# Modern Movements in Islam

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> Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Gyula Germanus, Modern Movements in Islam, bahai-library.com.
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> 
> Modern Movements in Islam
> 
> Gyula Germanus
> pp. 54-78
> 
> Calcutta: Visva-Bharati Book Shop, 1932
> 
> [page 54]
> 
> The Persians take a unique position among the peoples
> professing Islam. Numberless centuries before the revelation
> of the Koranic religion Persia had a remarkable culture and a
> highly developed civilization. In ancient times it was the cradle
> of thoughts and aspirations which illumined mankind with deep
> religious ideas radiating to Iranian and non-Iranian peoples. It
> was the centre of a mighty political organization which brought
> forth imperial influences reaching even to the far-off Balkans
> and stirring up the evolution of Greece. The arts and crafts
> of administration and of military organization were first developed to a paramount superiority by Persians in their defensive
> actions against their Northern foes, the ever-roaming restless
> hordes of the Central Asiatic plains, the Turanians. Their
> strategy and state-craft became a model to the Turks who
> adopted and further developed Persian achievements on the
> field of warfare.
> 
> Speculative and fanciful, but endowed with an uncommonly
> rich intellect, the history of Persian culture is one of the most
> splendid spectacles in the evolution of civilization. Every
> external influence which has enriched their mental store in the
> course of their history, became blended with their character,
> which augmented, embellished and variegated, has still in its
> innermost recesses retained an irredicable fascination for the
> spiritual, the fantastic, the extravagant, and the artistic.
> Islam, with its matter of fact theology, grew through contact with
> the Persian intellect into a vivid transcendentalism which reared
> a metaphysics, the exuberant foliage of - which threatened to
> crush its very roots and foundations. Islamic doctrine even in
> its most sober aspects gained an allegoric meaning in the eyes
> of Persians with whom everything was so highly spiritualized
> that contact with reality was often lost. Islam suffered more
> heresies at the hands of Persians than of all other races professing the religion of the Prophet. The dogmatism of Semitic
> Islam blossomed into metaphysical speculations in which lie
> 
> [page 55]
> 
> embedded the memories of Persian mental history. We therefore find that the same old theme crops up again and again in
> a new garment and under a new name and is always hailed with
> boundless enthusiasm.
> 
> In modern times a movement which has rapidly gained
> ground not only in the Fast but also in Europe and America
> and which has become a religion supposedly professed by
> millions has its roots in Persia. A new religion has arisen, a
> religion of humanity, a universal creed for the whole of mankind which in its present form is not only a factor of social
> and perhaps of political importance in Persia, but to judge by
> its literature written in English, seems to have been enthusiastically accepted by many Americans. The religion of Bahiism is a
> characteristic example of the Persian spirit. It is a remarkable phenomenon that in countries which show such a deep
> contrast in cultural matters as America and Persia, this religion
> has made such an amazing progress. This alone would justify
> our interest in its study.
> It is known that after the death of the Prophet Muhammad,
> the Muslim. community soon split asunder into hostile parties
> which in the course of time developed into distinct theological
> sects: the Sunnis and the Shiites, the latter being the partisans
> of Ali. According-to the Shiite view Muhammad appointed
> Ali to succeed him as the spiritual head of Islam but his rights
> were usurped by the first three. Caliphs (Abu Bakar, Omar,
> and Othman). The Shiites of course do not approve of and
> do not believe in the legality of the election of a Caliph, as
> this office, or as they call it, the Ima'mate, is inherent in Ali
> and his descendants. It was conferred by God first upon the
> Prophet, then upon Ali by the Prophet and afterwards on. Ali's
> descendants. It has, therefore, nothing to do with popular
> choice or approval. The Caliph of the Sunnis is an outward,
> visible, defender of the faith; the Imam of
> divinely ordained successor of the Prophet,
> perfections and spiritual gifts, whom all the Shiites is the
> endowed with all the faithful must
> obey, whose decision is absolute and final, whose wisdom is
> superhuman, and whose words are authoritative. The Imámites
> are descendants of Ali's son Husayn who according to popular
> 
> [page 56]
> 
> belief had married the daughter of the Persian-Sassanian king,
> Yazdigird III, and who died a martyr's death at Kerbela (A.D.
> 68o). This explains the affection in which the Iiiia'ms are held
> in Persia, since they are regarded as the direct descendants
> not only of the Prophet but also of the royal house of Sassan.
> The Imimites are divided into the Isma'ilis or adherents of the
> seven Ima'ms, and the Ithna Ashariya or adherents 'of the
> twelve Ima'ms. We are mostly concerned with the latter here.
> Iina'm left no male issue, but as the world
> an Iina'm, the Shiites of the sect of the twelve
> century-
> 
> last lina'm never died but only retired from
> 
> resides in a fabulous
> 
> The twelfth
> cannot do without
> Inia"ns-the state
> believed that the
> mortal ken and town called Jabulka
> among his faithful disciples from where he will issue forth
> in the fullness of time to do justice among mankind. He will
> appear as the Ima'm Mahdi, the God-directed, whose messianic
> advent every Shiite is eagerly expecting. It is held that since
> the disappearance of the Ima'm two main periods have passed :
> (a) tile minor occultation (ghaibat-i-sughra) A:H. 26o-329
> (A. D. 873-942) during which four intermediaries conimunicat-
> ed his instructions who were called the Bdb, or gate, as-they
> permitted entrance to the will of the Itnim; (b) the major
> occultation (ghaibat-i-kubra) during which no intercourse, not
> even indirect, was possible with the Ima5m. At the end of the
> 19th century Sheikh Ahmed al-Ahsai revived the idea that
> amongst the Shiites there must always be one perfect man
> capable of serving as a channel of grace between the absent Imim.
