# Mohammed and Islam

*Exported from [Holy-Writings.com](https://www.holy-writings.com/) on 2026-06-19 — 1 clipping.*

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> Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Ignaz Goldziher, Mohammed and Islam, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917, bahai-library.com.
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> 
> X. The movement which arose in the Arabian penin­
> sula and whose nims and effects we have just been con­
> sidering, has its gaze fixed on the past, denying the
> justification of the results of historical development, and
> recognizing Islam only in the petrified form of the
> seventh century. In contrast to this is a more modern
> movement within Islam, which recognizes the religious
> 
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> 312            MOHAMMED AND ISLAM.
> evolution of mankind, in fact has this belief as its start­
> ing point and vital idea. This is the Babi movement
> which had its rise in Persia.
> It arose, it is true, from a form of Shi'ism predomi­
> nating in that country. In its historical development,
> however, its fundamental ideas are connected with a
> principle which we have come to recognize as the guiding
> thought of the Isma'ilian sect, namely the self-perfection
> of the divine revelation through progressive manifesta­
> tion of the great world-intellect.
> In the beginning of the nineteenth century a new
> branch was grafted on to the Imam doctrine of the Sh!‘-
> itic “ Twelvers,’’ the school of Sheikhites whose adher­
> ents cherished a zealous worship of the “ hidden Mahdi”
> and of the Imams preceding him. In a gnostic manner,
> they hold these persons as hypostases of divine attri­
> butes, as creative potentialities. They thus give the
> Imam mythology of the ordinary Imamiyya a greater
> area, and in this respect are in line with the extremists
> (ghulat, see above page 233).
> In this group grew up the visionary youth Mirza
> Muhammed ‘All of Shiraz (born 1820). On account
> of his great ability and enthusiasm, he was recognized
> by his companions as chosen for the highest calling.
> This recognition of his fellow visionaries acted as a
> strong suggestion to the spirit of the pensive youth. He
> finally came to recognize himself as the embodiment
> and manifestation of a supreme superhuman mission
> within the development of Islam. From the conscious­
> ness of being a Báb, that is “ a door” by which the
> infallible will of the hidden Imam, as the highest source
> of all truth, reveals itself to the world, he soon came to
> believe that in the economy of spiritual development he
> was really the organ of the hidden instructor, the Imam
> of the age. In other words, he himself was the new
> Mahdl, whose coming had been foretold at “ the end of
> 
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> LAT KR I ) KV K1,0PM KNTS.             313
> the first millennium,’*after the twelfth Imam (260-12G0)*
> after Mohammed. He is Mahdi, however, no longer as
> the ordinary ShPite conceives of this dignity, but (and
> here he touches Isma'ilitic doctrines) ns a manifestation
> of the spirit of the world, as “ the point of manifesta­
> tion,“ the highest truth, which, having taken on bodily
> form in him, differs only in appearance, but is identical in
> being with those previous manifestations of that spiritual
> substance proceeding from God. He is the reappearance
> on earth of Moses and Jesus, as well as the embodiment
> of all other prophets through whose bodily appearance
> in former aeons the divine world-spirit had manifested
> itself. He preached to his followers opposition to the
> Mullahs—in Persia more particularly, the Ulemas are
> so-called—to their sanctimoniousness and hypocrisy, and
> their worldly strivings. He even went so far as to
> raise the revelation of Mohammed, which he interpreted
> largely in an allegorical sense, to the highest level. The
> practices of Islam, the minute laws on ritualistic purity,
> etc., were little considered in his doctrine. Sometimes
> others were substituted for them. Divine judgment,
> parndise, hell and the resurrection had other meanings.1
> In this he had predecessors in earlier spiritualistic
> systems. Resurrection is every new periodic manifesta­
> tion of the divine spirit in relation to a preceding one.
> The latter comes to new life through its successor. This
> is the meaning of the “ meeting with God,” as the
> future life is designated in the Koran.
> It is, however, not only in dogmatic and legal con­
> ceptions that the young Persian visionary opposed the
> petrified theology of the Mullahs. With his proclama­
> tion he attacked the social relationships of his fellow
> believers. His sympathetic ethics, the brotherhood of all
> men, were offered in place of the wall of separation
> between classes. He wished to raise women from the
> low position in which actual conditions had placed her
> • Of the Mohammedan era.
