bahá’í setting will be found in the discussion of Bahá’í
> marriage law.
> 
> An inevitable consequence of progressive application is that a religion
> renders itself vulnerable to criticism or derision from those who ignore
> the time sequence and take satisfaction in pointing out obvious
> contradictions between the various statements made authoritatively in
> prescribing religious law. Ignoring the fact that there is no
> contradiction if the various statements are looked at as elements in the
> evolutionary process of application, critics take the distinction between
> statements made at various times as manifest evidence that either the
> Founder of the religion did not know His own mind or that He yielded
> to expediency or compromise under differing circumstances. Despite
> such criticism, progressive application is avital element in the process
> of transformation necessary to bring together disparate elements to
> form a new and dynamic community.
> Bahá’í law has a flexibility greater than that found in other religions
> because of the existence of the Universal House of Justice, to which
> Bahá’u’lláh has assigned the right to formulate authoritative legislation
> on matters not covered explicitly in the laws He has revealed, and the
> right to alter its own legislative decisions at a future time when
> conditions have changed. No change can be made to the laws specified
> by Bahá’u’lláh, which are to remain in effect until the coming of the
> new Manifestation of God, after a thousand or more years.
> 
> Because Bahá’u’lláh has refrained from legislating on certain matters,
> including some of secondary derail, the Universal House of Justice is
> free to operate in that arena, changing its own decisions as society
> progresses along the path of “an ever-advancing civilization” and a
> new social condition emerges.86 Thus the Bahá’í Faith avoids
> becoming an agent of restraint upon progress, innovation, and social
> development. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá writes,
> 
> Those matters of major importance which constitute the foundation of
> the Law of God are explicitly recorded in the Text, but subsidiary
> laws are left to the House of Justice. The wisdom of this is that the
> times never remain the same, for change is a necessary quality and an
> essential attribute of this world, and of time and place. Therefore the
> House of Justice will take action accordingly.87
> 
> The efficacy of such a provision is dependent on the authority of the
> Universal House of Justice being clearly apparent and accepted by all
> Bahá’ís as an article of faith, and on the existence of ironclad
> guarantees that the Universal House of Justice, in its legislative
> functions, will not deviate from the spirit and intent of the Bahá’í
> teachings. The Covenant of Bahá’u’lláh provides the necessary
> assurance that these conditions are met. If it were not so, the Bahá’í
> Faith would be doomed to suffer a corruption of its purity similar to
> that which has damaged the unity and integrity of other religions,
> through the grafting of individuals’ ideas onto the body of the law.
> 
> Knowing that such provisions are in place, one can appreciate why
> statements of law in the Bahá’í teachings are intentionally far from
> complete and can be misleading if considered without the elucidations
> of the Universal House of Justice. Commenting on these laws, the
> Universal House of Justice writes,
> 
> A salient characteristic is their brevity. They constitute the kernel of a
> vast range of law that will arise in centuries to come. This elaboration
> of the law will be enacted by the Universal House of Justice under the
> authority conferred upon it by Bahá’u’lláh Himself.88
> 
> In considering the application of Bahá’í law to women, it must always
> be borne in mind that many of the laws of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas are
> expressed only from the perspective that the male segment of the
> population is being addressed, due apparently to the social conditions
> at the time this Book was revealed, a time when women were denied
> their fundamental rights and the call of the Bahá’í Faith for equality of
> the sexes was in the very earliest stages of its implementation. Such an
> orientation of the revealed law should cause no difficulties for women,
> because the Universal House of Justice states,
> 
> In general, the laws of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas are stated succinctly. An
> example of this conciseness can be seen in the fact that many are
> expressed only as they apply to a man, but it is apparent from the
> Guardian’s writings that, where Bahá’u’lláh has given a law as between
> a man and a woman, it applies mutatis mutandis between a woman and
> a man unless the context makes this impossible. For example, the text
> of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas forbids a man to marry his father’s wife (i.e. his
> stepmother), and the Guardian has indicated that likewise a woman is
> forbidden to marry her stepfather. This understanding of the
> implications of the Law has far-reaching effects in light of the
> fundamental Bahá’í principle of the equality of the sexes, and should
> be borne in mind when the sacred Text is studied.89
> 
> At the same time, such a formulation of Bahá’í law renders it open to
> unfounded criticism from those who would assess the application of
> Bahá’í law to women yet ignore, for whatever reason, the profound
> importance of the pronouncements of the Universal House of Justice.
> Examples of clarifications provided by the Universal House of Justice
> are to be found in the succeeding sections of this chapter.
> 
> WOMEN AND THE LAWS OF
> PERSONAL CONDUCT
> 
> This section does not attempt to provide a comprehensive survey of the
> laws of the Faith concerning personal conduct; instead it confines itself
> to those aspects of such laws in which there has historically been a
> distinction between the treatment of men and women. It will be
> apparent that some distinction persists in Bahá’í law, but it is within the
> context of equality of the sexes and does not imply any assessment of
> women as being inferior to men.
> Devotional Practices
> 
> The devotional practices enjoined in the Bahá’í teachings are central to
> the spiritual life of the believer and are the principal means for
> developing and maintaining the relationship between the individual and
> the Creator.
> 
> As discussed earlier, the Bahá’í teachings assert unequivocally that,
> from a spiritual viewpoint, there is no distinction between men and
> women. Hence it may come as a surprise to students of Bahá’í law to
> find, in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, that a distinction is made between the
> devotional practices prescribed for men and those set out for women,
> including an exemption from certain devotional activities during
> menstruation. Such a distinction could well raise a concern as to
> whether the Bahá’í teachings endorse the concept of ritual impurity.
> This concern can be removed completely by a closer study of the
> statements set out in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas.
> 
> The concept of ritual impurity is strongly established in the practices of
> many religions. It holds that an individual can be in a state of impurity
> under certain defined conditions that render it improper for the person
> to perform some specific devotional actions that require purification
> through the performance of prescribed rituals such as ablutions. As
> mentioned in chapter 2, women have historically been regarded as
> agents of evil in certain cultures, due to their association with sexuality,
> and so women have been held to be impure and thus to be excluded
> from areas or practices that are sacred and liable to defilement by their
> presence or participation. Even when such a stigma is not attached to
> women, there has been a widespread belief that menstruation gives rise
> to ritual impurity, with women being physically isolated during that
> time or debarred from participation in religious activities such as prayer
> and fasting.
> 
> The Bahá’í teachings are unambiguous on this subject. Bahá’u’lláh
> states, in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, that “God hath, likewise, as a bounty from
> His presence, abolished the concept of ‘uncleanness,’ whereby divers
> things and peoples have been held to be impure. “The explanatory
> notes to the Kitáb-i-Aqdas point out that this passage repudiates the
> concept of ritual impurity, although the Bahá’í teachings encourage all
> believers, male and female alike, to be “the very essence of
> cleanliness” and to cling “unto the cord of refinement.”90
> 
> The Kitáb-i-Aqdas includes exemptions from the laws of obligatory
> prayer and fasting for women who are menstruating, but those who
> utilize these exemptions are required to carry out other devotional
> practices of a physiologically less demanding nature. Bahá’í law also
> provides an exemption to women from the performance of pilgrimage,
> in contrast to men, whose exemption is only applicable when
> circumstances render them unable to carry it out. Central to the
> understanding of these provisions is the clarification given by the
> Universal House of Justice that these formulations are exemptions
> rather than prohibitions. Much misunderstanding arises from
> confusion between the differing concepts of exemption and prohibition.
> Any woman is free to avail herself of these exemptions if she so
> wishes, but she is under no obligation to do so. That the matter is left
> to her discretion, and that she is entirely free not to invoke these
> exemptions, serve to the fundamental difference between these
> exemptions and that discrimination to which women have been
> subjected for countless centuries in the name of the invalid concept of
> ritual impurity.
> 
> One might well inquire as to the reason for these exemptions for
> women. It is significant to note that the pilgrimage exemption is
> described in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas as “a mercy on His part,” and that this
> Book of Laws also includes exemptions from prayer and fasting
> applicable to men and women alike for such reasons as illness or the
> infirmities of old age. It is thus reasonable to conclude that the
> exemptions are granted simply for physiological reasons quite
> unrelated to the spiritual condition of the believer. The decision
> whether or not to avail oneself of an exemption would consequently be
> taken by the believer concerned; having regard to the individual’s
> physiological condition at the time. As the Universal House of Justice
> points out, “That men and women differ from one another in certain
> characteristics and functions is an inescapable fact of nature.”91
> 
> No discussion of this subject would be complete without mentioning
> the ablutions prescribed in Bahá’í law, since this practice has so often
> been associated with remedial actions prescribed for ritual impurity. It
> is apparent from religious literature and from studies in cultural
> anthropology that, historically, ablutions have served several purposes
> other than that of achieving physical cleanliness: as a symbolic act
> performed in marking the transition from mundane daily activities to an
> act of devotion; as a rite of passage to a new stage in one’s life, such as
> that of Christian baptism of a new believer; or as a purificatory act to
> compensate for pollution through contact with an entity that is in a state
> of ritual impurity. With this background one might well inquire what is
> the purpose of ablutions in Bahá’í devotional practice.
> 
> It is clear from the prescriptions for ablutions in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas that
> they are intended to have a purely spiritual significance; note, for
> example, that they must precede the offering of obligatory prayer by
> either men or women and that they are to be performed even if the
> individual has just finished bathing. Consequently it should not be
> surprising that, when an exemption is provided from obligatory prayer
> and fasting for a menstruating woman, she is nevertheless required to
> perform ablutions before reciting the particular verse specified as part
> of the exemption. Further evidence of the symbolic nature of ablutions
> is obtained from the fact that, when water is not available or when the
> application of water to the face or hands would be harmful to an
> individual, men and women alike are free to recite a specified verse in
> place of the ablution.
> 
> Sexual Conduct
> 
> As is the case in other religions, the Bahá’í Faith includes in its
> teachings laws regulating sexual conduct. However, there are two
> fundamental differences between the Bahá’í teachings and those
> conventionally associated with religion.
> 
> The first of these fundamental differences concerns the nature of
> sexuality, which has so often been regarded by religious authorities as
> antithetical to spiritual development. Sexual activity was thus to be
> avoided by adherents seeking spirituality, and those exercising a
> priestly function were called upon to adopt celibacy. Underlying this
> view was the concept of the material world as being the province of the
> Devil in eternal contest with the Divinity, with the sexual impulse
> regarded as designed by the Devil for the purpose of diverting
> humankind from spiritual endeavors.
> 
> In contrast, the Bahá’í view of sexuality is expressed in the following
> statement written on behalf of the Guardian:
> 
> The Bahá’í Faith recognizes the value of the sex impulse, but
> condemns its illegitimate and improper expression such as free love,
> companionate marriage and others, all of which it considers positively
> harmful to man and to the society in which he lives. The proper use
> of the sex instinct is the natural right of every individual, and it is
> precisely for this very purpose that the institution of marriage has
> been established. The Bahá’ís do not believe in the suppression of
> the sex impulse but in its regulation and control.92
> 
> This balanced approach to sexuality, recognizing “the value of the sex
> impulse” and prescribing that its expression occur only within
> marriage, sets the Bahá’í Faith apart from much of conventional
> religious philosophy and has far-reaching implications that are
> gradually being explored by Bahá’í scholars and authors, including
> psychologists and psychiatrists who use their professional expertise to
> provide insights into this aspect of the Bahá’í teachings.
> 
> The second fundamental difference in the Bahá’í teachings on sexual
> conduct lies in the Bahá’í perception of women, who have so often in
> the past been stigmatized as agents of evil through their association
> with sexual attraction. This misguided perception has led to the
> imposition of rules designed to diminish women’s influence in this
> regard, through specification of certain types of female clothing,
> proscription of adornment with jewelry, censure of the use of
> cosmetics, and, in even more extreme cases, the requirement that a
> woman cover her hair, veil her face, or remain secluded within the
> confines of the home. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá refers to the status of women in
> earlier times, pointing out that “If she pursued educational courses, it
> was deemed contrary to chastity; hence women were made prisoners of
> the household.”93
> 
> Such erroneous concepts have no place in the Bahá’í teachings, which
> set forth an identical standard for both men and women. The
> Guardian’s secretary has written on his behalf,
> 
> Briefly stated the Bahá’í conception of sex is based on the belief that
> chastity should be strictly practiced by both sexes, not only because it
> is in itself highly commendable ethically, but also due to its being the
> only way to a happy and successful marital life.94
> 
> The Bahá’í teachings call for both men and women to be modest and
> decent in their dress, but provide a wide latitude in the form of apparel;
> the Kitáb-i-Aqdas states that “The Lord hath relieved you, as a bounty
> on His part, of the restrictions that formerly applied to clothing,” but
> warns the believers to “make not yourselves the playthings of the
> ignorant.”95
> 
> A false and dangerous theory that has been used in some cultures to
> justify the mistreatment of women, either reducing them to objects for
> male sexual gratification or forcing them to be veiled, is that the male
> sexual impulse is uncontrollable and that consequently men cannot be
> held responsible for the sexual abuse of women. This view has its
> modern counterpart in the blame sometimes attached to rape victims,
> who are accused of having brought the abuse on themselves by their
> dress or behavior. In striking contrast are the following words written
> on behalf of the Universal House of Justice:
> 
> The lack of spiritual values in society leads to a debasement of the
> attitudes which should govern the relationship between the sexes,
> with women being treated as no more than objects for sexual
> gratification and being denied the respect and courtesy to which all
> human beings are entitled. Bahá’u’lláh has warned: “They that follow
> their lusts and corrupt inclinations, have erred and dissipated their
> efforts. They, indeed, are of the lost.” Believers might well ponder
> the exalted standard of conduct to which they are encouraged to
> aspire in the statement of Bahá’u’lláh concerning His “true follower,”
> that: “And if he meets the fairest and most comely of women, he would
> not feel his heart seduced by the least shadow of desire for her
> beauty. Such an one, indeed, is the creation of spotless chastity.
> Thus instructeth you the Pen of the Ancient of Days, as bidden by
> your Lord, the Almighty, the All-Bountiful.”96
> 
> This standard of conduct has direct bearing on the elimination of sexual
> harassment of females in the workplace. Its application would create
> an environment in which women could confidently anticipate
> employment in a setting where they would not be subjected to sexual
> advances and would be free to carry out their duties without
> humiliation or fear.
> A statement of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas that bears upon the subject of the
> freedom of women to follow employment opportunities, and that might
> easily be misunderstood if there were no additional clarification, is
> “And he who would take into his service a maid may do so with
> propriety.” In response to a question, Bahá’u’lláh later explained that
> this provision of Bahá’í law removes the restriction, specified in earlier
> religions, that an unmarried woman should not be employed by a man,
> as that employment tended to carry with it the implication of a sexual
> relationship between the man and his female employee, or even of
> prostitution on her part. Women were thus severely restricted in their
> professional or industrial life under the penalty of social condemnation
> and irreparable damage to their reputations. By contrast, the Bahá’í
> Faith aims, as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states, for women to “advance and fulfill
> their mission in all departments of life.”97 To achieve this aim requires
> that women be free to advance without fear of sexual harassment and
> that moral and legal force be used, if necessary, to restrain men who
> wish to use the workplace setting for predatory sexual activities. The
> Bahá’í teachings are thus a safeguard and a liberating influence for
> women as they strive to fulfill the vastly expanded role to which these
> teachings summon them.
> 
> In some parts of the world the degrading practice of female genital
> mutilation is prevalent and is the source of incalculable distress to its
> victims. This practice is contrary to the spirit of the Bahá’í teachings,
> and Bahá’í agencies have been forthright in its condemnation at
> international conferences in which they have participated.98
> As indicated above, the Bahá’í teachings state that “Sex relationships
> of any form, outside marriage, are not permissible.”99 Apart from its
> implications for heterosexual premarital and extramarital conduct, this
> standard of chastity also finds expression in the prohibition of
> homosexual relationships. Certain laws of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas have
> been formulated in anticipation of a future condition when the
> continued spread of the Bahá’í Faith and the size of its community will
> have led progressively to nations’ choosing to incorporate Bahá’í laws
> in their national legislative codes; the Kitáb-i-Aqdas envisages, at such
> a time, the imposition of penalties for sexual offenses, including
> unlawful heterosexual intercourse and also such violations of the moral
> code as sodomy. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá indicates that the aim of these
> provisions of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas is to penalize offenders through public
> exposure of their misdeeds such that they are shamed in the eyes of
> society.
> 
> One of the most deplorable features of present-day society is the
> prevalence of rape, which Bahá’u’lláh condemns in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas,
> assigning to the Universal House of Justice the duty to determine the
> penalty for this and other sexual offenses when, in the future, the
> Bahá’í laws become the basis for the legislative system of a society. At
> the present time the Universal House of Justice, in a letter written on its
> behalf, discusses the consequences of rape in the following terms:
> 
> One of the most heinous of sexual offences is the crime of rape.
> When a believer is a victim, she is entitled to the loving aid and
> support of the members of her community, and she is free to initiate
> action against the perpetrator under the law of the land should she
> wish to do so. If she becomes pregnant as a consequence of this
> assault, no pressure should be brought upon her by the Bahá’í
> institutions to marry. As to whether she should continue or terminate
> the pregnancy, it is left to her to decide on the course of action she
> should follow, taking into consideration medical and other relevant
> factors, and in the light of the Bahá’í Teachings. If she gives birth to
> a child as a result of the rape, it is left to her discretion whether to
> seek financial support for the maintenance of the child from the
> father; however, his claim to any parental rights would, under Bahá’í
> law, be called into question, in view of the circumstances.100
> 
> The discussion here is necessarily brief and may well be regarded as no
> more than an introduction to the Bahá’í perspective on sexual conduct
> and the uniqueness of its approach. Other Bahá’í authors have
> explored this subject more fully.101
> 
> Marriage and Divorce
> 
> The Bahá’í teachings on marriage are quite distinctive not only for
> their unequivocal prescription of monogamy but also for the manner in
> which they incorporate the principle of equality of the sexes in the
> structure, form, and purpose assigned to the marital relationship.
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá refers to Bahá’í marriage in the following terms: “The
> true marriage of Bahá’ís is this, that husband and wife should be united
> both physically and spiritually, that they may ever improve the spiritual
> life of each other, and may enjoy everlasting unity throughout all the
> worlds of God.”102 The mutuality of effort required and the spiritual
> purpose assigned to marriage imply clearly that the practice of equality
> is an essential prerequisite to attaining this exalted aim.
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, as authorized interpreter of the Faith, writes that the
> Kitáb-i-Aqdas “prescribes monogamy.”103 However, the manner in
> which it is prescribed illuminates a number of vital principles about the
> application of Bahá’í law. It is apparent that polygamy, or more
> specifically polygyny, is a very ancient practice among most of the
> people of the world, of all cultures and religious traditions. It was
> permitted under Mosaic law, although there was a general tendency
> toward monogamy with the passage of the centuries. Jesus did not
> prohibit polygamy, and the historical record provides evidence of
> polygamy in early Christian communities. Muḥammad restricted the
> number of wives to a maximum of four but made plurality of wives
> contingent on justice.
> 
> At the time of the revelation of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, the Bahá’ís were
> drawn entirely from the Muslim society and were thus accustomed to
> polygamy. In fact, Bahá’u’lláh contracted marriages before the
> revelation of the Bahá’í laws and so had three wives. The Bahá’í
> teachings introduced monogamy gradually, beginning with the
> following statement in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas which outwardly conveys the
> impression that taking two wives is permitted: “Beware that ye take not
> unto yourselves more wives than two. Whoso contenteth himself with
> a single partner from among the maidservants of God, both he and she
> shall live in tranquillity.” This may be taken as an illustration of the
> progressive application of Bahá’í law, since account must necessarily
> be taken of the fact that Bahá’u’lláh specified ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to be the
> infallible Interpreter of His writings, and the believers were enjoined in
> the Kitáb-i-Aqdas to “refer . . . whatsoever ye understand not in the
> Book to Him.”104
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá followed the progressive approach in that initially He did
> not forbid marriage to a second wife, but discouraged it with statements
> to the effect that marriage with a second wife is dependent upon justice,
> and the implementation of justice is extremely difficult, and it is more
> conducive to one’s well-being and happiness to practice monogamy.105
> He later clarified the matter precisely in the following statement: “In
> accordance with the text of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, the law on marriage is,
> in reality, based on monogamy, because bigamy has been made
> dependent on an impossible condition.”106 This clarification was
> further elaborated in the following passage from ‘Abdu’l-Bahá:
> 
> Know thou that polygamy is not permitted under the law of God, for
> contentment with one wife hath been clearly stipulated. Taking a
> second wife is made dependent upon equity and justice being upheld
> between the two wives, under all conditions. However, observance of
> justice and equity towards two wives is utterly impossible. The fact
> that bigamy has been made dependent upon an impossible condition
> is clear proof of its absolute prohibition. Therefore it is not
> permissible for a man to have more than one wife.107
> 
> For this reason Shoghi Effendi states, as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá does, that the
> Kitáb-i-Aqdas prescribes monogamy; the practice of polygamy, which
> had the sanction of religious teaching for thousands of years, has been
> abrogated in the Bahá’í Dispensation after a transitional period of no
> more that a few decades immediately following the revelation of the
> Kitáb-i-Aqdas.
> 
> An interesting insight into the practice of equality in relation to
> monogamy is obtained from a Tablet of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to an early
> believer during the transitional period concerning the need to practice
> monogamy. In this Tablet, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá calls attention to the fact that
> both physically and spiritually the feelings of women are like those of
> men. If a woman were repeatedly to seek a new husband she would be
> considered unchaste. He further stresses that the same standard applies
> to men also.108
> 
> The need to express equality and to protect the rights of women
> informs other aspects of the Bahá’í teachings concerning marriage such
> as the right of either the man or the woman to propose marriage.
> 
> Betrothal, or engagement, cannot occur before the age of at least fifteen
> and requires the consent of both parties, thus outlawing practices of the
> past in which girls were betrothed as children, often against their will
> or with no respect for their preferences. Bahá’í law, which is now
> being applied progressively under the direction of the Universal House
> of Justice, specifies that the betrothal period may not exceed ninetyfive days. The effect of this law is to put an end to the unjust practice
> of contracting an engagement and then leaving an individual to
> languish for years, uncertain whether the marriage will ultimately occur
> and not free to seek another prospective marriage partner.
> 
> The concept of dowry is associated historically, in many instances, with
> the humiliation of women or their reduction to no more than a
> commodity to be bought or sold. In some cultures the dowry is a
> payment made by the bridegroom to the parents of the bride and is
> described as the bride-price or bride-wealth; at best, it is the monetary
> expression of his pledge to her parents that he will treat her well, but it
> has so often degenerated to being no more than her purchase price.
> Another form of dowry is the payment of a sum to the bridegroom by
> the bride’s family, in which case it can be regarded, at best, as a
> generous contribution to the expenses of setting up the new household;
> the reality is that it has frequently been reduced to being a payment
> made to him by her parents, who are thereby relieved of the
> expenditure of maintaining an economically unproductive female in
> their household. In light of the historical record it may come as a
> surprise to find that the concept of a dowry is to be found in the Bahá’í
> teachings, where it can be an important element in raising the status of
> women and reinforcing their equality with men.
> 
> The Bahá’í dowry is a specified sum of money, or its equivalent, to be
> given by the bridegroom to the wife, and not to her parents; she is
> entirely free to dispose of it as she wishes. The giving of the dowry
> may be regarded as a symbolic act, since the sum involved may be only
> around U.S. $800, depending on the price of gold, for those living in an
> urban setting with its cash economy. However, the significance of the
> act is great, since it represents a tangible expression of the wife’s
> inalienable right to hold property in her own name and to maintain a
> degree of economic independence from her husband if she so desires.
> The practice, in Western societies, of the groom’s giving the intended
> bride a diamond engagement ring is, to some extent, reminiscent of the
> Bahá’í dowry. It is also interesting to note that in Islam the Qur’an
> calls for the bridegroom to provide a dowry to the bride but does not
> specify the amount, with the result that the practice became open to
> possible abuse. So important is the dowry in the Bahá’í teachings that
> if the bridegroom is unable to pay the specified sum in full, the
> alternative is to give the bride a promissory note for the amount owed,
> with the express understanding that he will honor this note when he is
> financially in a position to do so.109
> 
> The Bahá’í teachings also provide for the possibility that the parties to
> a marriage may, if so inclined, follow the practice of some cultures in
> drawing up a formal marriage contract with defined conditions and
> provisions that are binding on both parties. The Kitáb-i-Aqdas
> provides that if such a contract has been drawn up with one of its
> provisions being that the marriage is conditioned on the woman’s
> virginity, and if it is later found that she is not a virgin, the dissolution
> of the marriage can be demanded. In such a case, however,
> Bahá’u’lláh advises that it would be highly meritorious in the sight of
> God if the husband were to conceal the matter and not make an issue of
> it. The bride is likewise free to put a similar condition on the
> bridegroom’s virginity in the marriage contract, if she wishes, and to
> demand dissolution of the marriage if she later receives reliable
> evidence that he is not a virgin.110
> 
> The Bahá’í teachings place great emphasis on the preservation of the
> marriage bond, and application of the Bahá’í family values described in
> chapter 3 has the direct effect of strengthening that bond. The
> institutions of the Faith are available to provide guidance and advice to
> couples experiencing marital difficulties, and the Universal House of
> Justice states in a message written on its behalf that a couple in need of
> assistance should not hesitate to consult “professional marriage
> counsellors, individually and together if possible, and also to take
> advantage of the supportive counselling which can come from wise and
> mature friends. Non-Bahá’í counselling can be useful but it is usually
> necessary to temper it with Bahá’í insight.”111
> 
> While the causes of marital breakdown can be many, one common
> cause is domination of the wife by the husband. Such behavior, as
> indicated in chapter 3, is contrary to explicit statements set out in the
> authoritative Bahá’í texts. An extreme form of such domination is
> domestic violence, when a wife is physically abused by her husband.
> Such behavior is condemned in the Bahá’í Faith. Bahá’u’lláh Himself
> states that
> 
> The friends of God must be adorned with the ornament of justice,
> equity, kindness and love. As they do not allow themselves to be the
> object of cruelty and transgression, in like manner they should not
> allow such tyranny to visit the handmaidens of God. He, verily,
> speaketh the truth and commandeth that which benefitteth His
> servants and handmaidens. He is the Protector of all in this world and
> the next.112
> 
> The Universal House of Justice states in a letter written on its behalf,
> “For a man to use force to impose his will on a woman is a serious
> transgression of the Bahá’í Teachings. “It also warns that “No husband
> should ever beat his wife, or subject her to any form of cruel treatment;
> to do so would be an unacceptable abuse of the marriage relationship
> and contrary to the Teachings of Bahá’u’lláh.”113
> Another form of violence in marriage occurs when the husband
> subjects his wife to sexual abuse, often seeking to justify his conduct
> with the excuse that the marital relationship confers upon him the right
> to do as he wishes, irrespective of his wife’s feelings. The Universal
> House of Justice clarifies that this is an erroneous line of thinking.
> Referring to sexual conduct within marriage, it explains in a letter
> written on its behalf,
> 
> In this aspect of the marital relationship, as in all others, mutual
> consideration and respect should apply. If a Bahá’í woman suffers
> abuse or is subjected to rape by her husband, she has the right to turn
> to the Spiritual Assembly for assistance and counsel, or to seek legal
> protection. Such abuse would gravely jeopardize the continuation of
> the marriage, and could well lead to a condition of irreconcilable
> antipathy.114
> 
> Divorce is permissible in the Bahá’í teachings, although it is strongly
> discouraged, and believers are enjoined to make a sustained and
> wholehearted effort to repair the breakdown in their relationship.
> Shoghi Effendi affirms that both husband and wife “have equal right to
> ask for divorce” whenever either partner “feels it absolutely essential to
> do so.” Divorce is permissible after the lapse of one full year if, in the
> words of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, “resentment or antipathy arise between
> husband and wife.”115 During the year of waiting (commonly referred
> to as a year of patience), the couple is urged, under the guidance of
> their Spiritual Assembly, to strive to reconcile their differences if
> possible; if this effort is unsuccessful, a divorce is effected. The
> husband is obliged nonetheless to provide both for the financial support
> of his wife and children during this period, and for the continuing
> support of his children, in accord with his responsibility for the
> financial support of the family, as discussed in chapter 3.
> 
> An interesting example of a law expressed as between a man and a
> woman, but applied also between a woman and a man, is found in the
> case of adultery. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states that the year of waiting
> preceding divorce is waived in the case of adultery on the part of the
> wife. The Universal House of Justice explains that the time to apply
> this law has not yet come; when that time arrives, this aspect of the law
> of divorce will require elucidation and supplementary legislation by the
> Universal House of Justice, which states that the exemption will apply
> equally to the case of adultery on the part of the husband.116
> 
> FINANCIAL RIGHTS
> 
> No discussion of Bahá’í law as it pertains to women and the
> implementation of the equality of the sexes would be complete without
> reference to the financial rights of women in marriage, since, as
> professor of law Ian F. G Baxter points out in his article on family law
> in the Encyclopædia Britannica, “The history of marriage is bound up
> with the legal and economic dependence of women upon men and the
> legal incapacities of women in owning and dealing with property.”117
> 
> Several aspects of this matter have already been discussed in earlier
> chapters. It is clear that in the Bahá’í teachings the way is open for
> women to be actively involved in the “social and economic equation”
> and to participate in such professions as law, public administration, and
> industrial and agricultural sciences, to name but a few.118 The wife’s
> right to have her own possessions is affirmed in the Bahá’í concept of
> dowry, while other passages of the Bahá’í writings envision a wife
> owning property of her own, quite distinct from that of her husband,
> and accumulated through her profession, craft or trade, her dowry and
> her inheritance, or even through the provisions of a marriage contract.
> 
> Regarding inheritance, every believer, man or woman, is instructed as a
> matter of religious obligation to make a will. Bahá’u’lláh states in the
> Kitáb-i-Aqdas, “Unto everyone hath been enjoined the writing of a
> will.” The importance of this instruction should not be underestimated.
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá refers to it as “one of the binding laws of this mighty
> Dispensation” and indicates that any Bahá’í who neglects to do this
> “disobeyeth the divine command.”119
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh affirms that, in formulating one’s will, “a person hath full
> jurisdiction over his property, “since “God, verily, hath permitted him
> to deal with that which He hath bestowed upon him in whatever
> manner he may desire.” In preparing a will, a Bahá’í would heed the
> admonition of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá that “Everyone must in his lifetime draw
> up a will, and dispose of his property in whatsoever manner he
> deemeth fit, while having due regard for the need to observe justice and
> equity.” It would be natural for a Bahá’í to make provisions in the will
> for any financial dependents such as a spouse or children who have no
> other source of income. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá clarifies that the testator is, in
> the will, “free to bequeath the residence to whomsoever he wisheth”
> while observing the aforementioned justice and equity.120 There is no
> restriction on leaving one’s property to individuals who are not
> Bahá’ís; thus a believer whose spouse is not a Bahá’í might well feel
> that “justice and equity” require that a substantial portion of the assets
> be bequeathed to the spouse, including the residence in which the
> couple has been living.
> 
> Another consideration relevant to the formulation of a will is the
> following statement, which appears in a letter written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi:
> 
> . . . even though a Bahá’í is permitted in his will to dispose of his
> wealth in the way he wishes, yet he is morally and conscientiously
> bound to always bear in mind, while writing his will, the necessity of
> his upholding the principle of Bahá’u’lláh regarding the social
> function of wealth, and the consequent necessity of avoiding its
> overaccumulation and concentration in a few individuals or groups of
> individuals.121
> 
> An unusual situation occurs when a Bahá’í neglects to follow the
> command to draw up a will. In the event that intestacy arises from
> such a failure to observe this aspect of Bahá’í law, or in the case where
> the will cannot be found, the Kitáb-i-Aqdas provides detailed
> inheritance laws, two features of which are directly relevant to the
> principle of the equality of the sexes. The first is that a distinction is
> made between male and female heirs in certain categories, with the
> father of the deceased receiving a somewhat greater portion than the
> mother, and brothers receiving more than sisters. This disparity can
> best be understood in relation to the principle of the equality of the
> sexes by noting that, as stated in chapter 3, the husband has the primary
> responsibility for the financial support of the family, irrespective of the
> wife’s income and financial position.
> The second feature is that the intestacy provisions include allocation of
> the residence of the deceased father, or his principal residence if he has
> more than one, to the eldest son. It means that this residence does not
> have to be sold at the time of the father’s death in order that
> distribution can be made to a number of heirs. It also affords a
> significant measure of protection to his widow, if she has been living
> there and the house was entirely in the husband’s name, since the
> Bahá’í teachings clearly assign to the eldest son the responsibility to
> care for his mother and to consider the needs of the other heirs.
> However, the full implications of this provision may not become
> apparent until there is further clarification of the role and
> responsibilities of the eldest son in the future, through guidance from
> the Universal House of Justice.
> 
> SERVICE ON BAHÁ’Í INSTITUTIONS
> 
> No survey of the role of women in religion can fail to take account of
> the extent to which women in the past have been systematically
> debarred from access to positions of administrative authority or
> decision-making in the organization of the religious community.
> 
> It is possible to make a few broad generalizations about the role
> assigned to women in the functioning of a religion in the past. During
> its earliest period, that associated with the Founder of a religion,
> women could be found playing a significant and highly admirable role
> in its defense, propagation, and emancipation. In Christianity, Mary
> Magdalene played an important role around the time of the crucifixion,
> and the Gospel of John records the spectacular success of the woman of
> Samaria in attracting a large number of adherents to the new faith. In
> Islam, Khadijah was among the first to believe in Muḥammad and
> remained of staunch faith in the face of persecutions, while His
> daughter Fáṭimih courageously served in the defense and preservation
> of the community; following His passing, Ayesha influenced
> significantly the development of the early religious community through
> her actions, including her military leadership in the armed conflict
> between factions competing for power.122
> 
> As the body of adherents crystallized into a religious community and
> an ecclesiastical structure came into being, women were increasingly
> excluded from positions of authority and relegated to a minor or
> supportive role. Since, in the past, the Founder of each of the religions
> did not prescribe, in any degree of detail, how the community was to be
> organized, the social inequality between the sexes became a
> determining factor in the development of a male organizational
> hierarchy. In the religions arising in Western Asia, rabbis, priests, and
> mullahs were all male. Although in some instances female religious
> orders were established to perform an educational or healing function,
> their female leaders were assigned authority only over other women.
> 
> In the contemporary scene, the movement for equality has found
> limited expression in some modification of this segregation. Within
> certain liberal denominations of Judaism and Christianity women are to
> be found exercising ecclesiastical functions over congregations that
> include men and women, and in Islam some female scholars have
> emerged recently. Yet it must be admitted that they remain very much
> the exception rather than the rule, and religious organization continues
> to be an overwhelmingly male preserve.
> 
> The Bahá’í Faith stands in direct contrast to the historical precedent.
> Its Administrative Order, based directly on explicit statements of
> Bahá’u’lláh Himself, has as one of its most striking and distinctive
> features the involvement of women in positions of responsibility at
> local, national, and international levels. Women serve as Hands of the
> Cause of God and as Counselor members of the International Teaching
> Center, discharging vital responsibilities worldwide in stimulating the
> expansion of the Bahá’í community, preserving its integrity, and
> fostering its spiritual life. Each of the five Continental Boards of
> Counselors includes women as well as men among its members, and
> women are elected as members of National and Local Spiritual
> Assemblies throughout the world and participate at the grassroots level
> of Bahá’í community life, consulting at the Nineteen Day Feast and at
> conventions and conferences. Chapters 5 and 6 set out in some detail
> the initiatives that the institutions of the Faith at its World Center have
> taken to promote the involvement of women, and such measures are
> actively being pursued now in many countries where the traditional
> culture has inhibited women’s participation in all aspects of community
> life.
> 
> In light of the distinguished record of the Bahá’í Faith in this regard, it
> may well surprise those inquiring into the Bahá’í teachings about the
> role of women to find that the Bahá’í writings specify clearly that
> membership on its supreme administrative body, the Universal House
> of Justice, is confined to men. Many will not be unduly concerned by
> this aspect of the Bahá’í teachings, directing their attention to the
> multitude of women whose lives have been transformed by the
> promulgation of the Bahá’í principle of equality of the sexes.
> However, it is quite understandable that some will be disturbed by it
> and that this exclusion of women from the highest administrative body
> of the Bahá’í Faith will raise a number of questions for them. For this
> reason it is necessary to examine this matter in considerable detail and
> to explore at length some of the questions that might naturally come to
> mind.
> 
> Such an exploration must begin with an examination of the passages of
> the authoritative Bahá’í writings in which the membership of the
> Universal House of Justice is specified. Here we find again the
> processes of progressive clarification and progressive application of
> Bahá’í law. Bahá’u’lláh ordained both the Universal House of Justice
> and Local Houses of Justice in His writings, leaving to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
> the ordination of the Secondary House of Justice, now known as the
> National Spiritual Assembly. In several passages in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas
> Bahá’u’lláh refers to the “House of Justice,” leaving open for later
> clarification the level or levels of the entire institution to which His
> statements were to be applied; among these passages of the Kitáb-i-
> Aqdas is one that refers to members of the House of Justice as “Men of
> Justice.”123
> 
> During the ministry of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá the intent of these passages of the
> Kitáb-i-Aqdas was clarified when He wrote to the Bahá’ís in America,
> who were at that time forming Spiritual Assemblies and embarking on
> the construction of a Bahá’í Temple:
> According to the ordinances of the Faith of God, women are the
> equals of men in all rights save only that of membership on the
> Universal House of Justice, for as hath been stated in the text of the
> Book, both the head and the members of the House of Justice are
> men. However, in all other bodies, such as the Temple Construction
> Committee, the Teaching Committee, the Spiritual Assembly, and in
> charitable and scientific associations, women share equally in all
> rights with men.124
> 
> This clarification was restated and given further authoritative
> elaboration when Shoghi Effendi specified, in a letter written on his
> behalf to an individual believer,
> 
> As regards your question concerning the membership of the Universal
> House of Justice: there is a Tablet from ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in which He
> definitely states that the membership of the Universal House is
> confined to men, and that the wisdom of it will be fully revealed and
> appreciated in the future. In the local as well as the National Houses
> of Justice, however, women have the full right of membership. It is,
> therefore, only to the International House that they cannot be elected.
> . . . 125
> 
> While the Bahá’í teachings specify the manner in which the Universal
> House of Justice is to be elected by members of the Secondary Houses
> of Justice, which are now called National Spiritual Assemblies, many
> details about election procedures, the number of members, and the term
> of office have not been set out in the writings of Bahá’u’lláh, or in the
> interpretations of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, and are thus left to
> the Universal House of Justice itself to determine. In accordance with
> the provisions of the Covenant, the Universal House of Justice is free
> to change its decisions whenever it judges conditions to have changed.
> This has raised in the minds of some the question of whether it might
> be possible for the Universal House of Justice to change the present
> stipulation that its membership is to be confined only to men. The
> Universal House of Justice addresses this subject, stating,
> 
> Further, in response to a number of questions about eligibility for
> membership and procedures for election of the Universal House of
> Justice, the Guardian’s secretary writing on his behalf distinguished
> between those questions which could be answered by reference to the
> “explicitly revealed” Text and those which could not. Membership of
> the Universal House of Justice fits into the former category. The
> letter stated:
> 
> The membership of the Universal House of Justice is confined to
> men. Fixing the number of members, the procedures for election and
> the term of membership will be known later, as these are not
> explicitly revealed in the Holy Text.
> 
> (27 May 1940)
> 
> Hence, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and the Guardian progressively have revealed, in
> accordance with divine inspiration, the meaning and implications of
> Bahá’u’lláh’s seminal teachings. Their interpretations are fundamental
> statements of truth which cannot be varied through legislation by the
> Universal House of Justice.126
> 
> Associated with this progressive clarification has been a progressive
> implementation of the provisions of the Bahá’í writings. Initially,
> when matters were not clear, the membership of the embryonic Local
> Houses of Justice established in the Western world through the
> initiative of the Bahá’ís living in these areas was confined to men.
> Later, when Abdu’l-Bahá clarified that the exclusion of women from
> membership applied only to the Universal House of Justice, women
> became eligible for service at both the local and national levels. The
> progressiveness of application in the Eastern world is discussed in
> greater detail in chapter 6, where the steps Shoghi Effendi took to bring
> about the full participation of women in the administrative activities of
> the Faith at both a local and national level are considered.
> 
> As can readily be imagined, the Bahá’í approach to progressive
> clarification, with associated gradual implementation, has provided
> abundant ammunition to antagonists of the Bahá’í Faith seeking to
> direct at it accusations that can be disproved only through patient and
> careful examination of the facts. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá has been falsely
> accused of yielding to the pressure to make the Bahá’í Faith more
> palatable to Western tastes and of changing the law of Bahá’u’lláh to
> allow women to serve on local and national bodies. At the other
> extreme are those who have argued unsuccessfully that the statements
> of Bahá’u’lláh were not intended to exclude women from the Universal
> House of Justice, but that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi yielded to
> male pressure in imposing a restriction at the international level. No
> doubt other more ingenious accusations will be leveled against the
> Bahá’í institutions as the Bahá’í community grows in size and prestige
> and as those who are opposed to its values seek means of retarding its
> spread and influence.
> A fundamental Bahá’í principle is illustrated when one considers the
> reason for excluding women from membership of the Universal House
> of Justice. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá writes, “The House of Justice, . . . according
> to the explicit text of the Law of God, is confined to men; this for a
> wisdom of the Lord God’s, which will erelong be made manifest as
> clearly as the sun at high noon.” Similar statements are made by the
> Guardian in a letter written on his behalf in response to a query:
> “Regarding your question, the Master said the wisdom of having no
> women on the International House of Justice would become manifest in
> the future. We have no other indication than this.” The Universal
> House of Justice, in a letter written on its behalf, states, “Bahá’ís
> believe that to gain a fuller understanding of the reason women are
> excused from membership of the Universal House of Justice, we must
> await the evolution of society, and, we are confident that the wisdom of
> women’s exclusion will become manifest as society develops and
> becomes more united.”127
> 
> Clearly, these responses from the central Bahá’í institutions do not
> indicate what the reason for exclusion is, and the believers are enjoined
> to have faith in the wisdom of this law and to trust that, in the course of
> time, the reason will become evident to the people of that future period.
> 
> This situation provides a useful example of the role of faith in the
> structure and operation of Bahá’í belief A basic principle of the Bahá’í
> Faith is that of independent investigation of truth, by which a seeker
> after truth is encouraged to exercise independent judgment in
> determining whether or not to accept Bahá’u’lláh’s claim to be a
> Manifestation of God and thus the source of religious truth for
> humanity in this Dispensation. A decision of such far-reaching
> consequences for the spiritual life of the individual should be reached
> without an unquestioning dependence on the views and conclusions of
> others. When a person accepts Bahá’u’lláh’s claim and becomes a
> believer, he or she is accepting that whatever is revealed by Bahá’u’lláh
> is divine truth, irrespective of the extent to which the reasons for any
> given provision are clear. To hold to a contrary view is inconsistent
> with belief in Bahá’u’lláh as a Manifestation of God, and such a logical
> contradiction is best resolved by reexamining the evidence that led the
> individual to identify with the claims of the Bahá’í Faith. It is the
> spiritual obligation of every believer to endeavor, in applying the
> principle of independent investigation of truth, to obtain a deeper
> understanding of the Bahá’í teachings. In the course of that endeavor
> the believer will gain insight into the reasons for many of the
> provisions in Bahá’í law that a Bahá’í accepts on the basis of faith in
> Bahá’u’lláh. However, such a position should not be confused with
> blind faith, in which the views of a supposed source of truth are
> accepted without adequately investigating the validity of the alleged
> source.