> and his church. Thus such personages as were convinced of
> their superhuman faculty and Godly inspiration may consider
> themselves as intermediaries, as gates so to say, to the know-
> ledge of the absent ImAm. In the ioth century a certain Ash-
> Slialmaghani ibil Abi Azakir had suffered death under the Caliph
> Ar-Ra'diii for i a teaching
> heretical doctrines which included -among others the tenet of
> transmigration of souls. Sheikh Ahmed and his successor,
> Seyyid Kazini of Rasht, did not however make use of the title
> Bib, but their conception of the 'perfect Shiite' was identical
> with the idea connoted by this title. ...
> 
> religion of Persia since the )16th
> ...
> assu ng this same title of Ba'b nd for ...
> 
> [page 57]
> 
> The tenets of the Sheikhi school may be summarized as'
> follows : Sheikh Ahmed believed that the body of man was
> composed of parts derived froni each of the nine heavens and the
> four elements; that the grosser elemental part perished irrevoc-
> ably at death and that only the more subtle celestial portion
> would appear at the resurrection. He named the subtle body :
> Jism huwarkilya (which seems to be derived from a Greek word,
> perhaps Hercules?) and believed it to be similar in substance to
> the forms in the world of similitudes. He denied that the
> Prophet's material body had, on the occasion of his night journey
> to heaven, moved from the spot where it lay in a trance. He
> believed himself to be under the special guidance of the TniAnis.
> He regarded the Ima'ms as creative forces and based his thesis
> on dialectics. For God is spoken of in the Koran (23.T4.,) "the
> best of Creators"; consequently He cannot be the sole creator.
> He went so far in his ultra-Shiite tendencies that he interpreted
> the words of the first chapter of the Koran : iyydka nabudu
> (Thee do we worship) as referring to Ali.
> 
> After the death of Sheikh Ahmed, Hajji Seyyid Kazim, of
> Rasht was unanimouslv recognized as the leader of his sc hoot.
> Kazim, did not, nominate a successor.- According to Ba'bi
> historians he had hinted that the transitional state of things under
> which he and his master Sheikh Ahmed had assumed the guidance
> of the faithful was drawing to a close, and- that a brighter light
> was about to shine forth from the horizon of the spiritual world.
> From whatever quarter the sun of truth shall arise it will irradiate
> all horizons and render the mirrors of believers' hearts capable
> of receiving the effulgence of the lights of wisdom. The Sheikhis
> were anxiously expecting the appearance of some one who -shoul
> assume the leadership of their party. One of thein, Mulla
> Husayn of Bushrawayh proceeded to Shirfiz, and on his arrival
> there paid a visit to Mirza Ali Muhammad, with whom, lie had
> becolne acquainted at Kerbela- and who was also a staunch
> adherent of the school.' Mirza Ali Muhammad learning of the
> death of Kfizim, announced his divine mission, and adduced in
> support of his claims, the commentary on the Sura of Joseph.
> 
> ' I have closely followed the histories of Bfibism. and ]3ahfiism translated, edited
> and ably expounded by the late Prof. Browne.
> 
> [page 58]
> 
> Mulla Husayn of Bushrawayh was soon convinced of the truth
> -Of the young man's assertion and heralded the advent of the new
> 
> a n of
> leader, who assumed the title of 'B'b'. Mulla Husay
> Bushrawayh became the gate of the gate and the first letter or
> the first to believe. The rapidity with which the movement
> spread was wonderful. Representatives of all classes hastened
> to tender their allegiance to the young Seer of Shirfiz, but it was
> from the old Sheikhi party that the most eminent supporters of
> the new faith were recruited. The followers of the Ba'b were
> called 135bis. A number of the Sheikhis however, refused to
> recognize him and adhered to another representative of the
> doctrine, Haiji Muhammad Karim Kha'n; and a fierce quarrel
> ensued between the two parties. The orthodox Sheikhis proved
> to be the foremost and most implacable enemies of the Bibis and
> their relentless persecutors. There was very little difference
> between the preachings of Mirza Ali Muhammad called the
> 'Bib,' and those of Hajji Muhammad Karim, since each claimed
> to be neither more nor less than the intermediary between the
> absent ImAm and his followers, exactly in the same way as were
> the fouroriginal gates who bad served as channels of communica-
> tion between the Twelfth Inia'm and his followers during the
> period of the minor occultation.
> 
> It was in 1844 that the new light arose on the horizon of
> the Shiites, but it was bitterlv challenged by the followers of
> other 'lights' who claimed an equally valid heavenly inspiration,
> although their success among mankind still continued to be
> determined bv mundane factors. The historical importance of
> any idea is not determined by its intrinsic merits, or its alleged
> divine origin, but often depends on the skill with which it is
> adapted by its expounders to suit local conditions. The history
> of Bibism. a new religion arising out of the soil of Persian
> Shiism, with its appeal to the imaginative, the heroic persever-
> ance of its martyrs, the unscrupulous machinations by which
> each faction assailed its antagonists, and the final adaptation of
> the doctrine to the tastes and predilections of modern minds
> corroborates this old maxim of history.