> 
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> 314            MOHAMMED AND ISLAM.
> in the name of tradition, to one of equality with man. He
> begins this task by doing away with the obligatory veil,
> and by rejecting the coarse conception of marriage as
> it had developed in Moslem communities, as this develop­
> ment was not a necessary result of religious principles.
> He connected the nobler conception of the marriage
> relation with thoughts on the function of the family and
> the reform of education.
> The religious reforms of Bub, therefore, included in
> their aim the fundamentals of community life. He is a
> social as well as a religious reformer, but as at the
> beginning he started with gnostic and mystic views, the
> latter element permeates his entire system by which he
> builds up his view of the world. He combines a dis­
> tinctively modern point of view with Pythagorian sub­
> tleties; like the Hurüfïs (page 268) he toys with com­
> binations of the letters of the alphabet, and assigns a
> numerical value to them. The number 19 possesses the
> greatest importance and serves him as the point of
> departure for “ Gemutria” (i. e., combinations of letters
> according to their numerical value), which play a great
> part in his speculation.
> In regard to his own person he teaches his identity
> with the prophets which preceded him, a conception
> which has its roots in gnosticism, and even found an
> expression in earlier schismatic movements in Islam.
> Similarly he announces for the future a constantly
> renewing manifestation of the divine spirit, embodied
> for his days in his own person.2 Divine rovelatioq is not
> concluded either with Mohammed or with him. The
> divine spirit reveals itself in a progressive chain of
> periodical manifestations, which proclaim the divine
> will in a steadily increasing maturity, according to the
> progress of the times. Through such teachings Mirza
> Muhammed ‘All paved the way for the transformation
> which took place in his community soon after his death.
> 
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> LATKH DKVKLOl’MENTS.                   :J15
> lie has embodied the substance of his teachings in a
> religious work regarded as sacred, and known as Bayan,
> i. e., Interpretation. His doctrine, naturally, appeared
> exceedingly dangerous from a political as well as from
> a religious point of view. The founder and his followers
> who gathered around him, among whom the heroine
> K uřat al-'Ain (comfort of the eye) arouses our sym­
> pathy, were unsparingly persecuted and proscribed,
> pursued and turned over to the executioner. Mohammed
> ‘All himself was put to death in July, 1850. Those of
> his followers who escaped the m artyr’s death, whose
> enthusiasm was increased by the persecutions which they
> suffered, found an asylum on Turkish soil.
> Soon after the death of the founder a split occurred
> within the community, according as the followers recog­
> nized the one or the other of two pupils singled out by
> the Bfib, as the authentic interpreter of the will of the
> late leader. The minority gathered around Subh-i-ezcl
> (dawn of eternity) with headquarters in Famagusta
> (Cyprus), who proposed to sanction the work of the
> Bäb in the form given to it by the master. They are
> the conservative Bäbists. The others supported the
> contention of the other apostle, Bella-Allah (splendor of
> God), who in the beginning of the sixties, during the
> stay of the Bub-exiles in Adrianople, declared himself
> on the basis of a cyclic system, to be the more perfect
> manifestation proclaimed by the master, through which
> the latter’s own work would be raised to a higher level.
> Mohammed ‘All was his precursor, his John, as it were.
> The divine spirit had appeared in him to fulfill the
> preparation made by the precursor. Behä is greater
> than Bab. The latter was the Kä‘im (the one who rises
> up), Behä is Kayyüm (the permanent one); “ He who
> will appear,” the expression used by Bäb with regard
> to his successor, “ is greater than the one who has
> already appeared.”3 By preference he calls himself
> 
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> 31G             MOIIAMMED AND ISLAM.
> mazhar or mangar, the revelation of God in which the
> beauty of God is to be seen as in a mirror. lie himself
> is “ the beauty of Allah,” whose face shines between
> the heavens and the earth as a precious polished pearl.*
> Through him alone the being of God can be known, whoso
> emanation he himself is.0 His followers actually invest
> him with divine attributes, as illustrated in the extrava­
> gant hymns addressed to him which have been published
> by E. G. Browne.0
> On account of the quarrel which broke out between
> his followers and the conservative Bäbists, Beba and
> his community were transferred to Akka, where he per­
> fected his doctrine into a complete system in opposition
> not only to the m ild al furkân, the congregation of the
> Koran, but also to the m ild al hayan, i. e., the old Bäbists
> who would not accept his reform, who declined to pass
> beyond the Bayun.