> 
> It is not unusual, in the physical and biological sciences, to make use of
> any equation, concept, or chemical compound when the evidence about
> its validity or utility is compelling, even if the reasons are not clear.
> Medical compounds are used in healing because those who prescribe
> them are convinced of their efficacy, even if the mechanism by which
> the remedial action takes place is unknown. There are many examples
> in the physical sciences of equations that have been employed
> successfully, sometimes for many decades, before theoretical
> justification was established.
> 
> The Bahá’í teachings contain many aspects that must, at present, be
> accepted on faith by the believer, including statements about life after
> death, predictions of the future condition of human society, and
> references to cosmology and to sciences of the future. It is in such a
> context that Bahá’ís might well view the call to them, as followers of
> Bahá’u’lláh, to accept with complete faith the statements in the Bahá’í
> teachings that the reason for the exclusion of women from membership
> of the Universal House of Justice will become evident in the future.
> The Universal House of Justice addresses this subject:
> 
> Though at the present time it may be difficult for the believers to
> appreciate the reason for the circumscription of membership on the
> Universal House of Justice to men, we call upon the friends to remain
> insured by the Master’s promise that clarity of understanding will be
> achieved in due course. The friends, both women and men, must accept
> this with faith that the Covenant of Bahá’u’lláh will aid them and the
> institutions of His World Order to see the realization of every principle
> ordained by His unerring Pen, including the equality of men and
> women, as expounded in the Writings of the Cause.128
> 
> As might well be anticipated, there has been considerable speculation
> in the Bahá’í community about the reason for this explicit provision in
> the Faith. The views of individuals on this matter should not, of course,
> be regarded as authoritative statements of the Bahá’í Faith. In some
> instances the theories put forth may be regarded as logically
> inconsistent with the teachings of the Faith; other speculative views
> may well appear to reflect unconscious bias or unwarranted inferences
> drawn from the experiences of the male-dominated cultures that have
> prevailed throughout recorded history. In response to a question from a
> believer about a view propounded to the effect that women cannot
> make objective decisions because of their compassion and hence are
> excluded from the Universal House of Justice, a letter written on behalf
> of the house of justice states,
> 
> While individuals are free to speculate on the reason for the
> membership of the Universal House of Justice being confined to
> men, there is no authoritative text to support the assertion that it is
> due to women being so compassionate as to be unable to make
> objective decisions. Indeed, it might well be argued that if this were
> the reason, teachings would have provided also for the exclusion of
> women from Local and National Spiritual Assemblies, whereas a
> letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an individual believer
> contains this statement: “In the local, as well as the national Houses
> of Justice, however, women have the full right of membership.” 129
> 
> This example illustrates the scrupulous care that should be taken not to
> give unjustified authority to the views of individual Bahá’ís on a
> subject that awaits the passage of time before it will become clear. In
> the meanwhile the Bahá’í community in all parts of the planet is
> summoned to persevere in the endeavor, which must extend over many
> generations, to create a world society that has translated the Bahá’í
> commitment to equality into established and unprejudiced social
> practice.
> Those who are not Bahá’ís naturally find the Bahá’í teachings on
> membership of the Universal House of Justice puzzling and are not
> persuaded by the reasons given for Bahá’í adherence to this provision,
> since their perception of Bahá’u’lláh’s station and the authority of His
> statements differs from that of Bahá’ís. Bahá’ís should be sympathetic
> and understanding of the concern others might feel about this aspect of
> the Faith, while maintaining their own resolute commitment to
> unqualified adherence to whatever Bahá’u’lláh has ordained.
> 
> Inquirers into the Bahá’í Faith often raise some probing questions in
> their exploration of the implications of this provision. The questions
> most frequently posed are set out below with our responses to them.
> 
> Question: How does the provision that women are excluded from
> membership of the Universal House of Justice accord with the Bahá’í
> principle of the equality of the sexes; does it not introduce an
> inconsistency in the application of this principle?
> 
> Response: The Bahá’í principle of the equality of the sexes does not
> imply identity of function, but it denies any implication of superiority
> associated with this functional differentiation. This is clarified by the
> Universal House of Justice, which writes,
> 
> With regard to the status of women, the important point for Bahá’ís to
> remember is that in face of the categorical pronouncements in Bahá’í
> Scripture establishing the equality of men and women, the ineligibility
> of women for membership of the Universal House of Justice does not
> constitute evidence of the superiority of men over women. It must also
> be borne in mind that women are not excluded from any other
> international institution of the Faith. They are found among the ranks
> of the Hands of the Cause. They serve as members of the International
> Teaching Centre and as Continental Counsellors. And, there is nothing
> in the Text to preclude the participation of women in such future
> international bodies as the Supreme Tribunal. 130 131
> 
> While there are differences of rank between the constituent elements of
> the institutions of the Bahá’í Administrative Order, and while the
> Universal House of Justice indicates that “Courtesy, reverence, dignity,
> respect for the rank and achievements of others are virtues which
> contribute to the harmony and well-being of every community,” it also
> emphasizes the vital principle that “The true spiritual station of any
> soul is known only to God. It is quite a different thing from the ranks
> and stations that men and women occupy in the various sectors of
> society.”132 The importance of this distinction between rank in the
> Administrative Order and spiritual station lies not only in its resolution
> of the putative inconsistency referred to above. Clearly comprehending
> that administrative rank does not carry with it the implication of a
> higher spiritual station precludes the possibility of sullying the Bahá’í
> electoral process with the poison of ambition and preserves the
> prescribed attitude of humble willingness to serve in whatever function
> is assigned by the electors.
> 
> Question: Does not the exclusion of women from membership of the
> Universal House of Justice deny them access to the highest rank in the
> Faith?
> 
> Response: Throughout the duration of the Bahá’í Dispensation, the
> highest rank to which a believer can be assigned is that of Hand of the
> Cause of God, and the Hands of the Cause outrank the members of the
> Universal House of Justice. Not only have several women been
> appointed of Hands of the Cause, but the Hand of the Cause whom
> Shoghi Effendi designated “the foremost Hand raised by Baha’u’llah
> since ‘Abdu’l-Baha’s passing” was a woman, Miss Martha Root.133
> 
> Question: Does not the fact that the membership of the Universal
> House of Justice is all male imply this body will concern itself
> principally with the welfare of men, or even if the preservation of male
> privilege, rather than being equally concerned with the welfare of
> women ?
> 
> Response: In responding to a question of this nature, the Universal
> House of Justice called attention to the fact that, in its decision-making,
> the House of Justice is the recipient and beneficiary of a unique
> assurance enshrined in the Covenant quite independent of the
> composition of its membership. The letter written on its behalf states,
> 
> A vital distinction between the opinions and perceptions of the
> individual members of this body and the decisions of the Universal
> House of Justice, is emphasised by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in the statement:
> 
> Let it not be imagined that the House of Justice will take any decision
> according to its own concepts and opinions. God forbid! The
> Supreme House of Justice will take decisions and establish laws
> through the inspiration and confirmation of the Holy Spirit, because it
> is in the safekeeping and under the shelter and protection of the
> Ancient Beauty …
> (From Wellspring of Guidance: Messages 1963-1968, The Universal
> House of Justice, pp 84-85)
> 
> In describing the functions of the Universal House of Justice,
> Bahá’u’lláh has written that:
> 
> We exhort the men of the House of Justice and command them to
> ensure the protection and safeguarding of men, women and
> children….
> 
> (From Tablets of Baha’u’llah Revealed after the Kitáb-i-Aqdas pp
> 60-70) 134
> 
> Some examples of actions taken by the Universal House of Justice to
> promote the equality of the sexes are given in chapter 6.
> 
> Question: History shows that the actions of men in past Dispensations
> have severely curtailed the freedom and rights granted to women by the
> Founder of each religion. What is there to prevent a similar erosion
> from occurring in the Bahá’í Dispensation?
> 
> Response: Were it left only to the followers of the Faith, no guarantee
> could be provided that such a restriction would not occur. The
> historical record indicates that in other religions such deviation from
> the purpose and intent of the Founders occurred partially through the
> misguided actions of those who were unconsciously influenced by the
> culture from which they came, and partially through the conscious
> efforts of those who feared a loss of power and privilege and who felt
> that changed circumstances justified their departure from the
> statements of the Founder. In the Bahá’í Faith the unassailable
> guarantee is provided by the institution of a Covenant entirely unique
> in religious history, with no parallel in the Dispensations of the past.
> Its provisions guarantee that the integrity of the teachings will be
> preserved and that their purity will remain free from corruption by
> manmade ideas or schemes. Without the Covenant, the high ideals of
> the Faith are doomed to ultimate failure irrespective of the good
> intentions of its faithful adherents. Equipped with the Covenant of
> Bahá’u’lláh, the Faith is destined to bring about, to an extent now
> inconceivable, all the provisions of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, a consequence
> of which will be the realization of the equality of the sexes and the
> liberation of women from the millennia of social inferiority that they
> have endured.
> 
> THE APPLICATION OF BAHÁ’Í LAW
> 
> The laws of every religion must necessarily take account of the
> consequences of the physiological differences between the sexes.
> Unfortunately, in times past these differences have often been used as
> a basis for the imposition on women of laws that acted as an
> unwarranted restriction on their freedom and that were in many
> instances humiliating.
> 
> Bahá’í law recognizes certain functional differences between men and
> women. However, this law is formulated in such a manner that the
> equality of the sexes is safeguarded and the freedom of women to
> develop their potential is not circumscribed. While its essential
> features are apparent now, its full implications will only become
> evident in the course of time as it is applied on a wider scale.
> Through adherence to this law on the part of the Bahá’í community, the
> conduct of its members is modified. These changes in behavior serve
> to reinforce the attitudes that are enjoined in the Bahá’í teachings and
> are thus a potent means of implanting firmly in the consciousness of
> the Bahá’ís an ever-growing conviction of the equality of men and
> women.
> 
> Implementing Equality:
> The Ministries of
> Bahá’u’lláh and
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
> 
> . . . In every land the world of
> women is on the march, and this is
> due to the impact of the Most Great
> Manifestation, and the power of
> the teachings of God.
> 
> – ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
> BELIEF AND PRACTICE
> 
> Chapters 5, 6, and 7 discuss a number of aspects of implementing the
> principle of the equality of women and men. Chapter 5 highlights
> strategies and actions taken by Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá during
> Their ministries. Chapter 6 focuses on the role of Shoghi Effendi and
> the Universal House of Justice to facilitate the understanding and
> practice of this principle. Chapter 7 examines the Bahá’í approach to
> implementation, drawing attention to its distinctive features and its
> multifaceted approach.
> 
> A religion such as the Bahá’í Faith must necessarily expect to be
> criticized by some as being no more than a utopian expression of high
> ideals and exalted principles, doomed to failure in its attempt to
> translate its teachings into practical reality. One aspect of the
> refutation of such an inaccurate assessment of the Faith is to draw
> attention to the actions taken by the central authority in the Faith since
> its inception to foster the progressive implementation of equality, in all
> its many aspects, and to demonstrate consistent and unyielding
> adherence to the principle of equality of the sexes.
> 
> The Bahá’í Faith lays unusually strong emphasis on the application of
> its laws and principles. Bahá’u’lláh states that “True belief in God and
> recognition of Him cannot be complete save by acceptance of that
> which He hath revealed and by observance of whatsoever hath been
> decreed by Him and set down in the Book by the Pen of Glory.”135
> This passage illustrates the essential element of the Bahá’í commitment
> to implementation of religious requirements such as that of the equality
> of the sexes. The acceptance by a believer of such clearly stated
> principles and the practice of them are related directly and
> unambiguously to the central aim in the spiritual life of the individual,
> that of belief in God and unreserved acceptance of His teachings. This
> can give rise to a motivation far stronger than that of idealists, social
> reformers, and other fair-minded people who see clearly the need to
> practice the equality of the sexes and who strive to contribute to its
> implementation.
> 
> Such a perspective derives from a recognition that religion, in its pure
> form, uncorrupted by the pollution and distortion of dogmatic additions
> from erroneous sources, is the most powerful means of effecting
> constructive change in the world. As Abdu’l-Bahá states in The Secret
> of Divine Civilization,
> 
> Religion is the light of the world, and the progress, achievement, and
> happiness of man result from obedience to the laws set down in the
> holy Books. Briefly, it is demonstrable that in this life, both outwardly
> and inwardly the mightiest of structures, the most solidly established,
> the most enduring, standing guard over the world, assuring both the
> spiritual and the material perfections of mankind, and protecting the
> happiness and the civilization of society–is religion.136
> 
> THE ACTIONS OF BAHÁ’U’LLÁH
> 
> The historical record of the actions taken by Bahá’u’lláh as Founder of
> the Bahá’í Faith to promote the implementation of this cardinal
> principle of His religion is far from complete. Much material remains
> untranslated and other significant information unrecorded because of
> the conditions in the Muslim societies of the nineteenth century.
> Nevertheless, even at this early stage, enough examples have been
> accumulated to allow some illuminating insights to be derived.
> 
> His Teachings
> 
> Chapters 1 through 4 demonstrate in some detail that Bahá’u’lláh’s
> unequivocal pronouncements on the equality of men and women are an
> integral component of His vision of the world of justice, unity, and
> liberation that His teachings are designed to bring into being. He
> affirms that “such means as lead to the elevation, the advancement, the
> education, the protection and the regeneration of the peoples of the
> earth have been clearly set forth by Us and are revealed in the Holy
> Books and Tablets by the Pen of Glory.” Bahá’u’lláh also states that
> His “counsels . . . constitute the supreme animating power for the
> advancement of the world and the exaltation of its peoples.”137 Within
> this context should be viewed the definitive statements of Bahá’u’lláh
> such as
> 
> Praised be God, the Pen of the Most High hath lifted distinctions from
> between His servants and handmaidens, and, through His
> consummate favours and all-encompassing mercy, hath conferred
> upon all a station and rank of the same plane. He hath broken the
> back of vain imaginings with the sword of utterance and hath
> obliterated the perils of idle fancies through the pervasive power of
> His might.138
> 
> The simplicity of the following passage should not be allowed to
> obscure its categorical nature and its far-reaching consequences:
> “Women and men have been and will always be equal in the sight of
> God. The Dawning-Place of the Light of God sheddeth its radiance
> upon all with the same effulgence.”139
> 
> It is a familiar theme that the prescription of Bahá’u’lláh for the rights
> of women stood in sharp contrast to the oppressive conditions under
> which women were forced to exist in the nineteenth century within Iran
> and neighboring regions of the Ottoman Empire. What is less clearly
> understood is that His laws and principles called for women to have
> rights far beyond those enjoyed at that time by women in the Western
> world, where there had already been a significant improvement in their
> state and circumstances.
> 
> This point is illustrated by an analysis of the Declaration of Sentiments
> and the resolutions of the historic Seneca Falls women’s Rights
> Convention held in the United States in 1848. These statements called
> for women to be accorded human rights, including those of
> participation in the electoral process and in the legislative process, and
> the right to hold property within marriage. They deplored the lack of
> equity accorded to women in marriage and in the provisions for
> divorce, and sought removal of the formidable barriers to the education
> of women and to their participation in employment at other than the
> most menial and nonprofessional levels. In addition, they condemned
> the distinction in moral standards applied to men and women, the
> exclusion of women from public participation in religious affairs, and
> the destruction of the self-respect and self-confidence of women as a
> consequence of the manner in which they were being treated.140 This
> eloquent call for the emancipation of women issued in Seneca Falls
> was far surpassed by the provisions enunciated by Bahá’u’lláh a few
> years later, in a distant land, for the liberation of women and their full
> participation in the affairs of humanity.
> 
> His Guidance and Encouragement to Women
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh did not confine Himself to the expression of the statements
> that form the foundation of the Bahá’í teachings. He modeled to His
> followers practical applications of the principle of equality, continually
> supporting and encouraging the female members of the Bahá’í
> community in their aspirations to develop themselves and be of service
> to others.
> 
> It is impossible to overestimate the reassurance, comfort, and
> encouragement that Bahá’í women continue to receive from the
> tenderness and consideration Bahá’u’lláh conveys in these words:
> 
> We make mention of the handmaidens of God at this time and
> announce unto them the glad-tidings of the tokens of the mercy and
> compassion of God and His consideration for them, glorified be He,
> and We supplicate Him for all His assistance to perform such deeds as
> are the cause of the exaltation of His Word.141
> 
> In the early days of the Bahá’í Faith it required great courage for a
> woman to defy the pressure of her spouse and extended family in
> expressing her adherence to this new religion. The weight of a timehonored patriarchal social structure bore down upon her, and her
> manifest assertion of the right to independence of thought rendered her
> subject to ridicule, condemnation, and derision. Bahá’u’lláh, in a
> Tablet, addressed one such woman in these terms:
> 
> Blessed art thou, doubly blessed art thou! Thou arc reckoned amongst
> those handmaidens whose love for their kin hath not prevented them
> from attaining the shores of the Sea of Grace and Mercy. God
> willing, thou shale rest eternally neath the shade of the favours of the
> All-Merciful and shalt be assured of His bounties. Engage in the
> praise of the True One and rejoice in His loving-kindness.142
> 
> The handmaiden’s courageous stand is praised, the spiritual impact of
> her action is described, and she is promised a future tranquillity and
> happiness. She is advised not to bemoan her plight, but rather to
> rejoice in the opportunity that circumstances have given her to stand
> firm in the face of opposition and to thus demonstrate the strength of
> her belief.
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh encouraged and recognized the participation of women in
> the work of the Bahá’í Cause, thereby further affirming a role for
> women in religion. In this regard, it is very significant that Bahá’u’lláh
> revealed Tablets in honor of some of His female followers and, in one
> such Tablet, admonished His “handmaiden” to “do that which will
> serve to promote the interests of the Cause of God amongst men and
> women.” Not only does Bahá’u’lláh define a role for women in
> religion, but He specifies that women are to be on an equal footing with
> men in service to the Cause of God and that all must recognize and
> appreciate the important contribution that women have to make in this
> realm of activity. Women are not simply confined to teaching and
> ministering to the spiritual needs of women, but are called upon to
> operate “amongst men and women.”143
> 
> From His Tablets it is evident that Bahá’u’lláh was most appreciative
> of the services of the female believers. He bestows the title of
> “handmaiden” upon those women who have had the blessing of
> recognizing and serving the Manifestation of God.144 He indicates that
> 
> The title “O My handmaiden” far excelleth aught else that can be seen
> in the world. Ere long the eyes of mankind shall be illumined and
> cheered by recognizing that which Our Pen of Glory hath revealed.145
> 
> In another Tablet addressed to one of the female believers, He asserts,
> 
> Wert thou to perceive the sweetness of the title “O My handmaiden”
> thou wouldst find thyself detached from all mankind, devoutly
> engaged day and night in communion with Him Who is the sole
> Desire of the world.146
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh praises the services of the female believers and calls
> attention to their “station. “In one of His Tablets He states,
> 
> In words of incomparable beauty We have made fitting mention of
> such leaves and handmaidens as have quaffed from the living waters
> of heavenly grace and have kept their eyes directed towards God.
> Happy and blessed are they indeed. Ere long shall God reveal their
> station whose loftiness no word can befittingly express nor any
> description adequately describe.147
> 
> And in another Tablet He affirms,
> By My Life! the names of handmaidens who are devoted to God are
> written and set down by the Pen of the Most High in the Crimson
> Book. They excel over men in the sight of God. How numerous are
> the heroes and knights in the field who are bereft of the True One and
> have no share in His recognition, but thou hast attained and received
> thy fill.148
> 
> Examples from His Personal Relationships
> 
> In studying the life of any individual, including no less exalted a figure
> than a Manifestation of God, useful insights are obtained by observing
> informal contact and association. Religious history has been enriched
> by the Gospel accounts of the interactions of Jesus with those of both
> high and low estate, and many useful lessons have properly been drawn
> from the record of the quotidian association of Muḥammad with the
> people of Mecca and Medina.
> 
> There are pitifully few fragments in the Bahá’í literature accessible in
> the English language that illuminate the attitudes and statements of
> Bahá’u’lláh toward the women with whom He came in contact amid
> the restrictions of a life spent mostly as a prisoner of implacable
> ecclesiastical and secular antagonists. Nonetheless, the brief accounts
> that are available are profoundly instructive to His followers, for they
> exemplify the acute sensitivity, courtesy, respect, and consideration that
> distinguish this contact.
> 
> Ásíyih Khánum. We begin with the most personal and intimate of
> relationships, that of Bahá’u’lláh and His faithful and devoted wife
> Ásíyih Khánum, on whom He conferred the title of honor Navváb
> (meaning “highness”), by which she is known. The information
> available about her is lamentably sparse, and the most detailed
> biography of her life is no more than a lengthy essay, despite the
> diligent endeavors of the author to glean material from sources in
> Arabic and Persian as well as English. Nevertheless, enough remains
> to provide useful glimpses, one of which concerns the hardships
> endured by the family of Bahá’u’lláh during its exile, at which time, in
> the words of her daughter Bahíyyih Khánum,
> 
> Ásíyih Khánum, my dear mother, was in delicate health, her strength
> was diminished by the hardships she had undergone, but she always
> worked beyond her force.
> 
> Sometimes my father himself helped in the cooking, as that hard work
> was too much for the dainty, refined, gentle lady. The hardships she
> had endured saddened the heart of her divine husband, who was also
> her beloved Lord. He gave this help both before his sojourn in the
> wilderness of Sulaymáníyyih, and after his return.149
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh’s assisting Navváb with domestic duties and grieving over
> her ill-health, other accounts of His consolation to her when their son
> Mírzá Mihdí fell to his death in an accident while the family was
> confined to the prison in ‘Akká, and His solicitude to her in the last
> hours of her earthly life–all provide fragmentary but compelling
> evidence of a relationship of love and consideration.
> 
> In a Tablet of Visitation revealed after her passing, Bahá’u’lláh praises
> her exalted spiritual qualities and affirms that the sorrow caused by her
> death changed the light of the day to the darkness of night, transformed
> joy to sadness, and transmuted calmness into agitation.150 He addresses
> her in these terms:
> 
> O Navváb! O Leaf that hath sprung from My Tree, and been My
> companion! My glory be upon thee, and My loving-kindness, and My
> mercy that hath surpassed all beings. We announce unto thee that
> which will gladden thine eye, and assure thy soul, and rejoice thine
> heart. Verily, thy Lord is the Compassionate, the All-Bountiful. God
> hath been and will be pleased with thee, and hath singled thee out for
> His own Self, and chosen thee from among His handmaidens to serve
> Him, and hath made thee the companion of His Person in the daytime
> and in the night season.
> 
> Hear thou Me once again, God is well-pleased with thee . . . .151
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh calls upon those who visit Navváb’s resting-place to recite
> these words:
> 
> Salutation and blessing and glory upon thee, O Holy Leaf that hath
> sprung from the Divine Lote-Tree! I bear witness that thou hast
> believed in God and in His signs, and answered His Call, and turned
> unto Him, and held fast unto His cord, and clung to the hem of His
> grace, and fled thy home in His path, and chosen to live as a stranger,
> out of love for His presence and in thy longing to serve Him. May
> God have mercy upon him that draweth nigh unto thee, and
> remembereth thee through the things which My Pen hath voiced in
> this, the most great station. We pray God that He may forgive us, and
> forgive them that have turned unto thee, and grant their desires, and
> bestow upon them, through His wondrous grace, whatever be their
> wish. He, verily, is the Bountiful, the Generous. Praise be to God,
> He Who is the Desire of all worlds, and the Beloved of all who
> recognize Him.152
> 
> Bahíyyih Khánum. Our attention turns next to Bahíyyih Khánum, the
> daughter of Bahá’u’lláh who is referred to as the Greatest Holy Leaf, a
> title of honor. The warmth of His relationship with her is evident in the
> following passage addressed to her:
> 
> How sweet thy presence before Me; how sweet to gaze upon thy face,
> to bestow upon thee My loving-kindness, to favour thee with My
> tender care, to make mention of thee in this, My Tablet–a Tablet
> which I have ordained as a token of My hidden and manifest grace
> unto thee.153
> 
> Bahíyyih Khánum played a vital role in the work of the Faith during
> the ministry of Bahá’u’lláh. Perhaps the most striking example of how
> He availed Himself of the services of female believers is the way in
> which He called upon her to undertake important and challenging tasks
> on behalf of the Faith. Shoghi Effendi, in a letter dated 17 July 1932,
> attests that
> 
> . . . this revered and precious member of the Holy Family, then in her
> teens, came to be entrusted by the guiding hand of her Father with
> missions that no girl of her age could, or would be willing to,
> perform, with what spontaneous joy she seized her opportunity and
> acquitted herself of the task with which she had been entrusted! The
> delicacy and extreme gravity of such functions as she, from time to
> time, was called upon to fulfill, when the city of Baghdád was swept
> by the hurricane which the heedlessness and perversity of Mírzá
> Yaḥyá had unchained, as well as the tender solicitude which, at so
> early an age, she evinced during the period of Bahá’u’lláh’s enforced
> retirement to the mountains of Sulaymáníyyih, marked her as one
> who was both capable of sharing the burden, and willing to make the
> sacrifice, which her high birth demanded.154
> 
> She was, in this way, the archetype for those Bahá’í women who have,
> in subsequent decades, played a courageous and crucial role in
> protecting the Faith from adversaries who sought to extirpate it or to
> foment dissension within its ranks, and in establishing the institutions
> of its Administrative Order. The services she rendered through the
> guidance and encouragement of Bahá’u’lláh were of such preeminent
> distinction as fitted one described by Him as having “a station such as
> none other woman hath surpassed.”155
> 
> Other Bahá’í Women. Yet another example of Bahá’u’lláh’s
> confidence in the capacity of women to render important services to the
> Faith, and of His determination to provide them with opportunities to
> do so, is found in His decision concerning the custodianship of the
> House of the Báb. After the passing of Khadíjih Bagum, the wife of
> the Báb, in 1882, Bahá’u’lláh assigned this function to Zahrá Bagum, a
> sister-in-law of the Báb, and to her descendants. Given the importance
> of the House of the Báb in Shíráz as a center of formal pilgrimage and
> the holiest place in Persia, the appointment of a woman to shoulder this
> important responsibility is indicative, not only of Baha’u’llah’s trust in
> Zahrá Bagum’s stewardship, but also of His willingness to break with
> tradition. Such an appointment stands in sharp contrast to the
> prevailing Islamic practice in which women were generally excluded
> from religious office, for the custodianship of holy places was the
> exclusive province of men.156
> 
> A further indication of Bahá’u’lláh’s appreciation of the services of
> Bahá’í women is His extension of assistance and hospitality to a
> number of devoted female believers who had suffered in the path of
> service to the Cause, including the widows and children of
> distinguished Bahá’í martyrs. In Memorials of the Faithful, ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá describes how Bahá’u’lláh directed Fáṭimih Begum, the widow of
> the King of Martyrs, and members of her family to “come to the Most
> Great Prison so that, sheltered in these precincts of abounding grace,
> they might be compensated for all that had passed.”157
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh’s communications with His cousin Maryam might well be
> taken as an example of His trust in, and respect for, women.158 In one
> of the several Tablets addressed to her, revealed soon after His return
> from Sulaymáníyyih, Bahá’u’lláh pours out His heart to her, recounting
> the rigors of His exiles and His retirement to the mountains of
> Kurdistan, and the afflictions He endured at the hands of unfaithful
> relatives and friends:
> 
> The wrongs which I suffer have blotted out the wrongs suffered by
> My First Name [the Báb] from the Tablet of creation. . . . After
> countless afflictions, We reached ‘Iráq at the bidding of the Tyrant of
> Persia, where, after the fetters of Our foes, We were afflicted with the
> perfidy of Our friends. God knoweth what befell Me thereafter! At
> length I gave up My home and all therein, and renounced life and all
> that appertaineth unto it, and alone and friendless, chose to go into
> retirement. I roamed the wilderness of resignation, travelling in such
> wise that in My exile every eye wept sore over Me, and all created
> things shed tears of blood because of My anguish. The birds of the
> air were My companions and the beasts of the field My associates. . . .
> By the righteousness of God! I have borne what neither the oceans,
> nor the waves, nor the fruits, nor any created thing, whether of the
> past or of the future, hath borne or will be capable of bearing.159
> 
> During the course of His ministry Bahá’u’lláh recalled on many
> occasions the loyalty and devotion of Maryam and honored her with
> the appellation “Crimson Leaf.”160 Upon her passing He revealed a
> special Tablet of Visitation in her memory.
> 
> The following description of an event that transpired in Baghdád, taken
> from a compilation of anecdotal accounts of Bahá’u’lláh’s life,
> illustrates vividly the kindness and respect that were so characteristic of
> Bahá’u’lláh’s attitude toward the women with whom He was in
> contact:
> 
> The Blessed Beauty was a source of great bounty and mercy for all, but
> particularly for the poor to whom He gave special attention. Always
> He bestowed gifts upon the disabled, the orphans and the needy whom
> He met during His walks in the city.
> 
> One of these was a woman of eighty who lived in a deprived area
> through which Bahá’u’lláh often passed. Each day, as He walked from
> His house towards the coffee-house of Sar-i-Jisr, she would wait for
> him in the roadway. Bahá’u’lláh was exceedingly kind to her and
> always asked after her health. Although He would not let her kiss His
> hands, whenever she wanted to kiss His cheeks, because she was bent
> with age and short of stature, He would bend down so that she could
> realize her wish. Often He remarked, “Because I love this old woman
> so much, she also loves Me.” Throughout His time in Baghdád, He
> showered her with kindness, and before leaving for Constantinople, He
> arranged an allowance for her to the end of her days.161
> 
> Such anecdotes are far from inconsequential or trivial. They cast light
> on the unprecedented level of honor, respect, and consideration toward
> women that is enjoined in the Bahá’í teachings, and on the need for a
> constant striving, even in the most circumscribed conditions, for means
> by which women can be encouraged and aided to take their rightful
> place as equal members of society.
> 
> THE ROLE OF ‘ABDU’L-BAHÁ
> 
> The cause of women was also championed by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, the son of
> Bahá’u’lláh. He not only elaborated and promoted the principle of
> equality in His writings and talks, but His life serves as an example, a
> model of how to apply this principle and the other aspects of the Bahá’í
> teachings.
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá occupies a unique position in the Bahá’í Faith. He
> served not only as the designated successor to Bahá’u’lláh and as “the
> unerring Interpreter of His Word,” but He is also the “perfect
> Exemplar” of Bahá’u’lláh’s teachings, the “embodiment of every
> Bahá’í ideal,” and “the incarnation of every Bahá’í virtue.”162 His
> every action is, therefore, of significance as a full ‘expression of the
> Faith applied in the world; Bahá’ís are encouraged to study His
> approach and to follow His example as a means of attaining a more
> concrete understanding of the Bahá’í way of life.
> 
> The example of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá translates abstract spiritual principles
> into visible reality and demonstrates their application, thereby making
> it possible for the individual to strive to emulate His action. He is a
> recent historical figure Who lived and traveled in the East and the
> West. His life is well documented and available for scrutiny.
> Examination of His writings, the events in His life, and the nature of
> His relationships with people from diverse backgrounds and cultures
> evinces the relevance of His attitudes and behavior to contemporary
> life. His interactions readily demonstrate that His behavior was not
> culture bound; His example transcends traditional limitations and
> stereotypes. He defines and models a way of life that is appropriate in
> both the East and the West.
> 
> An examination of the statements and the life of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá will
> illustrate the ways in which He clearly, authoritatively, and
> strategically, not only defines, but also exemplifies and encourages the
> application of the principle of the equality of women and men by the
> followers of Bahá’u’lláh throughout the world.
> 
> The Exemplar of the Bahá’í Faith
> 
> Examining the historical record for accounts of the attitudes and
> statements of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá serves, through practical example, to
> illustrate the conduct that all Bahá’ís should strive to follow. Such
> inquiry is limited by the present lack of comprehensive documentation
> about the activities of women in the Middle East, but a sufficient
> number of episodes have been reported to serve our purpose.
> 
> We begin by examining the characteristics of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s
> relationship to the women with whom He was most closely associated
> in His daily activities–His illustrious sister Bahíyyih Khánum, known
> as the Greatest Holy Leaf, and His wife, Munírih Khánum. During the
> ministry of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá Bahíyyih Khánum, to whom some references
> have already been made, continued to play a most important and highly
> responsible role in the work of the Faith. She shared His
> imprisonment, reinforced His efforts, and was His ever-loyal supporter
> entrusted by Him with the affairs of the Cause during His absences
> from the Holy Land. Shoghi Effendi describes the services she
> performed in these words:
> 
> Forgetful of her own self, disdaining rest and comfort, and undeterred
> by the obstacles that still stood in her path, she, acting as the
> honoured hostess to a steadily increasing number of pilgrims who
> thronged ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s residence from both the East and the West,
> continued to display those same attributes that had won her, in the
> preceding phases of her career, so great a measure of admiration and
> love.
> 
> And when, in pursuance of God’s inscrutable Wisdom, the ban of
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s confinement was lifted and the Plan which He, in the
> darkest hours of His confinement, had conceived materialized, He
> with unhesitating confidence, invested His trusted and honoured sister
> with the responsibility of attending to the multitudinous details
> arising out of His protracted absence from the Holy Land.163
> A brief compilation of letters from ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to Bahíyyih Khánum
> conveys the warmth of His affection for her, His concern for her wellbeing, and His appreciation of her abilities and services. Distressed
> about the sufferings she had endured, He wrote to her on one occasion,
> “Not for one moment do I cease to remember thee. My sorrow and
> regret concern not myself; they centre around thee. Whenever I recall
> thine afflictions, tears that I cannot repress rain down from mine eyes. .
> . .”164 At one time when she was ill and was absent from Him,
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá wrote,
> 
> It is to be hoped that out of the grace of the Blessed Beauty thy illness
> will be completely cured and thou wilt return in the best of health, so
> that once again I may gaze upon that wondrous face of thine.
> 
> Write thou a full account of thy condition by every post, for I am
> most anxious for news of thee. Let me know if thou shouldst desire
> anyone from here to come to thee, that I may send the person along–
> even Munírih-so that thou wilt not be homesick.165
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá instructed His daughter Ḍíyá to care for Bahíyyih
> Khánum in these terms:
> 
> O Ḍíyá! It is incumbent upon thee, throughout the journey, to be a
> close, a constant and cheerful companion to my honoured and
> distinguished sister. Unceasingly, with the utmost vigour and
> devotion, exert thyself, by day and night, to gladden her blessed heart;
> for all her days she was denied a moment of tranquillity. She was
> astir and restless every hour of her life. Moth-like she circled in
> adoration round the undying flame of the Divine Candle, her spirit
> ablaze and her heart consumed by the fire of His love. . .166
> 
> In these and other passages we see glimpses of the quality of the
> relationship that should distinguish the male members of a family in
> regard to the female members. It is beyond the scope of this work to
> describe in detail the life of Bahíyyih Khánum, but it is relevant to note
> how strongly she encouraged Bahá’í women to strive to develop their
> intellectual and spiritual capabilities through letters such as the
> following passage written by her to another Bahá’í woman in 1897:
> 
> It is my earnest hope that you, His distinguished leaf, together with
> the other maidservants of the All-Merciful in that land, may be so
> enkindled by the flame set ablaze by the hand of God as to illumine
> the whole world through the quickening energy of the love of God,
> and that through the eloquence of your speech, the fluency of your
> tongue, and the confirmations of the Holy Spirit you will be
> empowered to expound divine wisdom in such manner that men of
> eloquence, and the scholars and sages of the world, will be lost in
> bewilderment. This indeed would not be hard for Him.167
> 
> When ‘Abdu’l-Bahá passed away it was the Greatest Holy Leaf who
> steadied the Cause until the newly appointed Guardian felt able to take
> up his duties. Shoghi Effendi’s touching announcement of his decision
> to assign such a responsibility to the Greatest Holy Leaf reads as
> follows:
> 
> This servant, after that grievous event and great calamity, the
> ascension of His Holiness ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to the Abhá Kingdom, has
> been so stricken with grief and pain and so entangled in the troubles
> (created) by the enemies of the Cause of God, that I consider that my
> presence here, at such a time and in such an atmosphere, is not in
> accordance with the fulfilment of my important and sacred duties.
> 
> For this reason, unable to do otherwise, I have left for a time the affairs
> of the Cause both at home and abroad, under the supervision of the
> Holy Family and the headship of the Greatest Holy Leaf until, by the
> grace of God, having gained health, strength, self-confidence and
> spiritual energy, and having taken into my hands, in accordance with
> my aim and desire, entirely and regularly the work of service I shall
> attain to my utmost spiritual hope and aspiration.168
> 
> In addition to assuming the “headship” of the Cause during this critical
> period, Bahíyyih Khánum served as the Guardian’s main source of
> encouragement and support until her passing in 1932.
> 
> Our attention now turns to Munírih Khánum, the second of the two
> women with whom ‘Abdu’l-Bahá enjoyed close association in His
> daily life. We consider the exemplary features of the marriage of
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and Munírih Khánum. The latter spoke of it to Lady
> Blomfield, an early Bahá’í from Britain who visited her in the Holy
> Land on two occasions. Lady Blomfield records her remarks as
> follows:
> 
> It is impossible to put into words the delight of being with the Master;
> I seemed to be in a glorious realm of sacred happiness whilst in His
> company.
> You have known Him in His later years, but then, in the youth of His
> beauty and manly vigour, with His unfailing love, His kindness, His
> cheerfulness, His sense of humour, His untiring consideration for
> everybody, He was marvellous, without equal, surely in all the
> earth!169
> 
> Lady Blomfield also records Munírih Khánum’s summary of her life
> with ‘Abdu’l-Bahá:
> 
> For fifty years my Beloved and I were together. Never were we
> separated, save during His visits to Egypt, Europe, and America.
> 
> O my Beloved husband and my Lord! How shall I speak of Him?
> 
> You, who have known Him, can imagine what my fifty years have
> been–how they fled by in an atmosphere of love and joy and the
> perfection of that Peace which passeth all understanding, in the
> radiant light of which I await the day when I shall be called to join
> Him, in the celestial garden of transfiguration.170
> 
> Some ten years after Bahá’u’lláh’s passing, Madame de Canavarro, an
> American Buddhist who was a student of religion, visited the Holy
> Land. There she was able to meet with Bahíyyih Khánum, who gave
> the following description of the married life of her brother ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá and Munírih Khánum:
> 
> My brother’s marriage has proved exceedingly happy and
> harmonious. Several months ago my sister [-in-law] took two of her
> daughters to Beirut on account of their health, and this has been her
> first separation from her husband for any length of time. Since a
> short time after her departure a question repeated by my brother the
> first thing every morning to his daughter, who is his constant
> attendant, is, “Ruha, when do you think your mother will come
> back?”171
> 
> In the light of such a relationship one can well understand why
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states, in encouraging Bahá’ís to strive to create a
> harmonious and loving atmosphere in their homes, “My home is the
> home of peace. My home is the home of joy and delight. My home is
> the home of laughter and exultation. Whoever enters through the
> portals of this home must go out with gladsome heart.”172
> 
> From within such a household Munírih Khánum wrote letters to Bahá’í
> women concerning the need to educate girls and involve Bahá’í women
> in all aspects of the work of the Faith. The following extract from one
> of her letters provides an indication of the strength of her commitment
> to the advancement of women:
> 
> By the grace and favor of God, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá has elevated the station
> of women in this radiant age. He has altered the quranic verse: “Men
> are the custodians of women.” He has taught that men and women are
> like the two wings of a bird, and neither is superior to the other. Girls
> should be educated in the same way as boys, perhaps even given
> preference.
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh has said that in this age, leaves [i.e., women ] will appear
> who will become the glory of the men of the world.
> 
> Without a doubt the promises of God will come about and will be
> manifested soon. We have heard that nowadays in Tehran, fifty
> women have offered their enthusiastic services in any capacity. This
> news has made these servants very, very happy. I have asked for the
> names of each of those dear sisters, so that I can write to each one and
> let her know that the mention of her service has been made and is
> known in the Holy Land.
> 
> And so, my dear and respected sisters, thanks be to God that the field
> of service in the Cause of God is extensive and souls with capacity
> are ready. Seekers and thirsty ones are waiting, and those leaves are
> prepared and willing to sacrifice.173
> 
> Munírih Khánum’s devotion to the work of the Faith during ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá’s ministry and her relationship to Him were such that, at the time
> of her passing, Shoghi Effendi wrote in a cable, “WITH SADDENED
> HEARTS BAHÁ’ÍS EAST AND WEST CALL TO MIND INVALUABLE SERVICES
> WHICH HER HIGH STATION EMPOWERED HER RENDER DURING STORMIEST
> DAYS ‘ABDUL-BAHÁ’ S LIFE.” A letter written on Shoghi Effendi’s behalf
> at that time states, “she is now re-united with her Lord, and is enjoying
> the blissfulness and peace which the great World Beyond alone can
> confer.”174
> 
> The historical accounts now available provide no more than a few brief
> episodes that illustrate the relationship of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to the women
> of the household, since the prevailing customs of the time did not
> permit chroniclers access to that aspect of the domestic scene.
> However, the fragments that are available are highly illuminating in
> that they record relatively minor occurrences that convey volumes
> about His attitude. Consider, for example, the statement of Bahíyyih
> Khánum recorded by Madame de Canavarro concerning Bahá’u’lláh’s
> arrival in ‘Akká in 1868 with the members of His family and His
> associates:
> 
> At that time there was no landing for the city: it was necessary to
> wade ashore from the boats. The governor ordered that the women be
> carried on the backs of the men. My brother [Abdu’l-Bahá] was not
> willing that this should be done, and protested against it. He was one
> of the first to land, and procured a chair, in which, with the help of
> one of the believers, he carried the women ashore.175
> 
> Consider also the following comment about the women of ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá’s household: “The women would often join the Master for His
> talks with the pilgrims, assisting with translation and adding their own
> insights to the proceedings.”42 No doubt other anecdotes will emerge
> in the future as the process of translation and classification of the
> testimonies of those who visited ‘Abdu’l-Bahá develops. They will
> further reinforce the perception of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá as providing an ideal
> example of the relationship of courtesy, respect, consideration, and
> encouragement that should distinguish Bahá’í men and women.
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá consistently displayed a caring attitude toward women,
> respecting their sensitivity, upholding their dignity, and attending to
> their welfare, in a society that displayed very little consideration for
> their rights or for their well-being. This attitude is exemplified by two
> events, one relatively minor but highly illustrative, and the second of
> far-reaching consequence. The first example is from an account of
> Ṭúbá Khánum, a daughter of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, regarding the care that He
> gave to the poor and ill people in ‘Akká, who had no means of getting
> assistance from the state to relieve their distress. She states,
> . . . a poor, crippled woman named Na‘úm used to come every week
> for alms; one day a man came running:
> 
> “Oh! Master, that poor Na‘úm has measles. She is lying by the hot
> room of the Hammám;176 everybody is keeping away from her.
> What can be done about her?”
> 
> The Master immediately engaged a woman to care for her; took a
> room, put comfortable bedding (His own) into it, called the doctor,
> sent food and everything she needed. He went to see that she had
> every attention, and when she died in peace and comfort, He it was
> Who arranged her simple funeral, paying all charges.177
> 
> The second example is the action ‘Abdu’l-Bahá took to assist the
> Bahá’í women in Iran who had no access to competent medical care,
> especially regarding gynecological concerns, in a society in which the
> medical profession was male.