> 
> The Bab was only 27 years of age at the time of his mani-
> festation. The sensation created by his advent frightened the
> 
> [page 59]
> 
> ulemas, and they induced the Government to arrest him and after
> a trial to condemn him to imprisonment '. This action on the
> part of the Persian Government added to his fame, and gave
> impetus to the proselytizing efforts of his followers. The clash
> with the intolerant followers of orthodoxy soon provoked reprisals
> which led to bloody conflicts. Mulla Husayn of Bushrawayh
> and Hajji Muhammad Ali took shelter in an old fortress in
> Mazenderfin which had to be taken by storm after a siege Of 7
> months; revolts and risings of the followers of the Bib occurred
> at Zanjan, ~ Yazd and Niriz which were put down with great
> cruelty on the part of Government. -.The spread of the new
> creed was amazing. - In the course of 6 years the whole of Persia,
> was filledwith Bfibis,-.a clear proof that the idea appealed to the
> imaginative Persians. The revolutionary attitude of the BAbis
> gained many adherents among the peasants who were dissatisfied
> with the economic situation in Persia, and the Government was
> compelled to try to crush the movement at its root. The lenient
> treatment accorded to the.Bib up till then was abandoned and
> he was sentenced to death on the charge of high treason and was
> executed at Tabriz in 11850. This was followed by a vigorous
> persecution of his followers. Finally in 1852, when an -attempt'
> at the life of the Shah was perpetuated by~ some of the BAbis, the
> whole sect was violently sulppressed.~ The beautiful poetess
> Kurrat ul Ayn and many others-, innocent of all complicity in
> the conspiracy, were tormented and cruelly murdered. Some
> of the initiates fled to Baghdad, and a branch of Bfibis arose from
> this small gr I oup'of exiles. 'They modified the doctrine~ and
> developed it into a forin more acceptable 'to those who had no
> sympathy for' the exuberant fancies. of the Persian mind.
> Among these fugitives there. was, ajad, called Mirza Yahya who
> was such,an enthusiastic believer - in the Bib's manifestation that
> he had travelled across the whole of, Persia with his half-brother'
> Mirza Husayn Ali to see the Ba'b. The Ba'b heard of Mirza
> Yahya's zeal and devotion, and declared that in him was fulfilled
> the prophecy long current in Shiite tradition in the form of a
> conversation between,~Ali and Xumayl "regarding the: coming of,
> .eternity.',-' -The B'b conferred
> a light shining from- the dawn of"
> 
> [page 6o]
> 
> Note: the following page appears to have been in 2 columns which got spliced. It can fairly easily be re-constructed by copying into a word processor and adjusting the margin width until the end of the first column becomes apparent, then moving every other line.
> 
> o the particular
> teachings differ only in outward form according t
> on Mirza Yahva the title of Subh-i-Ezel (the dawn of eternity),'
> gave hini. his own ring and authorized him to develop theneeds of the time. The Bfib is also considered to be one of these
> philosophy of Ba'bism as he thought fit, and appointed him asmanifestations (the IsmAili sect has seven incarnations of the
> his own successor. Deity, called Nfitik, Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Christ,
> On the BAb's death Subh-i-Ezel was unanimously recognisedMuhammad and IsmAil), and the party of Subh-i-Fzel continued
> as the spiritual head of the sect. But his half-brother who hadto revere him as such, while the followers of Bahfiullah looked
> received the name of Baha'ullah, the Splendour of God, came intoupon Bahfiullah as this manifestation. It is incumbent on the
> greater proininence owing to the retiring habits and also onprophets to use the language appropriate to his audience. It
> account of the extreme youth of the leader himself. Otherwill be different for little children, or for young men or- for men
> claimants to the leadership also arose but did not gain anyof mature age. The prophet's words must not therefore be taken
> following. The two brothers lived in peace and liarinony attoo literally, but must be explained with reference to the actual
> Baghdad, where the Turkish Government had permitted them tocircumstances in which they are uttered. This is the justifica'-
> reside and where they had niany followers. Here the originaltion of an allegorical interpretation which is so dear to the Shiite
> doctrine underwent many changes, Bahdullah conducted a secretmind. The Isma'ili sect was equally prone to explain away the
> but successful propaganda in Persia. He matured his ideas forliteral meaning of revealed scriptures; when the Kora'n says, that
> the future, and gradually remodelled the tenets for which theJesus had no father, the interpretation is that he received instruc-
> niartyrs in Persia had sacrificed their lives. The circumstancestions from no trustworthy teacher : when it says that he raised
> in Baghdad gave hini a wider horizon and this compelled him tothe dead, it signifies that he brought knowledge. to dead under-
> take a broader view. He retired for two years to the hills of tanding. The BAbis handled this
> allegorical interpretation
> 
> Kurdistan to meditate upon his ideas. Subh-i-Ezel still adhered (ta'wil)_ in a masterly way. _ They denied the physical
> existence
> to the orthodox tenets of BAbism- but his peace-loving nature of Paradise or Hell; as the rough Arabs could not understand
> prevented an open hostility with BahAullah. ethical values Muhammad spoke to them of Good and Evil in
> As time ripens the blossom into luscious fruit there occurs symbolic form. When, in course of - time, one particular form
> a profound change in the outward appearance, although the of expression in the teachings of a prophet becomes I
> obsolete, . a
> 
> new manifestation appears and modifies the' teaching in a suitable-
> organic continuitv is not destroyed. Similarly a religious idea
> becomes changed in the course of time by the influence of leaders way to advance the eternal progress of the world. The Bfibi
> who have an active grasp of the realities of the situation. doctrine is most *definite on this point. It recognises and
> Ba'bisin has been altered profoundly by the gradual assimilation emphasizes changes in human affairs, and wishes to mould every
> of new conceptions, some of which were entirely foreign to the thought in accordance with the progress of the world. Thgre_
> original doctrine. According to BAbi views, the essence of God, can be no final revelation -1 and no last prophet, an idga
> which wits
> the primal divine Unity, is unknowable and entirely transcends very sympat ph-,I of evolution, and
> which in
> Iluinan comprehension. We can know nothing about it, we been avowed by Mirza GhuMm
> see only its manifestation in the succession of prophets. There Ahmad. According to.the Bfibi doctrine the prophets, as mani-
> is no fundamental divergence or conflict between the prophets, festations of the Universal Reason', were forerunners of
> progress
> all of whoni represent the saine Universal Reason. Their and were always in advance of mankind. This is why every
> 
> prophet had been and must be rejected by his own people. 'So
> 
> 'The language of the 13Ab himself and the terminology of transcendental lore did also the Bftb fare, when one
> thousand. years after the dis-
> used by his followers reflect the exuberant flight of fancy which often glorified
> beautiful words without much meaning. The followers were given fantastic names appearance of the Twelfth Inifim (A.