> His teachings have been embodied in a number of
> books and epistles in Arabic and Persian, of which the
> Kitäb akdas (Sacred Book) is the most important.7 For
> his written declarations he claims divine origin. “ Even
> this tablet (referred to in one of his epistles), is a hid­
> den waiting which has been guarded from eternity among
> the treasures of divine exemption, and whose characters
> are written with the fingers of divine power, if you
> would but know it.” Thus he conveys the impression
> as though he did not reveal the whole wealth of his doc­
> trine of salvation, reserving apparently some esoteric
> thoughts for the innermost circle. He maintains also
> that certain teachings ought to be kept secret from
> opponents. In a certain passage he declares : “ We must
> not discuss this stage in detail, for the ears of our
> opponents are directed toward us in order to over-hear,
> while offering opposition to the true and everlasting
> God. For they do not attain to the mystery of knowledge
> 
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> LÁTEK DEVELOPMENTS.                    317
> and of wisdom of the one who arises from the horizon
> of the splendor of divine unity.”
> This manifestation of the universal spirit in Behä, as
> the fulfilment of the announcement of the original
> founder, resulted in the abrogation of the revelation to
> the Bab in some essential points. While the latter is
> at bottom only a reform of Islam, Behä advanced
> to the larger conception of a world religion which was
> to unite mankind in a religious brotherhood. As in his
> political teachings he professes cosmopolitanism—em­
> phasizing that there is ‘‘no preference to be given to
> him who loves his country, but to him who loves the
> world,” 8 his religion in this matter was stripped of all
> narrow sectarianism.
> He regards himself as the manifestation of the world
> spirit to a l l mankind. With this in view he sends his
> epistles, which form a portion of his book of revelations,
> to the nations and rulers of Europe and Asia; and he
> extends his horizon even to ‘‘the kings of America, and
> to the chiefs of the republic” ; he proclaims ‘‘what the
> dove coos on the branches of constancy.” In the eyes
> of his followers he becomes a divine man filled with the
> prophetic spirit, when in his epistle to Napoleon H I
> he announced, four years before Sedan, the Empire’s
> approaching downfall.
> With his cosmopolitan aims in view, he commanded
> his followers to prepare themselves, by the study of
> foreign languages, for the mission of apostles of the
> world religion which was to unite all mankind and all
> nations ‘‘in order that the interpreter of God’s cause
> reaching the east and the west should announce it to the
> states and nations of the world in such a way, that the
> minds of men should be drawn to it, and mouldering
> bones should be brought to life.” “ By this means, unity
> is to be brought about and the highest task of civiliza-
> 
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> 318             MOHAMMED AND ISLAM.
> tion accomplished.”0 The ideal means by which the
> understanding of the world is to be won is a common
> world language. He wishes that kings and ministers
> might unite in recognizing one of the existing languages,
> or else create a new one as the universal language which
> should be taught in all the schools of the world.10
> He threw aside all limitations both of Islam and of
> Babism. With regard to the latter, it is true, he did
> not free his proclamation from all mystical speculations,
> tricks of letters and numbers, which had gathered around
> early Babism. His main interest, nevertheless, is
> directed toward the building up of the ethical and social
> factors. W ar is strictly forbidden, only “ in case of
> need” is the use of weapons allowed ; slavery also is for­
> bidden, and equality of all men is taught as the nucleus
> of the new gospel.11 In a revelation entitled Sürat al-
> Muliik (Sura of the Kings) he severely reproached the
> Sultan of Turkey for allowing such great differences in
> power to exist among his people.12 In a reforming
> spirit, he takes up the question of marriage relations
> already considered by Bab. His ideal is monogamy, but
> he makes concessions to bigamy, which, however, is to
> be regarded as the limit of polygamy. Divorce is
> recognized, but modified in a humane spirit. The reunit­
> ing of those who have separated is allowed, provided
> they have not married again; in direct contrast there­
> fore to the custom of Islam. The law of Islam is
> regarded as completely superseded ; new forms for
> prayer and ritual are introduced, public prayer with its
> liturgical forms (salat al-jama‘) is done away with.
