The Baha'i World: Volume 32 (2003-2004) ======================================= Exported from Holy-Writings.com on 2026-06-18 1 clipping 1. Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Universal House of Justice, The Baha'i World: Volume 32 (2003-2004), Haifa: Bahá’í World Centre, 2005, bahai-library.com. ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── THE BAHA i WORLD 2003- 2004 160 OF Tl IF BAHA'f l:.RA THE B~I WORLD 2003-2004 AN INTERNATlONAL RECORD BAHA'f WORLD CENTRE HAIFA ©!005 \X'orld Ccnm: Publicarions Orpoken. He a entirely in its own hands. Io promote che of their Faith and co pray, but a central feature in Bahff community life is a meeting clllcd the Nineceen Day reast, ar which all members join in worship, consult about community affairs, and -;ocialize. Pending rhe further development of Baha'f communities, these meetings ofcen occur in renred facilities, people's homes, or in local Baha'i centers. The Baha'f wricings call for the erection in each communtty of a beautifully designed House of Worship, surroundeJ by gardens and functioning as a spiritual center of activity. A variety of social and humanitarian institutions arc also co be established around ic. Seven Baha'f Houses of Worship presently exist, in Australia, Germany, India, Panama, Uganda, the United Sraces, and )amoa. l>lans have been launched for chc construction of an eighth House of Worship in Chile, and sires have been purchased around the world for the erection of many more. 1 The I louses of Worship arc open to people of all faiths-or those professing no particular foirh-- for prayer and medirntion. Services are nondenominational. There arc no sermons, only readings and prayers from the Baha'f writings and scriprurcs of other faichs with music by an a capelltt choir. This preserves the sacredness of the experience of hearing THE BAHA'f COMMUNITY 15 and medic,uing upon che Holy \'qord wichouc che interference of man-made concepcs. Aims, Objectives, and Activities As che Universal House of Juscice scared in a message addressed co che peopks of rhe \\·orld wrirten in October 1985, coinciding~wich che Unicc of Baha'u'llah and given authority both co enact furcher application of Baha'i laws and ro legislate on matcers not explicitly dealc wich in the Baha'f sacred cexrs. Each year, chrough lercers co national and loc.il communities and co individuals, chis inrernarional body makes imponanc announcemenrs and provides counsel and direccion. In irs 2003 message to che Baha'i world on che occasion of che Fescival of Ric;lvan, 1 the Universal House of Justice begw by noting the building momentum of che worldwide Baha'f community, which is in the middle of a global Five Year Plan of expansion and consolidation. le attributed chis to both the "increased coherence" in che Baha'f community's pursuic of the elements of irs plan and "che spirit of unrest pervading the planet." lhc: House of Justice pointed our char cnsc.<. leading up ro and including rhe war in Jraq held significant implicacions both for rhe Baha'f community and for "che evolution of an increasingly global society in chc rhroc:s of a turbulent cransicion." And while c:venrs 34 THE BAHA'f WORLD 2003-2004 inspired hope for rhe oppressed Baha'f community in Iraq, rhey also forced rhe cancellation of the Ninth Internalional Convention at the Baha'i World Centre in Haifa. Describing world events as the "latest conflict in che unfoldmenc of che Lesser Peace," the Universal I louse of Justice noted Lhe response of the world's peoples in "angry" and "overwhelming" dcmonscracions-which, it remarked, often increase confusion rather than resolve ir. The House of Justice urged chc Ba.hf is co look to their Faith's "vision and principles" for an "unambiguous expla.na- Lion" of these events-and co become better t:quipped to respond cffi.crively. In comrasr co rhe wider community, che Baha'£s are making "giant strides" forward in achieving rheir goals, wich 179 nacional communiries now having divided their tcrricoric:. inro "clusters," which Lhe House of Justice refers ro as "seedbeds of expansion.n Furthermore, Bah:f fs have been gaining expcrit:ncc in che holding of "reflection meetings," which "have become a powerful means of unifying rhoughc and action across instirutions and localities" and "have.. lent a potcnr scimulus to insrirurional and individual iniciarives in a murua.lly supportive spirit." Jn addiuon co the benefits of growing numbers of adults, you ch, and children becoming involved in various aspects of community life, members or rhe general public have increasingly joined Baha'fs in participating in smdy circles, devotional meecings, and children's classes-the chree core activities of the Five Year Plan. In sum, che House of Justice characrerizes the community as "focused and on rhe move as never before'' ro implement "a Phrn designed to fie the requirements of chese rimes." Re iewing rhe major exrerna.l affairs acciviries of the previous year, che Universal House of Justice notes that rhe message addressed co the world's religious leaders in April 2002 was "seriously regarded" and in spme quarters has even given "new perspective co imerfaith activicies"-sreps cowards achieving the lcuer's purpose, which is to direct attention co "rhe urgent need for religious leadership ro address the problem of religious prejudice, which is becoming a steadily more serious danger to human well-being.'' Bahff-inspired initiatives in the field of social and economic development continued ro flourish during the year, w.ith rhe establi!'.hmenc of eighc new agencies, working in rhe fields of "che FROM TllE UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICT: 35 advancemem of women, hcalrh, agriculture, child cducacion, ans in che face of ics rria1s: "De- ~pitc years of political strife and .uhcrsity th.tt h.1ve severely torn the fabric of che sociecy around you, chc spirits of che believers in che Dernocr.uic Republic of che Congo have remainc.:J unbroken. and you h.wc managed co lay the foundations of a community whose influcn~e is felt throughout che continent." The jubilee program included ...on gs from the Dawn of Carmel Choir, including performers who won acclaim chroughouc che Baha'i world as the Congo Youth Choir at rhe opening of che terraces on Mount C.mncl in Haifa, Israel. in May 2001. Among many ochers co s111g were che Navvab Choir, .md che Mona Choir from the neighboring Republic of che Congo. WORLDWIDE JUBILEE 47 fa/embers ofrhe Daum ofCmnel Choir, which performed 111 tl11·jubilee in the Dmu1t·m1ic Rep11h/1r ofthe Congo. Among the 600 parcicipams at the celebrations in cht' c-.ipical were chrct• of cht· f1rsc Congolese Baha'is: Louis Selem.mi, Remy Kalonji, and Yalc.:ricn Mukendi, now all in their Sos. They were joined b} a dozen former pioneers from Europe, Norch America, and ocher pares of Africa. Ba hf is in remote areas who were unable to attend che main jubilee foscivicics in Kinshasa held chcir ov. n cdchracions in support of che main cvcnc. REPUBLIC OF n IE CONGO Th1.: Bah.ii community m the Republic of che Congo celebrated its golden jubilee by honoring chc struggles of chc past and looking forward cu ic fi.Jture. 'foo hundred people ancndcd dw soch anniversary celebrations in Brazz~wilJe from 2.9 to 3r August 2003. ·1 he evenc included 28 chc.urical .rnd musical performances, including a play by a cheate1 troupe from Pointe !\Joire and a film th.H highlighted chc hi~to• }' of thl' Faith in rhe c:ouncry. f WORLD 2003-2004 singing and reading from the Bahf (holy writings. Other highlights included a concert with singing, drumming, and dancing, and a visit to che island of Airuraki. KIRIBATI rhe President of Kiribati was among the accendees at che anniversary celebrations in Abaiang, Kiribati, held on 4 March 2004. President Anoce Tong addressed the gathering, urging, "governments of the lane.I and spiritual governments should work hand in hand for the welfare of the people." A report from che National Spiricual Assembly of the Baha'fs of Kiribati was read to the participants by Arica Acanrerei. The report recounted the introduction of Faich by F.lena and Roy Fernie, who left their home in Panama and arrived to live in the village of Tuarabu, Abaiang, on 4 March 1954. Boch were named Knights of The President ofKiribati, Anote Tong (left). being greeted by lotebatu Tiare, the C.hainnan ofthe National Spiritual Assembly of Kiribati. WORLDWIDE JUBILEE Baha'u'llah. In the 50 years since cheir arrival. more than 10,000 local people have joined the Faith throughout the country. Among those participating in the jubilee celebrations were Taukoriri Ericai, who became a Baha'i at the time the Fernies were on Abaiang, and Baha'f teachers in Kiribati, Joe Russell and John Thurston. Also attending was a representative of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahffs of New Zealand, Michael h1dakowski, who lived for some 17 years in Kiribati with his wife, Robin White, a member of lhc Concinencal Board of Counsell ors in Australasia, and their family. The celebration included a feast and musical and t>fConvmations (London: Baha'i PublishingTrusc, 1987), p. 38. For more information abouc che lnsricuce for Sou.ii Cohesion, ~e The Bal•ti'i \l7urld 2002-2003 (Haifa: World Cencrc Publicaciom, 2004), pp. 113-16. For more abouc the Baha'i imolvemenc in rhc Ropumonc Proce~'· see 1he Bahd'i ir'orld 1998 "99 (I Ltifu: World Cencre Publications, 2000), pp. 145-50. (•or more information about the European Baha'i Busint·ss Fomm, sec The Baha'i \'(/"'"'JOO/ -2002 (I laifu: World Centre Publicacions, 2003), pp. 149-54· World Summit on the Information Society Representatives of the B11hd 'I International Community contributed to the United Nations World Summit on the Information Society (\'(!SIS) in Geneva, Switzerland, 10-12 December 2003. F rom mobile phones to online universities, the "information age" is one in which the dominant questions become those of access: where is the informarion, and who can gee co ir? Bue the broader question of who will gee co decide those answers when it comes to informacion and communication technologies (1crs) is still unsettled. The needs of both governments and individuals must be weighed, and the potential benefits are often offset by problems such as an imbalance in resource distribution and the imprompcu governance of Internet standards. To address these and ocher challenges, and co explore opportunities presented by the rapid growth of ICTs, the United Nations organized the World Summit on the Information Society (wsis). The summit was hailed by many participants and observers as a change of direction for the United Narions, owing co the gathering's broad focus on emerging technologies, which cue across many issues in the global arena. Scheduled as a two-phase evenc. the first part of the summit took place in Geneva, Swiczerland, co-12 December 2003; the second phase is planned for 2005 in Tunisia. ll9 120 THE BAHA'f WORLD 2003-2004 At the opening in Geneva, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan spoke about the scale of change that the conference encompassed. "We are going through a historic transformation in the way we live, learn, work, communicate, and do business," he said. "We must do so not passively, bur as makers of our own destiny. Technology has produced the information age. Now it is up to all of us to build an information society." Fi&y-four government leaders and 83 ministers from some 176 countries came together for che summit, in addition to chousands of members of civil society, whose parcicipacion represented a dramatic shift in operation from previous conferences. Members of NGOs and ocher civic organizations have always played a pare at UN conferences, but for the first time participants focused their energies on lobbying and interaccion at the summit venue itself instead of being relegated to a separate NGO forum. More than u,ooo civil society representatives collaborated in negotiating sessions at preparatory committee meetings and were given a chance to address items under discussion on a paragraph-by-paragraph basis. Governments were willing to allow civil society represenratives into their negotiating sessions because of a de facto compromise that defined civil society as collaborators instead of critics in the summit's process. The structure of the conference also forced civil society to distill its comments and present an operational consensus. "For governments, instead of 3,000 interlocutors, they had one," said Louise Lassonde, coordinator of the Civil Society Division of the ws1s Secretariat. "And so the governments were more willing to say to civil society chat we recognize you as a partner, chat we recognize rhac you have good advice, and so we accept chat you can sit in the governmen cal meeting." - Central Issues Interactions between civil society and governmems were important in expanding the initial focus of the summit from concentrating on technical issues to including ways that the technologies might be used for social and economic advancement. WSIS 12! One of the summit's major issues was the way in which the Internet is governed and whether the United Nations should be more active in legislation and regulation. There is currently no real governance over the lnrernet. Management is carried out by a loose nerwork of nonprofit corporations and boards chat sec technical standards, though compliance constitutes little more than politeness for most of these. The inrerests of nations differed greatly in their desires for greater Internet governance. The Minister oflnformation for China called for action lo "prevent the use of information technologies and resources for pornographic, violent, and terrorise purposes as well as for criminal accivities endangering national security so as to ensure the healthy development of information and nerworks." Meanwhile, other countries stressed freedom of expression. Canada's Ambassador co the United Nations in Geneva said in an official scatemenr, "We wane the global information society co be based on universal respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. Among those, freedom of opinion and freedom of expression are clearly fundamental and underlie the creation, communication, and use of information and knowledge." Another highly discussed topic was the so-called "digital divide" that separates the haves and have-nots when it comes co resources and infrastructure dealing with ICTS. Many ac the summit called for the escablishmenc of a "digital solidarity fund," whereby developed countries would pay into a special fund co finance infrastructure improvements in poor nations. Some Western nations, however, said there was no need for a special fund for ICTs, concerned char ic would draw resources away from other necessary programs and would not adequately deal with underlying issues, such as poverty. In the end, conclusions on many of these key issues were deferred uncil the second phase of the conference in 2005. Baha,l International Community Delegation The Baha' ( lnrernational Community assembled a delegation of Internee and communications specialists for the summit headed by Canadian Bahiyyih Chaffers, who was appointed in August 2003 as 122. THE BAHA f WORLD 2003-2004 world surnrnit . . on the 1nformat1on society c;ene'la 2003 • Tunis 2005 The BalHi'I delegation to the conference (from left to right): Michael Quum, Bahiyyih Chaffers, Laina Raveendran Greene, and Kimmjt1 Gnkio. a permanem represencacive of rhe Baha'i Incernational Community to the United Nations. Ms. Chaffers chaired the Ethics and Values Caucus, an ad hoc civil society group chat sought co ensure char moral and ethical values were included in rhe summit's deliberations. The caucus issued a scacemenc co the summit chat called on participants co recognize the "ethical dimension of che Information Society ... ac rhe individual, community, national, and imernational levels, chat protects che dignity of every human life. This ethical dimension is where the oneness of humanity is recognized and respected and where each human being born inco the world is acknowledged as a crust of che whole." The "oneness" char is an essencial teaching of the Baha'{ Faith was evident in the members of rhe BIC delegation, who not only represemed years of experience wirh rcTs but were also a culturally diverse group: Karanja Gakio, cofounder of Africa Online, from Botswana; Laina Ravcendran Greene, a top-ranked encrcprcneur and Internee consultant from Singapore; and Michael Quinn, a c1sco wsrs 123 Systems vice-president from the United States, who is of Native American origin. "Our delegation was composed of people who are both highly regarded experts in information and communication technologiesand active members of a religious community that promotes world citizenship," said Ms. Chaffers. "Baha'fs believe that the emergence of a global information society is an aspect of the inevitable coming together of humanity in the construction of a new, just, and peaceful global civilization," Ms. Chaffers said. "It is important that the growing information society be as inclusive as possible, so that every human being has an opportunity to participate in shaping global society." Baha'i representatives worked with other civil society organizations on the summit's issues and presented the results of various Baha'i-inspired projects in the Information and Communication Technology for Development (1cT4D) global village that was associated with the WSIS. Mr. Gakio participated in a roundtable discussion oflmernet security in developing countries that was held at the ICT4D forum. The European Baha'f Business Forum (EBBF ), a Baha'(-inspired organization, sponsored a workshop at the swnmit titled "Toward a Knowledge-based, Sustainable World Information Society: The Role of Good Governance and Business." It featured a panel composed of Dr. Augusto Lopez-Claros, economist and Director of the World Competitiveness Report of the World Economic Forum; Dr. Arthur Lyon Dahl, President of the International Environment Forum and a former senior advisor to the United Nations Environment Programme; and Dr. Ramin Khadem, Chief Financial Officer of Immarsat, London. Declaration and Plan of Action Governments adopted a major new declaration of principles and an accompanying plan of action as a result of the first phase of rhe summit. Though borh documents were viewed by some as limited, the increased influence of civil society was apparent in che ouccome: as much as 60 percent of che language and/or ideas in the final documents originated with civil society. 