> H. 26o; the Bfib's mani-
> full of esoteric allusions.
> 
> [page 62]
> 
> festation took place in 126o A. H.), he was persecuted and put
> to death. In order to prevent mankind from falling -into the
> same error lie emphasized that even his manifestation was not
> the last and that others would again come in future ages to.b.ring
> new revelations suited to new circumstances and altered
> conditions.
> 
> The theorv of evolution seems to be embodied in a
> theoloIlly which believed in a succession of prophethood all
> manifesting the one and the same Universal Intelligence but
> under diverse conditions and aspects. This view, which is apt
> to make Balbism a sympathetic doctrine even to modern rationa-
> lists, was not, however, the source of inspiration for the innumer-
> able martyrs who died for Ba'bism. What attracted them to
> the new creed even at the cost of their lives was the nivstic
> doctrine of Ba'bism which was full of transcendental corres-
> pondences and equivalents between names based on numerical
> values of letters., and of the theory of divine manifestation.
> 
> Almost all the constituent elements of BAbisin had their
> source in the mediseval heresies of Persian origin. The nation
> instinctively cherished and clung to these mystic doctrines --in
> which it found a peculiar charm.
> 
> Muhammad very soon discarded the title of the BAb and
> assumed that of the Point (Nuqta). There is a spurious tradi-
> tion according to which Ali is supposed to have said that all
> that was in the KorAn was contained implicitly in the opening
> chapter, and all that was in this chapter was contained in the
> first line (Bismillah), and finally in turn in the initial B of the
> Bismillah. and this in turn in the point which stands under the
> Arabic B, and Ali is also supposed to have said "I am the
> point which stands under the B."
> 
> Mirza Muhammad was henceforth called the Primal Point,
> or His Holiness the First Point: the manifestation of the Primal
> Will. The Bfibis believed that the primal will is incarnated in
> the intermediaries between man and God. In one sense it is
> identical with God, for a tradition says that whosoever visited
> Husayn in his tomb was as one who hath visited God on His
> Throne. So likewise the BAb said "Oh Ali, none hath known
> 
> [page 63]
> 
> God save I and thee; and none hath known me save God and thee,
> and none hath known thee save God and I."
> Ba'bi mentality may be appreciated by the following extracts
> from the Nuqtatu1-Kdf., one of the earliest and most authentic
> histories : 'as the same mirror may at different times reflect
> different objects, so the same individual mav successively become
> 
> [page 64 ]
> 
> the returns (or recurrences) of different prototypes.' When
> Mirza Muhammad, speaking more freely, as his followers became
> more receptive of divine mysteries, declared himself to be the
> Point, Mullah Husayn ceased to be only the Gate of Gate and
> became the actual Gate; and when he was killed,* his brother
> Mirza Muhammad Hasan in turn received the title. But this is
> not all. Mirza Ali Muhammad was first of all, Balb, or Gate,
> then Zikr or Reminder, than Nuqta or Point. For a while
> Mullah Muhammad Ali of Barfurush became the Point, and
> Mirza Ali Muhammad relapsed into being his Ba'b and during
> this time wrote nothing. "Sometimes it happens," so runs the
> Nitqtatu'l-Kdf, "that the Point becomes quiescent in effulgence
> and that this effulgence becomes manifested in'the Gate, just as
> the apostle of God did not wield the sword but his wrath was
> made in anifested in the for m of Ali.- - But afte I r the death of
> God's apostle, Ali became the Point and Heaven of Will, and
> Hasan became the Gate, and the Earth of Devotion, while
> Husay n and Salma'n and the rest were the Letters of the Living.
> So likewise in speaking of the Islamic cycle of prophethood, so
> long as Muhammad was alive, Ali declared himself to be onlv a
> servant amongst his servants, but that ' so soon as'the Prophetic
> Mirror (by which is meant the sovereign form of Muhammad)
> was shattered to pieces, in less time than a twinkling of aneye,
> it (the Sun of Truth) arose in the mirror of Saintship (saintship
> represents the esotericespect of religion) so that Ali thus became
> the Mirror.or 'Manifestation' of the Primal Will and the Proof
> of God upon earthwas ableto say; I am Adam, Noah, Abraham,.
> Moses, Jesus and Muhammad." All theoph.anies are identical
> in essence and differ only in circumstance, just as the sun
> which shines to-day is the same as that which shone yesterday
> or that which will shine to-morrow'. These lights of the firma-
> ment of Prophethood and Saintships, like the celestial luminaries,
> 
> [page 65]
> 
> have a rising and a setting, a manifestation and an occultation."
> It is obvious that all these notions can be explained only by
> means of allegorical comparisons with the phenomena of nature
> with which they really have nothing in common. A figurative
> expression takes here the place of rational thinking in terms of
> concepts corresponding to realities
> As to the eschatology of Bibism, it denies bodily resurrec-
> tion but the spirit of the deceased may continue to take an
> interest in his earthly affairs, and some passages in Bibi writings
> also refer to the transmigration of souls, while the return to the
> life of his world is conceived in a symbolic sense as a reflection
> upon a inirror. However vague the Ba'bi doctrine may be on
> certain points it is essentially dogmatic and ev ery utterance of
> the manifestation of the period must be accepted without demur.