> 
> When a number of Persian Bahá’í physicians appealed for an American
> female doctor to reside in Tehran for the purpose of caring for the
> women of Iran, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá chose Dr. Susan Moody, a gynecologist
> and specialist in women’s diseases. She was the first American Bahá’í
> woman to settle in Iran.
> 
> En route to Iran Dr. Moody visited ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in the Holy Land and
> received from Him the necessary instructions and encouragement for
> the work. He gave her the designation Amatu’l-A‘lá, “the handmaid of
> the Most High,” counseled her to have patience, and assured her that
> He would always be with her. Dr. Moody arrived in Tehran in
> November 1909, in the fifty-ninth year of her life.
> Her medical services were greatly appreciated by the population at
> large. She served high and low alike, providing primary health care
> and holding classes for mothers. She also actively promoted the
> education of girls and worked for the establishment of the Tarbíyat
> school for girls, which is discussed below. She remained at her post
> for fifteen years before returning to the United States. In 1928, at
> Shoghi Effendi’s request, she proceeded again to Iran to continue her
> highly meritorious service. She completely consecrated herself to her
> work and passed away in that land in 1934. Other health professionals,
> including Dr. Sarah Clock and Miss Elizabeth Stewart, assisted Dr.
> Moody and carried on her tradition of providing selfless service to the
> Bahá’ís and the general public.178
> 
> Authoritative Interpreter
> 
> As is abundantly evident from the preceding chapters of this book,
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in carrying out His ordained function of providing
> authoritative interpretation of the Bahá’í teachings, clarified the
> ramifications and implications of the principle of the equality of the
> sexes and guided the Bahá’í sin the practical application of this
> principle in daily life.
> 
> This section examines ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s approach to presenting this
> issue, because it provides a most useful example of ways to promulgate
> the principle of equality in present-day society. An analysis of His
> approach identifies three principal elements, which are discussed below
> in some detail: His stress on timeliness, His setting of the principle of
> equality in an enlarged context, and His methods for challenging
> stereotypic thinking about the status and abilities of women.
> 
> TIMELINESS
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá stressed the timeliness and importance of the “rights of
> woman and her equality with man” when He described this issue as one
> of the “questions of the utmost importance” that are “facing humanity”
> in “this radiant century.”179 He further underscored the inevitability of
> achieving equality, stating,
> 
> The realities of things have been revealed in this radiant century, and
> that which is true must come to the surface. Among these realities is
> the principle of the equality of man and woman–equal rights and
> prerogatives in all things appertaining to humanity.180
> 
> One of the direct results of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s emphasis on timeliness is
> that it provides motivation for regarding the attainment of equality of
> the sexes as a matter that must be addressed now, not as something that
> can be deferred for some time in the future. Those who accept His
> statement that the attainment of equality is inevitable will naturally feel
> impelled to align themselves with a historical process that is moving
> inexorably toward a prescribed conclusion.
> 
> ENLARGING THE CONTEXT
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s approach enlarges the context within which the
> equality of men and women should be considered, standing in sharp
> contrast to those movements for equality that focus only on eradicating
> discrimination against women while ignoring underlying issues.
> Characteristic of His approach is a redefinition of the issue and an
> appeal to those basic, more encompassing principles that are both
> fundamental to the aims of the Bahá’í Faith and are, perhaps,
> potentially more acceptable to individuals threatened by the idea of
> equality. For example, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá sets the issue of equality within
> the context of justice when He states, “Divine Justice demands that the
> rights of both sexes should be equally respected since neither is
> superior to the other in the eyes of Heaven. “Viewed from this
> perspective, the practice of equality can be seen as no less than an
> expression of justice, the principle that is “best beloved” in the sight of
> God, rather than a grudging concession made in a response to persistent
> demands.181 Understanding equality as an expression of justice
> removes the need for women to apologize for seeking it or to adopt
> manipulative techniques in their quest for it.
> 
> The oneness of humankind is a cardinal principle of the Bahá’í Faith.
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá reframes equality in such a way as to make the
> realization of oneness inseparable from acceptance of the fact of
> equality of the sexes. He states, “In proclaiming the oneness of
> mankind He [Bahá’u’lláh] taught that men and women are equal in the
> sight of God and that there is no distinction to be made between
> them.”182
> 
> Thus the oneness of humankind can neither remain at the level of
> abstract principle nor be applied solely to the relationship between
> people of different races; it must of necessity also encompass the
> equality of the sexes.
> In society at large there is a tendency to consider the rights of women
> as purely a “Women’s problem’’-a matter to be addressed and solved
> exclusively by women. When the issue is relegated to the province of
> women, it can readily be discounted and regarded as tangential to the
> major issues facing humanity. Even when the importance of the issue
> is acknowledged, it is often accorded low priority and is considered
> worthy of attention only after other pressing social problems have been
> resolved. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s talks clearly indicate that men and women
> alike must confront the issue of equality. He specifies that the
> implementation of equality is a prerequisite to social progress and
> prosperity and to the establishment of peace. In relation to social
> progress, He asserts,
> 
> . . . until woman and man recognize and realize equality, social and
> political progress . . . will not be possible. . . . Until these two
> members [woman and man] are equal in strength, the oneness of
> humanity cannot be established, and the happiness and felicity of
> mankind will not be a reality.183
> 
> And again He asserts, “. . . until both are perfected, the happiness of the
> human world will not be realized.” With regard to war, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
> states, “There is no doubt that when women obtain equality of rights,
> war will entirely cease among mankind.”184 As can be seen from these
> brief extracts, the meaning of the rights of women and the importance
> of equality are redefined. The new “frame” ‘Abdu’l-Bahá employs
> broadens the context by relating equality to universally desired goals of
> progress, happiness, and peace. The vision He presents is worldembracing rather than exclusively serving one element of society. The
> reframing, therefore, has important implications for the individual’s
> willingness to make the effort to change and to make personal
> sacrifices for a worthy end. As the cause of equality acquires global
> significance, it becomes not merely acceptable but desirable for self
> and society; in the case of peace, the implementation of equality takes
> on a particular urgency, given the world situation.
> 
> In some parts of the Western world, calls for the equality of rights and
> opportunities for women have been interpreted to mean that the
> development of women must take priority over that of men, and, since
> the available resources are regarded as insufficient to meet the needs of
> both, men fear that they will thereby be disadvantaged. The perceived
> threat of potential loss of privilege tends to mobilize resistance to
> change, and the barriers to women’s participation are reinforced.
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá recasts the issue of human development, lifting it out of
> the realm of personal development for narrow, selfish ends and
> removing the element of competition. He introduces the paradoxical
> notion that the highest development of man depends on that of woman,
> thus making cooperation between the sexes the most effective route to
> personal and social development. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s talks provide the
> following explanations:
> 
> The world of humanity consists of two parts: male and female. Each
> is the complement of the other. Therefore, if one is defective, the
> other will necessarily be incomplete, and perfection cannot be
> attained. There is a right hand and a left hand in the human body,
> functionally equal in service and administration. If either proves
> defective, the defect will naturally extend to the other by involving
> the completeness of the whole; for accomplishment is not normal
> unless both are perfect. If we say one hand is deficient, we prove the
> inability and incapacity of the other; for single-handed there is no full
> accomplishment. Just as physical accomplishment is complete with
> two hands, so man and woman, the two parts of the social body, must
> be perfect. It is not natural that either should remain undeveloped;
> and until both are perfected, the happiness of the human world will
> not be realized.185
> 
> As long as women are prevented from attaining their highest
> possibilities, so long will men be unable to achieve the greatness
> which might be theirs.186
> 
> Relating the practice of equality to personal development reduces the
> threat perceived by men, while it increases their understanding of the
> personal benefits deriving from equality and their willingness to
> support the development of women. Similarly, for women, the anxiety
> associated with the need to compete for resources is removed, since
> they can anticipate that resources will be shared.
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s explanations of the importance of practicing the
> equality of men and women address the concerns and fears of both
> sexes that are associated with changes to stereotypic and traditional sex
> roles. For example, by providing new perspectives from which to
> understand the necessity of equality, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá defuses the threat of
> disunity. He provides an enlarged vision that reduces anxiety about
> social disruption; the loss of position, security, and privilege; and
> concern about competition for opportunities and resources. These new
> “frames” lift the problem of equality into a broader, less personal,
> context and highlight the positive benefits that accrue to all individuals,
> both female and male, and to society. Redefined in this way, the
> practice of equality becomes an attractive, ennobling pursuit of global
> significance, an activity to which all can commit themselves.
> 
> CHALLENGING STEREOTYPIC THINKING
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá uses a range of strategies for challenging prevailing
> assumptions about, and attitudes toward, women. These strategies
> differ in the degree to which they confront the issue and the individual,
> and also in their psychological impact.
> 
> Use of Analogy. One approach ‘Abdu’l-Bahá employs frequently is
> the use of analogy to establish the basic principle of equality and
> demonstrate the untenability of its absence. For example, He states,
> 
> Throughout the kingdoms of living organisms there is sex
> differentiation in function, but no preference or distinction is made in
> favor of either male or female. In the animal kingdom individual sex:
> exists, hut rights are equal and without distinction. Likewise, in the
> plane or kingdom of the vegetable sex appears, but equality of function
> and right is evident. Inasmuch as sex distinction and preference arc not
> observed in these kingdoms of inferior intelligence, is it befitting the
> superior station of man that he should make such differentiation and
> estimate, when as a matter of fact there is no difference indicated in the
> law of creation?187
> 
> Not only are discriminatory attitudes and behaviors inappropriate, but
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá indicates that they are unworthy of the “superior station”
> of a human being.
> 
> Use of Rhetorical Questions. Another strategy ‘Abdu’l-Bahá uses to
> call attention to mistaken attitudes is that of a barrage of penetrating
> questions that expose the logic (or lack thereof) of a point of view.
> This approach is well demonstrated by His challenge to the
> assumptions about the superiority of traditional masculine qualities.
> Another example of this approach is as follows:
> 
> Inasmuch as we find no ground for distinction or superiority according
> to the creative wisdom in the lower kingdoms, is it logical or becoming
> of man to make such distinction in regard to himself? The male of the
> animal kingdom does not glory in its being male and superior to the
> female. In fact, equality exists and is recognized. Why should man, a
> higher and more intelligent creature, deny and deprive himself of this
> equality the animals enjoy? His surest index and guide as to the
> creative intention concerning himself are the conditions and analogies
> of the kingdoms below him where equality of the sexes is
> fundamental.188
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s analysis is incisive, His observations acute, His
> questions psychologically telling. Note His implicit reference to the
> male glorying in his superiority, a behavior that may sometimes be
> observed even in contemporary times.
> 
> Use of the Direct Challenge. There are innumerable examples of
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá directly challenging discriminatory attitudes. Typically,
> He clearly states the principle of equality and, at the same time,
> deprecates the contrary view, assessing it to be faulty, inappropriate, or
> unworthy. For example, He asserts, “To accept and observe a
> distinction which God has not intended in creation is ignorance and
> superstition.” He also asserts that woman “was denied the right and
> privilege of education and left in her undeveloped state. Naturally, she
> could not and did not advance.” ‘Abdu’l-Bahá further indicates,
> 
> Man, endowed with his higher reason, accomplished in attainments
> and comprehending the realities of things, will surely not be willing
> to allow a great part of humanity to remain defective or deprived.
> This would be the utmost injustice.189
> 
> And:
> 
> In this Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh, the women go neck and neck with
> the men. In no movement will they be left behind. . . . At the time of
> elections the right to vote is the inalienable right of women, and the
> entrance of women into all human departments is an irrefutable and
> incontrovertible question. No soul can retard or prevent it.190
> 
> In such examples ‘Abdu’l-Bahá directly confronts views based on
> ignorant superstition and injustice, on unexamined positions, and on
> entrenched attitudes, all of which stand in the way of inevitable change.
> 
> Use of Examples from History. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá also provides a number
> of effective examples from history to counteract the negative
> evaluation of women and to demonstrate their capacity. Drawing
> examples from religious and political history stressing that women
> have been, and must be, involved in important undertakings, He states,
> “History records the appearance in the world of women who have been
> signs of guidance, power and accomplishment. Some were notable
> poets, some philosophers and scientists, others courageous upon the
> field of battle.”191 He also states,
> 
> . . . . it is well established in history that where woman has not
> participated in human affairs the outcomes have never attained a state
> of completion and perfection . . . . every influential undertaking of the
> human world wherein woman has been a participant has attained
> importance. This is historically true and beyond disproof even in
> religion.192
> 
> This perspective is consonant with the ideas expressed in the writings
> of contemporary feminist historians such as Gerda Lerner, who sets
> out the following view in the introduction to The Creation of
> Patriarchy:
> 
> Women are and have been central, not marginal, to the making of
> society and to the building of civilization . . .
> 
> . . . What women have done and experienced has been left
> unrecorded, neglected, and ignored in interpretation. Historical
> scholarship, up to the most recent past, has seen women as marginal
> to the making of civilization and as unessential to those pursuits
> defined as having historical significance.193
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá cites examples from religious history that not only
> illustrate the integral role of women but also the excellence of their
> participation:
> 
> Often in history women have been the pride of humanity for example,
> Mary, the mother of Jesus. She was the glory of mankind. Mary
> Magdalene, Ásíyih, daughter of Pharaoh, Sarah, wife of Abraham,
> and innumerable others have glorified the human race by their
> excellences.194
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá also provides illustrations of women from both the East
> and the West who played important roles in the political arena. He
> specifically mentions Zenobia, “Queen of the East, whose capitol was
> Palmyra”; Catherine the Great of Russia; Queen Isabella of Spain;
> Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt; and Queen Victoria of England.195
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá not only describes the major contributions of these
> outstanding women, but He also identifies the skills and qualities that
> they demonstrated in executing their functions. It is interesting to note
> that the qualities He mentions in characterizing these women are
> typically associated with the traditional masculine role–e.g.,
> intelligence, courage, administrative ability, military strategy, and
> justice. Thus history demonstrates that women are both capable of
> participating in the world at large and capable of manifesting qualities
> that are valued by society and stereotypically associated with men.
> 
> Use of Contemporary Examples. In addition to citing examples from
> history, Abdu’l-Bahá draws attention to contemporary Bahá’í women
> who have achieved distinction in activities that were previously
> regarded as exclusively male preserves. He praises women who have
> become renowned as poets and scholars, who have occupied prominent
> positions in government, or whose fortitude and strength of conviction
> were such that they accepted martyrdom for their faith. These women
> demonstrate, by their behavior, qualities that cut across sex-role
> stereotypes. For example, Abdu’l-Bahá states, “In this day there are
> women among the Bahá’ís who far outshine men. They are wise,
> talented, well-informed, progressive, most intelligent and the light of
> men. They surpass men in courage.”196 Clearly, since Abdu’l-Bahá
> praises women for demonstrating these qualities, there can be no doubt
> as to their appropriateness for both women and men.
> 
> The strategies ‘Abdu’l-Bahá employs in challenging unexamined
> assumptions about women and men vary in the extent to which they
> directly confront outdated attitudes and behaviors. His methods rely on
> persuasion, logical analysis, and the marshaling of historical and
> current examples. While expressing the principle of the equality of
> men and women in unequivocal language, His challenge is directed
> toward attitudes and actions that are not appropriate to the new age.
> His approach influences both the minds and hearts of His audience.
> His sensitive perception of the issue, the weight of His argument, and
> His use of a variety of techniques to communicate His point of view
> leave the individual with no alternative but to reassess his or her
> position in relation to women.
> 
> Assigning Responsibilities
> 
> The example of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in fostering full recognition and practice
> of the equality of the sexes extends far beyond the example of His daily
> life and His authoritative interpretation of Bahá’u’lláh’s teachings. He
> actively promoted the full involvement of women in the work of the
> Bahá’í community, including their involvement in highly responsible
> duties that went far beyond what was considered normal in either the
> East or the West at that time. He encouraged women to aspire to a
> level of attainment equal to, if not surpassing, that of men.
> 
> Although a comprehensive survey of the actions taken by ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá in this regard is beyond the scope of this book, focusing on a few
> examples clearly illustrates the manner in which ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
> involved Bahá’í women in the most responsible elements of the work
> of the Faith.
> 
> ETHEL ROSENBERG
> 
> A painter trained at the Slade School in London, Ethel Rosenberg
> became a Bahá’í in 1899, thus acquiring the distinction of being the
> first Englishwoman to recognize Bahá’u’lláh as the Manifestation of
> God. When she visited Abdu’l-Bahá in 1901, it was apparent to Him
> that she was a person of unusual capacity and intellect, and she was
> permitted to remain with His household for several months. During
> this time she filled several notebooks with notes taken while ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá instructed her in the Bahá’í teachings and answered her
> questions; this material, as well as the information she obtained during
> her subsequent pilgrimages in 1904 and 1909, formed the basis of her
> exposition of the Bahá’í Faith that was published in 1910 and was used
> extensively in the spread of the Faith in Britain during those early
> years. In 1911, while ‘Abdu’l-Bahá was in Paris, He called upon Ethel
> Rosenberg to convene a committee of Bahá’ís centered in London to
> administer the British Bahá’í community’s expanding activities. It is
> significant to note that He appointed a committee of seven believers,
> six of whom were women. This committee was the embryo that would
> evolve, eventually transforming into the National Spiritual Assembly
> of that land in years to come. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá devoted considerable time
> to training Ethel Rosenberg in the administrative principles that the
> committee should follow, including its functions and its procedures for
> handling funds. Known initially as the Bahá’í “Consultation
> Committee,” it changed its name and composition in 1915, becoming
> the Bahá’í Council, with eight members, including six women, and
> with Ethel Rosenberg continuing to play a central role.
> 
> CORINNE TRUE
> 
> In the United States the initial development of the body that would
> evolve later into the National Spiritual Assembly was centered around
> a woman designated by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to play a crucial role in its
> functioning. When in 1903 the American Bahá’ís appealed
> successfully to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá for permission to embark upon the
> construction of a House of Worship, He wrote to Mrs. Corinne True
> indicating that He wanted her to become very much involved in this
> project despite her lack of experience in such traditionally male
> domains as real estate, architecture, or property development. In 1906
> she was instrumental in organizing a petition, signed ultimately by
> nearly eight hundred Bahá’ís from all over the United States, calling
> for Temple construction to begin, and she was commissioned to deliver
> it to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in ‘Akká. He made it clear to her that she should
> devote herself entirely to this endeavor and warned her that her work
> for it would involve suffering and hardship.
> 
> The American Bahá’ís in those early days had not grasped the
> importance and implications of the Bahá’í principle of equality of the
> sexes, and the rudimentary administrative bodies such as the House of
> Spirituality in Chicago were restricted to men. Their narrow views
> were abruptly perturbed by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s designation of Corinne
> True as the recipient of His guidance about the Temple construction.
> Nathan Rutstein, in a biography of this outstanding woman, writes of
> this period:
> 
> While Corinne True and her daughter were on their way home via
> Paris and London, Thornton Chase, Carl Scheffler and the Agnews
> were on pilgrimage, experiencing, at one point, something they hadn’t
> expected. It was the Master’s response to Mr Chase’s questions
> regarding the Temple. “When you return consult with Mrs True–I
> have given her complete instructions.”
> 
> Mr Chase was startled. He simply wasn’t prepared for what ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá had said. The Master had upset his notions about the role of
> women in the Faith. Had the Master doubted Thornton Chase’s
> firmness in the Faith, He wouldn’t have been so direct with him.
> What was said was obviously meant to broaden and deepen the
> American pilgrims’ understanding of a certain aspect of the Bahá’í
> teachings.197
> 
> Corinne True immersed herself in the work of the Temple project,
> which subjected her to tension and clashes with other Bahá’ís. As
> Rutstein points out,
> 
> It was understandable why some of the early Bahá’ís clashed with
> her, especially some of the more assertive men, who felt she craved
> power. They were unfamiliar with such a display of drive in a
> woman, not realizing that Corinne’s all-consuming love for the
> Master was what drove her.198
> 
> As she continued to develop plans for this project, she concluded that it
> should be carried out by a national organization that was representative
> of the entire American Bahá’í community. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá endorsed this
> approach, called for a national convention to elect such a body, and
> specified that women should be eligible for membership on it. As a
> result the “Bahá’í Temple Unity” was formed, with a nine-member
> executive board that included three women, with Corinne True elected
> as its financial secretary. When in 1922 this body was superseded by
> an entity that adopted the designation of National Spiritual Assembly,
> Corinne True was elected to the new body with the highest number of
> votes and continued to function as its financial secretary. As the years
> advanced, her role in the Temple construction inevitably diminished,
> but she was privileged to attend the dedication of the completed
> building in May 1953 as a ninety-one year old on whom had been
> conferred the exalted rank of Hand of the Cause of God. Rutstein
> comments on the importance of the role she played in the involvement
> of women in the work of the American Bahá’í community:
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá chose her to do what He felt others more experienced
> in the ways of the world weren’t capable of doing. He chose a
> woman to spearhead the development of the most important single
> project in the first fifty years of the Faith in America. But there were
> other things that she was destined to do for the Master; and she
> probably did them unaware at the time of what her exploits would
> eventually lead to. Through her efforts the Administrative Order, on
> a national scale, was started and developed.
> 
> And ‘Abdu’l-Bahá used her to break down the psychological barriers
> against women in the American Bahá’í community. That was a long
> and painful experience. Above all she stood firm in the Faith,
> regardless of the severity of the tests within the Bahá’í community.
> Nothing could unhinge her attachment to the Cause. It was that, more
> than anything else, that endeared her to the Master and the Guardian.
> For it is upon that kind of rock that true Faiths are built.199
> 
> AGNES PARSONS
> 
> Many other women were assigned important responsibilities in the
> work of the Faith. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá entrusted Mrs. Agnes Parsons, a
> prominent socialite and a well-known hostess in Washington, D.C.,
> with the task of organizing interracial gatherings at a time when there
> was little social mixing between the races in the United States,
> especially in a city such as Washington. Mrs. Parsons had the bounty
> of using her new home to extend hospitality to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá during
> His first visit to Washington in the spring of 1912 and to place at His
> disposal her summer residence in Dublin, New Hampshire.
> 
> During her second visit to the Holy Land in 1920, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá gave
> Mrs. Parsons the following instruction: “I want you to arrange a
> Convention for unity of the colored and white races. You must have
> people to help you.”200 He called upon her as a devoted Bahá’í to use
> her social position and skills to foster awareness and acceptance of the
> oneness of humanity, a principle that was generally flouted by leaders
> of society at that time. She succeeded in gathering around her an able
> committee, and the convention was held. In a message to be read to the
> gathering, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá wrote,
> 
> Say to this Convention that never since the beginning of time has one
> more important been held. This Convention stands for the Oneness of
> Humanity; it will become the cause of the removal of hostility
> between races; it will be the cause of the enlightenment of America.
> It will-if wisely managed and continued-check the deadly struggle
> between these races which otherwise will inevitably break out.201
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá expressed satisfaction with the event and voiced the
> hope that such gatherings would be established throughout North
> America. He referred to the event organized by Mrs. Parsons and her
> helpers as “the mother convention” from which many Amity
> Conventions would be born.202
> 
> ELLA COOPER AND HELEN GOODALL
> 
> Another example of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s encouragement of Bahá’í women
> concerns two early believers of California, Mrs. Ella Cooper and her
> mother, Mrs. Helen Goodall, and their role in an outstanding event in
> the Bahá’í history of the West. The event was the convocation of the
> first “International Bahá’í Congress,” which was held in conjunction
> with the Panama Pacific International Exposition in the spring of 1915
> in San Francisco to celebrate the completion of the Panama Canal.
> Although initiated by the Local Spiritual Assembly of San Francisco,
> the Congress was under the official auspices of the Panama-Pacific
> International Exposition. Mrs. Cooper, Mrs. Goodall, and a number of
> other Bahá’ís formed the executive committee of the Congress. They
> had seen the potential of such a gathering to promulgate the Bahá’í
> teachings on the oneness of humanity and world peace and had
> approached ‘Abdu’l-Bahá with their desire to arrange it. He readily
> gave His approval and even selected the speakers.
> 
> The Congress took place between 19 and 25 April 1915 and attracted
> large audiences to hear the Bahá’í teachings. The directorate of the
> exposition set April 24 as “International Bahá’í Congress Day’’ and
> held an official reception at which a commemorative bronze medallion
> was presented to the Bahá’ís in recognition of the Bahá’í program for
> universal peace.203
> 
> LUA GETSINGER
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá did not hesitate to call upon Bahá’í women to
> accomplish extremely arduous tasks. In 1902 He requested Lua
> Getsinger, an outstanding early Bahá’í woman, to travel from the
> United States to Paris, there to deliver to the shah of Persia, during his
> visit to that city, a petition from Him calling on the shah to restrain the
> Muslim clerics from persecuting the Iranian Bahá’ís. She
> accomplished this difficult task through her determination and
> perseverance over a period of several weeks, even ensuring that one of
> the two petitions presented to the shah was delivered into his own
> hands. It is significant that the persecutions in Iran diminished for
> several years following this action.
> 
> At a time when the very idea of a Western woman traveling to the East
> to teach religion was almost incomprehensible, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
> instructed Lua Getsinger to travel to India and the Middle East for the
> purpose of spreading the Bahá’í message. She did so with her
> characteristic energy and commitment, eventually passing away in
> Cairo in 1916 at the age of forty-five while engaged in this task.
> 
> AGNES ALEXANDER AND MARTHA ROOT
> 
> Among the other women who were called upon by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to
> attain heights of heroism in their services to the Faith were Agnes
> Alexander, who proceeded to Japan from Hawaii to become the first
> Bahá’í in that land, and Martha Root, who initiated her worldwide
> travels as a promoter of the Faith in response to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s
> summons to her:
> 
> As ears are awaiting the summons for Universal Peace, it is therefore
> advisable for thee to travel . . . to the different parts of the globe, and
> roar like unto a lion of the Kingdom of God. Wide-reaching
> consequences thou shalt witness and extraordinary confirmations
> shall be exhibited unto thee.204
> 
> Miss Root’s magnificent exploits are discussed more fully in chapter 6.
> 
> It should not be imagined that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s assignment of
> responsibilities was confined only to Western Bahá’í women. Within
> the limits imposed by the social conditions of the time, He drew upon
> the abilities of capable Eastern women also. As an example, during
> World War I, when the Holy Land was threatened with famine,
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá utilized the personal integrity and the organizational
> skills of Sakínih Sulṭan, a Persian Bahá’í who was the widow of a
> martyr and who was serving in the Holy Land for a period. ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá gave her the great responsibility of administering the distribution
> of relief food that He had stored or managed to acquire and ship to
> Haifa and ‘Akká. He communicated with her frequently, describing the
> challenges of arranging transport, discussing the cost of grain, and
> issuing detailed instructions about who was to receive aid and just how
> much each was to get.205
> 
> In evaluating the courageous services of Bahá’í women under the
> guidance and urging of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, one can well understand why, in
> the words of the Universal House of Justice,
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá has pointed out that “Among the miracles which
> distinguish this sacred dispensation is this, that women have evinced
> a greater boldness than men when enlisted in the ranks of the Faith.”
> Shoghi Effendi has further stated that this “boldness” must, in the
> course of time, “be more convincingly demonstrated, and win for the
> beloved Cause victories more stirring than any it has as yet
> achieved.”206
> 
> Providing Encouragement
> 
> These distinctive services were rendered as a result of the constant
> encouragement the women received from ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. He
> emphasized the importance of such encouragement and described it as
> a duty of the members of Spiritual Assemblies:
> 
> The members of the Spiritual Assembly should do all they can to
> provide encouragement to the women believers. In this dispensation
> one should not think in terms of “men’’ and “Women” all are under
> the shadow of the Word of God and, as they strive the more diligently,
> so shall their reward be the greater–be they men or women or the
> frailest of people.207
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá also warned of the consequences of failure to offer such
> encouragement:
> 
> In brief, the assumption of superiority by man will continue to be
> depressing to the ambition of woman, as if her attainment to equality
> was creationally impossible; woman’s aspiration toward advancement
> will be checked by it, and she will gradually become hopeless. On
> the contrary, we must declare that her capacity is equal, even greater
> than man’s. This will inspire her with hope and ambition, and her
> susceptibilities for advancement will continually increase. She must
> not be told and taught that she is weaker and inferior in capacity and
> qualification. If a pupil is told that his intelligence is less than his
> fellow pupils, it is a very great drawback and handicap to his
> progress. He must be encouraged to advance by the statement, “You
> are most capable, and if you endeavor, you will attain the highest
> degree.”208
> 
> Obviously, encouragement will only be effective if it is sincere and
> based on conviction of the validity of the concept of the equality of the
> sexes.
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá used a variety of means to encourage women. In some
> instances He directed their attention to the limitless spiritual power
> accessible to them as followers of Bahá’u’lláh, as in the following
> admonition:
> 
> O loved handmaidens of God! Consider not your present merits and
> capacities, rather fix your gaze on the favours and confirmations of
> the Blessed Beauty, because His everlasting grace will make of the
> insignificant plant a blessed tree, will turn the mirage into cool water
> and wine; will cause the forsaken atom to become the very essence of
> being, the puny one erudite in the school of knowledge.209
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá acknowledges the feelings of incapacity and insecurity,
> but He is unyielding in His urging that they not surrender to such
> sentiments.
> 
> At other times He called upon women to aspire to a level of
> accomplishment equal to, or even surpassing, that of men by drawing
> on the power of the Faith. He states,
> 
> In this wondrous Dispensation the favours of the Glorious Lord are
> vouchsafed unto the handmaidens of the Merciful. Therefore, they
> should, like unto men, seize the prize and excel in the field, so that it
> will be proven and made manifest that the penetrative influence of the
> Word of God in this new Dispensation hath caused women to be
> equal with men, and that in the arena of tests they will outdo
> others.210
> 
> It was clear, during the days of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, that women in the
> Western world had been able to accomplish much more than those in
> the East, and they were dispatched by Him on assignments all over the
> world. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá encouraged the Eastern women to follow the
> example of their Western sisters, exhorting them as follows:
> 
> O ye leaves who have attained certitude! In the countries of Europe
> and America the maidservants of the Merciful have won the prize of
> excellence and advancement from the arena of men, and in the fields
> of teaching and spreading the divine fragrances they have shown a
> brilliant hand. Soon they will soar like the birds of the Concourse on
> high in the far corners of the world and will guide the people and
> reveal to them the divine mysteries. Ye, who are the blessed leaves
> from the East, should burn more brightly, and engage in spreading the
> sweet savours of the Lord and in reciting the verses of God. Arise,
> therefore, and exert yourselves to fulfil the exhortations and counsels
> of the Blessed Beauty, that all hopes may be realized and that the
> plain of streams and orchards may become the garden of oneness.211
> 
> It should not be imagined that the encouragement ‘Abdu’l-Bahá offered
> was directed only to women in the East. In the following passage
> addressed to the Bahá’í women of California ‘Abdu’l-Bahá wrote,
> 
> If you arise in accord with the exhortations and commands of the
> Blessed Perfection may my life be a sacrifice to His beloved ones!-
> before long agreeable results will be obtained, the great newspapers
> of the world will all engage in praising you and such activity will be
> brought about in the West as will increase the motion and activity in
> the East.212
> 
> The full significance of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s actions in assigning important
> responsibilities to women and in encouraging the female members of
> the Bahá’í community will only become apparent in years to come, as
> an increasing number of Bahá’í women strive to take His words to
> heart and to follow the example of the courageous and dedicated
> women who exerted themselves so mightily in those early days.
> Bahá’ís of both sexes, following ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s example, will regard
> it as their duty to find means by which they can foster the aspiration of
> women for accomplishment, self-development, and service.
> 
> Promoting the Enlightenment of Women
> 
> The emphasis that the Bahá’í teachings place on the education of
> women and girls has been described in chapter 2, where some of
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s statements on this subject are set out. This section
> examines some of the actions that were taken and some of the
> processes that were set in motion during His ministry to further the
> education of women. Attention is directed almost entirely to the
> Eastern world, since the facilities available there were far less than
> those in the West, and the cultural barriers to female education were
> more formidable in that part of the world.
> 
> From the earliest days of the small Bahá’í community centered around
> Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in the Holy Land, the education of
> children-both boys and girls-was emphasized, within the limits
> imposed by the confinement of the family and companions as prisoners
> of the Ottoman Turks, and by the meager facilities available to them.
> The emphasis on education was constant. Lady Blomfield, an early
> Bahá’í, describes how, when the family of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá was evacuated
> temporarily from Haifa to the village of Abu-Sinan during the period of
> World War I when Haifa was in danger of bombardment, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
> arranged for schools to be set up in that village to ensure that the
> children’s education was not neglected. Genevieve Coy, herself an
> educator, writes, in an account of her 1920 pilgrimage, about the
> education of the granddaughters of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, one of whom had
> been sent to a college in Beirut and was proceeding to Cairo for further
> studies, while another was about to enter a college in England; one of
> these young women expressed great regret that the schools in Haifa did
> not provide educational facilities for students over fifteen years old.
> Another early Bahá’í, Marion Jack, was brought to ‘Akka in 1908,
> around the time ‘Abdu’l-Bahá was being released from confinement,
> for the purpose of teaching English to the grandchildren.213
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá formulated plans to establish a girls’ school on Mount
> Carmel, and His wife, Munírih Khánum, gave it her enthusiastic
> support, as is evident from a letter she wrote to the believers, seeking
> their financial support for the project.214 Although circumstances did
> not permit the plans to reach fruition, other facilities for the education
> of girls later became available there.
> 
> The principal focus of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s attention to the education of
> girls was Iran, a country where the educational opportunities for girls
> were negligible. It had, at the time, the largest Bahá’í community in
> the world. With His strong encouragement one of the Iranian women
> named Munírih Khánum (unrelated to her namesake, the wife of
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá) established the Tarbíyat school for girls in 1911.215
> Because she was the wife of the Hand of the Cause of God Ibn-i-Abhar
> and the daughter of the Hand of the Cause of God Ḥájí Ákhund, she
> occupied a prestigious position in the Bahá’í community, which would
> doubtless have been most valuable in overcoming cultural inhibitions
> about the participation of girls in this school and in others that were
> later established in a number of towns and villages throughout the
> country. These Bahá’í schools were renowned for their emphasis on
> moral and spiritual training, their attitude of respect and dedication to
> learning shared by students and teachers alike, as well as their high
> academic standard, their progressive curriculum, and their use of
> modern educational methods, including laboratory-based science
> classes and gymnastics.
> 
> To facilitate the establishment and acceptance of the Bahá’í schools for
> girls in Iran and to make possible the introduction of a progressive
> curriculum, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá recruited highly qualified teachers from
> North America. Foremost among these teachers were Miss Lillian
> Kappes and Dr. Genevieve Coy. Miss Kappes, who is honored by
> Shoghi Effendi as one of the “Disciples of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá,” left her
> home in the United States in 1911 to settle in Iran, where she served as
> the principal of the Tarbíyat girls’ school until her death in 1920.216
> Upon her passing, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá revealed in her honor a Tablet that
> extols her services and the sacrifices she made to further the education
> of girls. The Tablet states,
> 
> She left her native land and remained apart from family ties and
> brothers, enduring every trouble and distress and was content to
> accept the bitterness of separation for the love of teaching the
> children. And with enthusiasm educating the girls she lived in distant
> cities during long years and periods and was patient in every
> difficulty. Morn and eve she was endeavoring to clarify the intellects
> of the innocent children of good families and failed not in giving out
> daily that which was required of her in that distant region. She gave
> her hand unwearied every night and day and at evening-tide and
> morning-tide to the service of the friends and taught the little ones
> who drew nourishment from the breast of Thy favor until her body
> gave out, her strength failed, her body disintegrated and her form
> dissolved. Then, supported by Thy favor, she returned to Thee, eager
> to behold Thee nearby. Verily Thou art the sublime Refuge, the
> Faithful, All-sufficient, the Dear and Illustrious, the Most
> Supreme!217
> 
> Miss Kappes was succeeded by Dr. Coy. As the schools began to
> produce graduates, a number of distinguished Persian women, inspired
> by the example of their teachers from the West, also became involved
> in the educational enterprise and began to make a significant
> contribution to its development. They included Ishraqíyyih Dhabíḥ and
> Rúḥangíz Fatḥ-‘Aẓam.218
> 
> The recruitment of qualified teachers lent a credibility to the enterprise
> in the eyes of the Persian community. It also intensified the interest in
> women’s education in the West and provided an avenue for the Western
> Bahá’ís to collaborate with their coreligionists in the East. It allowed
> them to demonstrate their commitment, through such means as
> encouragement and financial support, to implementing the important
> principle of equality.
> 
> The Bahá’í schools in Iran achieved a high standard of excellence and,
> until their closure in 1934 as a result of governmental action, were
> regarded as the best schools in the country. They attracted the children
> of many prominent families and trained a generation of leaders.219
> 
> The initiatives taken to promote the enlightenment of women during
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s ministry and with His active encouragement went
> beyond the formal education of girls, important though it be. They
> included a number of other measures to train women for involvement
> in society to an extent far beyond that which was culturally acceptable
> at the time. In Iran in 1909 the Hand of the Cause Ibn-i-Abhar and his
> wife, Munírih Khánum, formed a special committee for the liberation
> of women and participated in its work as members. Another Hand of
> the Cause, Ibn-i-Aṣdaq, formed an institute in Tehran that was devoted
> to training Bahá’í women in methods of teaching the Faith.220
> 
> In both the East and the West, to involve women in the organizational
> and administrative activities of a religion was quite novel, and it was
> challenging to some of the male followers of the Faith in its early days
> to find that they belonged to a religion that was fully committed to the
> expression of equality. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s strong and persistent
> encouragement of women resulted in the formation in Tehran in 1910
> of the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’í women, whose members
> included Munírih Khánum and Fáṭimih Khánum, the wives of the two
> Hands of the Cause Ibn-i-Abhar and Mullá ‘Alí-Akbar, respectively.
> This Assembly turned to the exclusively male Spiritual Assembly of
> Tehran for guidance on basic issues during the seven years of its
> existence.221
> 
> A similar development occurred in Chicago, where the House of
> Spirituality formed in 1901 was entirely male. Its formation stimulated
> the election of the women’s Auxiliary Board a little later that year; at
> its first meeting this board decided to write to Bahá’í women all over
> the United States, urging them to organize themselves in like manner.
> Several months later it changed its name to the women’s Assembly of
> Teaching at ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s suggestion.222
> 
> It is significant to note that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá remained patient with these
> early and imperfect attempts to establish the structural basis of the
> Bahá’í Administrative Order and that, for some time, He chose to
> tolerate their segregation into male and female organizing bodies. Not
> until 1909 did He make it absolutely clear that women and men should
> both be eligible to serve on the membership of local and national
> administrative bodies, a provision that was implemented without delay
> in the West, but somewhat later in the East, where social conditions for
> women were much more restrictive.223
> 
> It is impossible to overestimate the importance of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s call
> for the formation of what He describes in His writings as women’s
> assemblages. These gatherings were confined to women and were held
> for the purposes of fostering enlightenment and what would be
> described in modern terminology as consciousness-raising.
> 
> In the time of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, women in the East generally lacked both
> the opportunity for education and any kind of a life outside their home.
> To compensate for this deprivation ‘Abdu’l-Bahá called for these
> women’s assemblages as a means of increasing women’s understanding
> of the Faith and raising their level of general knowledge and personal
> competence. He defined the purpose of such gatherings as “the
> promotion of knowledge,” and, in Tablets addressed to the Bahá’í
> women of Iran, He set the agenda for these meetings and provided
> practical guidelines for their conduct.224
> 
> It is clear that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá considered women’s assemblages as
> having the potential to contribute significantly to the development of
> women and the potential to raise their status within the community. He
> viewed these gatherings as an important training ground for women to
> deepen their knowledge of the Faith and to acquire the intellectual
> skills and competencies needed for participation in the evolving
> administrative institutions of the Cause. He underlined their
> uniqueness in the following terms:
> 
> From the beginning of existence until the present day, in any of the
> past cycles and dispensations, no assemblies for women have ever
> been established and classes for the purpose of spreading the
> teachings were never held by them. This is one of the characteristics
> of this glorious Dispensation and this great century. Ye should, most
> certainly, strive to perfect this assemblage and increase your
> knowledge of the realities of heavenly mysteries, so that, God willing,
> in a short time, women will become the same as men; they will take a
> leading position amongst the learned, will each have a fluent tongue
> and eloquent speech, and shine like unto lamps of guidance
> throughout the world.225
> 
> In His Tablets ‘Abdu’l-Bahá therefore called upon women to make a
> serious study of the Faith, to discuss the application of the Bahá’í
> teachings to everyday life, especially to child-raising, to practice
> delivering speeches on aspects of the Faith and, generally, to gain
> firsthand experience in the organization and administration of aspects
> of social and community life.
> 
> Attesting to the importance of women’s assemblages, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
> stresses that “discussions must be confined to educational matters” and
> sets out a number of specific subjects to be considered by the
> participants:
> 
> . . . those present should concern themselves with every means of
> training the girl children; with teaching the various branches of
> knowledge, good behavior, a proper way of life, the cultivation of a
> good character, chastity and constancy, perseverance, strength,
> determination, firmness of purpose; with household management, the
> education of children, and whatever especially applieth to the needs
> of girls-to the end that these girls, reared in the stronghold of all
> perfections, and with the protection of a goodly character, will, when
> they themselves become mothers, bring up their children from earliest
> infancy to have a good character and conduct themselves well.
> 
> Let them also study whatever will nurture the health of the body and its
> physical soundness, and how to guard their children from disease.226
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá provides the following advice to those in attendance:
> 
> The attracted leaves should not, when associating with each other,
> talk merely about the temperature of the weather, the coldness of the
> water, the beauty of the flowers and gardens, the freshness of the
> grass and the flowing water. They should rather restrict their
> discussions to glorification and praise and the uttering of proofs and
> reasons, to quoting verses and traditions and putting forth clear
> testimonies, so that all the homes of the loved ones will be converted
> into gathering places for lessons on teaching the Cause.227
> 
> Itis interesting to observe that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá calls for more than the
> mere acquisition of knowledge. He places great emphasis on the
> development and use of analytical skills requiring the organization of
> information and the exercise of judgment and logic. Such skills had
> traditionally been regarded as the exclusive preserve of men.
> 
> To ensure the success of the women’s assemblages, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
> provided guidance concerning the spirit in which they should be
> conducted. He stressed the need for harmony both in relation to men
> and between women. He states, “It should be done in such a way that
> differences will, day by day, be entirely wiped out, not that, God forbid,
> it will end in argumentation between men and women.”228
> Furthermore, He underlines the importance of women’s encouraging
> and supporting each other and taking each other seriously:
> 
> When ye meet each other, convey the glad-tidings and impart hope to
> one another because of the confirmations and bounties of the Ancient
> and Ever-Living Lord. Let each set forth proofs and evidences, and
> talk about the mysteries of the Kingdom, so that the true and divine
> Spirit may permeate the body of the contingent world and the secrets of
> all things, whether of the past or of the future, may become openly
> manifest and resplendent.229
> 
> Women’s assemblages were held throughout Iran and had a major
> impact on the lives of women, indeed, on the Bahá’í community as a
> whole. For example, in the early 1920s the Tarbíyat girls’ school
> instituted a monthly conference for mothers and other women, who had
> no other opportunity for education, no organized activities, and no
> involvement outside the home. The conferences were extremely
> popular, attracting three to four hundred women. At these meetings
> teachers and students presented talks, plays, and demonstrations to
> illustrate a theme, such as modern home management, and generally
> tried to show parents how to apply Bahá’í principles in childrearing.230
> 
> It may well be argued that the need for such meetings for women
> continues to exist in those parts of the world where women have been
> socialized to be silent and deferential in the presence of men, or where
> they have felt intimidated from expressing their views because of the
> presence of men who have had the benefits of training and experience
> in the larger society. In such gatherings women can gain experience
> and courage and thus acquire skills to be used in the Bahá’í community
> wherein men and women associate as equals, as well as in the wider
> society.