12+ THE BAH.J\'f WORLD 2003-2004 The conference's conclusions echoed those of the former global UN conferences of rhe 1990s, such as rhe "universality. indivisibility, interdependence. and interrelation of all human rights" and the "achievement of sustainable development." Among other things, rhc action plan adopceia Regional Conference on Educ:uion: The Right of Every Girl and Boy." The National Spirirual Assembly of India organized the conference, which cook place at chc national Bahf i center in New Delhi and was held to assist in maintaining the momemum crcaccame righrs as any other Iranian citizen are still inadequare. l lc again reminds the Iranian auchorities of che nerd co ensure respect for che relevanc provisions of incernacional law, including arciclc 18 of the Jncernarional Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Declaration on the Elimination of All forms of lncolerancc and Discriminarion Based on Rdigion or Belie( In addition, as a religious minoriry, Baha'is are encidcd co che respect due co all other religious minorities. Also in November, che United Nacions' Third Commirtec passed a resolution, initiated by Canada, expressing ics concern regarding the human rights siruacion in Iran. The following momh the General Assembly adopted a resolution wich idencical wording, which made reference co the Bahf1s in three paragraphs. The resolution expressed "serious concern ar ... the continuing discriminacion .igainsc persons belonging co minoricies, including againsr rhe Bahci'fs, Chrisrians, Jews, and Sunnis, including cases of arbitrary arrcsc and detention; denial of free worship or publicly carrying ouc communal .tffairs and disregard of propem rights." It called upon the Iranian governmenc "co eliminace all forms of discriminarion based on religious grounds or against persons belonging co minoriries, including che Baha'fs, Christians, Jews, and ~unnis, and co address chis mam:r in an open manner, wirh rhc full participation of che religious communities and minorities themselves." Finally, rhe General fuscmbly resolved "co continue che examination of the siruation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, paying particular attention to further devel- ,,, THE BAHA I WORLD 2003-2004 opmenrs, including che sicuacion of chc Bahf is and other minoricy groups, ac ics 59ch session, under che agenda icem enricled "Human Righcs Quesciom," in the light of addicional clements provided by the Commission on Human Rights." The resolucion wa!> adopted with a vote of 68 in favor. 54 against, and 51 abscenrions. le was cosponsored by 29 councries. During the 6och session of che Commission on Human Righcs, which met in Geneva from 15 March LO 23 April 2003, Professor Amor, servi ng his final year as the United Nations' Special Rapporteur, gave a special report, in which he mentioned chc siruacion of the Baha'(s in boch Iran and Egypt, cicing clw~c two among councries chat violate freedom of religion or belief. In ics oral Statement co che commission, the Baha'i Inrernational Communiry spoke of the cffecti\'encss of inrcrnacional supporc in prmeccing Iran's Baha' is. Wich che lack of incernacional monitoring in Iran over the pasc cwo ycan, only small seeps have been caken in chis regard; nevertheless, the Baha'i International Community expressed ics appreciation to the Commim:c on che Eliminacion of Racial Discrimination (CERD), che UniceJ N.aions Educational, Scientific and Culcural Organit.acion (t:~ESco) ••rnd che lncemacional la hour Organization (ILO) "for cheir condemnation of Iran," poincing our char it led co rhe modification of the university entrance form requiring srudenrs co scare their religious affili,uion. Whether or not chi~ will, in face, give Baha'i scude1rn. full acces'> lO higher education remains co be seen, che Baha'i reprcsenc;uivc continued, "Bue we have no reason co believe that the authorities \a.·ould have caken even chis first ~tep. if che international community had noc insisced upon ic.'' 3 The represencati\'e also credited che accion of the UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention wich the release of one Baha'i prisoner, and noted, ":\nocher Baha'i prisoner was conditionally released just after die General Assembly adopccd a resolution expressing 'serious concern' over continuing violations of human rights in rhe Islamic Republic and specifically mentioning the Baha'i community." Unforcunacely, however, for che second year in a row che Commission failed co adopt a resolucion on rhc human righcs sicuarion in f ran. Conditions in chat councry have noc improved for the Baha'fs who live chere, and while lip service has been paid co addressing the human right!> issues chat have plagued the Bal1ci'( communicy since BAHA.'is IN IRAN r39 rhe 1979 revolution, persecution has not abated; in fact, in some ways ir has inrensificd. Arising on rhe national front m voice rheir suppon for the Baha'fs, borh che us Senate and House of Representatives passed their ninth congressional resolucion on the human righcs situation of the Baha'fs in Iran, and in April 2004 the us Srare Department issued a brochure enritled "Iran: Voices Struggling co be Heard," which includes m<:mion of che Baha'f Faith. ln che Uni red Kingdom, a member of the All-Party Parliamentary Friends of che Baha' fs took action to promote the idea of "benchmarks" in human rights dialogues attempting co assess Iran's progress in improving ics human rights record with regard to the Baha'fs. The situation of Egypt's Baha'fs also cominues to be of grave concern co the Bahfl Imernarional Community. In December 2003 a fatwa was issued by rhe Islamic Research Academy of Al Azhar Universiry, not only denouncing the Baha'fs as herecics-unforrunately. a familiar allegation in Egypt-bur also accusing them of being active enemies fighting Islam. Ironically, it appears that this focus on the Baha'i Faith was a response by Egyprian Muslim clerics to a lener wrirren by the Universal House of Jusrice m the world's religious leaders in 2002, urging them to take decisive acrion ro eliminate religious inrolerance."1 Egyptian newspapers were quick co publish the fatwa. In face, they have often been vigorous in their denunciation of Baha'fs as aposcares, and some journalists have even written rhar Baha'fs deserve to die. The governmem has done nothing to halt such inflammatory rhetoric, leaving Baha'(s exposed to the harred and violence of the misinformed masses. Speaking to rhis problem in an oral sracemenr to the United Nations Commission on Human Righcs, rhe Bahf{ Internacional Community said, "The international conununiry needs to consider how ro address such siruacions, when chose who benefir from rhe righr co freedom of expression overstep irs bounds-in public scacemencs char incite rhe public ro violace ocher human rights, such as rhe right to praccice one's religion, or the righcs of citizenship regardless of religious affiliation." In his final rcporr to the United Nations General Assembly, Special Rapporreur Professor Amor derailed the siruacion of rhe Baha'fs of Egypt, noring in particular their inabiliry to obtain idenriry papers ~ I THE BAHA'f WORLD 2003-2004 since che Egyptian constitution recogniLes only chree religions. He commenced char "co exclude any mention of religions ocher chan Islam, Chrisrianicy, or Judaism would appear co be a violation of inrernarional law." Yee che Egyptian governmenc has not heeded any of che recommendacions of either the Special Rapporccur or the Un iced Nations Human Rights Committee regarding discrimination practiced againsc Baha'fs in char country.