> The Kitdb-i-Aqdas (the "Most Holy Book") of Baha'ullah begins
> with "The first thing which God has presented unto His servants
> is knowledge of the Day, spring of His Revelation and the
> Dawning-place of His Command , which is the Station of His
> Spirit in the world of Creation and Command. Whosoever
> attaineth unto this hath attained unto all go
> 
> od and whosoever is
> debarred therefrom is of the -people of error, even though- he
> produce all kinds of good deeds." The Ba'b and his immediate
> followers were not inclined to tolerance. According to the
> 'Baygn,' no unbelievers were to be suffered to dwell in the five
> principal provinces of Persia, and everywhere they were, as far
> as possible, to be subjected to restrictions, and kept in a position
> of inferiority. The Ba5bis are strongly antagonistic to Sfifis on
> account of their individualism and 'inner light,' and to the
> orthodox Musulmans because they did not acknowledge in the
> Manifestations the fulfilment of Islam.
> 
> A most characteristic feature of 13a'bism is the belief in the
> intrinsic value of the letters of the Alphabet. The algebraic
> correspondences have puzzled men since the time of Pythagoras.
> In Muslim history it was the Hurufis who first attached magic
> power to numbers and- tried to derive secret meanings out of the
> numerical value of the letters of the Alphabet. Their system
> was eagerly taken up and elaborated by the Turkish Bekta'shi
> writers. The Isma'iliya sect believed in the number seven. The
> 
> Deity had seven incarnations, between each of the seven mcarna I ,
> tions there arose seven ImAms, each Ima'm'was at the head of a
> heptad; seven operations were required in the making of a convert
> and so on. The A[gebraic correspondences. developed by the
> 
> tem is practically built
> 
> -Th
> irrahmdn, irrahim (in the name,of God the merciful, the com-
> passionate) comprises ig letters in Arabic script which are the
> 
> [page 66]
> 
> 'Manifestation' of the Point under, the B, just as the whole
> Koran is the further Manifestation on a plane of greater plura-
> lity of the Bismillah. The number- ig became a kind of a sacred
> number, a fundamental basis of the BAbi doctrine by which the
> truth of its tenets could be, algebraically proved.
> -The Arabic word for one is Wdhid, and the numerical value
> of the letters composing _ the word, give the sum (6 + I + 8 + 4) Of
> ig. This unity of 19 in turn. manifests -itself as je.19_~36i,
> )ihicli :is: ~t~e ~'a I ~thiii ~sK~ullu ~ha ; the letters,
> are numerically equivalent (20+30+3O0+T0)=.36o to which by
> adding "theone which underlie.9 all plurality.." we get 361, the
> number of- all things, which. again is the square of -The
> number ig was made the basis of all divisions of tin e, money,
> etc. The Ba'bi's idea of a coinage having ig as its basis has
> however been abandoned along,with many other impracticable
> ordinances. Thus the Ba'bi year comprised 19 solar months of
> ig days each, to which intercalary days are added between the
> i8th and igth'months. The last month is consecrated to
> fasting. The, unity is also manifested in the divine attribute
> Hayy, the Living, which equals 8+io=i8, and with the one
> which underlies ' all plurality makes 1.9. The BAb together,with
> his 18 disciples constituted the letters of the Living (ig).The
> choice of Mirza Yahya by the BAb as his successor was,probably
> determined by the fact that the numerical value of the name
> Yallya was 36, a multiple of 18 on which account he was also
> called Wdhid which is numerically equivalent to 28, the number
> of letters constituting the Arabic alphabet. _T-hg town Adria-
> norde. wh-em the Bfibis were exiled; was called by them the land
> of mvsterv: because the svIlables i~- -the fi~-m-~-6F-tYe-t-ow-n Ii-a-d
> 
> [page 67]
> 
> Note: the following page appears to have been in 2 columns which got spliced. It can fairly easily be re-constructed by copying into a word processor and adjusting the margin width until the end of the first column becomes apparent, then moving every other line.
> 
> the same numerical value (26o) whic!) ~Corr ~onds to the~ N-...and herald -This announcement like the
> previous announce-'
> in ~-vvhich Fthe tw~elt 1
> .........inent of a similar nature, was not accepted and'recognized un--
> .........aniniously. Some, even among those who -originally belonged
> This doctrine is full of metaphysical transcendentalism, and
> even such reforms as savour of utility, such as the amelioration to the circle of the BAb,
> vehemently opposed the new manifesta-
> 'Of the position of women or the prohibition of chastisement of tion of God. A fierce
> and'disgraceful 'quarrel attended with
> children are entirely based on mystical considerations. For.... Violence broke out between the
> rival parties, until finally the
> example, the Bfib taught that the future manifestation of God.. Turkish Government had to
> intervene in I the fight between the
> shall first appear as a child, it would therefore constitute a grave two brothers. The hostile
> factions were segregated and exiled
> sin for any one to treat the august infaiit 1jarshly, and lience separately. Subli-i-Ezel, who
> had been ' nominated by the
> -en shotild cease. .........Prii point as his successor, was transferred to Famagusta in
> it was necessary that tile chastisement (f cliddi .........nal
> The play oil words formed another iniportant element in the.... the island of Cyprus, while
> Balialullall was sent to Akka. To
> philosophy of Ba'bism. .........each of the factions four.adherents of the opposite group were
> .........attached, so that the Turkish Government' could be kept
> The conflict between Mirza Muhammad the Ba'b apd Hajji......... informed ~ regarding the
> 'activities of both the parties. The
> Muhammad Karim KhAn regarding the status of the Interme-....... followers of Bahalullah put to
> death all the four Ezelis attached.