> Each individual prays alone (furädä). Common prayer
> • is retained only for prayers over the dead. The kibla
> (the direction of prayer) is not toward Mecca but toward
> the place where the one is whom God has sent down
> “ as his manifestation.” When he wanders the kibla
> wanders, until he takes up an abode somewhere. Bodily
> 
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> LATER DEVELOPMENTS.                     319
> cleanliness, washing and bathing, are most emphatically
> ordained, as religious duties, together with a warning
> against bathing establishments such as those of the
> Persians which arc represented as very unclean.
> With a stroke of the pen he strikes out the limitations
> which Islam had laid upon the believers, without going
> into any detail except in the case of certain laws of dress.
> You may do anything which is not opposed to common
> sense.13 Like his predecessor he is tireless in his war
> against the ‘Ulema who twist and check the will of God.
> One is, however, to keep clear of disputes with religious
> opponents. The Bella religion recognizes no profes­
> sional spiritual position. Every member of this uni­
> versal church should work toward a productive aim,
> useful to the community. Those who have the ability
> should be the spiritual teachers of the community with­
> out compensation.14 The suppression of the corporate
> business of teaching was demonstrated by the abolish­
> ment of the pulpit (minbar) in public gathering places.10
> We will be disappointed if we expect to find Behä in
> the camp of the liberals in political matters. He surprises
> us by fighting political freedom—“ We see that many
> men desire freedom and boast of it: they are obviously
> in error. . . . Freedom brings about confusion whose
> fire is not extinguished. Know that the origin and
> appearance of freedom is animalic ; man must be under
> laws which guard him from his own barbarity, and the
> harms which may be done by those who nrc false. Indeed
> freedom removes man from the demands of culture and
> propriety.”—and so on, in undisguised reactionary lan­
> guage.18 The adherents of the Bella do not even favor
> the liberal political developments in Turkey and Persia,
> but look with disfavor on the dethronement of the sultan
> and the shah.17
> Tho mission of the Behä Alläh passed after his death
> (May 1G, 1892), with only a few objections by the
> 
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> 320             MOHAMMED AND ISLAM.
> “ friends” (ahbâb), to his son and successor ‘Abbfis
> Effendi, called ‘Abd-al Balia, or Ghusn Azam (the Great
> Branch).18 He carried the views of his lather to a
> comprehensive development. They are made to conform
> more and more to the forms and aims of the intellectual
> thought of the Occident. The fantastic elements which
> had still clung to the previous stage are made as mild as
> possible, although not yet completely thrown off. ‘Abbfis
> makes a wide use of the writings of the Old and New
> Testament which he quotes for his purposes. In this
> way he strives to extend the influence to still wider circles
> than those to which the followers of his father had
> appealed.
> Since the appearance of ‘Abd-al Bahfi the propaganda
> has attained very remarkable results. A great number
> of American ladies (the names of a few can be found
> in the notes) made a pilgrimage to the Persian prophet
> at the foot of Mount Carmel in order to bring to their
> western homes words of healing from his own lips, words
> which they had heard directly from the holy man. The
> best presentation of the teaching of ‘Abbfis we owe to
> Miss Laura Cliford Barney, who, living a long time in
> the vicinity of ‘Abbfis, took down his teachings in short­
> hand in order to bring them to the western world as
> representing an authentic conception of the new Balia
> doctrine.10
> The movement started by the Bfib is no longer to bear
> the name of its founder. There has developed lately a
> preference to call this offspring of the doctrine of MIrzâ
> Mohammed ‘All which is constantly spreading and leav­
> ing its rivals behind, Behďiyya, a name which the faith­
> ful give themselves in opposition to the unimportant
> remnants of the conservative Bayfin-adherents who are
> gathered under other leaders.