> 
> Fostering Intellectual Developments
> 
> Some of the statements of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá calling upon women to aspire
> to the highest levels of scholarship and to participate in all aspects of
> professional life have been set out in chapter 2. This section considers
> some examples of the practical actions He took to encourage women in
> such activities.
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá recognized the intellectual ability of individual women
> and their eagerness to learn and, in certain instances, facilitated their
> scholarly study of the Bahá’í Faith. For example, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
> willingly gave Miss Laura Clifford Barney His “tired moments” to
> answer her questions about the Bahá’í teachings. These table talks,
> delivered between 1904 and 1906, were recorded and collected by Miss
> Barney. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, with His own pen, corrected the transcription
> of the talks, and in due course she translated them and had them
> published under the title of Some Answered Questions. This work not
> only served to deepen Miss Barney’s knowledge of the Faith, but it
> established a precious legacy for the education of future generations.231
> 
> In 1900 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá arranged for Mrs. Emogene Hoagg, an
> American believer, to spend a month in Port Sa‘íd, Egypt, to study the
> Bahá’í interpretation of the Bible with the renowned Persian teacher
> Mírzá Abu’l-Faḍl. In her description of the events that transpired
> during those days, Mrs. Hoagg records the following observation:
> 
> Almost every evening five or six of the Bahá’í brothers would meet
> with us to hear Mírzá Abu’l-Faḍl’s explanations. Those were
> wonderful days,–to think that I, an American woman, was able to
> meet with these Bahá’í brothers of a different nationality and in a
> foreign country, and to feel so perfectly at home, just as though I had
> been with my own family! Probably to them it was yet a more novel
> experience to be able to meet with an unveiled sister. All this has
> been brought about by the power of Bahá’u’lláh.232
> 
> A close friend of Mrs. Hoagg wrote later,
> 
> These lessons set the pattern for all her future service to the Faith.
> She became henceforth a student of the Holy Scriptures, not only of
> the Bahá’í and Judeo-Christian Dispensations, but also of the other
> world religions so little known in the West at that time.233
> 
> It would appear, in this instance, that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá was not only
> supporting the development of scholarship in women, but was also
> providing a lesson through the context in which this was to take place,
> creating an opportunity to modify entrenched social attitudes. Thus it
> afforded an opportunity for the West to appreciate the scholarship of
> the East and for the East to appreciate the intellectual ability of women.
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá also encouraged Ghodsia Ashraf, a Persian believer, to
> undertake study in North America. From her childhood she had
> manifested a great desire for learning. Her preliminary training was
> received in the Persian Girls’ School, after which she spent two years
> in the American School in Tehran. Her father, Mírzá Fazl’u’lláh Khan,
> encouraged his daughter’s pursuit of knowledge. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
> approved her coming to the United States to prepare herself for the
> teaching profession. Ghodsia Ashraf arrived in the United States in
> 1911and enrolled at the Lewis Institute in Chicago. While in North
> America she was an enthusiastic participant in Bahá’í activities, giving
> public talks on the Faith and generally helping to foster understanding
> of the importance of the education of women throughout the world.
> When she returned to Iran she established the “Woman’s Society for
> Progress” in Tehran and expended her energy promoting the
> development of Persian women.234
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá stresses the importance of women’s involvement in “all
> departments of life” and links this to the attainment of the “recognition
> of equality in the social and economic equation.”235 It is clear from His
> Tablets and from the example of His life that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá recognized
> the value of professional training for women. For example, when the
> American believer Katherine True was deciding on her profession, she
> wrote to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá about her desire to study medicine, asking for
> His counsel in this decision. His reply came in the following Tablet:
> 
> O beloved daughter!
> 
> Your letter dated December 29th, 1919 arrived. From it, it became
> known that with a firm resolution you were determined to serve the
> world of humanity. One of the Divine Teachings is that man should
> be the source of a benevolent cause amongst the creatures and if it be
> universal good, all the better.
> 
> The study of medicine is highly acceptable and praiseworthy. With
> all thy power endeavor that thou mayest attain the utmost proficiency
> in this art and thus serve the world of humanity. . . 236
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá not only encouraged women to use their skills in service
> to humanity, but He also drew upon their expertise for the promotion of
> the Cause and the development of the Bahá’í community. Miss Martha
> Root, designated by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá as the “herald of the Kingdom” and
> “harbinger of the Covenant,” capitalized on her knowledge, experience,
> and skills as a journalist in gaining opportunities to proclaim and teach
> the Faith (see chapter 6). Likewise, Miss Beatrice Irwin, an
> Englishwoman who was a talented lighting engineer, poet, and essayist,
> well known in professional and artistic circles, had access to many
> important platforms and leading personalities through her attainments.
> She was later described by Shoghi Effendi as an “indefatigable
> promoter” of the Faith.237
> 
> These pioneering efforts to support the intellectual development of
> women provided both the model and the impetus for Bahá’í women in
> later decades to demonstrate the equality of the sexes in the intellectual
> realm through their distinguished accomplishments.
> 
> THE POWER OF EXAMPLE
> 
> The events described in this chapter show that Bahá’u’lláh and
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá did not confine Themselves to the prescription of
> equality of the sexes and the elaboration of the implications and
> applications of this principle. It is clearly apparent, from a close
> scrutiny of Their daily activities, that They provided an example which
> remains a source of inspiration and instruction to Bahá’ís striving to
> put into practice the teachings of this Faith. Attention here has been
> directed principally to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, since information about His
> activities is more readily available at this time, and since the removal
> of restrictions on His freedom in His later years enabled Him to move
> in the Western world as well as in the East.
> 
> As the body of Bahá’í historical materials is enriched in the future
> through the collection and translation of manuscripts, a vastly greater
> number of examples will emerge of the promotion of equality of the
> sexes, a principle for which Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá labored so
> assiduously.
> 
> Implementing Equality:
> The Role of Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of
> Justice
> 
> . . . the Bahá’ís . . . should initiate
> and implement programs which will
> stimulate and promote the full and
> equal participation of women in all
> aspects of Bahá’í community life, so
> that through their accomplishments
> the friends will demonstrate the
> distinction of the Cause of God in
> this field of human endeavor.
> 
> –The Universal House of Justice
> THE FORMATIVE AGE OF THE BAHÁ’Í DISPENSATION
> 
> The passing of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in November 1921 signalized the
> termination of the Apostolic Age of the Bahá’í Dispensation, the first
> of the three Ages into which it is divided. Shoghi Effendi describes
> that point in time in the following terms:
> 
> The Age that had witnessed the birth and rise of the Faith had now
> closed. The Heroic, the Apostolic Age of the Dispensation of
> Bahá’u’lláh, that primitive period in which its Founders had lived, in
> which its life had been generated, in which its greatest heroes had
> struggled and quaffed the cup of martyrdom, and its pristine
> foundations been established . . . 238
> 
> With the conclusion of its Apostolic Age, the Faith entered its
> Formative Age, characterized by Shoghi Effendi as
> 
> an Age of Transition to be identified with the rise and establishment
> of the Administrative Order, upon which the institutions of the future
> Bahá’í World Commonwealth239 must needs be ultimately erected in
> the Golden Age240 that must witness the consummation of the Bahá’í
> Dispensation.241
> 
> During the Apostolic Age the principle of the equality of men and
> women had been clearly enunciated by Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.
> As the appointed Exemplar of the Bahá’í teachings, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá had
> provided to the believers a peerless model of its expression in practice
> in both the Western world, where women enjoyed a certain measure of
> emancipation, and in the East, where they labored under formidable
> restrictions. Furthermore, the processes of implementation had been
> set in motion with the constant encouragement of women; with their
> involvement in the rudimentary forms of administrative functioning
> that existed in countries such as Britain, the United States, and Iran;
> with the establishment of facilities for women’s education in areas of
> pressing need; and with the participation of women in highly
> responsible functions for the protection and promotion of the Faith.
> 
> The inception of the Formative Age gave rise to a highly significant
> new development in the Faith’s continuing endeavor to bring about
> implementation of the equality of the sexes. The Formative Age is to
> be distinguished by the application of this principle in all pans of the
> world by the diverse peoples who are gathered within the embrace of
> Bahá’u’lláh’s Revelation. A prerequisite for accomplishing this mighty
> endeavor is the establishment of the administrative institutions of the
> Faith throughout the planet and the use of these institutions as the
> vehicle for further spreading the Faith and progressively applying all of
> its principles, including that of the equality of the sexes.
> 
> The ministry of the Guardian from 1921 until his passing in November
> 1957 witnessed spectacular progress toward attaining this objective.
> Shoghi Effendi guided the Bahá’í community forward, clarified its
> teachings, translated those passages of its holy writings needed to
> establish Bahá’í belief on a foundation of authenticity and accuracy, set
> the basis for the formation of Local Spiritual Assemblies and National
> Spiritual Assemblies, and took the preliminary measures required for
> the formation in April 1963 of the Universal House of Justice. The
> processes to which the Guardian gave a mighty impetus continue and
> are now being further expanded by the Universal House of Justice as
> the Formative Age continues to unfold.
> 
> A comprehensive account of the work of the Guardian and of the
> Universal House of Justice is beyond the scope of this book. This
> chapter focuses on those elements of their work that relate directly to
> the equality of the sexes and to fostering the development of women. It
> should be borne in mind, however, that this limited focus can lead to a
> distortion of perspective. The administrative institutions of the Bahá’í
> Faith are organic entities that must perform a broad range of mutually
> interdependent functions in a balanced manner to ensure that any one
> of these several functions is carried out effectively. The pursuit of
> equality, which is an important function of these bodies, can best occur
> within the setting of institutional activity designed to advance all
> aspects of Bahá’í community life.
> 
> THE ROLE OF SHOGHI FFENDI
> 
> To examine Shoghi Effendi’s role in furthering the implementation of
> the equality of women and men, it is first necessary to consider briefly
> the extent to which the Faith had spread and the state of its
> development at the time of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s passing. When ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá passed away in 1921, the Faith had spread to some thirty-five
> countries. The majority of Bahá’ís were in the Middle East and North
> America, with relatively few believers residing in other parts of the
> world. The institutions of the Bahá’í Administrative Order were, at
> best, embryonic, and the writings of the Faith, though carefully
> preserved, were yet to be collected and translated.
> Upon his appointment as Guardian of the Faith and authorized
> interpreter of the Bahá’í writings, Shoghi Effendi elucidated still
> further the meaning of the principle of equality; explained its
> application, especially in relation to the laws of the Faith; and actively
> encouraged its implementation in the life of the Bahá’í community. As
> head of the Faith he also set about laying and strengthening the
> foundations for the erection of the Administrative Order as a
> preliminary to implementing the Divine Plan of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá for the
> spread of the Faith throughout the world.242 Through a prodigious flow
> of letters to the Bahá’ís in the East and the West, Shoghi Effendi
> carefully and patiently nurtured the community’s understanding of this
> unique system of organization, and he trained the believers in the
> election and operation of Local and National Spiritual Assemblies.
> Once elected and basically consolidated, these Assemblies became the
> vehicles for the systematic promotion of the Faith and for the
> development of Bahá’í community life.
> 
> Interpreting the Teachings
> 
> Because the principle of the equality of the sexes is so clearly
> enunciated by Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, the need for
> interpretation by the Guardian lies mainly in the realm of application,
> and his major contribution is in its implementation, as we shall see.
> 
> Reference has already been made to several of Shoghi Effendi’s
> interpretations, which were given principally in response to questions
> from individuals who were struggling to absorb the effect of this
> principle on various aspects of their daily lives, especially in such areas
> as the marriage laws. Reference has also been made to the Guardian’s
> statement that chastity is equally binding on both men and women.
> Among the clarifications Shoghi Effendi provided in relation to
> marriage and divorce are those emphasizing that monogamy is
> prescribed; that absolute equality between men and women allows
> either one to propose marriage; and that, in marital breakdown, each
> partner has the right to initiate divorce action. By responding to
> questions on these and other subjects, the Guardian patiently helped the
> Bahá’ís attain a fuller understanding of the magnitude of the principle
> of equality which is so emphatically proclaimed in the Bahá’í
> teachings.
> 
> Developing the Administrative Order
> 
> From the very earliest days of his ministry Shoghi Effendi drew upon
> the capacities of women to an extent unprecedented in any other
> religion. Reference has already been made to his designation of
> Bahíyyih Khánum to supervise and manage the affairs of the Faith
> when he felt compelled to leave the Holy Land for a period shortly
> after his appointment as Guardian. That a woman was called upon to
> assume this responsibility, even if only for a short time, constituted an
> unmistakable indication of the recognition of the capacities of
> womanhood presented by the Faith.
> 
> Another example from the same period was the Guardian’s summoning
> to the Bahá’í World Center a small and diverse band of experienced
> and knowledgeable believers for consultations about the future
> development of the Faith. Women constituted about half of the
> membership of this highly select group. Shoghi Effendi directed much
> of his attention to the establishment of Local and National Spiritual
> Assemblies throughout the world. As was evident from the activities
> of women such as Corinne True and Ethel Rosenberg, there was no
> impediment to membership of women on these institutions in the
> Western world. However, the situation was quite different in the East,
> where deeply ingrained prejudices and restrictions presented a major
> barrier to women’s involvement. The approach Shoghi Effendi
> adopted was that of progressive implementation, as had occurred in the
> Apostolic Age, together with the clear promulgation of the principle of
> equality and the fostering of the advancement of women.
> 
> In areas such as India and Burma, where the prevailing cultural
> tradition already allowed women sonic degree of freedom, Shoghi
> Effendi affirmed women’s eligibility for Assembly membership. In a
> letter dated 27 December 1923 to the National Spiritual Assembly of
> the Bahá’ís of India and Burma, he offered the following guidance:
> 
> I feel that the time is now ripe that those women who have already
> conformed to the prevailing custom in India and Burma by discarding
> the veil should not only be given the right to vote for the election of
> their local and national representatives, but should themselves be
> eligible to the membership of all Bahá’í Assemblies throughout India
> and Burma, be they local or national.
> 
> This definite and most important step, however, should be taken with
> the greatest care and caution, prudence and thoughtfulness. Due regard
> must be paid to their actual capacity and present attainments, and only
> those who are best qualified for membership, be they men or women,
> and irrespective of social standing, should be elected to the extremely
> responsible position of a member of the Bahá’í Assembly.243
> 
> Mindful of the potential impact of this momentous decision on the
> continuing development of women, Shoghi Effendi stated,
> 
> . . . I trust [it] will prove to be a great incentive to the women Bahá’ís
> throughout India and Burma who, I hope, will now bestir themselves
> and endeavour to the best of their ability to acquire a better and more
> profound knowledge of the Cause, to take a more active and
> systematic part in the general affairs of the Movement, and prove
> themselves in every way enlightened, responsible and efficient coworkers to their fellow-men in their common task for the
> advancement of the Cause throughout their country.
> 
> May they fully realize their high responsibilities in this day, may they
> do all in their power to justify the high hopes we cherish for their
> future, and may they prove themselves in every respect worthy of the
> noble mission which the Bahá’í world is now entrusting to their
> charge.244
> 
> One can well imagine the stirring effect the Guardian’s statement must
> have had on these women as they prepared to fulfill this new and
> challenging responsibility. While clearly communicating his
> understanding of the difficulty of the task, he was voicing his
> confidence in their ability to undertake their noble mission and was
> summoning them to action.
> 
> In Islamic countries such as Iran, the situation was much more
> complex, and progress had necessarily to be gradual, taking cognizance
> of the Bahá’í community’s vulnerability to misrepresentation and
> persecution at the hands of fanatic elements. Bahá’í actions to
> emancipate and educate women were liable to be stigmatized as
> encouraging immorality, and thus to be used by those who opposed the
> Faith as excuses for reinstituting repressive measures.
> 
> In the 1920s Shoghi Effendi reiterated ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s guidance about
> the need for continued use of the veil in Islamic countries, although
> Bahá’í women were encouraged to discard it in other areas of the
> world. Ina general letter dated 27 February 1923 to the Bahá’ís in the
> East, Shoghi Effendi strongly urged the Bahá’í women in all Islamic
> countries to use the veil in accordance with the social and religious
> circumstances of the countries in which they found themselves.
> Nevertheless, the practice of Bahá’í women in these countries of
> continuing to wear the veil for a period should not be construed as an
> endorsement of this restriction on women. In a general letter dated 6
> December 1928, Shoghi Effendi hailed “the growing unpopularity of
> the veil among almost every section of society’’ in Iran as one of the
> promising signs of improvement in the conditions of life in that
> country.245 During that period when wisdom decreed that use of the
> veil be maintained in Iran, women were urged not to lose sight of the
> objective of equality toward which they should strive. In a letter of 14
> March 1933 written on behalf of the Guardian to a Bahá’í in India, we
> find,
> 
> Even though the Master and now Shoghi Effendi have not asked the
> Persian ladies to discard the veil, they have been constantly urging
> them to work for the development of their sex and the elimination of
> the yoke imposed by man. They have to work for equality, which is a
> basic teaching of the Faith, but be mindful not to precipitate things.246
> 
> In the 1930s Bahá’í women in Iran found it possible to gradually
> abandon use of the veil, as traditional practices were being broken
> down in Iranian society generally. This most welcome development
> made it possible for women to participate more fully in the activities of
> the community and opened the way to a further degree of
> emancipation. In 1944 Shoghi Effendi identified “the disuse of the
> veil” as a welcome sign of the declining influence of the Iranian
> ecclesiastics.247
> 
> In 1944 the Bahá’ís in Iran formed a national committee for the
> progress of women, which was given the responsibility of organizing
> women’s activities throughout the country. The work of this
> committee was greatly reinforced by the Iranian Bahá’í community’s
> adoption of a Four Year Plan (1946-1950) for women, which aimed to
> bring about equality of the sexes in administrative service to the
> Faith.248
> 
> A 1954 report on the results of this plan states, in part,
> 
> This aim was pursued under a four-year plan the result of which has
> been to find women elected to membership on Assemblies for the
> first time, thus overcoming a long historic disability. The service of
> men and women in these elective bodies represents the operation of
> the principle of equality of opportunity and status for men and women
> which the Bahá’í Faith has established in the new social pattern now
> unfolding throughout the world.
> Through special classes and discussions and by active participation in
> Bahá’í community affairs the Bahá’í women of Persia have fully
> demonstrated their capacity to assume responsibilities which had been
> reserved for men. . . .
> 
> The Four-Year Plan provided facilities for the education of girls and
> special classes for adult women. A National women’s Progressive
> Committee was appointed, with regional committees acting under its
> supervision. A national convention for Bahá’í women was held
> annually, with the participation of the members of the National
> women’s Progressive Committee and twenty-two representatives of the
> regional committees. At these gatherings the women demonstrated
> their ability and aptitude for serving their Faith on an equality with the
> men. In addition, district conventions were held semi-annually, to
> consult on ways to carry education even to women in the villages. The
> program of education included oral instruction for the illiterate and
> those who had little schooling; an advanced class for graduates of
> secondary schools, and a higher class of more advanced education for
> women living in the larger centers. Finally, a periodical was circulated
> with contents covering topics of general history, Bahá’í history,
> science, literature, health, hygiene, housekeeping and care of children.
> 
> From Shoghi Effendi a message was received which stated:
> 
> “The great barrier has now been completely removed and absolute
> equality is attained as the result of recent developments, as well as the
> glorious and continuing efforts rendered by the beloved Bahá’í sisters
> in that country and abroad.”249
> A similar development occurred in Egypt in 1951, when women were
> elected as members of Local Spiritual Assemblies for the first time, an
> action the Guardian described as a notable step forward in the progress
> of Bahá’í women of the Middle East.250
> 
> It would be difficult to overestimate the significance of these
> achievements in Iran and Egypt, which came after three decades of
> education, stimulus, and training under the guidance of the Guardian.
> In countries where the prevailing culture had imposed the severest
> restrictions on women’s participation in any sphere of activity outside
> the home, Bahá’í community functioning had evolved to such a degree
> of equality that women could be elected to membership of
> administrative bodies having authority over both male and female
> members of the Faith. When in 1954 this victory was achieved in Iran,
> the Guardian announced to the Bahá’í world,
> 
> Full rights have been accorded to Bahá’í women residing in the cradle
> of the Faith, to participate in the membership of both national and
> local Bahá’í Spiritual Assemblies, removing thereby the last
> remaining obstacle to the enjoyment of complete equality of rights in
> the conduct of the administrative affairs of the Persian Bahá’í
> Community.251
> 
> In a 1954 message addressed to Bahá’í women in Iran, the Guardian
> urged them not to be content with achieving administrative equality.
> He called upon them to outdo men in such areas of service to the Faith
> as teaching and pioneering252 and urged them to demonstrate greater
> courage, audacity, and detachment than their male counterparts. Their
> attention was directed to the example of the American Bahá’í women
> as a standard they should strive to reach or even exceed.253
> 
> The Bahá’í women of Iran have continued to follow the path of
> courage and heroic endeavor in the decades since the Guardian issued
> this call to them. Their record of accomplishment is an example of the
> power of the Faith to change long-established attitudes, and of the
> progressive approach it adopts toward implementation, such that the
> goal is approached in a spirit of unity and cooperation between men
> and women who share a common belief in the spiritual duty to give
> practical expression to the equality of the sexes.
> 
> In the latter years of his ministry as Guardian, Shoghi Effendi called
> into being international institutions of the Faith to further reinforce and
> advance the growing work of the Cause. The Hands of the Cause of
> God became a functioning institution in 1951with the appointment of
> twelve Bahá’ís to this high rank, followed by the appointment of seven
> more a few months later. Both men and women were included in this
> institution. The Guardian also brought into being in 1951 the
> International Bahá’í Council through the appointment of eight Bahá’ís,
> adding another in 1955 to complete its membership; five of these nine
> members were women. The Faith had, in no more than five decades,
> made enormous progress since the early days of the twentieth century,
> when Corinne True and Ethel Rosenberg were making their
> contribution to the development of embryonic Bahá’í administrative
> bodies in the West and the Spiritual Assembly of Bahá’í women was
> being formed in Tehran.
> Fostering the Advancement of Women
> 
> As indicated above, Shoghi Effendi devoted much effort to establishing
> Local and National Spiritual Assemblies in many parts of the world
> and to using these institutions for the further spread of the Faith. The
> advancement of women was a significant component in such
> endeavors.
> 
> While the believers throughout the world were called upon to practice
> the equality of women and men in everyday life, the Guardian issued
> more detailed guidance to the countries in the East. For example,
> writing in 1926 to the Spiritual Assemblies throughout the East, Shoghi
> Effendi states that one of their major functions is “to promote the
> emancipation and advancement of women and support the compulsory
> education of both sexes.” Further, in a 1928 letter to the Iran Central
> Spiritual Assembly, Shoghi Effendi stresses the importance of Bahá’í
> literacy classes and encourages the initiation of educational programs
> to prepare women for service on Local and National Spiritual
> Assemblies.254
> 
> The specific nature of the Guardian’s encouragement appears to have
> depended, in part, on the prevailing social milieu and the ability of the
> women at that time to successfully discharge their God-given
> responsibility. In those instances in which women may have lacked
> certain skills and competencies, the Guardian sought first to help them
> overcome the existing deficit before assigning a particular function to
> them, thereby increasing the likelihood of their success and
> contributing to the greater acceptance, by both men and women, of
> women’s participation in the Bahá’í community.
> 
> Bahá’í women in the West, who had benefited from access to more
> educational opportunities than their Bahá’í sisters in the Ease, and who
> were constrained by fewer barriers to participation in activities outside
> of the home, were, from the Faith’s earliest days, at the forefront of
> teaching activities and served as elected members of Spiritual
> Assemblies. On the eve of a teaching endeavor in Latin America,
> Shoghi Effendi acknowledged their exemplary services, addressing to
> them the following encouragement:
> 
> I am moved, at this juncture, as I am reminded of the share which,
> ever since the inception of the Faith in the West, the handmaidens of
> Bahá’u’lláh, as distinguished from the men, have had in opening up,
> single-handed, so many, such diversified, and widely scattered
> countries over the whole surface of the globe, not only to pay a tribute
> to such apostolic fervor as is truly reminiscent of those heroic men
> who were responsible for the birth of the Faith of Bahá’u’lláh, but
> also to stress the significance of such a preponderating share which
> the women of the West have had and are having in the establishment
> of His Faith throughout the whole world. “Among the miracles,”
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá Himself has testified, “which distinguish this sacred
> Dispensation is this, that women have evinced a greater boldness
> than men when enlisted in the ranks of the Faith.” So great and
> splendid a testimony applies in particular to the West, and though it
> has received thus far abundant and convincing confirmation must, as
> the years roll away, be further reinforced, as the American believers
> usher in the most glorious phase of their teaching activities under the
> Seven Year Plan. The “boldness” which, in the words of ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá, has characterized their accomplishments in the past must suffer
> no eclipse as they stand on the threshold of still greater and nobler
> accomplishments. Nay rather, it must, in the course of time and
> throughout the length and breadth of the vast and virgin territories of
> Latin America, be more convincingly demonstrated, and win for the
> beloved Cause victories more stirring than any it has as yet
> achieved.255
> 
> With regard to the promotion of peace, Shoghi Effendi reaffirmed the
> role of women as agents of change in this important enterprise. He
> underlined the potential of the Bahá’í administrative machinery in
> furthering peace activities and encouraged their active involvement in
> “this essential matter.”256
> 
> In this regard, the Guardian stated in a letter written on his behalf,
> 
> What ‘Abdu’l-Bahá meant about the women arising for peace is that
> this is a matter which vitally affects women, and when they form a
> conscious and overwhelming mass of public opinion against war
> there can be no war. The Bahá’í women are already organized
> through being members of the Faith and the Administrative Order.
> No further organization is needed. But they should, through teaching
> and through the active moral support they give to every movement
> directed towards peace, seek to exert a strong influence on other
> women’s minds in regard to this essential matter.257
> Shoghi Effendi encouraged individual Bahá’ís and the Spiritual
> Assemblies to participate in activities that focused on women and
> peace. For example, in 1930 the National Spiritual Assembly of the
> Bahá’ís of India and Burma wrote to the Guardian, inquiring about the
> advisability of participating in an international women’s conference. In
> a letter written on his behalf the Guardian responds,
> 
> Concerning Bahá’í representation at the All-Asian Women’s
> Conference: this is undoubtedly a most commendable thing to do
> especially as the Cause has so much concerning the position of
> women in society. Shoghi Effendi hopes that the National Assembly
> will do its best to win the admiration of all the assembled delegates
> for the teachings of the Cause along that line. We should always take
> such opportunities that present themselves. Maybe we would succeed
> to render some service to society and alleviate its ills.258
> 
> Shoghi Effendi not only endorsed Bahá’í participation in the
> conference, but he also sent, via the National Spiritual Assembly, the
> following personal message of greeting to it:
> 
> CONVEY TO INDIAN ASIAN WOMEN’S CONFERENCE BEHALF GREATEST
> HOLY LEAF ‘ABDU’L-BAHÁ’S SISTER AND MYSELF EXPRESSION OUR
> GENUINE PROFOUND INTEREST IN THEIR DELIBERATIONS. MAY
> ALMIGHTY GUIDE BLESS THEIR HIGH ENDEAVOURS.259
> 
> One of the believers who was closely associated with the work of the
> All-Asian Women’s Conference was Mrs. Shirin Fozdar. Born in 1905
> in Bombay of Persian Zoroastrian parents who had converted to the
> Bahá’í Faith, Shirin Fozdar was one of the first Eastern Bahá’í women
> to speak in public in India. In 1922, while still in her teens, she
> addressed a public meeting in the town hall of Karachi, the center of
> Muslim influence in what was then British India. Karachi’s mayor
> presided at this historic event. In 1931, Mrs. Fozdar was elected to the
> Executive Committee of the All-Asian Women’s Conference, and by
> 1934 she was its representative to the League of Nations. In this
> capacity she pleaded with representatives of the great powers to
> proclaim a Universal Declaration of Women’s Rights.
> 
> Throughout her long life of service Mrs. Fozdar was the champion of
> Asian women. She traveled widely for this purpose, serving as an
> eloquent spokeswoman for their emancipation and working tirelessly to
> promote opportunities for their education.260
> 
> International Assignments to Women
> 
> Like ‘Abdu’l-Bahá before him, Shoghi Effendi called upon the special
> skills and services of capable, intelligent, and practical women to
> undertake delicate international missions for the Faith. Though it is far
> beyond the scope of this book to provide a comprehensive survey of
> the activities of the many women whose abilities the Guardian drew
> upon to carry out strenuous, and in many instances heroic, services to
> advance the Faith, attention will be directed to four significant
> examples: two Western women who carried out unusually difficult
> assignments in the East, and two other women whose services were so
> highly meritorious that they were designated as Hands of the Cause of
> God, the highest rank that can be conferred in the Bahá’í
> Administrative Order.
> Shoghi Effendi often drew upon the talents of Western Bahá’í women
> to undertake special missions in Iran. These assignments demonstrated
> the Guardian’s faith in the capacity of women, and the presence of such
> women in Iran underlined the principle of equality and encouraged the
> female believers. Two of these women, Miss Effie Baker and Mrs.
> Keith Ransom-Kehler, are discussed here.
> 
> Effie Baker. In the early 1930s Shoghi Effendi tapped the skills of
> Miss Effie Baker, a photographer and artist, to make a photographic
> record of the Bahá’í historical sites in Persia. Miss Baker, the first
> woman to embrace the Faith of Bahá’u’lláh in Australia, had the
> privilege of serving at the Bahá’í World Center for eleven years.
> During this period she traveled from Haifa to Persia by car, across
> Syria and Iráq, in territory where bandits were common. At a time
> when it was unusual for a woman to travel in Persia, when certain parts
> of the country were dangerous for any Westerner, male or female, to
> enter, Miss Baker, shrouded in a chador for protection, undertook her
> assignment with courage and determination. To reach the sites of
> historical interest she went by car, on horseback, and sometimes on
> donkey or mule. A collection of the photographs Miss Baker took
> during this period is immortalized through its inclusion by Shoghi
> Effendi in his translation of The Dawn-Breakers, Nabil-i-A’ẓam’s
> chronicle of the early history of the Bahá’í Faith.261
> 
> The following extract from a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi
> to Miss Baker makes clear how greatly he appreciated her skill. The
> letter states,
> Often Shoghi Effendi remarks that if you were in Haifa, you would
> take some wonderful photos. He considers that no one has ever
> captured the beauty of the place as you did, and your photographs
> adorn his own rooms, and the archives and the Mansion.262
> 
> Keith Ransom-Kehler. Mrs. Keith Ransom-Kehler traveled to Iran in
> 1932 to serve as the representative of the National Spiritual Assembly
> of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada. Chosen by the
> Guardian for this assignment, her challenging task was to intercede
> with the Persian government in an attempt to have the ban on the entry
> and circulation of Bahá’í literature in Iran lifted.
> 
> In a land where women were still largely secluded in the home, Mrs.
> Ransom-Kehler was required to relate, at the highest level, to
> government ministers and members of parliament in her efforts to have
> the Bahá’í petition presented to the shah. Reflecting on her experience
> in a letter she wrote from Tehran to her National Spiritual Assembly,
> she comments, “How strange the ways of God, that I, a poor, feeble,
> old woman from the distant West, should be pleading for liberty and
> justice in the land of Bahá’u’lláh. . . ” 263
> 
> For over a year Mrs. Ransom-Kehler encountered formidable obstacles,
> broken promises, and conflicting advice from the Persian government.
> In the end, the petition was never answered by the officials. Yet
> despite such difficulties she persisted, undeflected in bringing to bear
> her keen intelligence, great eloquence, wise and strategic judgment,
> and sensitivity to the task at hand. Disappointed at the failure of her
> mission and exhausted from her constant efforts to visit and address
> Bahá’í gatherings throughout Persia, Mrs. Ransom-Kehler fell victim
> to smallpox and passed away in Iṣfahán on 23 October 1933. When
> Shoghi Effendi received the distressing news of her sudden passing, not
> only did he express appreciation for her efforts, but he also clarified the
> true significance of her contribution. In a cable dated 28 October 1933
> he designated her as the “FIRST AND DISTINGUISHED MARTYR”
> drawn from the American Bahá’í community and bestowed upon her
> the rank of Hand of the Cause of God. The cabled message reads,
> 
> KEITH’S PRECIOUS LIFE OFFERED UP SACRIFICE BELOVED CAUSE IN
> BAHÁ’U’LLÁH’S NATIVE LAND. ON PERSIAN SOIL FOR PERSIA’S SAKE
> SHE ENCOUNTERED CHALLENGED AND FOUGHT FORCES OF DARKNESS
> WITH HIGH DISTINCTION, INDOMITABLE WILL, UNSWERVING
> EXEMPLARY LOYALTY. MASS OF HER HELPLESS PERSIAN BRETHREN
> MOURN THE LOSS THEIR VALIANT EMANCIPATOR. AMERICAN
> BELIEVERS GRATEFUL AND PROUD MEMORY THEIR FIRST AND
> DISTINGUISHED MARTYR. SORROW-STRICKEN I LAMENT EARTHLY
> SEPARATION INVALUABLE COLLABORATOR UNFAILING COUNSELOR
> ESTEEMED AND FAITHFUL FRIEND. URGE LOCAL ASSEMBLIES
> BEFITTINGLY ORGANIZE MEMORIAL GATHERINGS IN MEMORY ONE
> WHOSE INTERNATIONAL SERVICES ENTITLE HER EMINENT RANK
> AMONG HANDS OF CAUSE OF BAHÁ’U’LLÁH.264
> 
> Reports of her activities in Iran show that, in addition to her valiant and
> determined efforts to relieve the difficulties under which the Persian
> Bahá’ís were laboring, Mrs. Ransom-Kehler played an important part
> in the upliftment of women. One report states,
> 
> Her work with women Bahá’ís and inquirers was extensive, and the
> women’s Program Committee arranged many meetings at which she
> discussed phases of the Administration, women’s progress, child
> psychology and the like; it was felt that her presence gave tremendous
> impetus to the cause of Persian women, and those who heard her will
> not forget the thunder of her words. In . . . 1932 . . . the women’s
> Teaching Committee held two noteworthy meetings for her at each of
> which approximately one hundred women inquirers were present, and
> Keith spoke to them on the growing understanding of Islam in the
> West, through the spread of the Bahá’í teachings; her stirring talks to
> the twenty-six members of the women’s Progress Committee dealt
> with the role that group will play in modern Persia.265
> 
> The following report of her journey to one part of Iran provides an
> indication of the excitement aroused by the travels of this courageous
> American Bahá’í woman:
> 
> In Sísán the friends built an auto road over five miles long for her
> reception, and some thousand Bahá’ís came out to meet her in holiday
> clothing. At Zanján Keith visited the house of Ḥujját,266 and
> astonished passers-by by kneeling in the ruins to pray and weep. An
> important incident of her Mashhad visit was her meeting with the
> chief Muslim ecclesiastic in that city, keeper of all the shrines of
> Imám Riḍá; this eminent divine entertained her at his home and
> escorted her through various secular institutions dedicated to the
> Imam, such as the famous school and the great new hospital. When
> after a delay occasioned by motor trouble Keith and her party reached
> ‘Alíyábád-i-Sháhí, it developed that the Bahá’ís of Sárí and
> Máhfurúẓak had not received her telegram and had camped two days
> in pouring rain on a near-by hill, waiting to welcome her. At Bandari-jaz a large crowd came to the railway station and accompanied
> Keith and her party on foot to the residence appointed for her; their
> numbers drew such attention that authorities in the neighboring town
> of lstirábád phoned Bandar-i-jaz to find out what had happened, and
> were told by the police that an American Bahá’í had come to visit the
> local Bahá’í community.267
> 
> At Shoghi Effendi’s instruction and with her family’s approval, Mrs.
> Ransom-Kehler’s remains were interred in Iṣfahán in the vicinity of the
> grave of the distinguished early believer who had been designated by
> Bahá’u’lláh as the “King of Martyrs.”268
> 
> As noted above, Mrs. Ransom-Kehler was designated a Hand of the
> Cause of God and was thus a member of that institution assigned the
> highest rank in the Bahá’í Administrative Order. The institution was
> ordained by Bahá’u’lláh, Who during His lifetime appointed four
> individuals to be concerned with the protection and propagation of His
> Faith. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in His writings refers to four other outstanding
> believers as Hands of the Cause, and His Will and Testament includes a
> provision calling upon the Guardian to appoint Hands of the Cause at
> his discretion. The Will and Testament of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá also provides
> for the selection of nine Hands whose function is to work closely with
> the Guardian.269 At first, Shoghi Effendi bestowed, posthumously, the
> rank of Hand of the Cause on ten believers; during the latter years of
> his ministry he appointed twelve initially, and a total of thirty-two
> Bahá’ís in all, from all continents to this position.
> 
> In addition to Mrs. Keith Ransom-Kehler, another woman, Miss
> Martha Root, was designated as a Hand of the Cause of God at the time
> of her passing. Six women were appointed during their lifetime:
> namely, Mrs. Dorothy Baker, Mrs. Amelia Collins, Mrs. Clara Dunn,
> Mrs. Corinne True, Amatu’l-Bahá Rúḥíyyih Khánum, and Miss Agnes
> Alexander. The distinguished services of all of these Hands of the
> Cause have been described elsewhere.270 We will refer briefly here to
> Miss Martha Root and Mrs. Amelia Collins, whose endeavors received
> unusually high praise from Shoghi Effendi.
> 
> Martha Root. In God Passes By Shoghi Effendi describes Miss
> Martha Root in the following terms:
> 
> . . . that archetype of Bahá’í itinerant teachers and the foremost Hand
> raised by Bahá’u’lláh since ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s passing, . . Leading
> Ambassadress of His Faith and Pride of Bahá’í teachers, whether men
> or women, in both the East and the West.
> 
> The first to arise, in the very year the Tablets of the Divine Plan were
> unveiled in the United States of America, in response to the epochmaking summons voiced in them by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá; embarking, with
> unswerving resolve and a spirit of sublime detachment, on her world
> journeys, covering an almost uninterrupted period of twenty years and
> carrying her four times round the globe . . . this indomitable soul has,
> by virtue of the character of her exertions and the quality of the
> victories she has won, established a record that constitutes the nearest
> approach to the example set by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá Himself to His disciples
> in the course of His journeys throughout the West.271
> 
> During her travels for the Faith, Martha Root made contact with
> royalty, statesmen, and academics. She delivered lectures in over four
> hundred universities and colleges in both the East and the West;
> published innumerable articles in newspapers and magazines in
> practically every country she visited; placed Bahá’í books in private
> and state libraries; supervised the translation and production of a large
> number of versions of the early Bahá’í textbook Bahá’u’lláh and the
> New Era, by Dr. John Esslemont;272 made a pilgrimage to the Bahá’í
> historic sites in Persia; and visited Adrianople (Edirne) in Turkey,
> where she searched out the houses in which Bahá’u’lláh had dwelled
> and the people whom He had met during His exile in that city.
> 
> Miss Root’s travels were constant, arduous, and often hazardous. She
> had limited financial resources, often encountered political
> disturbances, and on more than one occasion she was exposed to
> perilous circumstances. Toward the end of her life she suffered from
> breast cancer, from which she died at the age of sixty-seven in Hawaii
> in 1939.
> 
> Assessing her contribution to the Cause of God, Shoghi Effendi singles
> out Martha Root’s introduction of the Faith to Queen Marie of
> Rumania. He writes,
> 
> Of all the services rendered the Cause of Bahá’u’lláh by this star
> servant of His Faith, the most superb and by far the most momentous
> has been the almost instantaneous response evoked in Queen Marie of
> Rumania to the Message which that ardent and audacious pioneer had
> carried to her. . . 273
> 
> He states that Miss Root’s life “may well be regarded as the fairest fruit
> as yet yielded by the Formative Age of the Dispensation of
> Bahá’u’lláh” and designates her as “the foremost Hand raised by
> Bahá’u’lláh since ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s passing.”274
> Amelia E. Collins. Mrs. Amelia E. Collins was born in 1873 and
> embraced the Bahá’í Faith in 1919. Her appointment as a Hand of the
> Cause of God was announced in 1951. She served for many years as a
> member of the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and
> Canada.
> 
> Mrs. Collins made bountiful and generous financial contributions to the
> institutions of the Faith in North America and the Holy Land. Shoghi
> Effendi refers to her as an “outstanding benefactress of the Faith. “Her
> contributions helped significantly to make possible the purchase of
> sites for Bahá’í Houses of Worship, including the Temple site on
> Mount Carmel; the construction of Bahá’í Temples in Kampala,
> Sydney, and Frankfurt; the publication of Bahá’í literature; the
> embellishment of the area surrounding the Shrine of Bahá’u’lláh at
> Bahjí; the construction of the superstructure of the Shrine of the Báb;
> and the erection and furnishing of the International Bahá’í Archives on
> Mount Carmel. The beautiful “Collins Gate,” which is the main gate
> leading to the Shrine of Bahá’u’lláh, was named in her honor by
> Shoghi Effendi.275
> 
> Mrs. Collins traveled widely for the Faith, undertaking many of her
> journeys at Shoghi Effendi’s request. He entrusted to her delicate
> tasks, which he knew she would carry out with the greatest discretion
> and devotion. One such assignment, undertaken during World War II,
> was her journey to Buenos Aires in 1942 to arrange for the erection of
> a monument for the grave of Rúḥíyyih Khánum’s mother, May
> Maxwell, who had passed away there and had been hailed by the
> Guardian as a martyr for the Faith.
> Although Mrs. Collins was appointed by Shoghi Effendi as a Hand of
> the Cause of God in 1947, the designation was not made public until
> 1951, when the Guardian announced the first contingent of living
> Hands of the Cause of God. She was also appointed to serve as a
> member and as vice-president of the International Bahá’í Council, the
> precursor of the Universal House of Justice.
> 
> The uniqueness of Mrs. Collins’s services to the Guardian and the
> distinction that singled her out from other Hands of the Cause are
> apparent in an extract from a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi
> in 1947. This letter and the Guardian’s postscript to it indicate that she
> was in the category of the nine Hands of the Cause, foreshadowed in
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Will and Testament, who would work closely with the
> Guardian:
> 
> He wants to make clear to you that when he said, in his recent cable,
> that your example might well be emulated by the nine Hands of the
> Cause, who will in the future be especially chosen to serve the
> Guardian, he meant that the very services you have been recently
> rendering the Cause, because of their nature and their intimate
> association with him, are of the kind which one of these nine might
> well be called upon to render. So you see you are not only worthy to
> be a Hand of the Cause, but have rendered a service which ordinarily
> would be performed by this select body of nine.