> diary to the hidden Imaim clearly shows, however, tile reaction
> of external factors on the growth . of a revealed religion. It was to their party. The hostility
> between the two Ba'bi factions
> .........continued with pen and dagger alike. The sect of the- Ezelis
> not the intrinsic value of the rival doctrines which decided tile which had adhered to 'the
> original doctrine 'in its rigid and
> issue, but the influence exerted by the respective leaders oil
> their contemporaries. The growth of a doctrine and its ulti-... narrow form, graduallv declined
> in influence while the followers
> .........a in strength. Balia'ullah succeeded in
> .........of Bali'ullah gained
> mate success is determined by the simplest human factors,
> I .......... getting recognized by a large number of people as the,manifes-
> anthropological
> and social. The fact that the social factors were .........tation of God, and he gradually put the 1~6'b in the background
> of greater importance than the transcendental and metaphysical. as compared with his own heavenly
> splendour. The name of
> 
> [page 68]
> 
> nature of the doctrines was clearly recognized by the new leader the sect was changed from that
> of Ba'bism to Bahá'ísm. Tile,
> BallAullah, who by his carefully conducted propaganda suc-..... doctrines of -the Bfib were
> regarded only as preparatory and
> ceeded in Attaining a supremacy over the more dogmatic and..... provisional, while Bahaullah was
> authorized to give them a final
> single-minded Subh-i-Ezel'. .........shape and sanction. And Bahiullah made full use of his
> A new period in the history of the movement set in with........ authority. The B&bi religion was
> firmly rooted in Persian
> the rise of Bahfiullah. The little party of emigrants at Baghbad Sliiitism and it had no chance
> of I making proselytes outside the
> were too near the Persian frontier, and the Persian Governinent
> .........Shiite world. Bahfiullah discarded all restricting metaphysical
> requested the Porte for their transfer to Adrianople in 1864... peculiarities. He also modified
> the attitude of 'uncompromising
> Here BaliAullah publicly announced that it was he in whom...... hostil~y to the orthodox
> Musul-mans, and to the Shah of -Persia
> God had become manifest in accordance with the prediction of... which had animit-edthe U and
> the Ba'b. He strictly adhered to the doctrines of Ba'bism, and. eve VmPathetic attitude towards
> all likel- converts. He
> i........n p__- _
> although there is some evidence to show that he had at one time d`evelo~ed the ethical side of
> the teaching, and in Fi-s-l~-tters: to
> considered himself to be merely the successor of the Ba'b, he.. potentates he used a gentle and
> patient tone. He had a clear
> now assumed a new role: he was the promised one, -the real..... grasp of the aspirations'of the
> human. mind in the 2oth century,'-
> manifestation of God, to whom the 13a'b was only a forerunner.. and included in his teachings ~a
> very wide scheme of social
> 
> [page 68]
> 
> reform in a most synipathetic way, but with the simplistic
> views of a dreamer. Anti-alcoholisni, unemployment help,
> women's suffrage, reforin of criminology, socialism, local auto-
> noiny in political administration, universal language, interna-
> tional union, and general peace, all figured in his programme.
> Nor was Balliullah Aevoid of th!~__power of clairvoyan .
> In the* -year 1869 lie wrote to Napoleon III rebuking him for _4s
> Vill-iwfi-i-Ji-he had treated a
> fo-rin-eri-e from him. 0 owing
> sf~-rn-wariii~n-g--7--T-11~-doiiigs will throw thy kingdom into
> confusion; sovereignty shall pass from thy hands to requite
> thee for thy deeds, and thus thou shalt find thyself in grievous
> loss.Convulsions shall seize all peoples in yonder land, unless
> thou dost arise in this cause and in this straight path follow
> the spirit. Hath thy poilip made thee vainglorious? By my
> life, it shall not endure, nay, it shall pass away, unless thou
> dost cling unto this strong cord.We behold abasement hasten
> ing upon'thy heels and thou art yet of them that are heedless'.
> It is characteristic that an English Balia'i writer believes firmly
> that the debacle of France in .1870 would hive been averted if
> Napoleon had adopted the noble cause and the straight.path of
> the Balia'i.
> 
> Bahfiullah was by no means led by Germanophile motives
> 'in beholding abasement hastening upon the heels' of Napoleon.
> In the Kitdb-i-Aqdas which was begun in Adrianople and
> finished- in Akka, he sent a similar stern admonition to the
> Emperor of Germany:m-
> 
> '0 King of Berlin . . . Recollect the one who was greater
> than thee in station (Napoleon III), and whose position was
> higher than thine. - Where is he? and where are his posses-
> sions ? Be admonished and be not of those who sleep. He
> cast the tablet of God behind him when we informed him of
> what had befallen us from the hosts of oppression and thus dis-
> grace beset him from all sides until he returned to the dust in
> great loss. 0 King, think deeply concerning him as well as
> about those like unto thee who conquered cities and ruled over
> servants of God-and -God brought them down from palaces
> to graves. Be warned and be of those who are mindful'.
> 
> [page 69]
> 
> '0 Banks of the River Rhine, we have seen you drenched
> in gore because the swords of retribution were drawn against
> you. You shall have another turn. And we hear the lamenta-
> tion of Berlin, although it be to-day in manifest glory.'
> 
> The English writer alluded to above says : "during the
> period of German success in the Great War of 1914-18, and
> especially during the last German offensive in the spring of
> 1918, this well-known prophecy was extensively quoted by the
> opponents of the BahAi movement in Persia in order to dis-
> credit BahAullali; but when the forward sweep of the victorious
> Germans was suddenly transformed into a crushing and over-
> whelining disaster, the efforts of these enemies of the BaliAi
> cause recoiled on themselves, and the notoriety which they had
> given to the prophecy became a powerful means of enhancing
> the reputation of Bahiullah."