> The wide universalistic aim which characterizes it has
> drawn its adherents not only from mosques, but from
> 
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> LATIÍ It Dlí VJ5L0PM 1ÍNTS.            »21
> churches, synagogues, and fire temples. A building for
> public worship has lately been erected in Ashkabad near
> the Persian boundary in Russian Turkestan. A descrip­
> tion of it has been given by an enthusiastic European
> interpreter of Bella*ism, Hippolyte Dreyfus.20 On the
> other hand, the designation BcluV ism embodies the idea
> of religious free-thought, of the laying aside of the posi­
> tive doctrine of Islam. As formerly the term Zindik
> meant an early Moslem whose religious views were influ­
> enced by Parseeism and Manichaeism, and as later the
> name Failasüf (Philosopher), lately also Farmasfm
> (franc-maçon) without regard to a definite kind of back­
> sliding from true Islam generally refers to a free-thinker,
> so to-day in Persia, Behfi‘1 is applied not only to this
> latest development of the Bábi faith, but as Rev. F. M.
> Jordan has remarked, “ many of those who are given
> this name are really nothing but ‘irreligious rational­
> ists.’ ” 2' Since the adherents of this form of belief in
> Persia and also in other Moslem lands still have every
> reason to hide their completely anti-Mohammedan con­
> victions from publicity and to claim the practice of
> takiyya (above page 228), it would be difficult to offer
> even approximately correct statistics as to the followers
> of Bfibiism in both its forms. The statement of Rev.
> Isaac Adams, one of the latest to picture Babi condi­
> tions, that their number in Persia reaches three millions,
> would seem to be exaggerated. This would mean almost
> a third of the whole population of the country. ‘Abbas
> Effcndi himself in an interview in New York in July,
> 1912, said he could not give the number of the followers
> of Beim* ism.
> Bfibism, passing over into Bella* ism, has undertaken
> a serious propaganda. Its teachers and followers have
> not hesitated to draw the consequences of their con­
> viction that they are not a sect of Islam but the repre­
> sentative of a world-wide doctrine. Its propaganda has
> 
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> 322            MOHAMMED AND ISLAM.
> not only spread far among those of Moslem faith (as far
> as Indo-China) but with remarkable success is going
> farther and farther beyond the boundaries of Islam. The
> prophet of ‘Akka has found in America and in Europe
> also, it is claimed, zealous adherents even among Chris­
> tians.21 Through the spread of literature the attempt
> is made to crystallize American Beha'ism. Its journal­
> istic interpreter is a magazine known as the Star of the
> West, which has appeared nineteen times every year
> since 1910 (19 being the sacred number of the Bab).
> With Chicago as its center, it covers a wide area in the
> United States, and it is in this very city that plans are
> being formed for the erection of a religious gathering
> place, mashrak al-Adkat, for the American Behas. A
> considerable sum raised by the “ Friends” has assured
> the acquisition of a large piece of land on the banks of
> Lake Michigan which was dedicated on the first of May,
> 1912, by ‘Abbas Effendi during his tour in the United
> States.23 Jewish visionaries also have picked out from
> the books of the Old Testament prophets the foretelling
> of the Behfi and ‘Abbas. According to them, whercever the “ glory of Jahweli” is spoken of, the appear­
> ance of the Saviour of the world, Bella Allah is meant.
> They find support in all the references to Mount Carmel,
> in the neighborhood of which the Light of God shone for
> all men at the end of the nineteenth century. Nor have
> they neglected to ferret out from the visions of the Book
> of Daniel24 the foretelling and even the chronology of the
> movement beginning with the Bab. The 2300 year-days
> (Dan. viii:14) at the end of which “ the sanctuary shall
> be cleansed” corresponds, according to their reckoning,
> with the year 1844, of our era, the year in which MIrza
> Mohammed ‘All proclaimed himself as Bäb, and at which
> time the universal spirit (Wclt-geist) entered into a new
> phase of its manifestation.
> 
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> LATER DEVELOPMENTS.                    323
> With the appearance of ‘Abbas Effendi, the application
> of Biblical interpretations went one step farther. Ac­
> cording to these he was foretold as “ the child who will
> be born to us, the son who will be given to us,” on whose
> shoulders lie the responsibilities of a prince, and who is
> the bearer of the wonder epithets in Isaiah 9:5. As I
> write these pages I listen to these Biblical proofs from
> the lips of a Bella visionary who for two years has been
> staying in my town. He was formerly a physician in
> Teheran, and is endeavoring to find followers for his
> faith here. ITc feels in himself a special mission to my
> country. This fact is one more proof that it is not on
> American soil alone that the extra-Mohammedan prop­
> aganda of the new Beim is directed.
> 
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> — *Mohammed and Islam (Used by permission of the curator)*