> 
> Shoghi Effendi added a postscript in his own handwriting:
> 
> With a heart overflowing with profound gratitude, I am now writing
> you these few lines to reaffirm the sentiments, expressed lately on
> several occasions and in a number of telegrams, of heartfelt and
> unqualified admiration for your magnificent services, rendered in
> circumstances so exceptional and difficult as to make them doubly
> meritorious in the sight of God. You have acquitted yourself of the
> task I felt prompted to impose upon you in a manner that deserves the
> praise of the Concourse on high. The high rank you now occupy and
> which no Bahá’í has ever held in his own lifetime has been conferred
> solely in recognition of the manifold services you have already
> rendered, and is, by no means, intended to be a stimulus or
> encouragement in the path of service. Indeed the character of this
> latest and highly significant service you have rendered places you in
> the category of the Chosen Nine who, unlike the other Hands of the
> Cause, are to be associated directly and intimately with the cares and
> responsibilities of the Guardian of the Faith.276
> 
> Mrs. Collins’s extensive travels and services to the Faith continued
> unabated until the end of her life in 1962.
> 
> THE ROLE OF
> THE UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE
> 
> Following the passing of Shoghi Effendi in 1957, the Hands of the
> Cause of God acted as custodians of the Faith, guiding and encouraging
> the National Spiritual Assemblies and the members of Bahá’í
> communities all over the world in their endeavors to fulfill the goals of
> the Ten Year Plan formulated by the Guardian in 1953. The successful
> completion of that plan opened the way for the formation of the
> Universal House of Justice, an institution that had been ordained in the
> Bahá’í writings.
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, first elected in 1963, is the
> international governing body of the Bahá’í Faith, that coordinates and
> oversees the development of the Faith. It establishes priorities for the
> worldwide expansion of the Faith, fosters the enhancement of its
> community life, and encourages and directs its relationship with the
> world at large. Its duties are outlined in The Constitution of the
> Universal House of Justice.277 The role of the House of Justice in
> promoting application of the principle of the equality of men and
> women is discussed below. It will become apparent from this survey
> of the work of the Universal House of Justice that it has continued and
> given further emphasis to the various processes initiated by
> Bahá’u’lláh, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, and Shoghi Effendi. It has also been able
> to take advantage of the growth in size and influence of the Faith to
> bring to the attention of the larger society the Bahá’í principle of
> equality of the sexes.
> 
> Because the implementation processes described here continue to
> expand rapidly, the account of their present state must necessarily be
> inadequate or even obsolete, such is the pace of change in the Bahá’í
> community all over the world.
> 
> Elucidating the Teachings
> 
> Among the duties assigned to the Universal House of Justice in the
> Will and Testament of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá is the following:
> It is incumbent upon these members (of the Universal House of
> Justice) to . . . deliberate upon all problems which have caused
> difference, questions that are obscure and matters that are not
> expressly recorded in the Book . . . and bear upon daily transactions. .
> . .278
> 
> In the process of carrying out this function the Universal House of
> Justice provides much authoritative guidance to the Bahá’í community
> on the application of the principle of equality of the sexes, often in
> response to questions.
> 
> In many instances the Universal House of Justice has been the source
> of resolution of the misconceptions that must inevitably arise in Bahá’í
> communities endeavoring to emancipate themselves from traditional
> patterns of thought and behavior. This consistent reiteration of the
> teachings in answer to questions from believers endeavoring to
> accommodate in their frame of reference the implications of the
> principle of equality is a means by which Bahá’ís receive reassurance
> and develop confidence as they embark on the process of constructing
> a new society centered around such equality.
> 
> Earlier chapters contain many examples of the clarifications provided
> by the Universal House of Justice concerning the application of the
> principle of equality between men and women. Several examples relate
> to domestic relations, including marital decision-making without unjust
> domination by either partner; the condemnation of domestic violence
> and sexual abuse; and the distinction between administrative rank and
> spiritual station.
> Of far-reaching significance is the statement of the Universal House of
> Justice that Bahá’í laws are equally applicable to men and women
> unless the context renders this impossible. This provides the correct
> orientation within which all formulations of Bahá’í law, including those
> set out in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, should be viewed.
> 
> In The Promise of World Peace, a statement on peace addressed to the
> peoples of the world in 1985, the Universal House of Justice drew
> attention to the fact that acceptance of the oneness of humanity is the
> primary foundation for the attainment of peace and world order. Such
> acceptance requires the abandonment of every form of prejudice,
> including that of sex, since such prejudiced attitudes foster a sense of
> superiority that leads to division and oppression.
> 
> Integral to the acceptance of the oneness of humankind is an
> appreciation of the equality of men and women. Indeed, the Universal
> House of Justice affirms that “The emancipation of women, the
> achievement of full equality between the sexes, is one of the most
> important, though less acknowledged prerequisites of peace” and that
> “Only as women are welcomed into full partnership in all fields of
> human endeavor will the moral and psychological climate be created in
> which international peace can emerge.”279
> 
> Advancing the Process of Implementation
> 
> Recognizing that formidable barriers of attitude and conduct must be
> overcome to bring about the full expression of the equality of men and
> women in the Bahá’í community, the Universal House of Justice has
> taken progressive measures to advance the process of implementation
> initiated by Bahá’u’lláh and developed further by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and
> Shoghi Effendi. These measures have been embarked upon in
> synchronism with the vast expansion of the Bahá’í community in the
> years since 1963 and with the extension of its influence and
> membership into all parts of the world.
> 
> The task is far from complete, but good progress has been made in
> response to the urging of the Universal House of Justice in statements
> such as the following excerpt from a 1984 message addressed to the
> entire worldwide Bahá’í membership:
> 
> The equality of men and women is not, at the present time,
> universally applied. In those areas where traditional inequality still
> hampers its progress we must take the lead in practicing this Bahá’í
> principle. Bahá’í women and girls must be encouraged to take part in
> the social, spiritual and administrative activities of their
> communities.280
> 
> In addition to making such exhortations, the Universal House of Justice
> has called for specific measures designed to foster the emancipation of
> women from the fetters of traditional practice. Among these measures
> are such endeavors as the extension of literacy, the devising of
> programs aimed specifically at increasing women’s participation in all
> aspects of community life, and the convening of women’s conferences
> that play an important role in raising consciousness and developing
> bonds of mutual support and encouragement among Bahá’í women.
> 
> An account of progress in the advancement of Bahá’í women in Iran,
> where the cultural barriers to equality have been particularly strong,
> was set out in a 1973 report of the accomplishments of the Bahá’í
> committee specialized for this work. The account, published in a
> survey of activities in The Bahá’í World, volume 15, states,
> 
> As a result of intensified activities the special Committee charged
> with this responsibility held special training classes; extracts from the
> Writings were compiled relating to such subjects as family life and
> the status of women; a highly popular magazine for Bahá’í women
> was produced regularly; circuit tours were made throughout the
> country to assist with women’s programmes in various areas; allwomen’s conferences were held; and women were increasingly
> encouraged to play important roles as teachers, pioneers and
> administrators. It was reported that by Riḍván, 1973, the efforts of
> the Committee had to all intents and purposes effectively eradicated
> illiteracy among Bahá’í women under the age of forty throughout
> Iran.281
> 
> The development of the worldwide Bahá’í community proceeds
> through a series of plans, the duration and general features of which are
> prescribed by the Universal House of Justice, with detailed
> specification of goals to be carried out at national and local levels. A
> significant milestone in women’s advancement in the Faith was the
> assignment by the Universal House of Justice in the Five Year Plan
> (1974-1979) of the goal for eighty National Spiritual Assemblies to
> arrange Bahá’í activities for women in countries where traditional
> restrictions on the freedom of women have been pronounced. In a
> letter addressed to all National Spiritual Assemblies in 1975, the
> Universal House of Justice elaborated on the importance of this
> assignment:
> 
> Although obviously the entire Bahá’í world is committed to
> encouraging and stimulating the vital role of women in the Bahá’í
> community as well as in society at large, the Five Year Plan calls
> specifically on eighty National Spiritual Assemblies to organize
> Bahá’í activities for women. In the course of the current year which
> has been designated “International women’s Year” as a worldwide
> activity of the United Nations, the Bahá’ís, particularly in these eighty
> national communities, should initiate and implement programs which
> will stimulate and promote the full and equal participation of women
> in all aspects of Bahá’í community life, so that through their
> accomplishments the friends will demonstrate the distinction of the
> Cause of God in this field of human endeavor.282
> 
> The report prepared in 1979 at the end of the five-year period states, in
> part,
> 
> This goal has been successfully pursued in many parts of the world.
> Bahá’í activities for women which have been initiated include greater
> participation in a wide range of endeavours to further the progress of
> the Cause through women’s conferences, family life conferences,
> classes in child care, reading, nutrition and hygiene, arts and crafts,
> and many others. Particularly significant has been a great increase in
> regular children’s classes, and the formation of women’s teaching
> teams. Some of these latter have visited three islands in the New
> Hebrides following a women’s conference there, opened new
> localities in the Dominican Republic, spent four months opening new
> localities in Guatemala, and from Panama embarked on a three-nation
> travel-teaching trip.283
> 
> The most striking accomplishment in the fulfillment of this Five Year
> Plan goal was the initiation of a series of Bahá’í women’s conferences,
> which resulted in over 150 such gatherings at an international, national,
> and local level during that period. Such conferences may well be
> regarded as a further response to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s call for women’s
> assemblages to be a potent factor in the enlightenment and
> advancement of women. These conferences directed attention to the
> statements in the Bahá’í writings on the equality of men and women
> and to statements on the vital role assigned to women in the progress of
> humanity, both within the family and in the larger society. Their
> programs included accounts of distinguished Bahá’í women such as
> Bahíyyih Khánum and Martha Root, sessions on the importance of the
> education of women, and discussions aimed at fostering greater
> participation by women in all spheres of activity. The aims of the
> conferences were reinforced in 1977 by a cable from the Universal
> House of Justice to all National Spiritual Assemblies, stating, in part,
> “PARTICULARLY CALL UPON BAHÁ’Í WOMEN, WHOSE CAPACITIES IN
> MANY LANDS STILL LARGELY UNUSED, AND WHOSE POTENTIAL FOR
> SERVICE CAUSE SO GREAT, TO ARISE AND DEMONSTRATE IMPORTANCE
> PART THEY ARE TO PLAY IN ALL FIELDS SERVICE FAITH.”284
> 
> International conferences were held in India, El Salvador, Peru, and
> Liberia, but the bulk of the conferences were held at national or
> regional levels. That these conferences were, for some, a turning-point
> in the process of implementing the Bahá’í teachings on the equality of
> the sexes is evident in the following excerpt from a report:
> 
> In many cases these conferences were the first regional or national
> Bahá’í activity in which women from the more remote villages
> participated, and often they were the first occasion on which native
> women arose to speak publicly. . . .
> 
> . . . Particularly noteworthy is the fact that many of these conferences
> were held not in large cities but in villages and towns in remote areas,
> the home territory of indigenous Bahá’ís. Often the trip to and from
> the conference was an important step in bringing the Bahá’í women
> together as sisters. An account of the trip by participants in the first
> Bahá’í women’s Conference of Malaysia by launches and on foot to
> Kampong Temiang where the conference was held, tells of the
> friendly spirit as women gathered from eleven jungle communities:
> 
> It was a happy journey with news being exchanged and the Bahá’ís
> getting to know each other as the launch proceeded through the
> afternoon heat of the equatorial jungle… eventually we had to take to
> our feet and walk the last hour of our journey balancing on tree trunks
> neatly felled so that one can step from one to the other-a great deal
> easier than walking through swampy land . . . we were tired but so
> happy to arrive.
> 
> Bahá’í villagers from the Bouake, Man, and Danane regions of the
> Ivory Coast walked distances up to 400 miles overland to attend the
> International Bahá’í women’s Conference in Monrovia, Liberia.
> Village women such as these contributed actively to the success of
> these conferences throughout the world, speaking often for the first
> time before large gatherings and translating addresses into the native
> languages. Men as well as women contributed in a variety of ways to
> making these meetings a success: in many cases the men attending
> the conference prepared the food, washed the dishes, and cared for
> the children, in order to allow the women to concentrate on the
> discussion of their responsibilities and development within the Faith
> and the importance of their role as the first educators of the next
> generation of Bahá’ís. Such active and cheerful co-operation and
> service to the women by the men is particularly interesting as in most
> cases it was offered in marked contrast to social customs prevailing in
> the world around them. The enthusiasm created by these gatherings
> often resulted in women setting goals for themselves for their own
> deepening and the deepening of their families in the essential verities
> of the Faith, for the establishment of local classes for women and
> children, for teaching the Faith locally and as travel teachers, for the
> enrollment of entire families in the Faith, and for raising up Local
> Spiritual Assemblies. Often the women examined their local customs
> and habits in an effort to bring their lives more closely in line with the
> principles of their Faith and more consonant with their dignity as
> Bahá’í women. Most important perhaps has been the fostering of a
> new spirit among the Bahá’í women who participated in the
> conferences, as their perception of their role in the progress of the
> Faith and of humanity in general was transformed by learning of
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s revolutionizing statements on the importance of
> women to the progress of all humankind.” 285
> The two new elements added to the implementation process during the
> Five Year Plan-the assignment of specific goals to National and Local
> Spiritual Assemblies for women’s activities and the holding of
> women’s conferences-have expanded in subsequent years. Thus,
> during the Seven Year Plan (19791986), over 400 national and regional
> conferences for women were held, and 116 national communities
> carried out specific activities geared toward the advancement of
> women.286 Literacy programs also proliferated. Some National
> Spiritual Assemblies published special magazines for Bahá’í women
> while other Assemblies used their regular national news bulletins as a
> vehicle for articles designed to foster the progress of women.
> 
> Reviewing the application of the principle of the equality of the sexes
> within the Bahá’í community during recent years, the Universal House
> of Justice notes in a 1996 message to the Bahá’ís of the world, that
> 
> Efforts at improving the status of women gathered momentum in a
> number of countries where, in addition to Bahá’í participation in
> projects sponsored by other organizations, the Bahá’í institutions set
> up committees and offices to attend to the interests of women.287
> 
> In messages addressed to various parts of the world in 1996, the
> Universal House of Justice underlines continuing deficits in relation to
> the practice of equality, and it identifies specific areas of opportunity
> for fostering the development of women in various regions. For
> example, in the message addressed to the Bahá’ís of the Indian
> subcontinent and adjacent areas, the Universal House of Justice states,
> … we call upon you to give special attention to the advancement of
> women. In almost all of your region, women have traditionally played
> a secondary role in the life of society, a condition which is still
> reflected in many Bahá’í communities. Effective measures have to be
> adopted to help women take their rightful place in the teaching and
> administrative fields. By teaching entire families, you can ensure that
> increasing numbers of women enter the Faith, thereby improving the
> balance in the composition of your communities and beginning in
> each family, from the moment of acceptance, a process through which
> the fundamental principle of the equality between men and women
> can be realized.288
> 
> Likewise, the Bahá’ís in the African continent are called upon to
> “Multiply plans and programs to raise the status of women and to
> encourage the active support of men in such endeavors.”289 And, to the
> countries of the Pacific region, the Universal House of Justice provides
> the following assessment and guidance:
> 
> In many of the nations of your area, women have traditionally been
> restricted to a secondary role in the life of society. We call upon the
> Bahá’í women of these countries, assured of the support and
> encouragement of all elements of the Bahá’í community, to
> demonstrate the transforming power of this Revelation by their courage
> and initiative in the teaching work and their full participation in the
> administrative activities of the Faith.290
> 
> Fostering Women’s Participation in Bahá’í
> Administration
> It is clear from the discussion in chapter 4 of women’s service on
> Bahá’í institutions that the Bahá’í Faith calls for the full involvement
> of women in its administrative activities, and the foundational
> endeavors of Shoghi Effendi to bring this about have been described
> above. The Universal House of Justice continues the strengthening of
> this aspect of the equality of the sexes and has made it clear that, in
> areas where women are restricted by traditional practices,
> encouragement must be given to Bahá’í: women and girls to take part
> in the administrative activities of their communities.
> 
> The Bahá’í Faith eschews the use of quotas or any other artificial
> means to bring about the appearance of equality in institutional
> composition. A central feature of the Bahá’í institutions is that the
> members of these bodies are expected to consider, in the light of the
> Bahá’í teachings, what is in the best interests of all members of the
> community, rather than only a segment. Thus it is expected that a
> Bahá’í institution’s endeavor to practice justice will not be dependent
> on its composition, and its expression of equality of the sexes is not
> dependent on having an equal number of males and females in its
> membership. Moreover, each Spiritual Assembly is expected to make a
> continuing effort to become informed of the views and concerns of all
> members of the community, and it is expected to be receptive to
> considering suggestions and recommendations made to it either directly
> by individuals or through such Bahá’í gatherings as Nineteen Day
> Feasts and conventions or conferences.291 In voting for members of
> Local or National Spiritual Assemblies, Bahá’ís are expected to
> consider without the least trace of passion and prejudice, and
> irrespective of any material consideration, the names of only those who
> can best combine the necessary qualities of unquestioned loyalty, of
> selfless devotion, of a well-trained mind, of recognized ability and
> mature experience…292
> 
> It might be expected, from statistical considerations, that these
> “necessary qualities” will be distributed equally between male and
> female members of a Bahá’í: community of reasonable size and that, as
> the community matures in its understanding and expression of equality
> of the sexes, the proportion of men and women on an Assembly will be
> comparable. For this reason, the proportion of women on Local and
> National Spiritual Assemblies is of interest and provides useful
> information about the progress of the Bahá’í: community in its
> continuing quest to implement more fully the principle of equality.
> 
> Comparison with the wider society indicates the magnitude of the task
> with which the Bahá’í: community is confronted. In the religious
> sphere of human endeavor throughout the world, the encouragement
> women receive does not extend generally to their inclusion in a
> decision-making role over a constituency that includes males, apart
> from occasional token gestures. Even in the secular realm of civil
> administration, the proportion of women in the world’s legislative
> bodies is, as discussed below, far from ideal.
> 
> The process of fostering the greater participation of women in Bahá’í
> administrative service has been focused initially on the local level. As
> more women are involved in consultation at Nineteen Day Feasts, so
> their capacities are recognized and they are elected to Local Spiritual
> Assemblies or as delegates to the national convention at which the
> members of the National Spiritual Assembly are elected. In turn this
> leads to the involvement of women at a national level as elected
> members of the National Spiritual Assembly or through appointment to
> national committees. The election of the first woman to a National
> Spiritual Assembly is considered noteworthy and a cause for pleasure
> in a national community, but eventually it becomes commonplace and
> both men and women participate together on National Assemblies as a
> matter of course.
> 
> The effect of women’s involvement in the administration of the Faith is
> described in a 1985 report of activities in India that states,
> 
> The very act of becoming a Bahá’í is the first major personal decision
> for most women in rural areas. Then, as they are deepened in the
> Bahá’í teachings and the role they are expected to play in Bahá’í
> administrative activity, they are changed from being passive members
> of an existing social order into dynamic members of a new order.
> Because of their functions in serving on Bahá’í administrative bodies
> and in voting and in being voted for and elected, women have made
> great strides in a largely male dominated society. An increasing
> number of local Bahá’í assemblies have women as members and local
> assemblies with all women members have also been reported.293
> 
> A similar report from New Zealand indicates
> 
> Women are truly exercising to the full their privileges and
> responsibilities in the work of the community. The success of their
> efforts is due to a sense of dignity, spiritual assurance, education and
> the recognition of the role of women in all avenues of society. Since
> many women are involved in all aspects of Bahá’í administration and
> community life, this appears to be the area where the principle of
> equality bears the most fruit.294
> 
> Steady progress has been reported in the increase of the proportion of
> women serving on Bahá’í administrative institutions, with welldesigned surveys being carried out to measure this progress. In 1997 it
> was found that 32 percent of the members of 172 National Spiritual
> Assemblies are women, with Europe and the Americas having the
> largest proportion (40 percent) and Africa having the lowest proportion
> (17 percent). At a regional level within the various continents, the
> proportions ranged from 51percent in North America to 14 percent in
> West Africa. These figures measure both the progress that has been
> made and the need for continued endeavors. They are best assessed by
> comparison with the figures for representation of women in national
> civil legislatures, the worldwide average of which is no more than 10
> percent, ranging from Scandinavia with a 40 percent proportion of
> women to Middle Eastern countries where the participation of women
> is negligible. National legislatures in countries such as the United
> States, Russia, and Japan all have a female representation of less than
> 10 percent.295
> 
> An important role in the development of the Bahá’í community is
> played by institutions that are composed of believers appointed to
> provide advice, encouragement, and counseling to Spiritual Assemblies
> and individual Bahá’ís in their endeavors to practice the teachings of
> the Faith. These institutions include five Boards of Counselors for the
> continental areas of the world, the Auxiliary Board members, and the
> Assistants to the Auxiliary Board members. In some instances, where
> a particular need is deemed to exist, Auxiliary Board members will
> appoint assistants whose sole assignment is to stimulate greater
> involvement of women in the activities of the Faith. A recent survey
> showed that 34 percent of Counselors are women, while the proportion
> of women among the Auxiliary Board members and their assistants is
> around 47 percent.296
> 
> The Office of the Advancement of Women
> 
> The Bahá’í community has always sought fellowship and collaboration
> with groups and organizations in the larger society that are pursuing
> objectives congruous with the Bahá’í teachings. Its purpose in so
> doing is to offer its perspective on the attainment of these objectives
> and to reinforce the endeavors of such entities. Beyond that, it has not
> hesitated, when circumstances are propitious, to offer suggestions and
> advice on means by which the condition of society can be improved.
> 
> When ‘Abdu’l-Bahá was in the United States in 1912, He addressed a
> Woman’s Suffrage meeting in New York and also spoke to members of
> a Federation of women’s Clubs in Chicago. On both occasions He
> emphasized the need for equality. In New York, referring to man and
> woman, He stated, “It is not natural that either should remain
> undeveloped; and until both are perfected, the happiness of the human
> world will not be realized.” In the Chicago meetings He proclaimed,
> “until woman and man recognize and realize equality, social and
> political progress here or anywhere will not be possible.”297
> 
> In recent years the Bahá’í International Community has established an
> influential presence in association with various agencies. It was
> officially recognized as an international nongovernmental organization
> (NGO) in 1948 and subsequently was granted consultative status with
> the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) as well as
> with the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). It has used this
> presence to work for the advancement of women, collaborating with
> likeminded NGOs and submitting statements on various aspects of
> equality to United Nations conferences and agencies.
> 
> Bahá’í activities intended to promote the advancement of women
> became particularly prominent during the United Nations Decade for
> women, 1976-1985. Bahá’í representatives participated in the major
> conferences held in Mexico City (1975), Copenhagen (1980), and
> Nairobi (1985) and were involved in the special NGO activities held on
> these occasions. A lengthy report was submitted to the 1985
> conference, conveying the results of a comprehensive survey of the
> activities being carried out by the Bahá’ís in all continents of the world
> to improve the status of women. One of the conclusions of the report
> was that Bahá’í communities, while realistic in their assessment of
> obstacles to be overcome, are dedicated to a change in attitudes, and
> are working systematically and in a practical way to win the goal of
> equality of the sexes. They are dedicated to the education of women,
> even in preference to that of men, since women, as mothers, have such
> an important bearing on the life of future generations. In addition, they
> see the importance of women’s potential for the accomplishment of
> peace and world order as women increasingly participate in all areas of
> community life.298
> The Bahá’í International Community has been particularly effective in
> drawing the attention of United Nations agencies to the importance of
> ameliorating the condition of the girl child. A statement presented to
> the UNICEF Executive Board in 1991 expresses deep concern “at the
> blatant neglect of girl children, justified in many parts of the world as
> part of the culture,” and urges UNICEF to “broaden its approach to
> maternal health to include an attempt to alter factors that affect girl’s
> and women’s health before maternity, including harmful traditional
> attitudes and practices.”299 The statement goes on to emphasize the
> vital role mothers are called upon to play:
> 
> Mothers can now be the primary agents for empowering individuals
> to transform society. They alone can inculcate in their children the
> self-esteem and respect for others essential for the advancement of
> civilization. It is clear, then, that the station of mothers, increasingly
> denigrated in many societies, is in reality of the greatest importance
> and highest merit.300
> 
> At the same time, however, the statement points out the need for
> involvement of the family:
> 
> It must be stressed, however, that this dual responsibility of
> developing the child’s character and stimulating his intellect also
> belongs to the family as a whole, including the father and
> grandparents, and to the community.301
> 
> More than four decades of such activity at the United Nations reached
> its culmination in December 1992, when the Universal House of
> Justice announced its decision to establish an Office for the
> Advancement of Women as an agency of the Bahá’í International
> Community. In a letter dated 10 December 1992 to all National
> Spiritual Assemblies, the Universal House of Justice indicates that the
> purpose of the new office is to promote the principles of the Faith
> through its interaction with international entities concerned with
> matters affecting the rights, status and well-being of women. It will
> also advise National Spiritual Assemblies regarding programs and
> projects in which the involvement of the community can encourage
> efforts towards the realization of the equality of men and women.302
> 
> The Universal House of Justice highlights the special significance of
> the new office in the following terms:
> 
> The inauguration of the Office for the Advancement of Women, as a
> companion of the other offices of the Bahá’í International
> Community in New York, is a further significant step in the
> administration of the external affairs of the Faith and, of course,
> provides our community with a visible instrument for the practical
> application of one of the cardinal principles of the Cause of
> Bahá’u’lláh.303
> 
> In making this announcement the Universal House of Justice draws
> attention to the fact that, since 1988, the Bahá’í International
> Community has served as the convenor of Advocates for African Food
> Security, a coalition of NGOs, United Nations agencies, and
> intergovernmental bodies formed in 1986 to raise awareness of women
> as producers of most of the domestic food in Africa. The Universal
> House of Justice also highlights the involvement of the Bahá’í
> International Community with the United Nations Development Fund
> for women (UNIFEM).
> 
> Since its inception the Office for the Advancement of Women has
> given leadership to, and greatly enhanced the visibility of, the Bahá’í
> community’s efforts to raise the status of women. Its director led the
> official Bahá’í delegation to the Fourth World Conference on women in
> Beijing, China, in September 1995. The office also made a major
> contribution to planning and executing the NGO Forum on women,
> which was a companion event, and it successfully mobilized five
> hundred Bahá’ís from throughout the world to lend their active support
> to this important gathering. A book titled The Greatness Which Might
> Be Theirs, published by the Office for the Advancement of Women for
> the Beijing conference, conveyed a Bahá’í perspective on a number of
> issues on the conference agenda.
> 
> Commenting on the need for the education of girls in a statement
> submitted in March 1995 to the thirty-ninth session of the United
> Nations Commission on the Status of women, the Office for the
> Advancement of Women applauds the commission’s decision “to
> include under the priority theme of development a focus on educating
> girls and women,” but asserts that the education needed is of three
> kinds: material education concerned with physical health and wellbeing; human education, which prepares one to participate in such
> activities of civilized society as commerce, science, arts, and public
> administration; and also spiritual education, which is concerned with
> values and character development. On the latter point it indicates that
> Spiritual or moral education is almost never seen outside of parochial
> schools or religious institutions, is shunned in most developed
> countries as irrelevant or intrusive to modern education, and is rarely
> funded by international donors. It is the one kind of education which
> asserts the dignity of the human spirit in all its diversity, and
> formalizes its relationship to the Divine. Such universal human
> values as trustworthiness, honesty, courtesy, generosity, respect and
> kindness are rapidly disappearing from our increasingly belligerent
> and fractured world. Through moral or character education, whether
> formalized in religious or secular programs or provided informally by
> wise and caring family or community members, that which is valued
> by society and gives meaning to life is transmitted to succeeding
> generations.304
> 
> Violence against women has been a particular concern of the Office for
> the Advancement of Women, which has made submissions on this
> subject to the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in June
> 1993 and to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights in
> Geneva in January 1995. The office states,
> 
> Domestic violence is a fact of life for many women throughout the
> world, regardless of race, class, or educational background. In many
> societies traditional beliefs that women are a burden make them easy
> targets of anger. In other situations, men’s frustration is vented on
> women and children when economies shrink and collapse. In all parts
> of the world, violence against women persists because it goes
> unpunished.305
> 
> The office points out that
> It is becoming increasingly evident, however, that all forms of
> violence against women degrade not only the victim but the
> perpetrator as well. Those who inflict violence on women are
> themselves among the casualties of power-based systems. When
> unbridled competition, aggression, and tyranny destroy the fabric of
> society, everyone suffers. In the Bahá’í view, “the harvest of force is
> turmoil and the ruin of the social order” and violence against women
> is a grave symptom of this larger disorder.306
> 
> Addressing the means of eradicating this violence, the office indicates
> that
> 
> Beliefs and practices that contribute to the oppression of women must
> be reexamined in the light of justice. When properly understood, the
> principle of the fundamental equality of men and women will
> eventually transform all social relations, allowing each person to
> develop his or her unique gifts and talents. The utilization of
> everyone’s strengths will foster the maturation of society. As the
> principle of equality gains acceptance, the challenge of transmitting it
> to the next generation must be undertaken by parents, schools,
> governments and NGOs.307
> 
> The Office for the Advancement of Women also asserts,
> 
> The persistence and growth of violence directed against women, both
> personal and institutional, is largely attributable to the traditional
> exclusion of women from processes of development and decisionmaking. A profound adjustment in humanity’s collective outlook is
> needed, guided by the considerations of universal values and spiritual
> principles. Legislation is needed which lends practical expression to
> the equality of the sexes by dealing with the particular injustices
> which women face.308
> 
> The office also calls for the reeducation of men as well as women to
> achieve the elimination of violence against women:
> 
> But the problem of violence cannot truly be resolved unless men are
> also educated to value women as equal partners. Any effort to protect
> women against male aggression which does not involve the early
> training of boys will necessarily be short-lived. Likewise, all
> attempts to understand the causes and consequences of violence
> against women which do not involve men are bound to fail.309
> 
> One of the most pernicious forms of violence perpetrated against
> women is that of female genital mutilation. In a statement presented at
> a conference on the commercial sexual exploitation of children that
> was held in New York in May 1996 under the auspices of UNICEF and
> the World Conference on Religion and Peace, the Office for the
> Advancement of Women reports that, in those areas where female
> genital mutilation is prevalent, the Bahá’í institutions regard
> themselves as having a duty to contribute to its eradication through “an
> ongoing program of education based on spiritual principles and sound
> scientific information.”310
> 
> The establishment and functioning of the Bahá’í International
> Community Office for the Advancement of Women has given
> additional impetus to Bahá’í endeavors at a national level to bring to
> the attention of the wider society the Bahá’í principle of the equality of
> the sexes. In launching a Four Year Plan in 1996 for the activities of
> Bahá’ís throughout the world, the Universal House of Justice called for
> “the status of women ” to be given particular emphasis in efforts
> “aimed at influencing the processes towards world peace” in the wider
> society; this may well be regarded as a continuation of the emphasis
> upon the role of women in attaining world peace.311
> 
> A number of National Spiritual Assemblies have established Offices
> for the Advancement of Women, functioning at a national level and
> drawing on advice from the international office, while, in Europe, the
> formation of the European Task Force for women has been the agent
> for the promotion of conferences for women all over the continent and
> for the training of women as leaders in societal change. In addition,
> Bahá’í professional organizations and associations for Bahá’í studies
> have given emphasis to the advancement of women in their programs.
> Singapore has played a notable role, with a 1994 international report
> stating,
> 
> In Singapore, the Bahá’í Women’s Committee collaborated with the
> Singapore Council of Women’s Organizations to produce a
> comprehensive survey of the women’s movement, released in 1993
> and entitled Voices and Choices: The Women’s Movement in
> Singapore. One of the two most prominently featured women in the
> publication is Shirin Fozdar, a Bahá’í who founded the Singapore
> Council of women in 1952, was a spokesperson for the Singapore
> Women’s Committee in the 1950s and 1960s, and is regarded as a
> pioneering proponent of women’s rights in Asia.312
> The Bahá’í view, as stated in chapter 2, is that the denial to women of
> full equality with men has had a far-reaching effect on all areas of
> human activity. In a statement titled The Prosperity of Humankind
> issued by the Bahá’í International Community Office of Public
> Information in January 1995, the effect of equality of the sexes on
> global development is discussed in the following terms:
> 
> A commitment to the establishment of full equality between men and
> women, in all departments of life and at every level of society, will be
> central to the success of efforts to conceive and implement a strategy
> of global development.
> 
> Indeed, in an important sense, progress in this area will itself be a
> measure of the success of any development program. Given the vital
> role of economic activity in the advancement of civilization, visible
> evidence of the pace at which development is progressing will be the
> extent to which women gain access to all avenues of economic
> endeavor. The challenge goes beyond ensuring an equitable
> distribution of opportunity, important as that is. It calls for a
> fundamental rethinking of economic issues in a manner that will invite
> the full participation of a range of human experience and insight
> hitherto largely excluded from the discourse. The classical economic
> models of impersonal markets in which human beings act as
> autonomous makers of self-regarding choices will not serve the needs
> of a world motivated by ideals of unity and justice. Society will find
> itself increasingly challenged to develop new economic models shaped
> by insights that arise from a sympathetic understanding of shared
> experience, from viewing human beings in relation to others, and from
> a recognition of the centrality to social well-being of the role of the
> family and the community. Such an intellectual breakthrough–strongly
> altruistic rather than self-centered in focus–must draw heavily on both
> the spiritual and scientific sensibilities of the race, and millennia of
> experience have prepared women to make crucial contributions to the
> common effort.313
> 
> On the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations in
> October 1995, the Bahá’í International Community issued a statement
> entitled Turning Point for All Nations, which contains a number of
> recommendations for improving the effectiveness of the United
> Nations. Under the heading “Advancing the Status of Women” appears
> the following passage:
> 
> The creation of a peaceful and sustainable world civilization will be
> impossible without the full participation of women in every arena of
> human activity. While this proposition is increasingly supported,
> there is a marked difference between intellectual acceptance and its
> implementation.
> 
> It is time for the institutions of the world, composed mainly of men, to
> use their influence to promote the systematic inclusion of women, not
> out of condescension or presumed self-sacrifice but as an act motivated
> by the belief that the contributions of women are required for society to
> progress. Only as the contributions of women are valued will they be
> sought out and women into the fabric of society. The result will be a
> more peaceful, balanced, just and prosperous civilization.314
> Promoting the Social and Economic Development of
> Women
> 
> Promoting the development of the human race in all aspects–spiritual,
> intellectual, social, and economic–has always been an integral part of
> Bahá’í teachings and practice. As the Universal House of Justice points
> out, “The oneness of mankind, which is at once the operating principle
> and ultimate goal of His [Bahá’u’lláh’s] Revelation, implies the
> achievement of a dynamic coherence between the spiritual and
> practical requirements of life on earth.”315
> 
> In recent years the growth in size of the Bahá’í community and its
> spread to even the most remote regions of the world have made it both
> possible and necessary for Bahá’ís to take a more prominent role in the
> social and economic development of the people in areas where they
> reside.316
> 
> The Bahá’í approach is distinctive in that a key component is the local
> Bahá’í community, which is distinguished by its spiritual motivation,
> by its endeavors to apply the principles of Bahá’u’lláh, and by its
> commitment to group decision-making through the process of Bahá’í
> consultation. While the Bahá’í Faith is quite properly interested in
> spreading the Bahá’í teachings and attracting a larger number of people
> to membership in the Faith, it is required by these teachings to adhere
> to an exalted standard of ethical conduct which proscribes the use of
> material inducements in an effort to win new recruits.
> 
> The number and scope of Bahá’í social and economic development
> programs being carried out throughout the world is growing so rapidly
> that they cannot accurately be surveyed here. They include literacy
> programs; tutorial schools; primary, secondary, and tertiary educational
> institutions; agricultural and medical projects; educational radio
> stations; training institutes for income-producing crafts; and programs
> in rural development and village-level hygiene.
> 
> In this section attention will be focused only on a representative sample
> of projects in education, health care, and attitudinal change that have
> been directed principally at improving the condition of women. No
> attempt is made here to carry out a comprehensive survey, but rather to
> provide an indication of those aspects of this subject to which attention
> is being directed at the present time.
> 
> Education
> 
> The education of girls and women has been a priority of the Faith since
> the first programs were initiated for this purpose in Iran during
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s ministry. Such education continues to receive
> emphasis from the Universal House of Justice, which states in a
> message of April 1996 to the Bahá’ís of Africa,
> 
> Parents have a special responsibility to see that their children, both
> boys and girls, receive an education; and they must take care that the
> girls are not left behind, since well-educated girls are a guarantee of the
> excellence of future society; indeed, preference should, if necessary, be
> given to their education. Closely linked to this concern is the principle
> of the equality of men and women taught by Bahá’u’lláh. It is also
> highly desirable for adults, men and women, who are illiterate to
> participate in literacy programs, so that gradually all Bahá’ís will be
> able to read the Word of God for themselves.317
> 
> There are innumerable examples of Bahá’í educational programs
> designed to raise the status of women. The women of India, for
> example, face the double challenge of overcoming caste prejudice and
> the inferior status assigned to women within their culture. The Bahá’í
> institutes, schools, and community learning centers gradually address
> these traditional prejudices by first creating programs for women and
> girls that provide them with domestic and crafts skills that are
> acceptable in the current environment and which are valued because of
> their potential for added income. During these courses additional
> topics such as the education of daughters, the caste system, unity,
> family planning, loyalty to one’s government, and the nobility of each
> human being are progressively introduced.318
> 
> Features of the Bahá’í approach to providing literacy training to
> women are illustrated by detailed examination of the operation of the
> Faizi Vocational Institute for Rural women, which promotes positive
> social change while teaching income-generating skills to women in the
> tribal areas around lndore, in southwestern Madhya Pradesh, India.
> Established in 1983, the institute operates in a tribal area that is
> economically deprived and socially disadvantaged–90 percent of the
> women are illiterate, a strong caste system exists among the various
> local tribes, the level of poverty is high, few health services are
> available, and there is a high female mortality rate, especially among
> girl children.319
> The formal education program of the Vocational Institute for Rural
> women provides an impetus to the processes of social transformation in
> the tribal areas from which it draws its participants. This powerful
> impetus results from giving attention to the spiritual dimension of
> existence and to the implementation of the principle of the equality of
> women and men. As an expression of the Bahá’í view that the
> advancement of women is essential for social transformation, the
> institute encourages women to develop the full range of their
> capacities–economic, intellectual, social, and moral. Trainees are
> assisted to see themselves as equal in capacity to men, to discover their
> innate abilities, and to see new ways of contributing to the welfare of
> the community. As educated mothers, they also gain a new sense of
> the importance of their role in reshaping tribal societies. At the
> institute, rural women can develop their intellectual capacities,
> strengthen their commitment to their families and communities, and
> learn useful crafts. Back in the villages, follow-up support ensures that
> the benefits of the training are sustained.
> 
> The courses provided at the institute are not confined to literacy
> training, essential as it is. They include training in income-generating
> activities, e.g., making candles, soap, chalk, handloom products,
> carpets, and handicrafts such as beadwork and embroidery; the
> programs also impart knowledge of health and the environment in the
> form of health care, basic first aid and awareness of environmental
> hazards, and information about useful village technologies such as fuelefficient smokeless stoves, and means of filtering drinking water. Most
> important of all, participation in the institute provides the rural women
> with opportunities for spiritual development through devotions,
> chanting, and reading of inspirational materials, as well as through the
> discussion of spiritual and moral principles and their application to
> personal and contemporary social issues. It is also evident that the
> institute promotes within its participants attitudinal change through
> informal interactions intended to foster greater social awareness, a
> scientific orientation to issues, and participation in planning and
> decision-making activities.
> 
> An important element of the success of this institute lies in the fact that
> its programs are planned in consultation with the Spiritual Assemblies
> in the villages surrounding Indore from which the participants are
> drawn. Consultation fosters acceptance of new ideas and methods and
> generates both grassroots support for the participation of women in the
> training programs and appreciation for the contribution the trainees are
> able to make to their local communities after their training courses.
> Specifically, the Assemblies assist in selecting the candidates. They
> support the institute’s activities, helping village men to understand the
> importance of women’s education, and they encourage women to take
> part in the programs and to contribute their new knowledge and skills
> to the service of the Bahá’í community upon completing their courses.
> 
> It is clear that the programs of the Vocational Institute for Rural women
> have had a significant impact on the lives of the village women. On a
> personal level, these women have gained self-respect and confidence,
> with which are associated their acquisition of skills and their
> heightened awareness of spiritual and moral principles. Beyond chat,
> they are making a significant contribution to the process of overcoming
> the prejudice of caste, which continues to separate villagers in this part
> of India.
> 
> On a social level, the development of the women’s income-earning
> capacity has raised their status in the eyes of their menfolk.
> Furthermore, education in literacy, health, and hygiene has not only
> helped to improve the material standard of their own lives but has also
> had a positive impact on village life. For example, a program
> undertaken by the institute’s graduates to provide safe drinking water in
> the villages led to the eradication of the guinea worm in over three
> hundred villages in the area. In addition, male community members
> have begun to defend women’s rights, to protect women’s interests, and
> to promote the development of women’s capacities.
> 
> Many other examples of Bahá’í programs for literacy are to be found in
> Africa, Latin America, and Australasia. When the participants are from
> a village area, it is not uncommon for literacy classes to be combined
> with training in the acquisition of skills such as cooking, basic hygiene,
> child care, and sewing. Income-generating skills may also be taught, as
> is done at the Faizi Institute in India. In other instances such as the Lar
> Linda Tanure Orphanage conducted by the Bahá’í community in
> Manaus, Brazil, literacy classes for women are part of an extensive
> education program arising from the education being provided to the
> children in the orphanage. In France, the Bahá’í community has
> offered literacy classes for Turkish-speaking women, and similar
> classes have been offered for new immigrants in the United States and
> in Australia.320
> Bahá’í schools at a secondary level or beyond are generally
> coeducational. However, in certain places where the society has failed
> to provide opportunities for girls to continue their education beyond the
> primary level, the Bahá’ís are instituting special measures to meet the
> girls’ educational needs as resources permit. An example is the Banani
> International Secondary School for Girls, opened in January 1993 in
> Zambia, where only 20 percent of girls have access to education.
> Praised by government officials for its high standards of education and
> its admirable moral tone, this school provides girls with a
> comprehensive educational program oriented toward practical training
> in the sciences and agriculture.321
> 
> Other Bahá’í educational programs for women have aimed at assisting
> them to acquire expertise in specialized fields of knowledge to which
> they have traditionally not had access. Typical of such programs is a
> five-day course for women conducted in Uganda by the Bahá’ís in
> collaboration with a women’s association to enhance the participants’
> knowledge of financial management, marketing, and bookkeeping, as
> well as associated legal issues. Such specialized courses are likely to
> proliferate in the years ahead in those countries where women are
> particularly in need of such remedial assistance.322
> 
> Health Care
> 
> Measures to improve women’s health in countries where it has received
> little attention have their origin in the actions ‘Abdu’l-Bahá took to
> provide medical services for Iranian women. In recent years it has been
> possible for the Bahá’í community to give greater attention to this need
> in many parts of the world.323
> 
> In most cases, health education arises from a program in literacy or
> general education, such as that of the Faizi Institute in India. The
> Bahá’í contribution is twofold: It includes information, to which
> women have long lacked access, about such matters as hygiene,
> sanitation, and nutrition, but perhaps the more significant help provided
> by the Bahá’ís is in offering a more enlightened perspective on the
> world. By this means prejudices are broken down, and myths and
> fallacies about personal and family hygiene can be removed. The
> process involved here is based on perception of the harmony of religion
> and science, a foundational principle of the Faith.