~ le is clear thac the informed response of incernacional agencies such as the Uniced Nations and of national governments has played a vicaJ role in preventing che wom abuses of che human rights of Bahffs in borh Iran and Egypt. Yee more muse be done if Baha'is in these counrries are ever co see che formal recognition of their right ro exist as a peaceful, law-abiding religious community and chc rcscoracion of their basic human righrs. NOTl'S Quddill was killed by Islamic religious leaders in 1849 for refusing ro recant hi, bdiek His gravesice, along wich many ocher historic and holy places, was connscaccd by lraman auchoricies during chc Islamic revolution. For chc full texc of che Baha'f Inrernarional Community's stacemenc, which con rains more informacion on rhesc 1mcances of oppression, see pp. 213-19 of chis volume. See pp. 213-19 for more on these reports. For the full CCXC or rhis stacemenc, see nu Bahtf'I \'((orld 2002- 2003 (Haifa: World Cencre Publicarions, 2004), pp. 89-98. See pp. 221-23 for che com piece oral srarcmenr of the Bahff lncernarional Community ro the 6och ses~ion of rhe Unircd Nacions Commission on Human Righcs regarding rhc siruarion of rhe Baha'fs in Egypc. ESSAYS9 STATJEMENTS? - Al'\JD PROFILES Inner Enlightenment, Moral Refinement, and Justice ANTIDOTES TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Dr. Michael Penn offers a Bahd'f perspective on the global problem of interpersonal violence within the home. n his foreword to the World Health Organization's World Report I on Violence and Health, Nelson Mandela made the following observation: The twenrieth ccnrury will be remembered as a century marked by violence. le burdens us with a legacy of mass destruction, of violence inflicted on a scale never seen and never possible before in human history. Bue chis legacy-the result of new technology in the service of ideologies of hate-is not the only one we carry, nor char we must face up to. Less visible, but even more widespread is the legacy of day-to-day individual suffering. It is the pain of children who are abused by people who should protect chem, women injured or humiliated by violenr partners, elderly persons maltreated by their caregivers, youths who are bullied by ocher youths, and people of all ages who inflict violence on themselves. This suffering-and there are many more examples char I could give-is a legacy chat reproduces itself. as new generations learn from che violence of generations pasc, as victims learn from victimizers, and as the social conditions that nurture violence are allowed to continue. No country, no cicy, no community is immune. 1 144 THE BAHA'f WORLD 2003-2004 Notwithstanding the unprecedenced levels of violence recorded in che cwenciech century, ic was during the laccer half of chis same century chac people around the world, using principally the instrumencalicy of the United Nations, began co consult across rraditional lines of culture, race, religion, and political alliances in the hope chat solutions to the problem of violence, and panicularly che widespread problems of state-sponsored, culcural, and domestic violence, might be found. And although the Bahf( community has been a pare of chis global dialogue since the founding of the United Nations in 1945, it was in 1985, when the Universal House of Justice addressed to che peoples of the worlalth Organi1~1tion , World Report on Violence and Health: Summary (Geneva: w110, ioo2), p. v. The World Healch Organi1.acion defines violence as "che incencional use of physical for<.e or power, threatened or acruaJ, against oneself. anocher person, or agaimc a group or communicy, chat either results in or has the high likelihood of resulting in injury. deach. psychological harm, maJdevclopmenc, or depriv·;uion." Violence against intimate panners, which includes physical aggres.~ion, forced intercourse and ocher forms of sexual coercion, and psychological abuse (including incimidacion, humiliarion, social isolacion, restricted a((ess ro information, and economic deprivation}, occurs in every country and culture on earth. Ocher forms of violence, such as dowry dc:.uhs, acid acracks, infanridde, and honor killings. tend co occur in particular regions of the world. And while women are sometimes violent cowards their male partners and che occurrence of violence berween partners of che ~me ~ex has been well documented, the vase majoricy of parmer violence consists of violence perpetrat<.'d by men against women. In addition co \'iolen<.e againsr and becween incimacc partners, physical, psychological. and sexual violence againsc children, perpetrated by parents and ocher caregivers, cominut'S co be a global problem. Furthermore, a growing dimension of domestic violence around che world is relaced to the abuse and exploiracion of domesric workers and che elderly. A myriad of qualicacive and quantitative studies have established che ubiquicy and pernicious effects of such violence; they will not be reviewed again here. See Michael Penn and Rahel Nardos. 011ercoming Violence against Women and Girls: The lmenUJtional Cimpaign to Er11dicau an lmemational Problem (Lanham, MO: Rowman and Linlelleld, 2003). ~ Shoghi Effendi, "The lmporcance of Deepening our Knowledge and Understanding of the faich," in The Compilation of Compi"uions, vol. r (Ingleside, NSW: Baha'r Publications Au.malia, 1991), p. 214. 166 THE BAHA'f WORLD 2003-2004 Baha'u'llah, Tablets ofBahti'u'lldh revealed after the Kitdb-i-Aqdas (Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trusr, i997), p. 52. 5 Confuciu~. The Great Leaming. The Four Books: The Chinese-English Bilingual Series of Chinese Classics, translated by publisher (1 lunan, China: Hunan Publishing House, 1992), p. 3. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Tablets of 'Abdu'l-Bahd, vol. 3 (Chicago: Baha'i Publishing Sociery, 1908), p. 578. ' lbid., pp. 579-80. Notwithstanding che facr chat 'Abdu'l-Baha made these observations from che Middle East approximately one cencury ago, girls in nearly every country on earch continue ro lag far behind boys in access to educarion. For example, two thirds of che more than 120 million children who have never attended school are girls; two thirds of the world's 880 million illiterate adulcs arc women, and in Afghanistan, as one report recently notes, two generations of girls "have never seen the inside of a classroom. " UNICEF, Rebuilding Hope in Afghanistan (New York: UNICEF, November 2003), p. 30. 8 'Abdu'l-Baha, Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Bahd (Wilmette, IL: Baha'f Publishing Trust, 1997), p. 125. Universal House ofJuscicc, 24January 1993· lecccr to an individual. Bah:i'u'llih, Tablets, pp. 138-39. See Leila R. Milani, Sarah S. Albcrr, and Karina Purushotma, eds., CEDAW: The Treaty for the Rights of Women, Rights that Benefit the Enttre Community (Washington, oc: Working Group on Ratification of the UN Convencion on che Eliminarion of All Forms of Discriminarion against Women, 2004). Baha'l lncernation:tl Com muniry, Turning Point for All Nations: A Statement ofthe Bahd 'l International Community on the Occasion ofthe 5oth Anniversary ofthe United Nations (New York: Baha'f Imernarional Communiry, 1995). p. l. See Roger Levesque, Culture and Family Violence: Fostering Change through Human Rights I.aw (Washingron, oc: American Psychological Associarion Press, 2.001). 14 The Convention on che Rights of the Child affirms a child's right co protection from "all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or ncgligenc treatment, malrreatmenr or exploirarion . . . while in the care of JJarenc(s), legal guardian(s), or any orher person who has the care of chc child." Radhika Coomaraswamy, Preliminary Report submitted by the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, Its Causes and Co?ZSequences. UN Doc. EICN. 4'1995/ 42 (1994). Notes from Bani Dugal's remarks delivered in November 2000 as communicated in an e-mail correspondence co the author daced 22 October 2004. ANTIDOTES TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Levesque, p. 8. Catharine lr1in, ed., Pornography: IX'innm, Violmc1• and Ciz·il I ibrrtiej, A Radical Nrw Virw (New York: Oxford Univcrsiry Press, 1992.). a? )ee 5manne Kappeler, "Pornography: I'hc Reprcscncation of Po\\er" in lmn, pp. 88-101. See R.1y Wyre, "Pornography and exual Violence: Working wirh Sex: Ofknders" in hzin, pp. i.36-47. (. Everl'CC Koop, "Report of the Surgeon General's \X'ork~hop o~ Pornography and Public Health," Ammcan Psychologist 42 (1987). p. 945. For che full report sec E.P. Mulvey and J.L. I Iaugaard. Report of thr Surgeon G'eneml's W'orkshop 011 Pornography and Public Health (Washington, I>(.. ll.'i Oeparrment of Health and Human Services, Office of tht )urgcon General. 1986). 22 Bah:i'u'llah, Glra11ingsfro111 the Writings ofBahJ'u1Mh (\X'ilrncue. 11.: Bahj'f J>uhli~hing Trusc, 1994). pp. 158-59. 23 The B.ib, Srlmiom ftom the W'ritings ofthe Bdb (Haifa: B.lh.l'i World Cenrre, 1982). p. 95- 24 Joim Un ired Nations Programme on 111v/AJDS (UNAIOS), UNI FEM & UNl·f>A, \\"'omm and 1/11'/A/D.\: Co11fto111i11g rhe Crisis. 14 July 2004 Press Release. z~ Sec: mm 1 1, ChiMm1 Orph.med ~r AIDS: Frontline Respo11m ftom Ea.stem a11d ~outhrrn Aftic11 (New York: UNICH, 1999); UNICEF, A UNICEF Fact ':llwr: Orph1111J 1111d Other Children Affeaed by AIDS (New York: LJNICH, .)cpccmbcr 2003). Bah.i'u'll,ih, '/'lit' Kittlb-i-Aqd11s: !he Most Holy Book (l laifa: Baha'i World Ccncrc, 1991), Qul'SLions and Answers, no. 3, p. 105. z7 Flijah Anderson, "Sex Codes and Family Life among Northcon's Yourh,'' in Strat IX'iJ1•: Rt1a, Cltw 1md Change man Urban C'onmuuuty. Elijah Anc.lc:rson, ed. (Chic.1go: University of Chicago Press, 1990), pp. 112-37. Sec:. for imt.lllCl'. l'dward 0. Laumann, John H. Gagnon, Robert T. Michael. ;rnd Stuart Michaels, 7l1e \ont1I Orgt111i:M1io11 ofSrxunltf) (,n.-ual Practices in the United St11ll'l (Chtcago: University of Chicago Press, 1994). '' Bahf u'llah, (;ited in "Truscworchiness," in The Compilittion ofCompilations, vol. 2 {Ingleside, Nc.;w: Raha'I Publk-ariom Aumalia, 1991), pp. 3?7, 335. and 329. ~ Shoghi Fflcndi. 