> 
> A message of consolation is addressed to Persia in the
> Kitdb-i-Akdas
> 
> 'O land of Ta (Teheran) be not sorrowful from anv cause.
> God liath made thee the dawning place of the joy of themorld.
> If He will, He will bless thy throne with one who will rule
> with justice and gather together the sheep-of God-which have
> been sc~!Jttere by the.,wolves. Verily lie will treat the people of
> Baha' wih joy and gladness. So, he is of the essence of the
> people in the sight of God.'
> 
> 'Rejoice, for God hath made thee a Horizon of light, because
> in thee was born the Dawning Place of the Manifestation. Soon
> affairs will be changed in thee and a republic of men shall rule
> over thee. Verily the countenance of Grace ~ will - not cease to
> behold thee with the eyes of love. Soon peace will overtake
> thee after commotion. Thus it liath been decreed in the Book
> of Wonders.'
> 
> Turkey, which had given shelter to Baha'ullali and his
> followers, did not fare better at his hands ~ than France and
> Germany. There are several passages: in Ahe Kitd-i-Aqdas
> which predict the downfall of the Ottomans,'but evidently his
> wrath was~directed against this kingdom, ~;Ithdn' ~whi&a handful
> of dust is greater before God,' because it did not take up his
> cause in a way which would have satisfied him, ~Thou didst
> 
> [page 70]
> 
> unite with the Ruler of Persia for doing me harm,' so lie wrote
> to Ali Pasha, 'although I had collie to you from the Dawning
> Place of the Almighty, the Great, with a cause which refreshed
> the eyes of the favoured ones of God. Didst thou think that
> thou couldst put out the fire which God hath enkindled in the
> Universe? Its blaze and flame will be increased. Soon it will
> encompass the world and its inhabitants. Soon the land of
> inartyrs (Adrianople) will be changed and will pass out of the
> hands of the King" and commotion shall -appear in the districts
> and affairs will be in confusion because of what haili happened
> to tbose captives' (BahAullah and his companions).
> The Turks cared little for the threats of l3alliullah. The
> Sliiite -element in his doctrine did not appeal to them, and his
> cosmopolitan teachings found deaf cars among the awakening
> nationalists. The Government had an eye on him, and when
> his quarrel with Subh-i-Ezel led to viol ' ence, it prevented further
> blood-shed by separating the rival factions, and Baha'ullah never
> attailied any political power in Turkey.
> 
> His exhortations sound overbearing and egoistic if we dare
> doubt his infallible prophethood and venture to judge them as
> those of a normal mortal. He addressed Americans in the
> Kitdb-i-Aqda,5 some fifty years ago in the following words :
> '0, Rulers of America, Presidents and Governors of the'
> Republic therein, hear the call from the Dawning Place on High.
> There is no God but me, the speaker and the Omniscient : Bind
> up the broken limb with the hands of justice, and break the
> sound limb of the oppressor with the rod of the Command of
> your Lord, the Ruler, the Wise.'
> 
> In the writinzs of Bah6ullah we notice a clearness of style
> whi in strikLing contrast to the rugged and unin-t-effl-ObTe
> character of Bfibi li tu-re~Through him God addresses His
> creatures, proclaiming His love for them, teaching them His
> attributes, making His will known, antimucing His laws for
> their guidance and pleading for their love, allegiance and service.
> In his writings the form of expression frequently changes.
> Sometimes it is evident that the man himself is speaking, then
> 
> of This prophecy has not yet been fulfilled, for Adrianople is still in the hands
> the Turks a6r ,,, -
> 
> [page 71]
> 
> without a break the writing continues as if God Himself were
> speaking in the first person.
> 
> His mission was to bring about unity of all mankind in and
> through God. He said
> 
> 'Of the Tree of Knowledge the all-glorious fruit is this
> exalted word : of one tree are all ye the fruits and of one bough
> the leaves. Let no man glory in this that he loves his country,
> but let him rather glory in this that he loves his kind.'
> 
> It was this ethical and humanitarian spirit, rather than
> the dry metaphysical doctrines of Bahfiism which gained new
> followers all over the world, while those who were allured by the
> glaniour of mysticism still found ample scope in it. In Akka,
> where BahAullah lived as an exile, people flocked to see him,
> and by this intercourse with the world his doctrines broadened.
> He dropped most of the minor restriction imposed by the Bfib,
> which were dictated in many cases by his personal tastes and
> feelings. Such were the prohibition of smoking and the eating
> of onions, the regulations as to clothing, forms of salutation,
> the use of rings, perfumes, the names by which children might
> be named and so on. The laws of Bahfiullah, with the excep-
> tion of the law of inheritance, are much simpler in character
> and are such as may be enforced in practice. For example,
> smoking is not noLy unusg~,I~on ~the followers of Bahiullah,
> while the Ezelis still maintain the prohibition as stLictly
> ever.
> 
> In the nineties, a Syrian Christian converted to Balla'ism,
> Ibra'him. George Khair-ullah, settled in the United States, and
> started active propoganda in America on behalf of the new
> revelation. He delivered a large number of lectures oil
> BahAism-and published a number of books which were favour-
> ably received. The monotonous factory life of over-indus-
> trialized America harbours a naive sentimentalism which finds
> pleasure and enthusiasm in all humanitarian ideas, and it was
> not surprising that Bahfiism. developed a vigourous branch-
> 
> Footnote:
> 
> *While acting as an interpreter to Abdul Bahfi during his tour in Hungary, J
> remember that I once offered him cigarettes, and he carefully selected one an
> smoked it with apparent enjoyment.