> 
> One example of a Bahá’í health-education project is that conducted
> recently in Malaysia over the five-year period 1989-1994 to foster
> health-awareness among women in low-income areas. The first phase
> of the Health Awareness Project aimed to provide health and childdevelopment education to mothers and families in selected areas and to
> expose mothers to health and child-development practices that are more
> beneficial than their existing customs. As an initial step, a program
> aimed at reducing the incidence of scabies, lice, and worm infestation
> among the families in these low-income areas was introduced. Besides
> providing a needed service, the program succeeded in establishing a
> good and lasting relationship with the local women so that the healthawareness project could be continued, and further development
> initiatives emerged naturally from the local community.
> In the second phase the project was extended to ten areas, one in each
> state of the region. Within these areas were seven different majority
> and minority ethnic groups in low-income, isolated, or remote regions.
> Even in the most remote areas, the participation, especially of the
> women, increased as the project advanced; in one area about two
> hundred women, children, and men attended the initial gathering.
> Thereafter, there was willing participation in all activities pertaining to
> children’s dental care, prenatal care, vitamins and their importance to
> physical and mental growth, child growth, safe motherhood, and
> breast-feeding.
> 
> The positive impact of the project can be seen in the improved
> cleanliness and personal hygiene of the people in the communities
> involved and in their increased interest in general health issues. Very
> often in the more remote and conservative areas women would ask
> questions related to myths, fallacies, and superstitions about health.
> Such questions not only demonstrated a trust in the health
> professionals but also evinced the desire to ascertain whether those
> beliefs were scientifically sound. There was also an increased interest
> in education and child development. Women in the ten communities
> gained an appreciation of the contribution they could make simply by
> teaching their children through games and by interacting with them.
> Furthermore, the women themselves gained a greater awareness of
> their own potential and of the need to develop themselves, so that they
> began to come forward to participate, to offer ideas, to organize, andmost significant of all-to lead. Thus the project accomplished far more
> than simply raising awareness of health issues; it trained more local
> women as managers and enhanced the status of women. In addition, the
> project spurred other development activities in the area. Members of
> the community became aware of the need to do more for themselves
> and thus to take on for their own benefit other development projects
> such as paving a dirt track or holding literacy classes.
> 
> Generally, the women began to show a greater interest in the education
> of their children.
> 
> Bahá’í endeavors have not been confined to hygiene and awareness of
> good health practices. In Africa, for example, women have been taught
> to use soybean products to obtain protein for the diet of their families
> in areas where conventional sources of protein are inaccessible due to
> cost. In many places women have been trained to plant trees, not only
> for the purpose of improving the environment but also for the health
> benefits that accrue from reducing soil erosion and dust.
> 
> Attitudinal Change
> 
> Central to the aims of the Bahá’í Faith is the accomplishment of a
> change in attitudes on the part of men and women, leading to a full
> recognition of the equality of the sexes. In reaching out to the larger
> society, Bahá’í communities in many countries are seeking, through
> example and discussion, to bring about such a fundamental change in
> the larger society.
> 
> Perhaps the most striking example of Bahá’í activity in this regard is a
> two-year project called “Traditional Media as Change Agent”
> conducted by the Bahá’í Office for the Advancement of Women in
> cooperation with UNIFEM in Bolivia, Cameroon, and Malaysia, with
> Bahá’í -sponsored extensions in Brazil and Nigeria.
> 
> A report on this project describes it as having three principal
> components:
> 
> It seeks to involve the people directly in analyzing their own
> problems, by first training them in the use of modern analytic
> tools like focus groups and community surveys, as well as in
> Bahá’í consultation;
> It then gives direction to that analysis by stressing the
> importance of a positive moral principle, in this case the
> equality of Women and men;
> It seeks finally to promote change in the community by
> communicating the results of that analysis through traditional
> media, such as theater, songs, and dance, which are relatively
> non-threatening.324
> 
> The process began with the training of a select group of Bahá’í
> volunteers at a national level in Bahá’í consultation, the distinctive
> approach to non-adversarial group decision making discussed in
> chapter 3, and in data-gathering techniques such as participatory
> surveys and focus groups. Training was also provided in assessment,
> record keeping, and organization. These volunteers then returned to
> their home communities, where they conducted similar training
> sessions at a local level, resulting in a core group of project volunteers
> in each village.
> Working in dose collaboration with the Local Spiritual Assembly in its
> area, each core group interviewed male and female members of the
> wider community about issues pertaining to the role of women and
> then facilitated consultation on the issues that were identified. In a
> typical instance, men and women were asked to list their daily tasks,
> from which it became clearly apparent that the list of women’s duties
> was invariably at least twice as long as that of the men.
> 
> Such survey results became the basis for consultation on their problems
> and needs. Generally, three basic problems emerged: illiteracy among
> women, the mismanagement of family funds by men, and the unfair
> burden of work shouldered by women. Through the consultative
> process the people in the wider community were assisted to devise
> means of stimulating attitudinal change through the use of traditional
> media such as songs, dances, stories and plays, all involving local
> artists and performers. Performances were then presented to the entire
> population of the area at festivals, special evening programs, and other
> community events.
> 
> The significance of the project lies in several factors: It does not rely
> on literacy for conveying its message; it involves both women and men
> in collecting and analyzing information and devising constructive
> measures to produce change; and it addresses at a village level the
> basic problem of unequal distribution of labor among men and women.
> 
> Surveys have shown that this project has achieved spectacular success
> in giving rise to greater participation of women in family and
> community decision making, increased motivation of women and girls
> to seek education, and greater involvement by men in domestic chores
> that were previously left entirely to women.
> 
> A report on the project quotes a female participant as stating,
> 
> At the beginning, the project did not mean anything to me. Later on I
> discovered the advantages of the project. Now I see that my husband,
> who was not helping me before the project, has now changed. We
> work together at home and in the field. My husband helps me more
> now with the housework that before he thought was the sole duty of
> woman. He carries the baby, cleans the dishes and clothes. I also
> learned the importance of children’s education and that it is first my
> responsibility and now I try to take better care of them. I got those
> ideas through songs because through the songs I listened carefully to
> what was being said.325
> 
> A male who was involved in the project indicates,
> 
> Here in the village men and women were not used to working
> together but through the project I was surprised to see that they are
> working hand in hand. I personally have witnessed a change in my
> way of life. Concerning the equality of man and woman I see also
> that there is a change in the attitude of men. Now they consult with
> their wives. And I do the same. Before the project it was very
> difficult to know what women do with their money, but now my wife
> consults with me. I also work with my wife in the same farm, and I
> help with cleaning the house, for example; things I have never done
> before.326
> The success of this project has been so pronounced as to merit its
> extension on a far wider scale. In addition a video titled Two Wings has
> been produced on this project and has been widely circulated as a
> means of attracting greater attention to this approach.327
> 
> Significance of the Examples
> 
> Only a few examples have been discussed in this section, and they will
> doubtless be superseded by other more extensive models of Bahá’í
> social and economic development activity in the near future.
> Nonetheless, they are offered as a means of showing that the Bahá’í
> community exemplifies an evolutionary approach to bringing about
> fundamental changes in attitudes and behaviors, such that they
> progressively accord ever more closely with an ideal, a vision of unity
> and equality that is found in the writings of Bahá’u’lláh and is shared
> by those who identify with His religion. The approach adopted
> illustrates a commitment to fostering change over an extended period
> of time and demonstrates the power of faith as an agent of change. It is
> the spirit of faith that motivates and sustains the participants in the
> ongoing study activities within the Bahá’í community and that
> energizes the social and economic development projects, thus leading
> to the accomplishment of their objectives.
> 
> The several programs of social and economic development we have
> described provide evidence of the power of the Bahá’í Faith, coupled
> with the determination of its followers and its institutions, to bring
> about fundamental social change that can transform traditional
> prejudices and long-held discriminatory attitudes and practices in pans
> of the world where women have been, at best, invisible and, more
> frequently, greatly oppressed.
> 
> Practicing Equality
> 
> Change is an evolutionary process
> requiring patience with one’s self and others
> , loving education and the passage of time
> as the believers deepen their knowledge
> of the principles of the Faith,
> gradually discard long-held traditional attitudes
> and progressively conform their lives
> to the unifying teachings of the Cause
> 
> –The Universal House of Justice
> THE MORAL IMPERATIVE
> 
> It is evident that the Bahá’í Faith occupies a distinctive position among
> the religions of the world in the strength of its commitment to the
> equality of men and women and in the uncompromising integration of
> this principle into the entire body of its teachings, with due allowance
> for the necessary differentiation of functions.
> 
> From a Bahá’í perspective, the purpose of religion is the spiritual
> transformation of human values and behavior on both an individual and
> social level. Consequently, the Bahá’í Faith places great emphasis on
> implementing its teachings, giving special attention to those teachings,
> such as equality of the sexes, that differ from prevailing custom or
> practice.
> 
> Chapters 5 and 6 described efforts made progressively under the
> direction of the Head of the Faith to bring about this implementation
> within the Bahá’í community and also, through example and
> encouragement, in the wider society. The distinguishing characteristics
> of this endeavor are consistency of effort and patience in recognizing
> the magnitude and implications of the attitudinal and behavioral
> changes that are being called for. Bahá’ís freely admit that the process
> is incomplete, as the habits of centuries must be changed, and the
> disruption to traditional practices addressed. Through the Bahá’í
> teachings, both men and women are being assisted to transform the
> most personal aspects of their domestic lives and the most intimate of
> their social relationships. Bahá’ís throughout the world can quite
> properly represent themselves as a community of people who are
> committed, by the explicit precepts of their religion, to the equality of
> men and women, a community of people who are making an earnest
> and sustained endeavor to put this principle into practice. Much has
> been accomplished, and the achievement thus far is most impressive,
> but much more remains to be done.
> 
> The central issue is the emancipation of one-half of the entire human
> race from the restrictions under which it has labored for countless
> centuries. To Bahá’ís this is far more than a matter of social
> amelioration or harmony, and its benefits transcend the release of vastly
> greater energy and capability for the advancement of civilization.
> Rather, Bahá’ís regard the issue as essentially one of morality,
> anchored in belief in the worth of the human soul and the necessity of
> liberating the spirit for the worship of God. Therefore the imperative
> that drives Bahá’ís to the practice of equality is that of their duty to
> their Creator and their eternal quest for spiritual development.
> 
> Here we are concerned with the role of the individual Bahá’í, as a
> member of a local Bahá’í community, in implementing the equality of
> the sexes in his or her daily life. Drawing heavily on earlier chapters,
> we will explore personal applications of the various elements of the
> Bahá’í teachings discussed in those chapters. The approach outlined
> here is essentially an application of the general method prescribed for
> putting into practice all of the principles of the Bahá’í Faith. We will
> first present a general treatment of the implementation of Bahá’í
> teachings, which will provide a suitable framework for focusing on
> applying the principle of the equality of men and women.
> 
> TRANSLATING THE BAHÁ’Í TEACHINGS INTO PRACTICE
> Analysis of the method by which a Bahá’í endeavors to express the
> Bahá’í teachings through personal conduct must take account of the
> essentially spiritual nature of this process. It must also give due
> consideration to the encouragement and reinforcement obtainable
> through constructive interaction with the community.
> 
> The Spiritual Dimension
> 
> Many principles of the Bahá’í Faith, including the oneness of
> humankind, the importance of universal education, the equality of the
> sexes, and the necessity for independent investigation of truth and for
> the eradication of prejudices, are nowadays far from unique to this
> religion. They are generally accepted as valid by that segment of the
> wider population which regards itself as enlightened, liberal, or
> forward-looking. For this reason, in exploring the application of
> Bahá’í teachings in practical behavior, we must address the question of
> what there is within the Bahá’í Faith that provides to its adherents a
> motivational energy for translating the teachings into practice, which
> surpasses that available to those who are not members. The response
> to this question may also be of interest to those who find much they
> consider admirable in the Bahá’í teachings but who have chosen not to
> become members of the religion, believing they can practice its
> teachings as completely without the constraints that appear to be
> inherent in joining an organized religious community.
> 
> Enrollment as a member of the Bahá’í Faith depends on one’s
> acceptance of Bahá’u’lláh’s claim to be the Manifestation of God Who
> has brought a Revelation that represents the Word of God for this
> period in history, which is thus a statement of divine truth. The Bahá’í
> principle of independent investigation of truth requires that such a
> claim not be accepted blindly, but rather that the inquirer be satisfied of
> its validity through examination of the pertinent evidence. The nature
> of this evidence will be different for each person but may well include
> the quality of Bahá’u’lláh’s life, the nature of His teachings, His
> fulfillment of prophetic expectation, or the appropriateness of His
> precepts for the needs of the time. Belief is ultimately a matter of faith,
> which transcends rational analysis but does not contradict it. Hence
> acceptance of Bahá’u’lláh’s claim is not based on blind faith, but
> follows as a consequence of an investigative process in which the
> power of reason usually plays a most valuable role.
> 
> A Bahá’í is motivated to follow the teachings of Bahá’u’lláh because
> of the conviction that they are derived from the Will of God. This
> conviction provides a far stronger motivation than the wish to create a
> society that is more equitable or just, or the desire to secure human
> rights. A believer is impelled to pursue the challenging task of
> translating the Bahá’í teachings into practice from the knowledge that
> they represent the path to spiritual development, to the liberation of the
> human spirit, and to the achievement of a true sense of happiness and
> fulfillment. The Universal House of Justice writes,
> 
> Just as there are laws governing our physical lives, requiring that we
> must supply our bodies with certain foods, maintain them within a
> certain range of temperatures, and so forth, if we wish to avoid physical
> disabilities, so also there are laws governing our spiritual lives. These
> laws are revealed to mankind in each age by the Manifestation of God,
> and obedience to them is of viral importance if each human being, and
> mankind in general, is to develop properly and harmoniously.328
> 
> Such a perspective is crucial in providing the will to persevere, as
> implementation is often difficult, requiring that prejudices be overcome
> and that new patterns of thought, attitude, and practical activity be
> acquired and sustained.
> 
> A survey of the spiritual dimension would be incomplete without
> mention of its most mysterious aspect, the energizing factor described
> in religious literature, and especially in that of the Bahá’í Faith, as the
> power of the Holy Spirit. Modern science recognizes and provides
> some understanding of invisible force fields that act over a distance-for
> example, electromagnetism, gravity, and the forces at work within the
> nucleus of an atom. The Bahá’í writings indicate that the power of the
> Holy Spirit operates within the world of creation. ’Abdu’l-Bahá states,
> “We understand that the Holy Spirit is the energizing factor in the life
> of man.” He also explains, “It is only by the breath of the Holy Spirit
> that spiritual development can come about.” He describes the Holy
> Spirit as that which gives “light and life to the souls of men.”329 From
> these and other passages in the Bahá’í writings it is clear that this
> power provides a source of motivation and energy for putting into
> practice the teachings, far beyond that associated with human power
> alone. Bahá’ís believe that their acceptance of Bahá’u’lláh’s claim to
> be the Manifestation of God for this age, together with their sincere
> endeavors to practice these teachings, gives them access to a fresh
> outpouring of the power of the Holy Spirit. Consciousness of the
> reality and potential of this power is the source of that optimism about
> the ability of human beings to change their attitudes and values which
> characterizes the Bahá’í perspective on the future condition of
> humanity.
> 
> Individual Conduct
> 
> The Bahá’í writings provide clear guidance on the manner in which the
> individual should proceed in the process of transforming personal
> values and conduct, which is the central purpose of the Bahá’í Faith.
> The process begins with an effort to put its teachings into practice. As
> mentioned before, the very act of striving itself attracts the power of
> the Holy Spirit, which reinforces and magnifies the initial effort, no
> matter how puny it may have been. Shoghi Effendi writes, through his
> secretary, that “the very act of striving to serve, however unworthy one
> may feel, attracts the blessings of God and enables one to become more
> fitted for the task.” Shoghi Effendi also writes, through his secretary,
> “The harder you strive to attain your goal, the greater will be the
> confirmations of Bahá’u’lláh, and the more certain you can feel to
> attain success.”330
> 
> The process of personal transformation is essentially cyclic, occurring
> through the constructive interaction between effort and spiritual
> powers. The initial effort attracts energizing power, whose influence
> enables the individual to make a greater effort, thus attracting a larger
> measure of spiritual power and conducing to even greater effort, and so
> on. More detailed scrutiny of the Bahá’í writings indicates that the
> process is somewhat more complicated than set out here, due to such
> factors as tests and setbacks, and the operation of the spiritual and
> material natures in human makeup, but its basic feature is as described.
> 
> For this reason, the individual Bahá’í is enjoined to make a start in the
> implementation process, with full confidence that this beginning will,
> with perseverance, lead to great change in the course of time. The
> intrinsically devotional practices of the Bahá’í teachings-including
> prayer, an annual nineteen-day period of fasting, and reading the sacred
> words of the Manifestation of God daily331-all serve the vital purpose
> of providing the believer with a measure of the spiritual power
> necessary to transform individual conduct. A letter written on behalf of
> the Guardian states,
> 
> the power of God can entirely transmute our characters and make of
> us beings entirely unlike our previous selves. Through prayer and
> supplication, obedience to the divine laws Bahá’u’lláh has revealed,
> and ever-increasing service to His Faith, we can change ourselves.332
> 
> An important component in this process of spiritual growth and
> development is that of a constructive periodic review and assessment.
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá expresses this need in graphical and poetic terms:
> 
> Therefore I say that man must travel in the way of God. Day by day
> he must endeavor to become better, his belief must increase and
> become firmer, his good qualities and his turning to God must be
> greater, the fire of his love must flame more brightly; then day by day
> he will make progress, for to stop advancing is the means of going
> back. The bird when he flies soars ever higher and higher, for as soon
> as he stops flying he will come down. Every day, in the morning
> when arising you should compare today with yesterday and see in
> what condition you are. If you see your belief is stronger and your
> heart more occupied with God and your love increased and your
> freedom from the world greater then thank God and ask for the
> increase of these qualities. You must begin to pray and repent for all
> that you have done that is wrong and you must implore and ask for
> help and assistance that you may become better than yesterday so that
> you may continue to make progress.333
> 
> Such periodic assessment is not confined to a daily cycle. The
> devotional activities of Bahá’í life include the observance, at various
> times in the year, of Bahá’í holy days that commemorate significant
> Bahá’í anniversaries. On nine of these holy days, work is to be
> suspended whenever possible, and it is usual for each Bahá’í
> community to hold devotional meetings on such occasions. These
> special days provide a useful opportunity for all Bahá’ís to interrupt the
> routine of their daily lives and to reflect on their endeavors to progress
> spiritually.
> 
> Another important cyclic event in Bahá’í devotional life is that of the
> nineteen-day period of fasting, from sunrise to sunset, in March every
> year. The significance of this practice is explained by the Guardian in
> a letter written on his behalf in January 1936:
> 
> It is essentially a period of meditation and prayer, of spiritual
> recuperation, during which the believer must strive to make the
> necessary readjustments in his inner life, and to refresh and
> reinvigorate the spiritual forces latent in his soul. Its significance and
> purpose are, therefore, fundamentally spiritual in character. Fasting is
> symbolic, and a reminder of abstinence from selfish and carnal
> desires.334
> 
> There are, of course, hazards associated with the prescription for
> periodic self-assessment. It is a private and intensely personal matter
> in a religion that is devoid of priesthood, confession of sins, or
> ecclesiastical authority. The individual must avoid both the extreme of
> complacent review, which could lead to smug self-satisfaction and
> passivity, and the other extreme, a ruthless and condemnatory selfassessment, which could give rise to self-defeating feelings of
> discouragement and hopelessness.
> 
> Again, the Bahá’í teachings attach great importance to effort, since it
> attracts the reinforcing spiritual powers, the blessings of God. This
> emphasis on effort is highly significant. When the primary value is
> placed on achievement rather than effort, the way is open for
> individuals to conclude that they have attained an exalted state of
> spiritual development and that they are no longer required to exert
> themselves to effect further improvement in their condition; the
> consequence is often arrogance or sanctimoniousness . The emphasis
> on effort offers reassurance and encouragement to those believers who
> mistakenly feel that past irreligious acts render their condition hopeless
> beyond redemption; they may legitimately take comfort in knowing
> that their commitment to effort satisfies the primary Bahá’í needs. This
> does not mean that achievement is unimportant; rather, the emphasis on
> effort is an example of the process orientation of the Bahá’í teachings,
> and of the confidence conveyed in these teachings, that sustained
> effort, reinforced by the power of the Holy Spirit, will succeed in
> effecting transformation.
> 
> The entire range of Bahá’í teachings on personal conduct make up an
> integrated and interdependent whole, and a Bahá’í is naturally
> expected, as a follower of Bahá’u’lláh, to endeavor sincerely to put
> them all into practice without reservation. It would be a logical
> contradiction for a Bahá’í to decide, for example, to defer any attempt
> to practice racial equality until he or she has succeeded in overcoming
> delinquency in other areas of behavior. In like manner no Bahá’í can
> properly decide not to make a commitment to practice the equality of
> the sexes until other aspects of personal behavior have been rectified.
> In this connection it is interesting to read the response given by the
> Guardian in a letter written on his behalf to an individual who was
> apparently inquiring what would be his spiritual condition before God
> if he were to maintain delinquency in one aspect of his behavior, in this
> case sexual misconduct, while striving to follow other aspects of the
> Bahá’í teachings:
> 
> God judges each soul on its own merits. The Guardian cannot tell
> you what the attitude of God would be towards a person who lives a
> good life in most ways, but not in this way. All he can tell you is that
> it is forbidden by Bahá’u’lláh, and that one so afflicted should
> struggle and struggle again to overcome it. We must be hopeful of
> God’s Mercy but not impose upon it.335
> 
> The Bahá’í principles of personal conduct describe the attributes that a
> believer is expected to strive to express in daily life. They do not set
> out precise rules of behavior to be followed in a mechanical and
> inflexible manner. There is room to express individual personality
> differences and cultural diversity, but within the limits prescribed by
> the teachings; racial discrimination or prejudiced behavior coward
> women can never be justified on the basis that they are of a timehonored cultural tradition. Using the Bahá’í teachings as a reference
> standard, a believer will naturally develop powers of good judgment in
> the process of making everyday decisions about personal conduct. In
> response to a request from a Bahá’í for a precise set of regulations to
> cover one aspect of Bahá’í conduct, the Universal House of Justice
> states, in a letter written on its behalf,
> 
> It is neither possible nor desirable for the Universal House of Justice
> to set forth a set of rules covering every situation. Rather it is the task
> of the individual believer to determine, according to his own
> prayerful understanding of the Writings, precisely what his course of
> conduct should be in relation to situations which he encounters in his
> daily life. If he is to fulfil his true mission in life as a follower of the
> Blessed Perfection, he will pattern his life according to the Teachings.
> The believer cannot attain this objective merely by living according to
> a set of rigid regulations. When his life is oriented coward service to
> Bahá’u’lláh, and when every conscious act is performed within this
> frame of reference, he will not fail to achieve the true purpose of his
> life.
> 
> Therefore, every believer must continually study the sacred Writings
> and the instructions of the beloved Guardian, striving always to attain a
> new and better understanding of their import to him and to his society.
> He should pray fervently for Divine Guidance, wisdom and strength to
> do what is pleasing to God, and to serve Him at all times and to the
> best of his ability.336
> 
> Both observation and experience confirm that the endeavor to apply the
> Bahá’í teachings on personal behavior is spiritually and intellectually
> liberating and that it leads to a richness of experience and insight far
> removed from the fettered thinking, narrow outlook, and limited
> experience so often associated with the observance of religious
> precepts in the wider society.
> 
> Interaction with Society
> 
> In contrast to the prevailing view of many religions, the Bahá’í Faith
> does not regard the spiritual development of the individual as
> something that is best accomplished in seclusion. Its prescription for
> spiritual advancement does not call for isolation from the world of
> social intercourse and commerce, nor does it advocate withdrawal to
> remote locations for the purpose of total absorption in devotional
> pursuits.
> 
> Rather, the Bahá’í teachings inform us that the individual can best
> accomplish the goal of personal transformation through involvement in
> human society and through continued interaction which others in a
> community. This view rests on the recognition of the interconnection
> between the external and the internal, the wider social and physical
> environment interacting with the inner spiritual development. Shoghi
> Effendi addresses this fundamental issue in a letter written on his
> behalf, stating,
> We cannot segregate the human heart from the environment outside
> us and say that once one of these is reformed everything will be
> improved. Man is organic with the world.
> 
> His inner life moulds the environment and is itself also deeply affected
> by it. The one acts upon the other and every abiding change in the life
> of man is the result of these mutual reactions.
> 
> No movement in the world directs its attention upon both these aspects
> of human life and has full measures for their improvement, save the
> teachings of Bahá’u’lláh. And this is its distinctive feature. If we
> desire therefore the good of the world we should strive to spread those
> teachings and also practise them in our own life. Through them will
> the human heart be changed, and also our social environment provides
> the atmosphere in which we can grow spiritually and reflect in full the
> light of God shining through the revelation of Bahá’u’lláh.337
> 
> The aim of the Bahá’í teachings is to create conditions under which this
> interaction between individual and society is constructive and mutually
> beneficial, leading simultaneously to individual progression, the
> advance of civilization, the growth of social cohesion, and the best use
> of the physical environment. Indeed the features of this interactive
> relationship provide a useful framework in which to consider the wide
> scope of these teachings and to examine the diverse aspects of Bahá’í
> activity and plans.
> 
> The interdependence of the individual and society is mentioned by the
> Universal House of Justice in reference to personal obedience to the
> laws the Manifestation of God gives to humanity:
> These laws are revealed to mankind in each age by the Manifestation
> of God, and obedience to them is of vital importance if each human
> being, and mankind in general, is to develop properly and
> harmoniously. Moreover, these various aspects are interdependent.
> If an individual violates the spiritual laws for his own development
> he will cause injury not only to himself but to the society in which he
> lives. Similarly, the condition of society has a direct effect on the
> individuals who must live within it.338
> 
> A Bahá’í striving to put the teachings into practice can well expect the
> Bahá’í community to provide a welcoming and accepting environment
> in which each member can initiate attempts to implement behaviors
> that may be novel or socially unpopular, as in the efforts to eradicate
> racial prejudice, to treat minorities with the respect and courtesy due to
> them, and to practice the equality of the sexes. As the community
> matures and develops, it more closely approaches the ideal of
> providing an environment of mutual encouragement in which
> experiences can be shared, the example of others drawn upon, and
> courage and motivation augmented. Responding to a question
> addressed to him, Shoghi Effendi explains in a letter written on his
> behalf that
> 
> The Bahá’í community life provides you with an indispensable
> laboratory, where you can translate into living and constructive action
> the principles which you imbibe from the Teachings. By becoming a
> real part of that living organism you can catch the real spirit which
> runs throughout the Bahá’í Teachings. To study the principles, and to
> try to live according to them, are, therefore, the two essential
> mediums through which you can ensure the development and
> progress of your inner spiritual life and of your outer existence as
> well.339
> 
> No consideration of the approach to be used by the individual in
> putting into practice the Bahá’í teachings on personal conduct is
> complete without addressing this interaction with the community. The
> Bahá’í teachings characterize the community, at its various levels-local,
> national, and international-as an organic unit that is, in the words of the
> Universal House of Justice,
> 
> united in its aspirations, unified in its methods, seeking assistance and
> confirmation from the same Source, and illumined with the conscious
> knowledge of its unity. Therefore, in this organic, divinely guided,
> blessed and illumined body the participation of every believer is of
> the utmost importance, and is a source of power and vitality as yet
> unknown to us.340
> 
> The formula for progressively attaining this glorious condition is
> provided by the Universal House of Justice:
> 
> . . . the friends should love each other, constantly encourage each
> other, work together, be as one soul in one body, and in so doing
> become a true, organic, healthy body animated and illumined by the
> spirit. In such a body all will receive spiritual health and vitality from
> the organism itself, and the most perfect flowers and fruits will be
> brought forth.341
> In a growing Bahá’í community that seeks to welcome into its midst
> people at all stages of development, there will arise occasionally
> flagrant examples of individual malfunctioning and failure to follow
> the Bahá’í teachings. A religion such as the Bahá’í Faith, which places
> its primary emphasis on effort, which is oriented to process and to
> evolutionary change, and which is founded on a realistic perspective of
> the complexities of human nature, regards as natural the struggle to
> accomplish spiritual objectives and the shortcomings that occur in the
> course of this endeavor.
> 
> The response of a Bahá’í to the awareness that a fellow believer
> appears to be failing to make a reasonable effort to follow the teachings
> must always be devoid of backbiting. The Guardian states in a letter
> written on his behalf that
> 
> . . . one of the first essentials insisted on by Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá is that we resist the natural tendency to let our attention dwell
> on the faults and failings of others rather than on our own. Each of us
> is responsible for one life only, and that is our own. Each of us is
> immeasurably far from being “perfect as our heavenly father is
> perfect” and the task of perfecting our own life and character is one
> that requires all our attention, our will-power and energy. . . .
> 
> On no subject are the Bahá’í teachings more emphatic than on the
> necessity to abstain from faultfinding and backbiting while being ever
> eager to discover and root out our own faults and overcome our own
> failings.342
> In many instances, a Bahá’í should endeavor not to dwell on the
> apparent inadequacy of the behavior of fellow believers, much less
> become preoccupied with it. One should strive to follow the
> Guardian’s admonition, in a letter written on his behalf, that “The
> greater the patience, the loving understanding and the forbearance the
> believers show towards each other and their shortcomings, the greater
> will be the progress of the whole Bahá’í Community at large.”343 This
> calls for a nonjudgmental and uncensorious attitude animated by a
> recognition that we are all children of God, striving to overcome
> attitudes and behaviors acquired in the past that are inconsistent with
> the Bahá’í teachings. We can very often best assist others through the
> power of personal example, when it is presented without a sense of
> superiority, and through prayer for ourselves and others proceeding
> along the stony path of spiritual development.
> 
> Magnanimity is required when a Bahá’í detects in other believers
> attitudes that cause concern, such as unconscious prejudice or subtle
> discrimination. To preserve the unity of the community so that it can
> continue to attract spiritual powers generally mandates a response of
> forbearance and charity when it is clear that the offending behavior is
> unintentional and is not motivated by disdain for the precepts of the
> Faith.
> 
> In some instances, close friendship and good rapport may allow a
> believer to draw to the attention of another Bahá’í, in a tactful and
> discreet manner, the need or opportunity for further development
> through modification of a specific aspect of behavior, provided this can
> be done without conveying the impression of prying into another’s
> private affairs or of presuming to tell others how they should conduct
> their lives. It may be possible, sometimes, to draw attention to relevant
> Bahá’í principles in a general community discussion in the hope that
> the individual who is apparently in need will be reminded and thus
> impelled toward renewed endeavor; here, also, wisdom, sensitivity, and
> purity of motive are needed to avoid remarks that are so pointed as to
> make evident the target to which they are being directed.
> 
> There remain instances in which the range of responses set out above is
> inadequate. A believer’s conduct may appear to be a blatant and
> flagrant violation of explicit Bahá’í teachings, which is inimical to the
> welfare and best interests of the Faith or which adversely affects the
> reputation of the Bahá’í community in the larger society. Another
> instance is when a Bahá’í experiences unwarranted distress because of
> the manner in which he or she is being treated by another Bahá’í,
> perhaps through intentional belittling or discrimination or because of
> some other moral or ethical delinquency. In such cases the avenue for
> rectifying the situation is for the believer troubled by the misconduct to
> take the matter to the Spiritual Assembly, motivated by a desire to
> protect the welfare of the community or to seek justice from that Bahá’í
> institution charged with the responsibility to maintain and safeguard
> justice . This action should not be misconstrued as backbiting, because
> it is a report made to an institution of the Faith and is not disseminated
> among the rank and file of the community. It is not an affront to the
> unity of the Bahá’í community but is, on the contrary, a measure taken
> to preserve that unity; in the Bahá’í teachings, unity rests on the strong
> foundation of adherence to principle and not on the shifting sands of
> compromise and pretense. A Spiritual Assembly also has the function
> of intervening when a believer appears not to be making a sincere
> effort to conform to the Bahá’í standard of conduct and is having a
> harmful effect on others.
> 
> APPLYING THE PRINCIPLE OF EQUALITY OF THE SEXES
> 
> A sustained endeavor by all Bahá’ís is necessary for the expression in
> practice of the principle of the equality of the sexes. In addition efforts
> are needed to incorporate fully the practice of this principle in marriage
> and family relationships and in Bahá’í community functioning.
> 
> At the Individual Level
> 
> Earlier chapters of this book emphasize the great importance attached
> to the application in daily life of the principle of the equality of the
> sexes, as well as the progressive measures undertaken by the Head of
> the Faith to bring about this implementation. The approach to be used
> at the individual level to achieve this objective is summarized in the
> following passage written on behalf of the Universal House of Justice:
> 
> The principle of the equality between women and men, like the other
> teachings of the Faith, can be effectively and universally established
> among the friends when it is pursued in conjunction with all the other
> aspects of Bahá’í life. Change is an evolutionary process requiring
> patience with one’s self and others, loving education and the passage of
> time as the believers deepen their knowledge of the principles of the
> Faith, gradually discard long-held traditional attitudes and
> progressively conform their lives to the unifying teachings of the
> Cause.344
> The approach to be adopted by the individual can well be viewed
> within the general framework set out above, and the considerations
> discussed there are as applicable to this principle of the Faith as to any
> other Bahá’í precept.
> 
> As mentioned earlier, an important feature of individual effort
> 
> is the periodic review of one’s actions and attitudes. In their efforts to
> implement the principle of equality of the sexes, both men and
> women must strive to accomplish this objective, and both should
> carry out this periodic review. In so doing they could well examine
> whether they have unconsciously adopted prejudices that are
> prevalent in the larger society, reflecting attitudes derived from the
> past and taken for granted. Stereotypic thinking based on
> unwarranted generalizations about women and about men should be
> carefully identified and progressively eliminated, while recognizing
> that the equality expressed in the Bahá’í teachings accommodates the
> inherent physiological differences between men and women and some
> appropriate differentiations of function. Periodic self-assessment
> should not exclude habits of speech and conduct unwittingly derived
> from attitudes of inequality that may have become part of one’s
> behavior. Particular attention should be given to the use of humor;
> while it does have a legitimate, and indeed valuable, role in social
> intercourse, it can also inflict humiliation or wounds when used
> inappropriately or unthinkingly.
> 
> A regrettable feature of the quest for equality of the sexes in the larger
> society has been the argumentation and contention that have at times
> arisen between men and women, leading to a polarization of attitudes
> and mutual recrimination. It is essential that Bahá’í men and women
> exercise restraint to prevent such destructive attitudes from entering
> Bahá’í discourse. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá asserts, “Divine Justice demands that
> the rights of both sexes should be equally respected since neither is
> superior to the other in the eyes of Heaven. Dignity before God
> depends, not on sex, but on purity and luminosity of heart. Human
> virtues belong equally to all!” In His advice to some Bahá’í women,
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá writes, “I appeal to you to obliterate this contention
> between men and women,” while He also warns that “the assumption
> of superiority by man will continue to be depressing to the ambition of
> woman, as if her attainment to equality was creationally impossible;
> woman’s aspiration toward advancement will be checked by it, and she
> will gradually become hopeless.”345
> 
> During a period when the suffragette movement was creating agitation
> in England, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá stated that “Demonstrations of force, such as
> are now taking place in England, are neither becoming nor effective in
> the cause of womanhood and equality.” However, He also pointed out
> that “When men own the equality of women there will be no need for
> them to struggle for their rights!”346
> 
> The Bahá’í Faith looks with respect and appreciation at the cultural
> diversity of humankind and does not seek to establish the dominance of
> any particular culture, much less to create a sterile uniformity of
> cultural expression. It is, nonetheless, unyielding in asserting that
> cultural traditions that contradict fundamental Bahá’í principles such as
> the equality of the sexes must give way to the Bahá’í teachings, which
> are accepted by the followers of Bahá’u’lláh as the Message of God for
> this time in history. Thus the Universal House of Justice, in a letter to
> the Bahá’í in the Pacific region, states,
> 
> In many of the nations of your area, women have traditionally been
> restricted to a secondary role in the life of society. We call upon the
> Bahá’í women of these countries, assured of the support and
> encouragement of all elements of the Bahá’í community, to
> demonstrate the transforming power of this Revelation by their
> courage and initiative in the teaching work and their full participation
> in the administrative activities of the Faith.347
> 
> The Bahá’ís of the Indian subcontinent are addressed in these terms:
> 
> . . . we call upon you to give special . attention to the advancement of
> women. In almost all of your region, women have traditionally played
> a secondary role in the life of society, a condition which is still
> reflected in many Bahá’í communities. Effective measures have to be
> adopted to help women take their rightful place in the teaching and
> administrative fields.348
> 
> It would be a distortion of the Bahá’í teachings for either men or
> women to regard the achievement of equality as a matter of concern
> only to the members of the opposite sex rather than a need calling for
> sustained cooperative action on the part of both sexes. Encouragement
> plays an important role; the Universal House of Justice, in a 1979
> message to the Bahá’ís of the world, calls for “the encouragement of
> Bahá’í women to exercise to the full their privileges and
> responsibilities in the work of the community,” while a similar message
> in 1984 reiterates that “Bahá’í women and girls must be encouraged to
> take part in the social, spiritual and administrative activities of their
> communities.”349 Clearly, such encouragement can only be effective if
> it is sincere and springs from genuine conviction; a mechanical recital
> of positive statements will have little effect. The peerless example of
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá provides both an inspiration and a model to those who
> wish to encourage women in their development.
> 
> Not only should men commit themselves to encouraging women in
> their aspirations and exertions, but so also should women receive
> encouragement from other women, most especially from those who
> have been successful in their endeavors. The enlarged context within
> which ‘Abdu’l-Bahá sets the principle of equality of men and women
> provides a useful basis from which a genuine commitment to the
> encouragement of women can be derived. Of particular significance
> are His statements affirming that the full development of men cannot
> be accomplished without the full development of women, and that this
> mutual development is a prerequisite for happiness in the world. It is
> also apparent that He was well aware how great must be the effort
> made by women to achieve that level of development consistent with
> the expression of equality, and that He summoned women to arise and
> make the necessary exertions and to strive to overcome their fears and
> apprehensions in the process.
> 
> Within Marriage and Family
> 
> No more dramatic demonstration of the transformation wrought by the
> Bahá’í teachings can be found than in the creation of Bahá’í marriage
> and family relationships that illustrate the equality of the sexes. The
> expression of equality in these most personal of human relationships
> with a marriage partner who is fully familiar with one’s true feelings,
> attitudes, and values sets Bahá’í practice apart from the superficial
> assertions of equality that prevail in the larger society and which reduce
> to hypocrisy when subject to scrutiny in the domestic setting.
> 
> We have in earlier chapters surveyed the Bahá’í teachings on marriage
> and family relationships and described the pertinent Bahá’í laws. The
> challenge to every Bahá’í married couple is to apply these teachings to
> create a marriage in which equality is expressed. The magnitude of
> this task should not be underestimated, for it requires the development
> of a relationship far different from that found in any existing religious
> or cultural tradition, all of which are derived from the inequality of
> ages past. Meeting the challenge requires scrutiny of behavioral
> patterns that might otherwise be taken for granted and entails mutual
> encouragement and support in gradually adopting new modes of
> conduct.
> 
> Central to the endeavor to create such a marriage are the statements in
> the Bahá’í writings about consultative decision making in which
> neither husband nor wife has a dominant role. This is even more
> important with couples who have wide differences in knowledge,
> experience, education, or stature in the wider society. The call to avoid
> domination does not preclude according due weight to the expertise
> one partner may have on a particular subject, but requires mutual
> respect and consideration as well as the avoidance of such destructive
> practices as the use of psychological pressure, subtle forms of
> humiliation, or statements that might lower the self-esteem and selfconfidence of one’s spouse.
> 
> The Bahá’í teachings exclude a rigid definition of sex roles, although
> certain primary responsibilities are assigned. Personal circumstances
> and time constraints due to employment, study, health, or interests will
> determine the extent to which each marriage partner participates in
> domestic duties within the home and in the activities of the external
> society. Such matters should be determined through consultation so
> that neither partner feels as if he or she has been treated unfairly; this
> also paves the way for varying arrangements as circumstances change.
> It is important that there not be introduced into the initial phase of this
> consultation any constraints that have no basis in the Bahá’í teachings,
> such as the restriction of women to being occupied only with domestic
> functions, which is contrary to the authoritative texts of the Faith. A
> letter written on behalf of the Universal House of Justice states in
> response to a question, “. . . the decision concerning the amount of time
> a mother may spend in working outside the home depends on
> circumstances existing within the home, which may vary from time to
> time. Family consultation will help to provide the answers. . . ”350
> Likewise the Bahá’í teachings place no constraint on the participation
> of men in the performance of domestic functions as conditions dictate;
> mention has been made of the words of Bahíyyih Khánum about
> Bahá’u’lláh Himself helping Navváb with cooking and other domestic
> duties, and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s involvement in even the most mundane
> aspects of work in the home is well documented.
> Even more important than the actual division of work in the marriage is
> the value attached to the functions performed within the home, which
> have traditionally been dismissed as requiring minimal skills and
> having negligible status. In stark contrast to such attitudes, the
> Universal House of Justice writes, in a letter prepared on its behalf in
> response to a question about the Bahá’í admonition that all must
> perform useful work in society, “Homemaking is a highly honourable
> and responsible work of fundamental importance for mankind . . . ”351
> Bahá’ís must necessarily strive to conform their own perspective on
> domestic work to that of the Faith, thus acquiring a heightened
> appreciation of the complex functions of management, resource
> allocation, counseling, and forward planning that are typically part of
> present-day homemaking.
> 
> Avital feature of the practice of equality of the sexes within the family
> is the restoration of motherhood to a position of honor and respect, as
> described in chapter 3, where we explored the relationship of the
> practice of such equality in the family setting to the attainment of
> peace.
> 
> A statement prepared in 1997 by the National Spiritual Assembly of
> the Bahá’ís of the United States draws attention to the implications of
> such an appreciation for motherhood:
> 
> Reverence for, and protection of, motherhood have often been used as
> justification for keeping women socially and economically
> disadvantaged. It is this discriminatory and injurious result that must
> change. Great honor and nobility are rightly conferred on the station
> of motherhood and the importance of training children. Addressing
> the high station of motherhood, the Bahá’í Writings state, “O ye
> loving mothers, know ye that in God’s sight, the best of all ways to
> worship Him is to educate the children and train them in all the
> perfections of humankind. . . ” The great challenge facing society is
> to make social and economic provisions for the full and equal
> participation of women in all aspects of life while simultaneously
> reinforcing the critical functions of motherhood.352
> 
> As society moves gradually toward accomplishing this change in
> attitudes toward motherhood, it is important to avoid building an
> adversarial relationship between those mothers who choose to devote
> themselves fully to bringing up their children and those who, for
> various reasons, seek part-time or full-time remunerative employment
> outside the home.
> 
> In a Bahá’í family that is striving to implement the equality of the
> sexes, the nature of the children’s education, both informal and formal,
> requires attention and monitoring. This process of implementation is
> necessarily progressive, occurring over an extended period of many
> generations; however, rapid progress can be made in a single
> generation by taking measures to prevent inadvertently transmitting
> harmful attitudes to the new generation. Both fathers and mothers
> should take care that their sons do not adopt an attitude of superiority
> toward females; such an attitude may well result, for example, if the
> sons are given privileges, attention, and praise much greater than that
> accorded to the daughters, or if the girls are trained to defer always to
> their brothers. Parents should also ensure that their daughters’
> legitimate aspirations are encouraged and that their desire for education
> and for accomplishment in the arts, crafts, and sciences is fostered
> when suitable opportunities are available. Adherence to the Bahá’í
> principle that, when circumstances restrict the accessibility of
> educational resources, priority be given to girls, will do much to bring
> about progress and enlightenment over time.