7'l1e Adt•mt ofDivine)mtice (\\!ilmccrc, 11: Baha'i Publishing lrmt, 1990), p. 30. JI 'Ahdu'l-H.1h.i, St'lations. p. 53· hom a letter wriccen on behalf of )hogh1 Effendi to an individual believer, 4 Ocrohcr 1950, in "( iving the Life," Compil1ttion of Cn111pil11tiom, vol. 2, p. 22. A 2004 Fatt %ccc of llNAJDS (11-16 July). cirled W0men mul .-llD.5-A Growing Confern. reports: "Marriage and long-term monog;tmom relationships 168 THE BAHA'f WORLD 2003-2004 do not protect women from mv. In Cambodia r3 percenr of urban and 10 percenr of rural men reported having sex with both a sex worker and their wife or steady girlfriend. In Thailand a 1999 study found that 75 perccnc of HIV-infected women were likely ro be infected by their husbands. "T n some settings," the report wenr furrher to note, "it appears marriage actually increases women's Hrv risk. Jn some African countries adolescent, married 15-19 year-old young women have higher H 1v infection levels than unmarried sexually active females of the same age." Ir is thus clear that monogamy serves as a safeguard only when both parmers observe ir. The Baha'i ceachings impose the moral obligation of sexual fideliry on both men and women before and during marriage. \.t Bahf u'llah, Tablets, p. 125. is Shoghi Effendi, The World Order o/Bahd'u'lltih: Selected Letters, 2nd rev. ed. (Wilmette, rL: Baha'f Publishing Trust, r993), p. 187; cited in the Universal House of Justice, The Promise of World Peace (Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1985), p. 5· 36 'Abdu'l-Baha, Paris Talks: Addresses Given by 'Abdu1-Bahd in I9II (London: Baha'f Publishing Trust, 1995), pp. 143-44. · Sec Cheywa Spindel, Elisa Levy, and Melissa Connor, eds., With an End in Sight: Strategi.es from the UN/HM Trust Fund to Eliminate Violence against Women (New York: United Nations Development Fund for Women, 2000). Penn and Nardos, p. 49. 3q Levesque, p. 78. Howard French, "The Ritual Slaves of Ghana: Young and Female," New York Times, 20 January 1997, A5. Shoghi Effendi, cited in rhe Universal House of Justice, The Promise of World Peace, p. 8. Baha'u'llah, Gleanings, p. 196. Tbid., p. 340. World Watch Arm Boyles looks at the lnsrory, the present condition, r111d the future prospects ofthe nuclea,.fi1mily, from a Bahd 'i pmprrti11e. n 2.004, che United Nations marks the tench anniversary of I the Internacional Year of the Family, and many governmencs, nongovernmental organizations, and UN agencies will be holding events or undertaking studies co reflect on the current state of the family-ar the same time chat long-standing notions about it are being revisited. One baromecer of change is language. To accommodate current social realities, the auchors of a respected family therapy volume have made significanr revisions to their terminology in Lhe recently published third edition, replacing "nuclear family" with "immediate family," which they see as "more comprehensive," encompassing not only the nuclear model, but also a variety of ocher arrangements. Further, in the growing absence of formal, recognized marriage, rhe authors refer co che family bond simply as "commitment." With chese revisions, it is clear char the authors are seeking co be more inclusive. But che relacionship between language, perception, and reality is incricatc. Do such changes in terminology also alcer our expectations and standards? And that question, in rum, raises others, such as whether the rraditional nuclear family is dead, how we should define family in this age, and what its future might be. 170 THE BAHA'f WORLD 2003-2004 Until relatively recent times, and across many cultures, the family encompassed several generations and extended relations. However, at some point-possibly as early as the sixteenth century, according to some sociologists-European families experienced a radical shift, when marriages began to be contracted on the basis of affection rather than for economic or other advantages, and couples were no longer so closely intertwined with their clans. Families then began to depend to an unprecedented degree on the continuation of the husband's and wife's affection for each other. The family's traditional "economic, protective, educational, religious, and recreational functions" were supplanted by "affectional and cultural" ones. 2 With the support of religion and srate, the nuclear family evolved to epitomize "the goal of human sexuality combined with romantic love" and became "the only socially acceprable form of adult pair-bond." 3 By the late nineteenth century, what Christopher Lasch calls the "bourgeois family system" had evolved to rest on four pillars: "companionate marriage," "the child-centered household," "the emancipation or quasi-emancipation of women," and "the structural isolation of the nuclear family from the kinship system and from society in general." The family became "an emotional refuge in a cold and competitive society" in which privacy was highly valued, while work was simply the means by which breadwinners made that refuge more comfortable. 4 By the midpoint of the twentieth century, this "structural differentiation" 5 was championed as making the family more effective in delivering its emotional goods; therefore, the thinking went, it should limit itself to that role, while the other functions previously in the family's domain would best be left to more efficient social institutions. As the family's arena of responsibility has shrunk, however, the emotional weight it bears has grown heavier and heavier. As Suanne Kelman argues in All in the Family: A Cultural History of Family Life, marriage partners in Western society are now expected to be "financial associates, co-parents, passionate lovers, best friends, constant companions and even exercise partners." How realistic are these expectations? Kelman observes, "In cultures with lower divorce rates, marriage is often less demanding."6 And indeed, many sociologists contend that for these sorts of reasons the ideal of the isolated nuclear family has never been terribly successful WORLD WATCH While we have loaded more and more emocion onco che family, ocher facrors have also worked changes on ic. These include radical shifts in norms of sexual behavior, which have led to greater numbers of non-married couples and couples of che same sex cohabiting openly, for example. Established ideas about what constitutes a famil} are continually being challenged. At che same time, throughout the past cenmry we have seen "an increase in standards for what consticuces a successful marriage," accompanied by "a weakening commicmenr co the norm oflifelong marriage." The result is a large jump in the rate of divorce anc.I in rhe number of single-parenc families. A more general acceptance of sexual equality consticuces another transformative facror. On the positive side, domestic violence has been widely condemned and criminalized, but on che negative side, expectations regarding gender roles have become increasingly confused. And one further factor changing che family springs from che developmenc of reliable means co limit family size: cultural norms have now shifted co the poinc where smaller families are nor only acceptable but also desirable. This, in curn, has resulted in a radical change in arrirudes cowards children. While these factors are particularly evident in families in "advanced" societies, ocher de,,elopmencs affecr families on a global scale. Even where there is no conscious desire to cum away from established models, families are disrupted by economic deprivation, war and conAicc, and diseases such as mv/AJOS. In sub-Saharan Africa, for example, many children orphaned by AIDS are left either co fend for themselves or co be raised by grandparencs or other relatives. And these problems appear co be increasing exponentially. The United Nations estimates that by 2010, 25-3 million children around the world will have lose either one or both parenrs to Ams-20.1 million of these in sub-Saharan Africa. 8 The resulting social disruprion will be cxcrcmc. Upon what model will these children, who are deprived of life with cheir mothers and fathers, escablish their own families when they grow up? In spice of such catastrophic factors, and in spire of numerous predictions of its demise, che ideal of che nuclear family endures. Yet it is cb1r chat in its current form, ir is not in cune with the needs of a changing society. So whar is che future of this beleaguered instirution? ls ir, as some have suggested, simply a revival of the tradirional 172 THE BAHA'f WORLD 2003-2004 nuclear model, or is it, as others have advocated, the abandonment of marriage and family altogether? Or, as still ochers contend, should the ideal of marriage and family be reconceprualized to accommodate shifting social mores? Since many sociologists argue that the concept of Western society's traditional nuclear family has been in decline for at least a hundred years, the desirability of reviving it seems quescionableassuming it were even possible. After all, that family ideal arose in a world significantly differem from che one we now inhabic. First, the sicuation of women was disadvantaged. Basically, they were prisoners of the household with no choice but to stay home, unless they were forced to work in menial jobs to try to keep the family from starvation-in which event there was no (or, at best, small and demeaning) government assistance. Domestic violence was tacitly accepted, and if women were brutalized within the marriage they had little recourse. Divorce was an impossibility for the vast majority of chem. In that world, public education was not widely available, so parents with means educated their children at home, while families lacking resources had few opportunities for children to acquire knowledge and skills in order to make better lives for themselves. Nor was there any social safety net. Individuals with disabilities, for example, were excluded from the work force and were entirely the responsibility of their families, which were also the sole caregivers of elderly, dependent relatives. 9 Families that grew in this matrix can be categorized generally as patriarchal and authoritarian. In The Violence Free Family: Building Block ofa Peaceful Civilization, Hossain Danesh describes such power-based families as exhibiting the following characteristics: unequal access to knowledge (with women being denied education), lack of truthfulness and trust in the relationships of the various members, and conditionality of the expression of parental love on children's efforts to conform to their parents' wishes. 10 Ir is clear that the context in which the traditional nuclear family functioned was not an ideal world to which we should hasten back. In any case, how could families provide adequate education for their children in today's society? And how could they possibly remain self-sufficient enough to gainfully employ all their members? The material and social inequalities perpetuated by the powerful, self- WORLD WATCH r73 sufficient family model have also been reduced, over time, through income and inheritance taxes; now laws and social agencies curtail wife and child abuse and provide women with the oprion ofleaving bad marriages. On the whole, advantages outweigh che disadvantages accached co che changes in the family's situation, even if the present sicuation is far from ideal. If looking backwards is nor a solution co the dilemma of che modern family, neither is the prospect of abandoning marriage and family alcogecher. Except in rare instances, communal experimenrs in family life and child rearing have nor proved ro be enc.luring, and chey do nor appear LO be an emerging model. What, then, abour refashioning the ideal of marriage to accommodate a wider range of commitments? That is the rack taken by many contemporary sociologists and family therapists. Carter and McGoldrick, for example, scare, "le is high rime we gave up on our cradicional concept of family and expanded our very definition of the term," continuing. "[t] he backlash forces in our society use code terms such as 'family values' ro imply chat cra for che achievement of world peace, che Universal l louse ofJustice ha~ scared, "The denial of such equali ry perpetrates an injustice against one half of che world's population and promoces in men harmful accicudes and habits chat arc carried from che family co che workplace, co political life, and ulcimaccly co incernacional relations." ' Recognizing che interconnectedness of the actions wichin che family and in the wider sociery, Baha'ls certainly do not see che nuclear family functioning in isolation. 'Abdu'l-Baha says, "Consider che harmful effect of discord and dissension in a family; chen reflect upon chc favors and blessings which descend upon that family when uniry exiscs among ics various members." He chen broadens che view, exclaiming. "What incalculable benefits and blessings would descend upon the greac human family if uniry and brotherhood were escablished!"s3 Bahf {families seek co promou.: chis ideal ac boch che micro and chc macro levels, with support from Bahfl insticurions, rhe Bahf ( communiry icself, and in partnership wirh ocher "auchorirative communirics." In che process they share learning about healchy family life and ch ild-rearing practices, wich the knowledge rhac in rime THE BAHA'f WORLD 2003-2004 the children they raise will grow up and exert an effect on society, for good or for ill, with the arcicudes rhey have acquired. Ir is clear, then, that, for Baha'fs, rhe effort to create harmonious family life carries significance far beyond rhe confines of the family itself. In the world, as in the family, unity is imperative for progress to occur. 'Abdu'l-Baha says: Compare the nations of the world to the members of a family. A family is a nation in miniature. Simply enlarge the circle of rhe household and you have the nation. Enlarge the circle of nations, and you have all humanity. The conditions surrounding rhe family surround the nation. The happenings in the family are the happenings in the life of the nation. Would it add to the progress and advancement of a family if dissensions should arise among its members, all fighting, pillaging each ocher, jealous and revengeful of injury, seeking selfish advantage? Nay, this would be the cause of rhe effacement of progress and advancement. So it is in the great family of nations, for nations are but an aggregate of families. 54 The Baha'i community is virally concerned with nurturing strong families char base their actions on rhe Faith's spiritual principles and teachings, in the conviction that this will lead eventually to a healthier, more vibrant culture. Everywhere in the world, whether in developed or developing societies, robust families are equipped to concribute more effectively to borh the social and the economic development of the entire community and co pursue rhe goal of prosperity in its most complete sense-the full development of each family and community member's God-given capacities, to contribute to the good of all. In this way, Baha'fs believe, families will mold the sturdy, durable building blocks of an "an ever-advancing civilization. "55 NOTF.S Betry Career and Monica McGoldrick, The fapanded Family Life Cycle: Individual, Family, and Social Perspectives, 3rd ed. (Bosron: AJlyn and Bacon, 1999), pp. xv-xvi. 2 Ernesc W. Burgess, ciced in Chriscopher Lasch, "The Family as a Haven in a Heartless World," in Family in Transition: Rethinking Marriage, Sexuality. WORLD WATCH Child Rearing and Family Organization. Arlene Skolnick and Jerome H. Skolnick, ed)., 3rd ed. (Boston: Liccle, Brown and Co .. 1980), p. 87. J David Popenoe, Disturbmg the Nest: Family Ch1111gr tlfld Decline in Modern Socmus. Social Institutions and Social Change Series. Peter H. Rossi, Michael U!ieem, and James 0. Wright, eds. (New York: Aldinc de Gruyrer, 1988), p. 32.9. ~ Lasch, pp. 81-82. ~ Talcott Parsons, cited in Lasch, p. 89. Suanne Kelman, All in the Family: A Cultural Histo1y ofFamily Life (Toromo: Viking, 1998), p. 296. ' Popenoe, pp. u8-19. See also Kelman, p. 282, and Lasch, p. 83, for a discussion of rhe facrors conrributing ro rhe decline of the modern family. See Dawn K. Smith, "Facing rhe Global HTVIAtoS Fpidemic: A Baha'i Perspective," in The Bahd'I World2002-2003 (Haifu.: World Centre Publications, 2004), pp. '79-97· q See Popcnoe, p. 308, and Carrer and McGoldrick, p. 3. Hossain B. Danesh, The Violence Free Family: Bwlding Block ofa Peaceful Civiliuaion (Ouawa: Baha'i Studies Publications, 1995), pp. 12- 13. Career and McGoldrick, p. IO. Popenoc, p. 309. Arlie Ru~ell Hoch:.child, with Anne Machung, The Second Shi.ft (New York: Viking, 1989; Quill, 2002), p. r2. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid., p. i.15. Ibid., p. i82. Paul R. Amato and Alan Booth, A Generation at Risk: Crowmg Up in an Era ofFamily Uphenvrtl (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997), p. r8. Popenoe, p. 330. One indicaror of chis developmenr, Popenoc conrends, is rhac there is no ideological ancitht:sis for individualism. To fill the vacuum, he proposes che rerm "familism" (Popenoe, pp. j2.8-29). Amato and Booch, p. 12. Danesh, p. 16. :u See Amaro and Booth, pp. 20 and 228-30. 23 Kelman, p. 297. Kelman, pp. 298-99. ~ Hochschild, p. 13. For a full discussion of these points, see Amato and Booth, pp. 234-37 and p. 239, and 1lochschild, pp. i2-c3. Popenoe, pp. 340-4r. The Commission on Chi ldren ar Risk was cosponsored by the YMCA of rhe USA, the Darrmourh Medical School, and the lruriruce for American Values. THE BAHA'f WORLD 2003-2004 The objeccives of che lnscituce for American Values, as staced on its Web sire ac hrrp://www.americanvalues.org/, are as follows: To offer proposals for strengthening marriage and co help lead a marriage renewal movemenc. Through a new journal, Family Scholars, ro critique and improve scholarly research and wricing on the family. To examine rhe social and moral-spiritual foundarions of child well-being. 