> 
> Within the Community
> 
> The constructive interaction that takes place between the individual and
> the Bahá’í community as the principles of the Faith are implemented
> has been discussed above. The measure of support to be provided by
> the community regarding the equality of the sexes is found in a 1975
> message of the Universal House of Justice to all National Spiritual
> Assemblies that states, “. . . the entire Bahá’í world is committed to
> encouraging and stimulating the vital role of women in the Bahá’í
> community as well as in society at large. . . .” So unequivocal a
> statement can well be regarded as a reiteration of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s
> categoric pronouncement that “The members of the Spiritual Assembly
> should do all they can to provide encouragement to the women
> believers.”353 There are many ways in which the Bahá’í community
> can fulfill this aspect of its functions. Clearly, much will depend on the
> particular needs and circumstances in each region of the world, but it is
> possible to identify some generally applicable lines of action.
> 
> The study programs that form part of Bahá’í community life are
> enriched if the range of topics studied incorporates exploration of the
> application in daily life of the principle of the equality of men and
> women. Such courses are enhanced by including within their compass
> the study of the lives of Bahá’í women who have performed heroic
> services to the Faith and whose courage, indomitable faith, and strength
> of will enabled them to overcome whatever barriers they encountered.
> 
> The Spiritual Assembly can render an important service by monitoring
> the conduct and characteristics of its community to determine what
> actions will advance the process of implementing the equality of the
> sexes. le may find that encouragement should be given to help change
> attitudes that are detrimental to the pursuit of equality. Positive
> measures may be required to prevent the women of the community
> from being relegated to no more than a stereotypic role in community
> affairs; the Assembly would be well advised to actively seek ways to
> create new opportunities for women to acquire experience in diverse
> aspects of community activity and to allow women to demonstrate their
> capabilities. In designating its representatives on public occasions, in
> selecting the members of its committees, and in encouraging universal
> participation in Nineteen Day Feast consultation, the Spiritual
> Assembly can make a distinctive contribution to the development of
> human resources in the community and to the advancement of women.
> 
> The Spiritual Assembly can also be a most useful source of advice and
> encouragement to Bahá’í women in their endeavors to discharge their
> responsibilities in teaching the Faith to others. As ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states,
> 
> Women must make the greatest effort to acquire spiritual power and
> to increase in the virtue of wisdom and holiness until their
> enlightenment and striving succeeds in bringing about the unity of
> mankind. They must work with a burning enthusiasm to spread the
> Teaching of Bahá’u’lláh among the peoples, so that the radiant light
> of the Divine Bounty may envelop the souls of all the nations of the
> world!354
> 
> Since the mother is specified to be the first educator of the child, the
> role of the Spiritual Assembly includes providing whatever assistance
> is needed to carry out this essential function. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá writes,
> 
> It is incumbent upon the Spiritual Assemblies to provide the mothers
> with a well-planned program for the education of children, showing
> how, from infancy, the child must be watched over and taught. These
> instructions must be given to every mother to serve her as a guide, so
> that each will train and nurture her children in accordance with the
> Teachings.355
> 
> Involving women in this primary educative role provides a useful
> springboard from which to foster a greater involvement of women in a
> wider range of developmental activities. A letter written on its behalf
> conveys the guidance that “The House of Justice regards the need to
> educate and guide women in their primary responsibility as mothers as
> an excellent opportunity for organizing women’s activities. Your
> efforts should focus on helping them in their function as educators of
> the rising generation . . . .” 356
> 
> The importance of the education of women and girls has already been
> discussed in chapter 2. The Spiritual Assembly can, when necessary,
> provide encouragement to Bahá’í parents to see that their daughters are
> educated and can assist them in identifying resources that will aid the
> process. In some instances, the required action may be the provision of
> basic literacy classes to those in need, including adult women who
> were deprived of opportunities when they were girls.
> 
> By means such as those identified here, the organic life of the Bahá’í
> community is strengthened, its distinctive character is clarified, and
> progress toward its goal is accelerated.
> 
> FACING THE FUTURE WITH CONFIDENCE
> 
> The exploration of the equality of the sexes presented in this book
> emphasizes the spiritual equality of men and women, which has been
> an unchanging feature of every revealed religion in the history of
> humanity. Because of the circumstances in the past, including the
> nature of society in which physical force and warfare played so
> dominant a role, it was not possible for women to obtain social equality
> in status, freedom, and opportunities. The situation was greatly
> complicated by the departure of the religions of the past from the purity
> of their original teachings and by the consequent oppressive conditions
> which very often denied women the spiritual equality to which they
> were entitled.
> 
> The vast process of social evolution, occurring over thousands of years,
> has now reached its climax with the inauguration of a new period in
> history that is to be distinguished by justice, unity, and freedom. An
> essential feature of this new period is the attainment and perpetuation
> of the equality of the sexes in all of its aspects. The Bahá’í Faith
> provides the spiritual impulse designed to bring about the
> transformation of values and attitudes together with the consequent
> new forms of individual and social behavior that will reinforce and
> sustain this evolutionary process.
> 
> Such a fundamental change in the nature of human life and
> relationships cannot be accomplished instantaneously, especially if it is
> to endure and become an established part of the world of the future.
> The chapters of this book devoted to implementation of the principle
> of the equality of the sexes show how its implications have
> progressively been clarified and applied during the several decades of
> the Bahá’í Faith. It is clearly recognized that progressive application
> carries with it the danger of procrastination or unwarranted deferral,
> which are avoided in the Bahá’í Faith because of its cohesive
> organization under the guidance of a central head, the Universal House
> of Justice, to which all Bahá’ís must turn.
> 
> Adherents of this religion are required, as a matter of belief, to commit
> themselves to accepting all of the principles ordained by Bahá’u’lláh,
> including that of the equality of men and women. This begins a lifelong
> process of implementation, which is carried out in a mutually
> reinforcing manner at individual, family, and community levels. The
> record of Bahá’í achievement shows continuing progress toward the
> ideal, together with a steady increase in the influence in the wider
> society both of Bahá’í example and of the advice on social
> development and progress offered by Bahá’í institutions.
> 
> Those who are familiar with the record of religious practice in past
> ages might well inquire whether the Bahá’í Faith is doomed to suffer a
> similar fate of deviation from its initial values with the passage of time.
> Upon what basis can Bahá’ís assert that the purity and integrity of their
> religious teachings, including that of the equality of the sexes, will not
> be compromised in the course of decades and centuries? How can they
> be sure that the denial of freedom and human rights for women will not
> reemerge? The answers to these questions are to be found in the
> explicit provisions of the Bahá’í teachings–which have neither
> precedent nor parallel in any other religion–pertaining to the Covenant
> by which the authority, unity, and purity of the teachings are preserved.
> In the clarity and comprehensiveness of its provisions and their
> unambiguous derivation from explicit statements of Bahá’u’lláh is to
> be found the ironclad guarantee needed for Bahá’ís to feel fully
> confident about the future of this religious community and its
> principles.
> 
> Because of this Covenant, progressive implementation can be
> permitted without fear that practice will be frozen at an intermediate
> stage short of total fulfillment. The Covenant is the basis for the
> inversion of past historical practice; here, the successive generations
> are more able to free themselves from the unconsciously acquired
> attitudes and practices of the wider society, and so they more closely
> approach the Bahá’í ideal, which the Covenant protects from
> corruption or compromise. The preservation of the invariant standard
> of the Bahá’í teachings also provides freedom for diversity of
> expression within the boundaries imposed by the principles of the
> Faith.
> 
> By virtue of these considerations Bahá’ís face the future with
> unshakable confidence. Much remains to be done to complete the
> God-given task of establishing the equality of the sexes. But there is,
> to Bahá’ís, no doubt that it will be accomplished and that the aims of
> the Bahá’í community will be fully realized. The Universal House of
> Justice assures the members of the Bahá’í Faith that “. . . the Covenant
> of Bahá’u’lláh will aid them and the institutions of His World Order to
> see the realization of every principle ordained by His unerring Pen,
> including the equality of men and women, as expounded in the
> Writings of the Cause.” 357
> Appendix
> 
> TWO WINGS OF A BIRD: THE EQUALITY OF WOMEN
> AND MEN
> 
> A STATEMENT ISSUED
> BY THE NATIONAL SPIRITUAL ASSEMBLY
> OF THE BAHÁ’ÍS OF THE UNITED STATES
> 
> The emancipation of women, the achievement of full equality between
> the sexes, “is essential to human progress and the transformation of
> society. Inequality retards not only the advancement of women but the
> progress of civilization itself The persistent denial of equality to onehalf of the world’s population is an affront to human dignity. It
> promotes destructive attitudes and habits in men and women that pass
> from the family to the workplace, to political life, and, ultimately, to
> international relations. On no grounds, moral, biological, or traditional,
> can inequality be justified. The moral and psychological climate
> necessary to enable our nation to establish social justice and to
> contribute to global peace will be created only when women attain full
> partnership with men in all fields of endeavor.358
> 
> The systematic oppression of women is a conspicuous and tragic fact
> of history. Restricted to narrow spheres of activity in the life of
> society, denied educational opportunities and basic human rights,
> subjected to violence, and frequently treated as less than human,
> women have been prevented from realizing their true potential. Ageold patterns of subordination, reflected in popular culture, literature and
> art, law, and even religious scriptures, continue to pervade every aspect
> of life. Despite the advancement of political and civil rights for women
> in America and the widespread acceptance of equality in principle, full
> equality has not been achieved.
> 
> The damaging effects of gender prejudice are a fault line beneath the
> foundation of our national life. The gains for women rest uneasily on
> unchanged, often unexamined, inherited assumptions. Much remains
> to be done. The achievement of full equality requires a new
> understanding of who we are, what is our purpose in life, and how we
> relate to one another-an understanding that will compel us to reshape
> our lives and thereby our society.
> 
> At no time since the founding of the women’s rights movement in
> America has the need to focus on this issue been greater. We stand at
> the threshold of a new century and a new millennium. Their challenges
> are already upon us, influencing our families, our lifestyles, our nation,
> our world. In the process of human evolution, the ages of infancy and
> childhood are past. The turbulence of adolescence is slowly and
> painfully preparing us for the age of maturity, when prejudice and
> exploitation will be abolished and unity established. The elements
> necessary to unify peoples and nations are precisely those needed to
> bring about equality of the sexes and to improve the relationships
> between women and men. The effort to overcome the history of
> inequality requires the full participation of every man, woman, youth,
> and child.
> Over a century ago, for the first time in religious history, Bahá’u’lláh,
> the Founder of the Bahá’í Faith, in announcing God’s purpose for the
> age, proclaimed the principle of the equality of women and men,
> saying: “Women and men have been and will always be equal in the
> sight of God.”359 The establishment of equal rights and privileges for
> women and men, Bahá’u’lláh says, is a precondition for the attainment
> of a wider unity that will ensure the well-being and security of all
> peoples. The Bahá’í Writings state emphatically that, “When all
> mankind shall receive the same opportunity of education and the
> equality of men and women be realized, the foundations of war will be
> utterly destroyed.”360
> 
> Thus the Bahá’í vision of equality between the sexes rests on the
> central spiritual principle of the oneness of humankind. The principle
> of oneness requires that we “regard humanity as a single individual,
> and one’s own self as a member of that corporeal form,” and that we
> foster an unshakable consciousness that, “if pain or injury afflicts any
> member of that body, it must inevitably result in suffering for all the
> rest.”361
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh teaches that the divine purpose of creation is the
> achievement of unity among all peoples:
> 
> Know ye not why We created you all from the same dust? That no one
> should exalt himself over the other. Ponder at all times in your hearts
> how ye were created. Since We have created you all from one same
> substance it is incumbent on you to be even as one soul, to walk with
> the same feet, eat with the same mouth and dwell in the same land, that
> from your inmost being, by your deeds and actions, the signs of
> oneness and the essence of detachment may be made manifest.362
> 
> The full and equal participation of women in all spheres of life is
> essential to social and economic development, the abolition of war, and
> the ultimate establishment of a united world. In the Bahá’í Scriptures
> the equality of the sexes is a cornerstone of God’s plan for human
> development and prosperity:
> 
> The world of humanity is possessed of two wings: the male and the
> female. So long as these two wings are not equivalent in strength, the
> bird will not fly. Until womankind reaches the same degree as man,
> until she enjoys the same arena of activity, extraordinary attainment for
> humanity will not be realized; humanity cannot wing its way to heights
> of real attainment. When the two wings . . . become equivalent in
> strength, enjoying the same prerogatives, the flight of man will be
> exceedingly lofty and extraordinary.363
> 
> The Bahá’í Writings state that to proclaim equality is not to deny that
> differences in function between women and men exist but rather to
> affirm the complementary roles men and women fulfill in the home and
> society at large. Stating that the acquisition of knowledge serves as a
> “ladder for [human] ascent,” Bahá’u’lláh prescribes identical education
> for women and men but stipulates that, when resources are limited, first
> priority should be given to the education of women and girls.364 The
> education of girls is particularly important because, although both
> parents have responsibilities for the rearing of children, it is through
> educated mothers that the benefits of knowledge can be most
> effectively diffused throughout society.
> Reverence for, and protection of, motherhood have often been used as
> justification for keeping women socially and economically
> disadvantaged. It is this discriminatory and injurious result that must
> change. Great honor and nobility are rightly conferred on the station of
> motherhood and the importance of training children. Addressing the
> high station of motherhood, the Bahá’í Writings state, “O ye loving
> mothers, know ye that in God’s sight, the best of all ways to worship
> Him is to educate the children and train them in all the perfections of
> humankind. . . .”365 The great challenge facing society is to make
> social and economic provisions for the full and equal participation of
> women in all aspects of life while simultaneously reinforcing the
> critical functions of motherhood.
> 
> Asserting that women and men share similar “station and rank” and
> “are equally the recipients of powers and endowments from God,” the
> Bahá’í teachings offer a model of equality based on the concept of
> partnership.366 Only when women become full participants in all
> domains of life and enter the important arenas of decision-making will
> humanity be prepared to embark on the next stage of its collective
> development.
> 
> Bahá’í Scripture emphatically states that women will be the greatest
> factor in establishing universal peace and international arbitration. “So
> it will come to pass that when women participate fully and equally in
> the affairs of the world, when they enter confidently and capably the
> great arena of laws and politics, war will cease; for woman will be the
> obstacle and hindrance to it.”367
> The elimination of discrimination against women is a spiritual and
> moral imperative that must ultimately reshape existing legal, economic,
> and social arrangements. Promoting the entry of greater numbers of
> women into positions of prominence and authority is a necessary but
> not sufficient seep in creating a just social order. Without fundamental
> changes in the attitudes and values of individuals and in the underlying
> ethos of social institutions full equality between women and men
> cannot be achieved. A community based on partnership, a community
> in which aggression and the use of force are supplanted by cooperation
> and consultation, requires the transformation of the human heart.
> 
> The world in the past has been ruled by force, and man has dominated
> over woman by reason of his more forceful and aggressive qualities
> both of body and mind. But the balance is already shifting; force is
> losing its dominance, and mental alertness, intuition, and the spiritual
> qualities of love and service, in which woman is strong, are gaining
> ascendancy. Hence the new age will be an age less masculine and
> more permeated with the feminine ideals . . . an age in which the
> masculine and feminine elements of civilization will be more evenly
> balanced.368
> 
> Men have an inescapable duty to promote the equality of women. The
> presumption of superiority by men thwarts the ambition of women and
> inhibits the creation of an environment: in which equality may reign.
> The destructive effects of inequality prevent men from maturing and
> developing the qualities necessary to meet the challenges of the new
> millennium. ‘‘As long as women are prevented from attaining their
> highest possibilities,” the Bahá’í Writings state, “so long will men be
> unable to achieve the greatness which might be theirs.”369 It is essential
> that men engage in a careful, deliberate examination of attitudes,
> feelings, and behavior deeply rooted in cultural habit that block the
> equal participation of women and stifle the growth of men. The
> willingness of men to take responsibility for equality will create an
> optimum environment for progress: “When men own the equality of
> women there will be no need for them to struggle for their rights!”370
> 
> The long-standing and deeply rooted condition of inequality must be
> eliminated. To overcome such a condition requires the exercise of
> nothing short of “genuine love, extreme patience, true humility,
> consummate tact, sound initiative, mature wisdom, and deliberate,
> persistent, and prayerful effort.”371 Ultimately, Bahá’u’lláh promises, a
> day will come when men will welcome women in all aspects of life.
> Now is the time to move decisively toward that promised future.
> Bibliography
> 
> AUTHORITATIVE BAHÁ’Í TEXTS
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh. The Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book. Pocketsize ed. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1993.
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi, and Bahíyyih
> Khánum. Bahíyyih Khánum: The Greatest Holy Leaf. Compiled
> by the Research Department at the Bahá’í World Centre. Haifa:
> Bahá’í World Centre, 1982.
> 
> Messages from the Universal House of Justice, 1963-1986: The
> Third Epoch of the Formative Age. Compiled by Geoffrey W.
> Marks. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1996. Sections
> 145, 166, 197, 203, 272, 291, 342, 364, 389, 398, 401, 402, 407,
> 448, 455.
> 
> The Universal House of Justice. Preserving Bahá’í Marriages: A
> Memorandum and Compilation. Thornhill, Ont.: Bahá’í Canada
> Publications, 1991.
> 
> The Universal House of Justice. The Promise of World Peace: To
> the Peoples of the World. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust,
> 1985.
> 
> OTHER WORKS
> 
> Arbáb, Furúgh. Akhtarán-i-Tábán. New Delhi: Mir’át
> Publications, 1990.
> Bahá’í International Community Office of Public Information. The
> Prosperity of Humankind. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust,
> 1995.
> 
> Bahá’í International Community. Turning Point For All Nations:
> A Statement of the Bahá’í International Community on the
> Occasion of the 50th Anniversary of the United Nations. New York:
> Bahá’í International Community, 1995.
> 
> The Greatness Which Might Be Theirs. New York: Bahá’í
> International Community Office for the Advancement of Women,
> 1995.
> 
> Balyuzi, H. M. Khadíjih Bagum: The Wife of the Báb. Oxford:
> George Ronald, 1981.
> 
> Blomfield, Lady (Sitárih Khánum). The Chosen Highway.
> Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, n. d.; repr. 1975.
> 
> Boyles, Ann. “Towards the Goal of Full Equality: 150 Years of the
> Advancement of Women,” in The Bahá’í World, 1993-1994.
> Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1994. pp. 237-76.
> 
> Bramson-Lerche, Loni. “An Element of Divine Justice, the Bahá’í
> Principle of the Equality of women and Men,” in Charles O.
> Lerche (ed.). Towards the Most Great Justice. London: Bahá’í
> Publishing Trust, 1996. pp. 75-112.
> 
> Ellis, Wilma. Women, Peacemakers, Reformers, Leaders. Mona
> Vale: Bahá’í Publications Australia, 1997.
> Faizi, ‘Abu’l-Qásim. Milly, A Tribute to the Hand of the Cause of
> God Amelia E. Collins. Oxford: George Ronald, 1977.
> 
> Garis, M. R. Martha Root: Lioness at the Threshold. Wilmette,
> Ill: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1983.
> 
> Ghaznavi, Agnes. The Family Repairs and Maintenance Manual.
> Oxford: George Ronald, 1989.
> 
> ——. Sexuality, Relationships and Spiritual Growth. Oxford:
> George Ronald, 1995.
> 
> Hollinger, Richard, ed.: ‘Abdu’1-Bahá in America: Agnes Parsons’
> Diary, April 11, 1912–November 11, 1912, supplemented with
> episodes from Maḥmud’s Diary. Los Angeles: Kalimat Press,
> 1996.
> 
> Ma’ani, Baharieh Rouhani. Ásíyih Khánum: The Most Exalted leaf
> entitled Navváb. Oxford: George Ronald, 1993.
> 
> Mahmoudi, Hoda. “Shifting the Balance: The Responsibility of
> Men in Establishing the Equality of Women,” in Charles O. Lerche
> (ed.), Towards the Most Great Justice. London: Bahá’í Publishing
> Trust, 1996. pp. 113-36.
> 
> Marion Jack, Immortal Heroine. Thornhill, Ont.: Bahá’í Canada
> Publications, 1985.
> 
> Metalmann, Velda Piff. Lua Getsinger: Herald of the Covenant.
> Oxford: George Ronald, 1997.
> Munirih Khánum Memoirs and Letters. Translated by Sammireh
> Anwar Smith. Los Angeles: Kalimat Press, 1986.
> 
> Nakhjavání, Bahíyyih. Asking Questions: A Challenge to
> Fundamentalism. Oxford: George Ronald, 1990.
> 
> Root, Martha. Tahirih the Pure, Iran’s Greatest Woman. Karachi:
> Martha L. Root, 1938.
> 
> Rutstein, Nathan, with Edna M. True. Corinne True: Faithful
> Handmaid of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Oxford: George Ronald, 1987.
> 
> Weinberg, Robert. Ethel Jenner Rosenberg: The Life and Times of
> England’s Outstanding Bahá’í Pioneer Worker. Oxford: George
> Ronald, 1995.
> 
> Whitehead, O. Z. Some Early Bahá’í of the West. Oxford: George
> Ronald, 1976.
> 
> ——. Some Bahá’ís to Remember. Oxford: George Ronald, 1983.
> 
> ——. Portraits of Some Bahá’í Women. Oxford: George Ronald,
> 1996.
> 
> Wilcox, Patricia. Bahá’í Families, Perspectives, Principles,
> Practice. Oxford: George Ronald, 1991.
> 
> Women: A Compilation of Extracts from the Bahá’í Writings. Rev.
> ed. Compiled by the Research Department of the Universal House
> of Justice, London: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1990.
> Glossary
> 
> ‘ABDU’L-BAHÁ: Servant of Bahá. The title assumed by ‘Abbas Effendi
> (1844-1921), the eldest surviving son and appointed successor of
> Bahá’u’lláh, the Founder of the Bahá’í Faith. After Bahá’u’lláh’s death
> in 1892, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá became the head of the Bahá’í Faith. He is
> known by a number of titles including the Center of the Covenant, the
> Master, and the Perfect Exemplar of Bahá’u’lláh’s teachings.
> ADMINISTRATIVE ORDER, BAHÁ’Í: The international system for the
> administration of the affairs of the Bahá’í community. It is unique in
> religious history in that clear instructions concerning succession of
> authority and the form of organization are set out in writing by
> Bahá’u’lláh, the Founder of the Faith. The principal institutions of the
> Bahá’í Administrative Order are the Guardianship and the Universal
> House of Justice. The Administrative Order consists of democratically
> elected Local and National Spiritual Assemblies which direct the
> affairs of the Bahá’í community, uphold Bahá’í laws and standards, and
> take responsibility for the education, guidance, and protection of the
> community. In addition, it includes the institutions of the Hands of the
> Cause of God, the International Teaching Center, and the Continental
> Boards of Counselors and their Auxiliary Boards and assistants. The
> appointed members of these institutions perform a counseling and
> advisory function and have particular responsibility for the protection
> and expansion of the Bahá’í Faith. See also Auxiliary Boards,
> Continental Boards of Counselors, Guardianship, Hands of the Cause
> of God, International Teaching Center, Local Spiritual Assembly,
> National Spiritual Assembly, Spiritual Assembly, and Universal House
> of Justice.
> AGES: The Bahá’í Era is divided into three Ages–the Heroic,
> Formative, and Golden Age-which correspond to stages in the
> development and growth of the Bahá’í Faith. The Heroic Age, or
> Apostolic Age, began in 1844with the Bab’s declaration of His mission
> and encompassed the ministries of the Báb (1844-53), Bahá’u’lláh
> (1852-92), and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (1892-1921). The Formative Age began
> in 1921 when Shoghi Effendi became the Guardian of the Bahá’í Faith.
> This second and current age is identified with the rise and
> establishment of the Bahá’í Administrative Order. It is to be followed
> by the third and final age, the Golden Age, which is destined to witness
> the establishment of the Bahá’í World Commonwealth.
> APOSTOLIC AGE: See Ages.
> 
> ÁSÍYIH KHÁNUM: also known as Navváb (an honorific meaning “Grace”
> or “Highness”); the Most Exalted Leaf: The wife of Bahá’u’lláh and
> mother of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Bahíyyih Khánum, and Mírzá Mihdí. She
> married Bahá’u’lláh in 1835, shared His exiles for nearly forty years,
> and died in 1886.
> AUXILIARY BOARDS: An institution established by Shoghi Effendi in
> 1954 to assist the Hands of the Cause of God to carry out their
> functions of protection and propagation of the Bahá’í Faith. In 1973
> the Auxiliary Boards were placed under the direction of the Continental
> Boards of Counselors, who appoint Auxiliary Board members from
> among the Bahá’ís living in their geographic zone. Auxiliary Board
> members appoint assistants to help them in their work.
> BAB, THE: The Gate. The title assumed by Siyyid ‘Ali Muḥammad
> (1819-50), the Prophet-Founder of the Bábí Faith, and the Herald and
> Forerunner of Bahá’u’lláh.
> BAHÁ’Í: A follower of Bahá’u’lláh and member of the Bahá’í Faith, the
> religion founded by Bahá’u’lláh. The term is also used in relation to
> the revelation of Bahá’u’lláh.
> BAHÁ’Í COMMUNITY: A reference to the collective membership of the
> Bahá’í Faith living in a particular geographic area and to the Bahá’í
> institutions that administer its activities.
> BAHÁ’Í INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY: The name used in reference to the
> worldwide Bahá’í community and in its official relations with outside
> entities. The Bahá’í International Community has consultative status
> with various United Nations agencies. In its work with the United
> Nations, the Bahá’í International Community participates in meetings
> concerned with such issues as human rights, social development, the
> status of women, the environment, human settlement, food, science and
> technology, population, the law of the sea, crime prevention, substance
> abuse, youth, children, the family, disarmament, and the United
> Nations University.
> BAHÁ’Í TEMPLE: A Bahá’í House of Worship open to the public for
> devotional meetings. Bahá’í Temples have been built in Wilmette, near
> Chicago, Illinois; Kampala, Uganda; Ingleside, near Sydney, Australia;
> Langenhain, near Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Panama City, Panama;
> Apia, Western Samoa; and New Delhi, India. Another edifice is
> planned for construction in Santiago, Chile, in the near future.
> BAHÁ’Í WRITINGS: A reference to the writings of Bahá’u’lláh, the Báb,
> and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. These writings constitute the sacred scriptures of
> the Bahá’í Faith.
> BAHÁ’U’LLÁH: The Glory of God. Title of Mirza Husayn-‘Ali
> (181792), the Prophet-Founder of the Bahá’í Faith. He declared His
> mission as the Promised One of All Ages in 1863 and passed away in
> ‘Akká, Palestine, in 1892 after forty years of imprisonment,
> banishment, and house arrest. Bahá’u’lláh’s writings are considered by
> Bahá’ís to be direct revelation from God.
> BAHÍYYIH KHÁNUM (1846-1932): The Greatest Holy Leaf, the Most
> Exalted Leaf: The daughter of Bahá’u’lláh and Ásíyih Khánum and the
> outstanding heroine of the Bahá’í Dispensation.
> BELIEVER: A term used to refer to a member of the Bahá’í Faith.
> 
> CENTER OF THE COVENANT: A title of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá signifying His
> appointment by Bahá’u’lláh as the successor to whom the Bahá’ís must
> turn after the death of Bahá’u’lláh.
> CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE: A document
> adopted by the Universal House of Justice in 1972 setting out its
> origins and duties, specifying its manner of operation, and defining its
> relationship to other institutions of the Baha’. l Administrative Order.
> CONSULTATION: A process of collective decision-making. It is also a
> means for the thorough exploration of issues and for the attainment of
> unity of vision. It is the method by which Bahá’ís make decisions
> between individuals and within their administrative bodies. Among the
> requisites for consultation that are set forth in Bahá’í writings are love,
> harmony, purity of motive, humility, lowliness, and patience.
> Participants in the process not only have the right to express their
> views but are expected to express them fully and with the utmost
> devotion, courtesy, dignity, care, and moderation. If unanimity is not
> achieved, decisions are arrived at by majority vote.
> CONTINENTAL BOARDS OF COUNSELORS: An institution of the Bahá’í
> Administrative Order established in 1968. Its members are appointed
> to five-year terms by the Universal House of Justice. Its duties are
> concerned with the expansion and development of the Bahá’í Faith and
> the direction of the work of the Auxiliary Board members.
> COVENANT: A reference to the provisions made in the Bahá’í writings
> concerning the succession of authority in the Bahá’í Faith after the
> passing of Bahá’u’lláh and the structure of the Bahá’í Administrative
> Order. Bahá’u’lláh’s Covenant with His followers designated ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá as the Center of the Covenant and conferred upon Him the
> authority to interpret Bahá’u’lláh’s writings. The Covenant also
> formally established the institutions of the Guardianship and the
> Universal House of Justice as the twin successors of Bahá’u’lláh and
> ‘Abdu’1-Bahá.
> DISPENSATION: The period of time during which the laws and teachings
> of a Prophet, or Manifestation of God, have spiritual authority. A
> Dispensation begins with the Manifestation’s declaration of His
> mission and ends with the advent of the next Manifestation of God.
> FORMATIVE AGE: See Ages.
> 
> FRIENDS: The name by which Bahá’ís often address each other
> collectively.
> GOLDEN AGE: See Ages.
> 
> GREATEST HOLY LEAF: See Bahíyyih Khánum.
> 
> GUARDIANSHIP: The institution, anticipated by Bahá’u’lláh and created
> by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in His Will and Testament, to which Shoghi Effendi
> was appointed. He held this office from 1921 until his death in 1957.
> The Guardian’s chief functions were to interpret the writings of
> Bahá’u’lláh, the Báb, and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and to guide the development
> of the Bahá’í community.
> HANDMAID: A poetic term used in the Bahá’í writings to refer to a
> female member of the Bahá’í community.
> HANDS OF THE CAUSE OF GOD: Eminent Bahá’ís appointed first by
> Bahá’u’lláh and later by Shoghi Effendi to stimulate the propagation
> and ensure the protection of the Bahá’í Faith.
> HEROIC AGE: See Ages.
> 
> HOLY FAMILY: The members of the immediate families of Bahá’u’lláh
> and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. The members include Bahá’u’lláh’s wife Ásíyih
> Khánum (Navváb} and their children, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Bahíyyih
> Khánum, and Mírzá Mihdí, and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s wife Munírih Khánum,
> and their daughters and grandchildren.
> HOUSE OF JUSTICE: The title of the elected administrative and governing
> institution of the Bahá’í community. Houses of Justice, operating at a
> local and national or secondary level, are presently called Local and
> National Spiritual Assemblies. At the international level, the supreme
> governing body of the Bahá’í Faith is the Universal House of Justice.
> It is sometimes simply referred to as the House of Justice.
> INTERNATIONAL BAHÁ’Í COUNCIL: An institution created by Shoghi
> Effendi in 1951 to serve as the precursor of the Universal House of
> Justice. It ceased to exist upon the election of the Universal House of
> Justice in 1963.
> INTERNATIONAL TEACHING CENTER: An institution established by the
> Universal House of Justice in 1973. Its Counselor members are
> appointed to a five-year term. The duties of the International Teaching
> Center include coordinating and stimulating the activities of the
> Continental Boards of Counselors, serving as the liaison between them
> and the Universal House of Justice, keeping fully informed of the
> condition of the Bahá’í Faith throughout the world, and stimulating the
> development of social and economic life both within and outside the
> Bahá’í community.
> KING OF MARTYRS: The title of Mírzá Muḥammad-Hasan, an early
> believer from Isfahan, Iran, who was put to death for being a follower
> of the Báb.
> KITÁB-I-AQDAS, THE: The Most Holy Book: The chief repository of the
> laws and ordinances of Bahá’u’lláh’s Dispensation. It was revealed in
> Arabic in 1873.
> LEAF/LEAVES: A poetic term used in the Bahá’í writings to refer to
> female members of the Bahá’í community.
> LOCAL SPIRITUAL ASSEMBLY: The local administrative body of the
> Bahá’í community ordained in the writings of Bahá’u’lláh. Its nine
> members are elected annually from among the adult membership of the
> community and serve for one year. The Assembly oversees the affairs
> of the community. Its decisions are made after consultation.
> MANIFESTATION OF GOD: The term used to describe a Prophet, or
> Messenger of God, Who is the Founder of a religious Dispensation.
> The Manifestations are not God descended to earth, hue They reflect
> God’s attributes, just as a mirror reflects the sun but is not the sun
> itself. See also Dispensation.
> MASTER, THE: A title of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.
> 
> MINISTRY: The period of leadership exercised by each of the Central
> Figures of the Bahá’í Faith-i. e., by Bahá’u’lláh, the Báb, and ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá, and by the Guardian, Shoghi Effendi. See also Ages.
> MÍRZÁ MIHDÍ (1848-1870): A son of Bahá’u’lláh to whom He gave the
> title The Purest Branch. He served as His Father’s amanuensis. He
> died in 1870 at the age of twenty-two after falling to his death in the
> Most Great Prison in ‘Akká.
> MOST GREAT PRISON: The prison at ‘Akká, in present-day Israel, in
> which Bahá’u’lláh, His family, and companions were confined.
> 
> MUNÍRIH KHÁNUM: The wife of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.
> 
> NATIONAL CONVENTION: The annual meeting held to elect the members
> of the National Spiritual Assembly. See also Unit Convention.
> NATIONAL SPIRITUAL ASSEMBLY: The elected national administrative
> body of the Bahá’í Faith, ordained in the Bahá’í writings. The
> members, elected at a national convention from among the Bahá’ís in
> the country, serve for one year. The National Assembly is responsible
> for overseeing the work of the Bahá’í Faith in its area of jurisdiction.
> See also Spiritual Assembly.
> PILGRIMAGE: A journey made with the intention of visiting a shrine or
> holy place. In the Bahá’í Faith there are designated places of
> pilgrimage to historic sites, including those in the Holy Land,
> associated with the Founders of the Faith. Early Bahá’í pilgrims
> visited Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.
> PLANS: A reference to the courses of action devised by Shoghi Effendi
> and, later, by the Universal House of Justice for the systematic
> expansion and consolidation of the Bahá’í Faith throughout the world.
> The plans launched by Shoghi Effendi include the first Seven Year
> Plan (1937-44), the second Seven Year Plan (1946-53), and the Ten
> Year World Crusade (1953-63). Beginning in 1964 the Universal
> House of Justice launched the first of its plans. The plans are of
> different durations, with the current plan being a Five Year Plan (2001-
> 06).
> RIḌVÁN: literally, Paradise: The twelve-day festival (21 April – 2 May)
> commemorating Bahá’u’lláh’s declaration of His mission to His
> companions in 1863. During the annual Riḍván Festival, Local and
> National Spiritual Assemblies are elected, and, once every five years,
> the Universal House of Justice is elected.
> SHOGHI EFFENDI: The title by which Shoghi Rabbani (189757), the
> great-grandson of Bahá’u’lláh, is known to Bahá’ís. He was appointed
> Guardian of the Bahá’í Faith by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in His Will and
> Testament and assumed the office after ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s death in 1921.
> SPIRITUALASSEMBLY: The name of elected Bahá’í administrative
> institutions that operate at the local and national levels of society.
> They are responsible for coordinating and directing the affairs of the
> Bahá’í community in their areas of jurisdiction. See also Local
> Spiritual Assembly and National Spiritual Assembly.
> TABLET: Divinely revealed scripture. In Bahá’í scriptures the term
> refers to the written works, including letters, of Bahá’u’lláh, the Báb,
> and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.
> TABLET OF VISITATION: A tablet or prayer to be recited when visiting
> either a shrine or the grave of a distinguished believer.
> UNIT CONVENTION: The annual meeting held to elect one or more
> delegates to the national convention. These delegates attend the
> national convention, elect the membership of the National Spiritual
> Assembly, consult about the affairs of the Bahá’í Faith, and offer
> recommendations to the national body. See also National Convention.
> UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE: The Head of the Bahá’í Faith after the
> passing of the Guardian, Shoghi Effendi, the Universal House of
> Justice is the supreme international governing and legislative body of
> the Bahá’í Faith. Established in 1963, the Universal House of Justice is
> elected every five years by members of the National Spiritual
> Assemblies who gather at an international Bahá’í convention. The
> Universal House of Justice directs and guides the administrative
> activities of the worldwide Bahá’í community. It is the Institution
> ordained by Bahá’u’lláh as the agency invested with authority to
> legislate on matters not covered in His writings.
> WILL AND TESTAMENT OF ‘ABDU’L-BAHÁ: A document, in the
> handwriting of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, that establishes the institution of the
> Guardianship and appoints Shoghi Effendi as Guardian. It provides for
> the election of the Universal House of Justice and for the appointment
> of the Hands of the Cause of God, and it prescribes the functions of
> these two institutions.
> Notes
> 
> [←1]
> 
> See Rosalind Miles, The Women’s History of the World (London:
> Michael Joseph, 1988).
> [←2]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, quoted in J. E. Esslemont, Bahá’u’lláh and the New
> Era: An Introduction to the Bahá’í Faith, 5th rev. ed. (Wilmette,
> Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1980), p. 149.
> [←3]
> 
> Juanita H. Williams, Psychology of Women: Behavior in a
> biosocial context (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977), p. 2.
> [←4]
> 
> See Bonnie S. Anderson and Judith P. Zinsser, A History of Their
> Own: Women in Europe from Prehistory to the Present (New York:
> Harper and Row, 1988), vol. 1, pp. 22-23, 28.
> [←5]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in Women: A compilation of extracts from the
> Bahá’í Writings, rev. ed. (London: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1990),
> no. 28.
> [←6]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections from the Writings of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
> (Wilmette, III.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1997), no. 38.3.
> [←7]
> 
> This and all subsequent references to the Bible refer to the Revised
> Standard Version.
> [←8]
> 
> This and all subsequent references to the Qur’an refer to the
> Maulānā Muḥammad ‘Ali translation (1963).
> [←9]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, The Promulgation of Universal Peace: Talks
> Delivered by ‘Abdu’1-Bahá during His Visit to the United States
> and Canada in 1912, new ed. (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing
> Trust, 1982), p. 133; ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in Women, no. 8; ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá, Promulgation, p. 455.
> [←10]
> 
> Saint Augustine, quoted in History of Ideas on Woman: A Source
> Book, [ed. Rosemary Agonito], (New York: Perigee Books, 1977),
> p. 77.
> [←11]
> 
> The writings of Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá were written in the
> Persian and Arabic languages. In the translation of these writings
> into English, and in other authoritative Bahá’í texts written in
> English, masculine pronouns and words such as “man” and “men”
> are frequently used in a generic rather than a gender-specific:
> sense. The English language is fortunate in having a common
> gender; generic: terms are intended to encompass all humankind
> and not to apply only to males.
> 
> The question of gender in language can present difficulties for
> many people at this time when there is a determined effort to
> eliminate the unconscious bias and the discriminatory attitudes
> that are so often conveyed in the choice of terms used in speech or
> writing. The concerns arising from the use of gender-specific
> nouns and pronouns can be resolved by means other than changing
> the usage of such terms if the consciousness of sexual equality is
> permitted to modify the meaning of words as they are commonly
> used. In many instances, the use of these terms within the context
> of equality of the sexes restores to primacy the generic meaning
> which is attached to these words in their dictionary definition.
> 
> As the equality of the sexes is accepted throughout the world, and
> as this principle is expressed in practice universally, the meaning
> commonly attached to certain words will change accordingly, as
> will their usage. Language is a living entity and changes as the
> culture that it reflects evolves.
> [←12]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions, comp. and trans. Laura
> Clifford Barney (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1984)’ p.
> 123.
> [←13]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions, pp. 123, 120, 125-26.
> [←14]
> 
> Saint Thomas Aquinas, quoted in History of Ideas on Woman, p.
> 85.
> [←15]
> 
> Ibid.
> [←16]
> 
> Fatima Mernissi, Women and Islam: An Historical and
> Theological Enquiry, trans. Mary Jo Lakeland (Oxford: Blackwell,
> 1991), pp. 49-61, 64-72.
> [←17]
> 
> See Mernissi, Women and Islam, pp. 62-84.
> [←18]
> 
> See Maulānā Muḥammad ‘Ali, The Religion of Islam: A
> Comprehensive Discussion of the Sources, Principles and
> Practices of Islam (Lahore, Pakistan: Aḥmadiyya Anjuman Ishā‘āt
> Islam, 1971), pp. 246-48.
> [←19]
> 
> Letter dated 24 January 1993 written on behalf of the Universal
> House of Justice to an individual, in The American Bahá’í 24, no.
> 17 (23 Nov. 1993): pp. 10-11.
> [←20]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, in Women, nos. 58, 3, 58.
> [←21]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections, no. 38.3.
> [←22]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in Women, no. 10.
> [←23]
> 
> Ibid.
> [←24]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, The Promise of World Peace: To
> the Peoples of the World (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust,
> 1985), p. 26; Bahá’u’lláh, in Women, no. 2; ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris
> Talks: Addresses Given by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in 1911 (London: Bahá’í
> Publishing Trust, 1995), nos. 40.33, 50.10.
> [←25]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, Promise of World Peace, p. 27.
> [←26]
> 
> Ibid., p. 26; ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 133.
> [←27]
> 
> Ibid., p. 135.
> [←28]
> 
> Ibid., pp. 136-37.
> [←29]
> 
> Ibid., p. 300.
> [←30]
> 
> Ibid.
> [←31]
> 
> Ibid.
> [←32]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, Promise of World Peace, p. 27.
> [←33]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, The Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book, ps ed.
> (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1993), n76; see Messages
> from the Universal House of Justice, 1963-1968: The Third Epoch
> of the Formative Age, comp. Geoffry W. Marks (Wilmette, Ill.:
> Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1996), no. 166. 2; the Universal House of
> Justice, Promise of World Peace, p. 27.
> [←34]
> 
> See [Agnes Akosua Aidoo], The Girl Child: An Investment in the
> Future (New York: UNICEF, 1990), pp. 14-15.
> [←35]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in Women, no. 52.
> [←36]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, pp. 175, 281.
> [←37]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, quoted in Esslemont, Bahá’u’lláh and the New Era,
> p. 147.
> [←38]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, pp. 135, 283.
> [←39]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, Promise of World Peace, pp. 26-
> 27.
> [←40]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, pp. 135, 175.
> [←41]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, Introduction to Kitáb-i-Aqdas, by
> Bahá’u’lláh, p. 8.
> [←42]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections, no. 227. 18.
> [←43]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 134.
> [←44]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 157.
> [←45]
> 
> Ibid., p. 230.
> [←46]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, Promise of World Peace, p. 26.
> [←47]
> 
> See Betty A. Reardon, Sexism and the War System (New York:
> Teachers College Press, 1986).
> [←48]
> 
> See Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy, vol. 1of Women and
> History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 239; the
> Universal House of Justice, Promise of World Peace, p. 26.
> [←49]
> 
> Jean Baker Miller, M. D., Toward a New Psychology of Women, 2d
> ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1986), pp. 6-7.
> [←50]
> 
> Lerner, Creation of Patriarchy, pp. 217-18. Reprinted with
> permission.
> [←51]
> 
> See Shan Guisinger and Sidney J. Blatt, “Individuality and
> Relatedness: Evolution of a Fundamental Dialectic,” American
> Psychologist 49, no. 2 (Feb. 1994): pp. 104-11.
> [←52]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 134.
> [←53]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris Talks, no. 40.33.
> [←54]
> 
> See Developing a National Agenda to Address Women’s Mental
> Health Needs: A Conference Report (Washington, D. C.: American
> Psychological Association, 1985), p. 29.
> [←55]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, Promise of World Peace, p. 26.
> [←56]
> 
> See John Scanzoni and Greer Litton Fox, “Sex Roles, Family and
> Society: The Seventies and Beyond,” Journal of Marriage and the
> Family 42 (Nov. 1980): pp. 743-56.
> [←57]
> 
> Riane Eisler, David Loye, and Kari Norgaard, Women , Men, and
> the Global Quality of Life: A Report of the Gender Equity and
> Quality of Life Project of the Center for Partnership Studies
> (Pacific Grove, Calif.: Center for Partnership Studies, 1995), pp.
> 40-41. Reprinted by permission of the Center for Partnership
> Studies.
> [←58]
> 
> Susan Moller Okin, Justice, Gender, and the Family (New York:
> Basic Books, 1989), pp. 17-18.
> [←59]
> 
> Riane Eisler, “Human Rights: The Unfinished Struggle,”
> International Journal of Women’s Studies 6, no. 4: p. 329.
> [←60]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 375.
> [←61]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, quoted in a letter dated 24 January 1993 written
> on behalf of the Universal House of Justice to an individual, in The
> American Bahá’í 24, no. 17 (23 Nov. 1993): p. 10.
> [←62]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 168.
> [←63]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, quoted in letter dated 28 December 1980 written
> on behalf of the Universal House of Justice to the National
> Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’í s of New Zealand, Messages
> from the Universal House of Justice, 1963-1986, no. 272.4.
> [←64]
> 
> Letter dated 28 December 1980 written on behalf of the Universal
> House of Justice to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís
> of New Zealand, Messages from the Universal House of Justice,
> 1963-1986. no. 272.4.
> [←65]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, Kitáb-i-Aqdas, ¶48;letter dated 28 December 1980
> written on behalf of the Universal House of Justice to the National
> Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of New Zealand, Messages from
> the Universal House of Justice, 1963-1986, no. 272. 6.
> [←66]
> 
> Letter dated 23 August 1984 written on behalf of the Universal
> House of Justice to an individual, Messages from the Universal
> House of Justice, 1963-1986. no. 407.3.
> [←67]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections, no. 98. 2.
> [←68]
> 
> Abdu’l-Bahá, in Compilation of Compilations: Prepared by the
> Universal House of Justice 1963-1990, vol. 1 (Maryborough:
> Bahá’í Publications Australia, 1991), no. 1159.
> [←69]
> 
> See Guisinger and Blatt, “Individuality and Relatedness, American
> Psychologist, 49, no. 2: p. 109; see also Laurie Hayes, “Men in
> Transition: Changing Sex Roles,” Guidepost 30, no. 12 (1988): pp.
> 1-3.
> [←70]
> 
> Letter dated 28 December 1980 written on behalf of the Universal
> House of Justice to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís
> of New Zealand, Messages from the Universal House of Justice,
> 1963-1986, no. 272.4.
> [←71]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 16 May 1982 written on behalf of the
> Universal House of Justice to an individual, in Women, no. 76.
> [←72]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 1August 1978 written on behalf of the
> Universal House of Justice to an individual, in Women, no. 73.
> [←73]
> 
> Letter dated 28 December 1980 written on behalf of the Universal
> House of Justice to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís
> of New Zealand, Messages from the Universal House of Justice,
> 1963-1986, no. 272.5e.
> [←74]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 16 May 1982 written on behalf of the
> Universal House of Justice to an individual, in Women, no. 76.
> [←75]
> 
> Letter dated 28 December 1980 written on behalf of the Universal
> House of Justice to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís
> of New Zealand, Messages from the Universal House of Justice,
> 1963-1986, no. 272. 4; extract from a letter dated 11January 1988
> written on behalf of the Universal House of Justice to an
> individual, used with the permission of the Universal House of
> Justice.
> [←76]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 6 July 1952 written on behalf of Shoghi
> Effendi to an individual, in Women, no. 69.
> [←77]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections, no. 85.l.
> [←78]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh, trans.
> Shoghi Effendi, lst ps ed. (Wilmette, lll.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust,
> 1983), p. 286.
> [←79]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in Women, no. 46.
> [←80]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections, no. 95.1.
> [←81]
> 
> Ibid.
> [←82]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 175.
> [←83]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated 24 July 1975 to an
> individual, Messages from the Universal House of Justice, 1963-
> 1986, no. 166.2.
> [←84]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, Introduction to Kitáb-i-Aqdas, by
> Bahá’u’lláh, p. 3.
> [←85]
> 
> Extract from a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi in 1935
> to a National Spiritual Assembly, quoted in Universal House of
> Justice, Introduction to Kitáb-i-Aqdas, by Bahá’u’lláh, p. 7.
> [←86]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings, p. 215.
> [←87]
> 
> Abdu’l-Bahá, quoted in Universal House of Justice, Introduction
> to Kitáb-i-Aqdas, by Bahá’u’lláh, p. 5.
> [←88]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, Introduction to Kitáb-i-Aqdas, by
> Bahá’u’lláh, p. 5.
> [←89]
> 
> Ibid., pp. 7-8.
> [←90]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, Kitáb-i-Aqdas, ¶75, ¶74; see Kitáb-i-Aqdas, n106,
> n20.
> [←91]
> 
> Ibid., ¶32; the Universal House of Justice, Introduction to Kitáb-i-
> Aqdas, by Bahá’u’lláh, p. 8.
> [←92]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 5 September 1938written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi to an individual, quoted in Universal House of
> Justice, letter dated 6 February 1973 to all National Spiritual
> Assemblies, Messages from the Universal House of Justice, 1963-
> 1986, no. 126.7a.
> [←93]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 166.
> [←94]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 5 September 1938 written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi to an individual, quoted in Universal House of
> Justice, letter dated 6 February 1973 to all National Spiritual
> Assemblies, Messages from the Universal House of Justice, 1963-
> 1986, no. 126.7a.
> [←95]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, Kitáb-i-Aqdas, ¶159.
> [←96]
> 
> Letter dated 24 January 1993 written on behalf of the Universal
> House of Justice to an individual, in The American Bahá’í 24, no.
> 17 (23 Nov. 1993): p. 10.
> [←97]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, Kitáb-i-Aqdas, ¶63; ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, quoted in
> Esslemont, Bahá’u’lláh and the New Era, p. 147.
> [←98]
> 
> Bahá’í International Community, “Moral and Ethical Concerns of
> the Bahá’í International Community in the Face of the Widespread
> Sexual Exploitation of Children,” (paper presented at the meeting
> of the World Conference on Religion and Peace and UNICEF,
> New York, March 1996).
> [←99]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 5 September 1938 written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi to an individual, quoted in Universal House of
> Justice, letter dated 6 February 1973 to all National Spiritual
> Assemblies, Messages from the Universal House of Justice, 1963-
> 1986, no. 126.7a.
> [←100]
> 
> Letter dated 24 January 1993 written on behalf of the Universal
> House of Justice to an individual, in The American Bahá’í 24, no.
> 17 (23 Nov. 1993): p. 10.
> [←101]
> 
> See, for example, Agnes Ghaznavi, Sexuality, Relationships and
> Spiritual Growth (Oxford: George Ronald, 1995).
> [←102]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections, no. 86.2.
> [←103]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, rev. ed. (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í
> Publishing Trust, 1974), p. 214.
> [←104]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, Kitáb-i-Aqdas, ¶63, ¶174.
> [←105]
> 
> Based on unpublished Tablets of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, summarized with
> the permission of the Universal House of Justice.
> [←106]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, extract from an authorized translation of an
> unpublished Tablet, quoted with the permission of the Universal
> House of Justice.
> [←107]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, quoted in Kitáb-i-Aqdas, n89.
> [←108]
> 
> Based on an unpublished Tablet of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, summarized
> with the permission of the Universal House of Justice.
> [←109]
> 
> See Kitáb-i-Aqdas, n93.
> [←110]
> 
> See Kitáb-i-Aqdas, p. 150.
> [←111]
> 
> Extract from a message dated 17July 1979 written on behalf of the
> Universal House of Justice to an individual, in Preserving Bahá’í
> Marriages: A Memorandum and Compilation prepared by the
> Universal House of Justice, ([Haifa]: Bahá’í World Centre, 1991),
> no. 38.
> [←112]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, in Women, no. 58.
> [←113]
> 
> Letter dated 24 January 1993 written on behalf of the Universal
> House of Justice to an individual, in The American Bahá’í 24, no.
> 17 (23 Nov. 1993): p. 10.
> [←114]
> 
> Ibid.
> [←115]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, quoted in Kitáb-i-Aqdas, nl00; Bahá’u’lláh, Kitábi-Aqdas, ¶68.
> [←116]
> 
> Based on a letter dated 11 February 1986 written on behalf of the
> Universal House of Justice to the National Spiritual Assembly of
> the Bahá’ís of the United States, used with the permission of the
> Universal House of Justice.
> [←117]
> 
> Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., s.v. “Family Law.”
> [←118]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 283.
> [←119]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, Kitáb-i-Aqdas, ¶109; ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, from
> unpublished Tablets, quoted with the permission of the Universal
> House of Justice.
> [←120]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, Kitáb-i-Aqdas, “Questions and Answers,” no. 69;
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, from an unpublished Tablet, quoted with the
> permission of the Universal House of Justice.
> [←121]
> 
> Extract from a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, quoted in
> Kitáb-i-Aqdas, n38.
> [←122]
> 
> See Mernissi, Women and Islam, pp. 49-61.
> [←123]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, Kitáb-i-Aqdas, ¶30, ¶52.
> [←124]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, quoted in Universal House of Justice, letter dated
> 31May 1988 to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of
> New Zealand.
> [←125]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 28 July 1936 written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi to an individual, quoted in Universal House of
> Justice, letter dated 31May 1988 to the National Spiritual
> Assembly of the Bahá’ís of New Zealand.
> [←126]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated 31May 1988 to the
> National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of New Zealand.
> [←127]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections, no. 38.4; extract from a letter dated 17
> September 1952 written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an
> individual, quoted in Universal House of Justice, letter dated 24
> July 1957 to an individual, Messages from the Universal House of
> Justice, 1963-1986, no. 166.6b; extract from a letter dated 9
> August 1984 written on behalf of the Universal House of Justice to
> an individual, quoted with the permission of the Universal House
> of Justice.
> [←128]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated 31May 1988 to the
> National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of New Zealand.
> [←129]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 23 June 1987 written on behalf of the
> Universal House of Justice to an individual, quoted with the
> permission of the Universal House of Justice.
> [←130]
> 
> The Supreme Tribunal, a body that is to be elected and established
> by the peoples and governments of the world, will arbitrate
> disputes of an international character and will be a guardian of
> international peace. For further information, see Messages from
> the Universal House of Justice, 1963-1986, no.422.
> [←131]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated 31 May 1988 to the
> National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of New Zealand.
> [←132]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated 27 March 1978 to all
> National Spiritual Assemblies, in The Continental Boards of
> Counselors: Letters, Extracts from Letters, and Cables from The
> Universal House of Justice / An Address by Counselor Edna M.
> True, comp. National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the
> United States (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1981), p.
> 60.
> [←133]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, p. 386.
> [←134]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 23 June 1987 written on behalf of the
> Universal House of Justice to an individual, quoted with the
> permission of the Universal House of Justice.
> [←135]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh revealed after the Kitáb-i-
> Aqdas, comp. Research Department of the Universal House of
> Justice, trans. Habib Taherzadeh et al., lst ps ed. (Wilmette, Ill.:
> Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1988), p. 50.
> [←136]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, The Secret of Divine Civilization, trans. Marzieh
> Gail and Ali-Kuli Khan, lst ps ed. (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í
> Publishing Trust, 1990), pp. 71-72.
> [←137]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, Tablets, p. 130; Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings, p. 93.
> [←138]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, in Women, no. 2.
> [←139]
> 
> Ibid., no. 58.
> [←140]
> 
> See Irene Franck and David Brownstone, Women’s World: A
> Timeline of Women in History (New York: Harper Perennial,
> 1995), pp. 128-34.
> [←141]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, in Women, no. 99.
> [←142]
> 
> Ibid., no. 57.
> [←143]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, Tablets, pp. 254, 255.
> [←144]
> 
> Ibid., p. 256.
> [←145]
> 
> Ibid., p. 252.
> [←146]
> 
> Ibid., pp. 254-55.
> [←147]
> 
> Ibid., p. 255.
> [←148]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, in Women, no. 4.
> [←149]
> 
> Bahíyyih Khánum, quoted in Lady Blomfield (Sitarih Khánum),
> The Chosen Highway (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust,
> 1967), p. 47.
> [←150]
> 
> See Baharieh Rouhani Ma‘ani, Ásíyih Khánum: The Most Exalted
> Leaf entitled Navváb (Oxford: George Ronald, 1993), p. 57.
> [←151]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, letter dated 21 December
> 1939, in Messages to America: Selected Letters and Cablegrams
> Addressed to the Bahá’ís of North America, 1932-1946, new ed.
> (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, forthcoming).
> [←152]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, quoted in Bahá’í Holy Places at the World Centre
> (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1968), p. 77.
> [←153]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, in Bahíyyih Khánum: The Greatest Holy Leaf, comp.
> Research Department at the Bahá’í World Centre (Haifa: Bahá’í
> World Centre, 1982), p. 4.
> [←154]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, Bahá’í Administration: Selected Messages, 1922-
> 1932, 7th ed. (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1974), pp.
> 188-89.
> [←155]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, in Bahíyyih Khánum, p. 3.
> [←156]
> 
> See Adib Taherzadeh, The Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh: Mazráih &
> Bahjí, 1877-92, [vol. 4) (Oxford: George Ronald, 1987), p. 429.
> [←157]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Memorials of the Faithful (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í
> Publishing Trust, 1997), no. 67. 5.
> [←158]
> 
> See Adib Taherzadeh, The Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh: Baghdad,
> 1853-63, [vol. l], rev. ed. (Oxford: George Ronald, 1976), pp. 12-
> 13.
> [←159]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, quoted in H. M. Balyuzi, Bahá’u’lláh: The King of
> Glory (Oxford: George Ronald, 1980), p. 117.
> [←160]
> 
> Taherzadeh, Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh, vol. 1, p. 13.
> [←161]
> 
> Nabil-i-Azam, in Stories of Bahá’u’lláh, comp. and ed. ‘Alí-Akbar
> Furútan, trans. Katayoon and Robert Crerar et al (Oxford: George
> Ronald, 1986), pp. 26-27.
> [←162]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of Bahá’u’lláh: Selected Letters,
> new ed. (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1991), p. 134.
> [←163]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, Bahá’í Administration, p. 192.
> [←164]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in Bahíyyih Khánum, p. 8.
> [←165]
> 
> Ibid., p. 11.
> [←166]
> 
> Ibid., p. 10.
> [←167]
> 
> Bahíyyih Khánum, in Bahíyyih Khánum, p. 100.
> [←168]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, Bahá’í Administration, p. 25.
> [←169]
> 
> Munírih Khánum, quoted in Blomfield, Chosen Highway, p. 89.
> [←170]
> 
> Ibid., pp. 89-90.
> [←171]
> 
> Bahíyyih Khánum, quoted in Myron H. Phelps, The Master in
> ‘Akká, rev. ed. (Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1985), p. 118.
> [←172]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, quoted in Genevieve L. Coy, “A Week in ‘Abdu’l-
> Bahá’s Home,” in In His Presence: Visits to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (Los
> Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1989), p. 146.
> [←173]
> 
> Munírih Khánum: Memoirs and Letters, trans. Sammireh Anwar
> Smith (Los Angeles: Kalimát Press, 1986), pp. 85-86.
> [←174]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, cable dated 28 April 1938, in Messages of Shoghi
> Effendi to the Indian Subcontinent, 1923-1957, comp. and ed. Írán
> Furútan Muhájir, rev. ed. (New Delhi: Bahá’í Publishing Trust,
> 1995), p. 168; letter dated 7 July 1938 written on behalf of Shoghi
> Effendi to Siyyid Mustafa, in Messages of Shoghi Effendi to the
> Indian Subcontinent, p. 171.
> [←175]
> 
> Munírih Khánum, quoted in Phelps, The Master in ‘Akká, pp. 75-
> 76.
> [←176]
> 
> Hammám is an Arabic word referring to a Turkish bath.
> [←177]
> 
> Ṭúbá Khánum, quoted in Blomfield, Chosen Highway, p. 101.
> [←178]
> 
> See Jessie E. Revell, “A Bahá’í Pioneer of East and West–Doctor
> Susan I. Moody (The Handmaid of the Most High), Amatu’l-
> A‘lá,” in The Bahá’í World: A Biennial International Record,
> Volume 6, 1934-1936, comp. National Spiritual Assembly of the
> Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada (New York: Bahá’í
> Publishing Committee, 1937), pp. 483-86.
> [←179]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 133.
> [←180]
> 
> Ibid., p. 283.
> [←181]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris Talks, no. 50.10; Bahá’u’lláh, The Hidden
> Words, trans. Shoghi Effendi (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing
> Trust, 1990), Arabic, no. 2.
> [←182]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 174.
> [←183]
> 
> Ibid., p. 77.
> [←184]
> 
> Ibid., pp. 134, 175.
> [←185]
> 
> Ibid., p. 134.
> [←186]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris Talks, no. 40.33.
> [←187]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, pp. 280-81.
> [←188]
> 
> Ibid., pp. 75-76.
> [←189]
> 
> Ibid., pp. 76, 133, 374-75.
> [←190]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris Talks, no. 59.5.
> [←191]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 74.
> [←192]
> 
> Ibid., p. 134.
> [←193]
> 
> Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy (New York: Oxford
> University Press, 1986), p. 4; for another contemporary expression
> of such ideas, see, for example, Riane Eisler, The Chalice and The
> Blade: Our History, Our Future, (San Francisco: Harper and Row,
> 1987).
> [←194]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, pp. 174-75.
> [←195]
> 
> Ibid., p. 135; see also pp. 135-36, 281-82.
> [←196]
> 
> Ibid., p. 175.
> [←197]
> 
> Nathan Rutstein with Edna M. True, Corinne True: Faithful
> Handmaid of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (Oxford: George Ronald, 1987), p. 71.
> [←198]
> 
> Ibid., p. 75.
> [←199]
> 
> Ibid., pp. 206-07.
> [←200]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, quoted in Mariam Haney, “Mrs. Agnes Parsons,” in
> The Bahá’í World: A Biennial International Record, Volume 5,
> 1932-1934, comp. National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of
> the United States and Canada (New York: Bahá’í Publishing
> Committee, 1936), p. 413.
> [←201]
> 
> Ibid.
> [←202]
> 
> Ibid., p. 414.
> [←203]
> 
> See “Ella Goodall Cooper,” in The Bahá’í World: A Biennial
> International Record, Volume 12, 1950-1954, comp. National
> Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States (Wilmette,
> Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1956), pp. 681-84.
> [←204]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, quoted in M. R. Garis, Martha Root: Lioness at the
> Threshold (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1983), pp. 87-
> 88.
> [←205]
> 
> See H. M. Balyuzi, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá: The Centre of the Covenant of
> Bahá’u’lláh (Oxford: George Ronald, 1974), pp. 418-19, 534-35.
> [←206]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated 25 May 1975 to all
> National Spiritual Assemblies, Messages from the Universal
> House of Justice, 1963-1968, no. 162.32.
> [←207]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in Women, no. 19.
> [←208]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, pp. 76-77.
> [←209]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in Women, no. 104.
> [←210]
> 
> Ibid., no. 103.
> [←211]
> 
> Ibid., no. 100.
> [←212]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, quoted in Ramona Allen Brown, Memories of
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá: Recollections of the Early Days of the Bahá’í Faith
> in California (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1980), p. 92.
> [←213]
> 
> See Blomfield, Chosen Highway, p. 190; see Coy, In His
> Presence, p. 95; see National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of
> Canada, Marion Jack, Immortal Heroine (Thornhill, Ont: Bahá’í
> Canada Publications), p. 2.
> [←214]
> 
> See Munírih Khánum, pp. 77-81.
> [←215]
> 
> See H. M. Balyuzi, Eminent Bahá’ís in the Time of Bahá’u’lláh
> with Some Historical Background (Oxford: George Ronald, 1985),
> p. 268; see also Taherzadeh, Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh, vol. 4, p.
> 312.
> [←216]
> 
> The Bahá’í World: A Biennial International Record, Volume 3,
> 1928-1930, comp. National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of
> the United States and Canada (New York: Bahá’í Publishing
> Committee, 1930), p. 85.
> [←217]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Baha, in Star of the West 12, no. 19 (2 Mar. 1922): pp.
> 307-08.
> [←218]
> 
> See Dorothea Morrell Reed, “Genevieve Lenore Coy,” in The
> Bahá’í World: A Biennial International Record, Volume 14, 1963-
> 1968, comp. Universal House of Justice (Haifa: Universal House
> of Justice, 1974), pp. 326-28; see “Ishráqíyyih Dhabíḥ,” in ibid.,
> pp. 517-18; see “Ruḥangíz Fatḥ-‘Aẓam,” in The Bahá’í World: An
> International Record, Volume 17, 1976-1979, comp. Universal
> House of Justice (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1981), pp. 467-70.
> [←219]
> 
> For information about the high reputation of the Tarbíyat schools,
> see Moojan Momen, The Bábí and Bahá’í Religions: 1844-1944:
> Some Contemporary Accounts (Oxford: George Ronald, 1981), pp.
> 475-79, and the article by Vahid Rafati titled “Bahá’í schools,” in
> Encyclopædia Iranica, vol. 3, pp. 467-70.
> [←220]
> 
> See Taherzadeh, Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh, vol. 4, pp. 312, 304;
> see also Balyuzi, Eminent Bahá’ís, p. 174.
> [←221]
> 
> See Taherzadeh, Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh, vol. 4, p. 312.
> [←222]
> 
> See Robert H. Stockman, The Bahá’í Faith in America: Early
> Expansion, 1900-1912, vol. 2 (Oxford: George Ronald, 1995), pp.
> 47, 49-50, 53-54.
> [←223]
> 
> See ibid., p. 323.
> [←224]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in Women, no. 13.
> [←225]
> 
> Ibid., no. 104.
> [←226]
> 
> Ibid., no. 13; ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections, no. 94.2-94.3.
> [←227]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in Women, no. 102.
> [←228]
> 
> Ibid., no. 13.
> [←229]
> 
> Ibid., no. 104.
> [←230]
> 
> See Genevieve L. Coy, “Educating the women of Persia,” Star of
> the West 17, no. 1 (April 1926): pp. 50-55.
> [←231]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, quoted in Laura Clifford Barney, Preface to Some
> Answered Questions, by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, p. xvii; see Publisher’s
> Foreword to 1964 Edition of ibid., p. xv.
> [←232]
> 
> Ella Goodall Cooper, “Henrietta Emogene Martin Hoagg,” in The
> Bahá’í World: A Biennial International Record, Volume 10, 1944-
> 1946, comp. National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the
> United States and Canada (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing
> Committee, 1949), pp. 520-21.
> [←233]
> 
> Amine De Mille, “Emogene Hoagg, an exemplary pioneer,”
> Bahá’í News, no. 511 (Oct. 1973): p. 7.
> [←234]
> 
> See Star of the West 2, no. 3 (28 April 1911): p. 6; Star of the West
> 2, no. 7-8 (1 Aug. 1911): pp. 7-9; Star of the West 16, no. 9 (Dec.
> 1925): p. 650.
> [←235]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, quoted in Esslemont, Bahá’u’lláh and the New Era,
> p. 147; ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 283.
> [←236]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, quoted in Edna M. True, “Katherine Knight True,”
> in Bahá’í World, vol. 14, p. 383.
> [←237]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, quoted in Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, p. 308;
> Shoghi Effendi, quoted in Marion Hofman, “Beatrice Irwin,” in
> The Bahá’í World: An International Record, Volume 13,1954-
> 1963. comp. Universal House of Justice (Haifa: Universal House
> of Justice, 1970), p. 882.
> [←238]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, p. 324.
> [←239]
> 
> The future community of nations united by a system of
> government that will operate in conformity with the laws and
> principles of Bahá’u’lláh.
> [←240]
> 
> The third and final Age of the Dispensation of Bahá’u’lláh, which
> is to last until the advent of the next Manifestation of God. The
> Golden Age will be associated with the establishment of the
> Bahá’í World Commonwealth and the founding of a world
> civilization.
> [←241]
> 
> Ibid., p. 325.
> [←242]
> 
> The Divine Plan is the plan for the dissemination of the Bahá’í
> Faith throughout the world, conveyed by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to the
> Bahá’ís of North America in fourteen letters called the Tablets of
> the Divine Plan. The implementation of the Divine Plan was
> initiated by Shoghi Effendi and is now being pursued under the
> guidance of the Universal House of Justice.
> [←243]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, extract from a letter dated 27 December 1923 to
> the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of India and
> Burma, in Women, no. 114.
> [←244]
> 
> Ibid.
> [←245]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, letter dated 6 December 1928 to the beloved of
> the Lord and the handmaids of the Merciful throughout the West,
> Bahá’í Administration, p. 148.
> [←246]
> 
> Letter dated 14 March 1933written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to
> an individual, quoted with the permission of the Universal House
> of Justice.
> [←247]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, p. 229.
> [←248]
> 
> See Vahid Rafati, “The Bahá’í Community of Iran,” in
> Encyclopedia Iranica (London: Routledge, Kegan Paul, 1989),
> vol. 3, pp. 454-60.
> [←249]
> 
> “Review of Various National Events,” in The Bahá’í World, vol.
> 12, p. 65.
> [←250]
> 
> See ibid., p. 66.
> [←251]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, extract from a letter dated April 1954, in
> Messages to the Bahá’í World, 1950-1957. rev. ed. (Wilmette, Ill.:
> Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1971), p. 65.
> [←252]
> 
> Pioneering is the act of leaving one’s hometown or country to take
> up residence elsewhere for the purpose of teaching the Bahá’í
> Faith.
> [←253]
> 
> See Baharieh Rouhani Ma’ani, “The Interdependence of Bahá’í
> Communities: Services of North American Bahá’í Women to
> Iran,” Journal of Bahá’í Studies 4, no. 1 (1991): p. 42.
> [←254]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, extract from a letter dated 30 January 1926 to the
> Spiritual Assemblies throughout the East, in Trustworthiness: A
> compilation of extracts from the Bahá’í Writings, comp. Research
> Department of the Universal House of Justice (London: Bahá’í
> Publishing Trust, 1987), no. 69; based on a letter dated 2
> November 1928 from Shoghi Effendi to the Iran Central Spiritual
> Assembly, summarized with the permission of the Universal
> House of Justice.
> [←255]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, The Advent of Divine Justice, lst ps ed. (Wilmette,
> Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1990), pp. 68-69.
> [←256]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 24 March 1945 written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi to an individual, in Women, no. 93.
> [←257]
> 
> Ibid.
> [←258]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 10 November 1930 written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís
> of India and Burma, in Women, no. 92.
> [←259]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, cablegram dated 30 December 1930 to an
> individual, quoted with the permission of the Universal House of
> Justice.
> [←260]
> 
> National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Singapore, Eulogy,
> Shirin Fozdar, 1 March 1905-2 February 1992: Champion of
> Asian Women (Singapore: National Spiritual Assembly of the
> Bahá’ís of Singapore, 1992).
> [←261]
> 
> Nabíl-i-Aẓam [Nabíl-i-Zarandí], The Dawn-Breakers: Nabíl’s
> Narrative of the Early Days of the Bahá’í Revelation, trans.
> Shoghi Effendi (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1974).
> [←262]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 27 August 1951written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi to Effie Baker, quoted in James Heggie, “Effie
> Baker,” in Bahá’í World, vol. 14, p. 321.
> [←263]
> 
> Keith Ransom-Kehler, letter dated 3 March 1933 to the National
> Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and
> Canada, in Bahá’í World, vol. 5, p. 402.
> [←264]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, cable dated 28 October 1933, in Messages to
> America (forthcoming).
> [←265]
> 
> Dr. Lutfu’lláh S. Hakim and Mardíyyih N. Carpenter, “Part Three-
> Persia,” in “Current Bahá’í Activities in the East and West,” in
> Bahá’í World, vol. 5, p. 121.
> [←266]
> 
> Ḥujját, a distinguished follower of the Báb; he was martyred in
> Zanján
> [←267]
> 
> Ibid., p. 122.
> [←268]
> 
> “In Memoriam,” in Bahá’í World, vol. 5, p. 398.
> [←269]
> 
> Hands of the Cause, provisions concerning their appointment by
> the Guardian and for the selection of nine Hands of the Cause to
> work closely with the Guardian, are set out on page 12 of the Will
> and Testament of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá.
> [←270]
> 
> See Barron Deems Harper, Lights of Fortitude: Glimpses into the
> Lives of the Hands of the Cause of God (Oxford: George Ronald,
> 1997).
> [←271]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, pp. 386-87.
> [←272]
> 
> J. E. Esslemont, Bahá’u’lláh and the New Era: An Introduction to
> the Bahá’í Faith, 5th rev. ed. (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing
> Trust, 1980).
> [←273]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, p. 389.
> [←274]
> 
> Ibid., p. 388, 386.
> [←275]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, quoted in Beatrice Ashton, ‘‘Amelia E. Collins,”
> in Bahá’í World, vol. 13, p. 837; see ibid., pp. 834-41.
> [←276]
> 
> Letter received in January 1947 written on behalf of Shoghi
> Effendi to Amelia Collins, quoted in Beatrice Ashton, ‘‘Amelia E.
> Collins,” in Bahá’í World, vol. 13, p. 838; Shoghi Effendi,
> postscript to letter received in January 1947 written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi to Amelia Collins, quoted in Beatrice Ashton,
> “Amelia E. Collins,” in Bahá’í World, vol. 13, p. 839.
> [←277]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, The Constitution of the Universal
> House of Justice (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1972).
> [←278]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Will and Testament of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (Wilmette, Ill.:
> Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1944), p. 20.
> [←279]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, Promise of World Peace, pp. 26-
> 27.
> [←280]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated Riḍván 1984 to the
> Bahá’ís of the World, Messages from the Universal House of
> Justice, 1963-1986, no. 394.7.
> [←281]
> 
> “International Survey of Current Bahá’í Activities, 1968-1973,” in
> Bahá’í World, vol. 15, p. 248.
> [←282]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated 25 May 1975 to all
> National Spiritual Assemblies, Messages from the Universal
> House of Justice, 1963-1986, no. 162.32.
> [←283]
> 
> The Five Year Plan, 1974-1979, Statistical Report, Riḍván 1978
> (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1978), pp. 33-34.
> [←284]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated 24 March 1977 to all
> National Spiritual Assemblies, Messages from the Universal
> House of Justice, 1963-1986, no. 190. 5.
> [←285]
> 
> Rachel Collins, “Survey of Activities of Bahá’í Women in the Five
> Year Plan,” in Bahá’í World, vol. 17, pp. 210-12.
> [←286]
> 
> The Seven Year Plan, 1979-1986, Statistical Report, [n.p.: n.d.], p.
> 107.
> [←287]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated Riḍván 153 (1996] to
> the Bahá’ís of the World, The Four Year Plan: Messages of the
> Universal House of Justice (Riviera Beach, Fla.: Palabra
> Publications, 1996), no. 3.9.
> [←288]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated Riḍván 153 [1996] to
> the Followers of Bahá’u’lláh in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
> Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka, Four Year Plan, no.
> 10.11.
> [←289]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated 153 [1996] to the
> Followers of Bahá’u’lláh in Africa, Four Year Plan, no. 4.13.
> [←290]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated Riḍván 153 [1996] to
> the Followers of Bahá’u’lláh in Australia, the Cook Islands, the
> Eastern Caroline Islands, the Fiji Islands, French Polynesia, the
> Hawaiian Islands, Indonesia, Japan, Kiribati, Korea, the Mariana
> Islands, the Marshall Islands, New Caledonia and the Loyalty
> Islands, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Samoa,
> the Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and the Western
> Caroline Islands, Four Year Plan, no. 8.5.
> [←291]
> 
> The Nineteen Day Feast is a meeting of the Bahá’í community at a
> local level held on the first day of every Bahá’í month, each of
> which consists of nineteen days. The program of the Feast has
> devotional, consultative, and social elements.
> [←292]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, letter dated 3June 1925 to the beloved of God and
> the handmaids of the Merciful, the delegates and visitors to the
> Bahá’í Convention, Green Acre Maine, Bahá’í Administration, p.
> 88.
> [←293]
> 
> “Achievements of the Bahá’í Community in Advancing the Status
> of women,” in The Bahá’í World: An International Record,
> Volume 19, comp. Universal House of Justice (Haifa: Bahá’í
> World Centre, 1994), p. 401.
> [←294]
> 
> Ibid., p. 402.
> [←295]
> 
> See Bahá’í International Community Office for the Advancement
> of Women, “The Status of women in the Bahá’í Community,” in
> The Greatness Which Might Be Theirs (n. p.: Bahá’í International
> Community, 1995), pp. 81-87.
> [←296]
> 
> Ibid.
> [←297]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, pp. 134, 77.
> [←298]
> 
> “Achievements of the Bahá’í Community in Advancing the Status
> of Women,” in Bahá’í World, vol. 19, p. 399.
> [←299]
> 
> Bahá’í International Community, “The Girl Child: A Critical
> Concern,” in The Greatness Which Might Be Theirs (n. p.: Bahá’í
> International Community, 1995), pp. 77-78.
> [←300]
> 
> Ibid., p. 78.
> [←301]
> 
> Ibid.
> [←302]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated 10 December 1992 to
> all National Spiritual Assemblies.
> [←303]
> 
> Ibid.
> [←304]
> 
> Bahá’í International Community, “Educating Girls: An Investment
> in the Future,” in The Greatness Which Might Be Theirs, pp. 8-9.
> [←305]
> 
> Bahá’í International Community, “Protection of Women’s Rights,”
> in The Greatness Which Might Be Theirs, p. 64.
> [←306]
> 
> Bahá’í International Community, “Ending Violence Against
> women,” in The Greatness Which Might Be Theirs, p. 28.
> [←307]
> 
> Bahá’í International Community, “Protection of women’s Rights,”
> in The Greatness Which Might Be Theirs, p. 64.
> [←308]
> 
> Ibid., pp. 63-64.
> [←309]
> 
> Bahá’í International Community,” Ending Violence Against
> Women,” in The Greatness Which Might Be Theirs, p. 29.
> [←310]
> 
> Bahá’í International Community, “Moral and Ethical Concerns of
> the Bahá’í International Community in the Face of the Widespread
> Sexual Exploitation of Children,” (paper presented at the meeting
> of the World Conference on Religion and Peace and UNICEF,
> New York, March 1996).
> [←311]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated Riḍván 153 [1996] to
> the Bahá’ís of the World, in Four Year Plan, no. 3.33.
> [←312]
> 
> Ann Boyles, “Towards the Goal of Full Partnership: One Hundred
> and Fifty Years of the Advancement of Women,” in The Bahá’í
> World, 1993-94: An International Record (Haifa: Bahá’í World
> Centre, 1994), p. 266.
> [←313]
> 
> Bahá’í International Community Office of Public Information, The
> Prosperity of Humankind (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust,
> 1995), pp. 21-22.
> [←314]
> 
> Bahá’í International Community, Turning Point For All Nations: A
> Statement of the Bahá’í International Community on the Occasion
> of the 50th Anniversary of the United Nations (New York: Bahá’í
> International Community, 1995) p. 18.
> [←315]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated 20 October 1983 to
> the Bahá’ís of the World, Messages from the Universal House of
> Justice 1963-1986, no. 379.2.
> [←316]
> 
> See The Bahá’í World, 1995-96 (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre,
> 1997), pp. 317-20.
> [←317]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated Riḍván 153 [1996] to
> the Followers of Bahá’u’lláh in Africa, in Four Year Plan, no. 4.9.
> [←318]
> 
> Based on information provided by the Bahá’í World Center’s
> Office of Social and Economic Development.
> [←319]
> 
> See Boyles, “Towards the Goal of True Partnership: One Hundred
> and Fifty Years of the Advancement of Women,” in Bahá’í World,
> 1993-94, p. 257.
> [←320]
> 
> See ibid.; for further information about the Lar Linda Tanure
> orphanage, see “Profile: Association for the Coherent
> Development of the Amazon,” in Bahá’í World, 1995-96, pp. 301-
> 05.
> [←321]
> 
> See Boyles, “Towards the Goal of Full Partnership: One Hundred
> and Fifty Years of the Advancement of Women,” in Bahá’í World,
> 1993-94. p. 255.
> [←322]
> 
> The Six Year Plan, 1986-1992: Summary of Achievements (Haifa:
> Bahá’í World Centre, 1993), p. 81.
> [←323]
> 
> See “Simple Methods, simple training are keys to primary health
> care in villages,” One Country I, no. 3 (June-August 1989): pp. 1,
> 8-9; see also Six Year Plan, pp. 76-79.
> [←324]
> 
> “UNIFEM/Bahá’í Project Raises Community Consciousness” (an
> article originally published in One Country 5, no. 3 [Oct.-Dec.
> 1993): p. 9), in The Greatness Which Must Be Theirs, p. 56.
> [←325]
> 
> Quoted in Boyles, “Towards the Goal of Full Partnership,” in
> Bahá’í World, 1993-94, p. 262.
> [←326]
> 
> Ibid.
> [←327]
> 
> See “The Bahá’í International Community: Activities 1994-95,” in
> Bahá’í World, 1994-95 (Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 1995), p.
> 145; Bahá’í International Community Office for the Advancement
> of Women, Two Wings: Changing Behavior and Attitudes–Story of
> the Bahá’í International Community’s Traditional Media as
> Change Agent Project (New York: Bahá’í International
> Community Office for the Advancement of Women, 1994),
> videocassette 25:35 minutes.
> [←328]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated 6 February 1973 to all
> National Spiritual Assemblies, Messages from the Universal
> House of Justice, 1963-1986, no. 126. 2.
> [←329]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris Talks, nos. 51. 7, 40. 35, 17. 7.
> [←330]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 4 May 1942 written on behalf of Shoghi
> Effendi to an individual, in The Power of Divine Assistance:
> Extracts from the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh, the Bab, ‘Abdu’l-Baha
> and Shoghi Effendi . . . and Selected Prayers, comp. Research
> Department of the Universal House of Justice (n. p.: National
> Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Canada, 1982), pp. 53, 50.
> [←331]
> 
> See Shahin Vafai, The Path Toward Spirituality: Sacred Duties
> and Practice of the Bahá’í Life (Riviera Beach, Fla.: Palabra
> Publications, 1996).
> [←332]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 22 November 1941 written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi to an individual, in Compilation of Compilations,
> vol. 2, no. 1770.
> [←333]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in Star of the West 8, no. 6 (24 June 1917): p. 68.
> [←334]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 10 January 1936 written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís
> of the United States, in Lights of Guidance: A Bahá’í Reference
> File, comp. Helen Hornby, 3d rev. ed. (New Delhi: Bahá’í
> Publishing Trust, 1994), nos. 775, 1223.
> [←335]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 26 March 1950 written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi to an individual, in Lights of Guidance, no. 1223.
> [←336]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 17 October 1968 written on behalf of
> the Universal House of Justice to an individual, in Compilation of
> Compilations, vol. 1, no. 118.
> [←337]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 17 February 1933 written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi to an individual, in Compilation of Compilations,
> vol. 1, pp. 84-85.
> [←338]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated 6 February 1973 to all
> National Spiritual Assemblies, Messages from the Universal
> House of Justice, 1963-1986, no. 126.2.
> [←339]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 2 November 1933 written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi to an individual, in Compilation of Compilations,
> vol. 1, no. 475.
> [←340]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated September 1964 to the
> Bahá’ís of the World, Messages from the Universal House of
> Justice, 1963-1986, no. 19 4.
> [←341]
> 
> Ibid., no. 19.6.
> [←342]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 12 May 1925 written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi to an individual, in Compilation of Compilations,
> vol. 2, no. 1272.
> [←343]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 27 February 1943 written on behalf of
> Shoghi Effendi to an individual, in Compilation of Compilations,
> vol. 2, no. 1289.
> [←344]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 25 July 1984 written on behalf of the
> Universal House of Justice to an individual, Messages from the
> Universal House of Justice, 1963-1986, no. 402. 6.
> [←345]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris Talks, no. 50. 10; ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in Women,
> no. 12; ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 76.
> [←346]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 283; ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris Talks,
> no. 50.14.
> [←347]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated Riḍván 153 [1996] to
> the followers of Bahá’u’lláh in Australia, the Cook Islands, the
> Eastern Caroline Islands, the Fiji Islands, French Polynesia, the
> Hawaiian Islands, Indonesia, Japan, Kiribati, Korea, the Mariana
> Islands, the Marshall Islands, New Caledonia and the Loyalty
> Islands, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Samoa,
> the Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and the Western
> Caroline Islands, Four Year Plan, no. 8. 5.
> [←348]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated Riḍván 153 [1996] to
> the followers of Bahá’u’lláh in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
> Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka, Four Year Plan, no. 10.
> 11.
> [←349]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated Naw-Rúz 1979 to the
> Bahá’ís of the World, Messages from the Universal House of
> Justice, 1963-1986, nos. 221.13j, 394.7.
> [←350]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 9 August 1984 written on behalf of the
> Universal House of Justice to an individual, in Women, no. 78.
> [←351]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 16 June 1982 written on behalf of the
> Universal House of Justice to an individual, in Women, no. 77.
> [←352]
> 
> National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States,
> Two Wings of a Bird: The Equality of Women and Men (Wilmette,
> Ill.: Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1997), pp. 7-8.
> [←353]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated 25 May 1975 to all
> National Spiritual Assemblies, Messages from the Universal
> House of Justice, 1963-1986, no. 162.32; ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in
> Women, no. 19.
> [←354]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris Talks, no. 50.15.
> [←355]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections, no. 113.2.
> [←356]
> 
> Extract from a letter dated 29 February 1984 written on behalf of
> the Universal House of Justice to the National Spiritual Assembly
> of the Mariana Islands, in Women, no. 124.
> [←357]
> 
> The Universal House of Justice, letter dated 31 May 1988 to the
> National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of New Zealand, p. 4.
> [←358]
> 
> See the Universal House of Justice, Promise of World Peace, pp.
> 26-27.
> [←359]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, in Women, no. 54.
> [←360]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 175.
> [←361]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Secret of Divine Civilization, p. 39.
> [←362]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, Hidden Words, Arabic, no. 68.
> [←363]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p. 375.
> [←364]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, Tablets, p. 51.
> [←365]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections, no. 114.1.
> [←366]
> 
> Bahá’u’lláh, in Women, no. 2; ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation, p.
> 300.
> [←367]
> 
> Ibid., p. 135.
> [←368]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, quoted in Esslemont, Bahá’u’lláh and the New Era,
> p. 149.
> [←369]
> 
> ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Paris Talks, no. 40.33.
> [←370]
> 
> Ibid., no. 50.14.
> [←371]
> 
> Shoghi Effendi, Advent of Divine Justice, p. 40.
>
> — *Advancement of Women: A Baha'i Perspective (Used by permission of the curator)*