'fo examine rhe economic and moral-spiritual consequences of divorce. To put the scacus and furure of motherhood on che public agenda. To offer leadership for a movemenr for responsible facherhood. To develop, with Muslim and other scholars, an incernacional public appeal on rhe human person and civil sociery. Sec hcrp://www.americanvalues.org/html/hardwired.html for the Executive Summary of Hardwired to Connect. ~ Another rccenc volume, cicled Born to Buy: The Commercialized Child and the New Consumer Culture. by Juliet B. Schor, concludes chat consumer involvemenc is a direct cause of unprecedenced levels of anxiery and depression in children. In face, Schor found char children and youch today score. on average. as high on anxie1:y scales as children wich psychiacric disorder~ back in 195..... Through media advertising and sponsorship partnerships wirh public schools and rrusred social organi1.a.cions, adverrisers now rarger children as young as three years of age. (See "Are hip rots heading for crouble?" in rhe Globe and Mail [Toronco], 25 September 2.004, f8.) Such findings as chose of Schor and the Commission on Children ac Risk can only provide a catalyse for bolsrering supporc of che family and other social organizations co support children's healrhy devclopmenc. • Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of Bahd'u1/ah: Selected Letters, 2nd rev. ed. (Wilmecte, IL: Baha'f Publishing Trust, r993), p. 4-3· 11 'Abdu'l-Baha, Selections from the iVrilings of 'Abdu1-BttlJ1i (Wilmerce, 11.: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1997), p. 125. Ibid. n Baha'u'llah, The Kitdb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book (Wilmerce, u.: Bah.re Publishing Trust, 1993), Notes, no. 92, pp. 207-08. ~ Baha'u'llah, Baha'i Praym: A Selection of PMym Revettled by Bahd'u1/ah, the Bdb, and 'Abdu'l-Bahd (Wilmcne, 11: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 2003), p. 105. l ' Bal1ci'u'Uah, The Kitdb-i-Aqdas, para. 63. p. 41. .iu From a letter wriccen on behalf of Shoghi Effendi lo an tndividual believer, 14 October 1935; in Lights of Guidance: A Bahtf'I Refermre File, compiled by Helen Hornby, 6ch ed. (New Delhi: Bahi'f Publishing Trust, 1996), p. 345· WORLD WATCH r From a lercer wriccen on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an individual believer, 5 Sepcember 1938, cited in Messages from the Universal House ofjustice, l963-r986 (Wilmetce, JL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1996), p. 233. From a leccer written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi co an individual believer, 28 Seprember 1941; cired in Messages from the Univmal House ofJustice, !963-1986. p. 233. JY 'Abdu'l-Baha, Select10ns from the Writings of'Abdu'l-Bahd, p. 134- 40 Ciced in a letcer wricren on behalf of che Universal House ofJuscicc 10 the National Spirirual Assembly of New Zealand, 28 December r980, in lights ofGuidance, p. 218. i i fbid. 'Abdu'l-Raha, The Promulgation of Universal Peace: Talks De/foered by 'Abdu1-Bahti during His Visit to the United States and Canada in 1912, rev. ed. (Wilmene, u.: Baha'f Publishing Trust, 1995), p. 168. ' Danesh. p. 19. "" 'Abdu'l-IhhJ, The Promulgation ofUnivmal Peace, pp. 1+4-45· 'Abdu'l-Baha, Selecttons from the Writings of :Abdu'l-Balul, p. 292. See Michael Penn's essay, "Inner Enlighcenmem, Moral Refinement and Jusrice: Ancidoces co Domestic Violence," on pp. 143-68 of chis volume. Baha'u'llah, cited in a Jeerer from che Universal House of Justice, Deparrmenc of the Secretariac, co an individual, 24 January r993. on the subjecL of violence against women and sexual abuse. ~ Ibid. '> Ibid . ~0 'Abdu'l-Baha, Selections .ft-om the Writings of:Abdu1-Bahd, p. 132. ~· See, for example, The Bahd '!World 1996-97 (Haifa: World Cencre Publicacions, 1998), pp. i.94-97, for a repon on Baha'f elTorts to promote equal participation by men and women in family life in the "Traditional Media as Change Agenc" project in Cameroon. ~! The Universal House of Juscice, The Promise of World Petue (Haifa: Baha'i World Ccncre, 1985), pp. 11-12. ~ 'Abdu'l-Baha, The Promulgation of Univmal Peace, p. 230. ~ lbid., p. 157· \~ Baha'u'lla.h, Gleanings from the Wnti11gs ofBahd'utldh (Wilmerce, IL: Baha'f Publishing Trust, r983), p. 215. Towards a Purposeful Beauty REFLECTING ON AND LEARNING FROM THE HOUSES OF WORSHIP Charles Boyle offers 11 perspective on the sign ificanu of Bnhd '[ Houses of Worship rmd their relationship to other sacred architecture. T he French wricer ScendhaJ defines beaury as "che promise of happiness." le is an evocarive idea, and one enrirely resonanr wich che architecture associaced wich the Bahff community, for Bah.i'u'llah declares His inceresc in che "happiness of che nacions," 1 and His is a religion concerned ar irs very essence wich beauty. Notable among che cides given co Baha'u'llah was "che Blessed Beaury"-Jamal-i-Mubarak, a ride in which 'Abdu'l-Baha cojoined che craditional tide of Persian nobility wirh rhe Arabic word for beauty to create a new expression for rhe way His Father and the Auchor of rhe Fairh should be regarded. And it muse be remembered that at the oursec of His Revelation, when Baha'u'Uah lay in chains in the loachsome depchs of the Sfy:ih Chai (the Black Pie) in Tehran, che figure of "che Maid of Heaven" appeared co Him wich the first intimations of His mission as che Promised One of aJJ the ages, describing Him ro humaniry as "che Beaury of God amongst you, ... could ye bur understand. " 2 'Abdu'l-Baha once remarked rhac "Divine chings are too deep co be expressed by common words." 3 If we reflect in this conrexr on che French auchor and philosopher Ernest Dimner's scaremcnr chat ''A.rchirecrurc, of all the arcs, is the one which aces the most slowly, 188 THE BAHA'f WORLD 2003-2004 bur the most surely, on the soul," ir becomes clear that the Houses of Worship erected by the Baha'f community are designed ro amacr the heart and stir the soul. They stand as physical embodiments of purposeful beauty. "O people of the world!" is Baha'u'llah's call in the Kitab-i- Aqdas, "Build ye houses of worship throughout the lands in the name of Him Who is the Lord of all religions. Make them as perfect as is possible in the world of being, and adorn them with that which befineth them, nor with images and effigies. Then, with radiance and joy, celebrate therein the praise of your Lord, the Most Compassionate. Verily, by His remembrance rhe eye is cheered and the heart is filled with Light."4 The House of Worship, also known as the Mashriqu'l-Adhkar, 5 will in time include the following satellite bodies: a hospital, schools and a university, a home for the poor, an orphanage, and a guesthouse. 6 Colleccively these institutions express a commitment to prayer and community service. As yet, the Baha'i community is still in its infancy, and che ocher dependencies have nor yet emerged. When Shoghi Effendi was occasionaJly asked ro respond to suggestions that it was rime ro build a university or a school, he would generally decline on the basis that the time was nor yet right; the community and its inscicucions required building up first. Perhaps in like manner the House ofWorship must precede rhe other "dependencies," for when communities have established appropriate patrerns of regular worship, they will also have matured to the level where such institutions can be made a reality. The seven Temples thus far constructed, together with an eighth whose design work is presently underway, will complete Shoghi Effendi's original plan ro provide, initially, a Baha'( House of Worship, or "Mother Temple," on each continent. While sires have been secured for some 120 additional Houses of Worship around the globe,-these will serve the progressively more parochial needs of the community. Mose recendy, sires for Houses of Worship have been secured in Vanuaru and Hungary. Sometimes described as "gifts" to the wider community, being open for the purpose of worship to people of all faith traditions and to those with none, they are "signature" buildings: they are iconic, representative of the Faith, and serve as a public interface between the TOWARDS A PURPOSEFUL BEAUTY wider communicy and the Faith itself. They chus achieve a broader purpose than serving simply as venues for communal worship. As outwardly comparable as their functions may be, there are fundamental differences between the Bahff House of Worship and che church, mosque, synagogue, or temple. Notwithstanding that all provide venues for communal worship, rhe House of Worship secs aside che alcar and axial requirements for che liturgical rituals of many Christian churches; it does nor provide che point of focus of che min bar in the Islamic mosque or the ark in che Jewish synagogue; and it hoses neither altar nor objects incended as the focus within Buddhist, Hindu, and ocher temples. Rather than guiding rhe visitor cowards a more inward-looking medication through riruals incended co reinforce an exclusive association with chat particular Faith, the Baha'f House of Worship encourages spiritual reflection rather than congregational practice. Indeed, many visitors are surprised co find no alcar or ocher familiar object upon which they can center their devotion. Buildings communicate their purpose in pare through familiarity: we expect a house to be a house because ir looks like a house, and noc a shop or a factory. Likewise we expecc a House of Worship co be a House of Worship because it looks to us how we chink one ought to look. This does not mean chat one cannot say prayers in a factory, or chat there is a fixed idea of how such a building should look, but rather rhac condicions are beccer suiced for worship in a place purposefully so designed, and chat knowledge of its purpose and anticipation of the venue help to prepare one for worship. A place of worship must, of course, provide a suitable space for che worshiper co reach a state of communion, however chac may be defined. While it is possible co do chis outside, generally some form of shelter is provided, and while char shelter will likely have a roof, walls, and a floor, we can envision one form of shelter to be "beccer" than another. Therefore, we can seek co create the "besc" form of our own choosing for ic. The oldest known definition of what might constitute "besr" in architecture is char puc forward in the first century BC by the Roman engineer and architect Marcus Vicruvius Pollio, known co history as Vicruvius. Virruvius' De Architectura, translated in the seventeenth century and known today as the Ten Books ofArchitecture, scares char THE BAHA'I WORLD 2003-2004 the qualicy depends on rhe social relevance of the arrisr's work, nor on che workmanship of the work icself, and char "well building had1 ch rec conditions: firmness, commodicy, and dclight"--qualicies rcforring respecrively LO Slrengrh, correct planning, and appearance. le is the rhird of these qualiries, rhe "dclighr," char distinguishes archiceccure from mere building, for archiceccure (in chis case "reli gious" archirecrure, che term by which ir is collectively referred co) can elicit an emotional response-be it through soaring cathedral columns rhar draw one's rhoughcs heavenward, che call ro silence char accompanies che cavernous volume of che mosque, rhe rranquil elegance and repose of a Renaissance chapel. or a shafr of glorious light that penetrates even rhe masc scygian gloom-and so inspire the choughcs, cheer rhe heart, and uplift rhe spirits of the worshiper. Returning ro Dimnec's statement about architecture acting slowly bur surely upon the soul. one can also see this idea in the beautifully elegiac words of 'Abdu'l-BahJ: "The blessings of Bah:i'u'llah are a shoreless sea, and even life everlasting is only a dewdrop cherefrom. The waves of char sea are cominually lapping against che heans of the friends, and from rhosc waves there come incimacions of the spirir and ardent pulsings of rhe soul, unril che hearc gived1 way, and willing or nor, rurnerh humbly in prayer unro the Kingdom of the Lord. "8 Whac, then, is the parcicular form char chese Houses of Worship have caken, ro acc upon the soul? The firsr Baha'f House of Worship, built in Ashkhabad, Russian llirkescan, was completed in 1903. Wich a design overseen by J\bdu'l- Baha, ir emulaccd me form of a mosque wirh a cenrral prayer hall with a dome and minarecs. However, che main prayer hall had nine sides, rather than che usual cighc. The need for nine doors was noc paramounr at Ashkabad; Lhe Aoor plan indtcates char there was one principal encrance. There were, however, nine avenues, nine gardens, and nine founcains. 9 Grer taken over by chc Soviet auchoriries and damaged in an earthquake in 1948, this firsc Baha'i House of Worship was subsequently demolished. Bur in ics shore lift:, ncws of irs cxim:nce had reached che Baha'£s in the Chicago area, who then sought me approval of 'Abdu'l-Bah:i co conscrucr a similar building there. In the spring of 1907, Corrine Knighc True returned from rhc Holy Land carrying the blessings and inscrucrions of 'Abdu'l-Baha TOWARDS A PURPOSEFUL BEAUTY tha[ such a strucrure should be circular in plan, with nine sides. 10 No explici[ reference was made ro a dome, and indeed guidance was subsequently received from the Guardian that "there is nothing in the reaching requiring one dome for the building, in facr, any dome. fr is of course more beauriful, generally to have a dome, or even domes, bur tha[ is nor a necessary requirement of rhe Temple." As to the question of doors, the lercer went on to scare clearly, "Likewise the Guardian indicates, it is not essemial thaL there be nine doors. The real requisite is that the building should be circular in shape, having nine sides; that there should be nine gardens, walks, etc.'' 11 Asidt• from these few requirements, rhe architect of a Bahff House of Worship is free to design a scrucrure he or she sees as beficting "the dawning place of the remembrance of God." Nevertheless. the composition of dome, drum, and plinth has been cenrral to the development of some of the mosc highly regarded examples of later classical architecrure of the Renaissance, so ir is not surprising that this has formed a starring model on which most of the Houses of Worship to date have been developed . ., The House of Worship in .Ashkhabad, Russian Turkestan. THE BAHA f WORLD 2003- 2004 In simple terms, a dome is an efficient and economic way ro provide a roof over as large a floor area as possible. The Hagia Sofia church builc by the Roman emperor Justinian in the sixth century AD in Istanbul was, in its rime, the largest church in the world, with its vast floor below a giant dome. Eight hundred years later it was taken over by Ocroman Sultan Mehmet 11 and, just as the mosque would serve as a model for Ashkhabad, Hagia Sofia became a model for future mosques including char of Suleiman, also in Istanbul, which was begun in 1550 by his prodigious architect Sinan. The earliest Christians typically met in their own homes and ocher small buildings, but as the faith grew, so, too, did their need for larger buildings. Limited as they were ro barrel-vaulted and trussed roofs, ic was initially easier co extend along the axis and then provide another axis at right angles to the first, satisfying the need for additional space and imitating the plan form of the cross. Where che two axes crossed became a large space with a dome above. The technical difficulties of imposing a round dome over a square box below were nor really resolved until Sinan developed the triangular shaped "pendenrive" for the Mosque of Suleiman; with chis, the main technical hurdles were overcome. Thus che dome became a major archiceccural feature of boch Christian and Islamic religious structures. The church did not evolve into chat shape deliberately as an emulation of the cross, but gradually because of technology and planning solutions, and the mosque, in pare, through emulating the church. In Hinduism, temples typically recreate stories from Hindu mythology, with Ankor Wac in Cambodia, for example, being a recreation of Mount Meru, while Buddhist temples commonly cake the form of a "srupa, " 13 which has gradually evolved inco the pagoda in China and Korea and is the domed form of temple associated with that faith. The first Baha'f House of Worship in the West was designed by French-Canadian architect Louis Bourgeois. Though intricate in its details, it is at heart a relatively conservative building: an ornate and richly embellished dome, drum, and plinth on a platform in the classic model, which would have been adopted as the epitome of architectural caste at the time. The structure's ornamentation incorporates icons and motifs from many of the world's religious traditions, re.fleecing Bourgeois' goal to create a symbol of the Baha'f TOWARDS A PURPOSEFUL BEAUTY 193 The House of Wltm hip in Wilm#te, JL/inois, USA. Faith and a building that welcomed people of all backgrounds. In explaining his inspiration for the design, he drew a parallel between architecture and religion: All the teachings char have held che minds of men and ennobled them are found co be very much alike in essence.... As religion, so it is wich archiceccure. If you resolve the different architectural systems co their idealistic basis, laying aside all extreme forms, you will see they harmonize so perfeccly that they can be blended without one discordant note. 1-1 Locared near Chicago, in Wilmette, Illinois, USA, the House of Worship is also notable as d1e first building in the United States to be built using precasc concrete technology, and it innovated new techniques and working relations between architect and builder. Taking 194 THE BAH.ff WORl.O 2003- 2004 '!11e House of Worship in Kampala, Ugt1ndt1. !he House of Worship in Sydne;•. Awtralia. TOWARDS A PURPOSEFUL BF.AUTY 195 some 50 years ro com piece, irs consrrucrion was itsdr u baromerer of rhe development of che Faith in rhe United Scates, giving weight co 'Abdu'l-Bah.i's words that ic was "che greatest affair and the most important matter" before che Baha'i community of that day. 15 The Baha'i I louse of Worship in Kampala, Uganda, is sometimes viewed as echoing the form of the rraditional houses of the region, though chis is perhaps ro undersrate its design, whic:h was developed from an outline prepared b} Shoghi Effendi .md Ch.tries Mason Remey by an archirecr familiar with the climacic con