> 
> [page 72]
> 
> movement in America, marked, by the production of a copious
> but shallow literature.
> 
> Baha'ullah died in 1892. He nominated as his successor his
> eldest son Abbas, also called Abdul BaliA, servant of Baha'.
> Balia'ullali had conferred on his son, in accordance with the
> usual practice in his community, the sonorous title Ghusn-i-
> Azam,' the most mighty branch ; the younger son Mirza
> Muliaininad Ali was called 'Gliusn-i-Akbar,' the most great
> branch. Abdul Balia"s life was accompanied by thrilling
> roniance. He was born at Teheran before midnight oil the 23rd
> May, 1844 (5 Djuniidlia'tula, 126o) in the very same hour in
> which the Ba'b declared his mission.
> 
> He was eight years of age when his father was thrown into
> prison. On one occasion he saw his father moving along the
> prison yard heavily shackled, his neck bowed under the weight
> of a heavy steel collar, his body bent by iron chains. This awful
> sight created a lasting impression oil the mind of the bc~y. At
> Baghdad, long before the manifestation of God became clear to
> Balliullah, the son suddenly felt a conviction that it was his
> father in whom the divine spirit sliall shine forth. Sixty years
> later he dictated to his secretary_ hisimpressions of that period in
> ,the following- words:
> 
> "I am the servant of the Blessed Perfection Balla'ullah. In
> Baghdad I was a child. Then and there He announced to me
> the Words and I believed in Him. As soon as He proclaimed
> to me the word, I threw myself at His holy feet and implored
> and supplicated Him to accept my blood as a sacrifice in His
> pathway. What greater glory can I conceive than to see this
> lieck chained for His sake, these feet fettered for His love, this
> body mutilated th
> If in
> 
> ~X LOWD. LU Lhe dePtns ot the sea for His cause.
> reality we are His sincere lovers, if in reality I am His
> sincere servant, than I must sacrifice my life, nay all, at his
> Blessed Threshold.
> 
> Froill. this time his friends began to call him : the mystery
> of God; a title by which he was known during the residence in
> Baghdad. Several wonderful stories are related about the innate
> sa,gacity with which while yet a boy lie solved the most intricate
> metaphysical problems. A curious story is current about the
> 
> [page 73]
> 
> circumstances of his marriage. For a-long time he showed no
> inclination for marriage, and no one understood the reason for
> this. Afterwards,it became known that there was a girl who
> was destined to become his wife, one whose birth came about
> through the blessing which the Ba'b had given to her parents in
> Ispahan. They had no children although the wife was longing
> for a child. On hearing this the Bfib gave the husband ~ an
> apple and told him to share it with his wife. After they had
> eaten of that apple, it soon became apparent that their long
> cherished hopes of parenthood were about to be fulfilled, and
> in due course a daughter was born to them. This daughter was
> the elected wife of Abdul Bahfi. In the constant odour of
> sanctity and miracles, Abdul Bahfi was brought up as the future
> leader of the community.
> 
> In the face of the clear testament of Bahfiullah little room
> was left for dissension, and yet a conflict over the same old
> principles soon broke out among the followers. The question
> was again whether Bahfiism was a final revelation in which the
> possibility of new innovations ceased with the passing of the
> Manifestation of God, or whether Abdul Baha' was entitled to
> further inspirations of his own. , ~ In the Kitdb-i-A qdas Bahiullah
> himself had explicitly, -stated that 'whosoever lays claim to' any
> authority to proinulgat ' e fresh revelations before the completion
> of a millenium is assuredly a liar and an imposter'. Abdut
> Bahfi's - brothers and some of . the. leading Bah6is therefore
> strenuously resisted the claim of Abdul Bahfi to promulgate,
> new doctrines or fresh. ordinances, on the ground that a millenium-
> of occultation must pass before a new exposition of the divine
> will would be necessary. Thus the BahAi religion split . into
> two hostile parties fighting in Persia as well as in America an'd--
> other countries of the world. Ibr6him Khair-ullah espoused the
> cause of the conservative party, and consequently Abdul Baha'
> was also obliged to send missionaries to America to counteract,
> Khair-ullah's propaganda. ..The strife between the, different
> Bfibi ~ factions, the heads of all of whIch -claim aTir t divine
> mspi:~a-tionis i-diiifiguring Ew ii -the Fis th~,E zin
> -t qv
> -~- ent,
> and is an insoluble ~ contradiction in Ats -baak-
> Assuming: the BAb. to have -been divinely inspired (and this
> 
> [page 76]
> 
> possible in design and workmanship. It should stand in a
> large garden, surrounded by a number of accessory buildings
> devoted to educational, charitable and social purposes so that
> the worship of God in the temple may always be closely
> associated with reverent delight in the beauties of nature and
> practical work. Such temples are being built in IshkAb6d,
> Bombay and Wilmette on lake Michigan near Chicago.
> 
> Abdul Baha' lived at Akka, under the strict supervision of
> the Turkish Government. He was visited from all parts of
> the world by ardent followers or curious sightseers. After the
> Turkish revolution he was declared free and in 19TT lie under-
> took tours in Europe and America, delivering lectures, answering
> questions and expounding the doctrines of his religion of unity.
> The reception accorded to him must have deeply impressed him,
> and probably created an impression in his mind that his religion
> will soon be universal on earth. The universality of his teach-
> ing naturally attracted a large number of pacifists, suffragettes,
> esperantists, theosophists, prohibitionists, socialists and the
> ultra-liberals, while the mysterious effect,.which oriental dress,
> beauty of personal appearance and the unfamiliar music of
> oriental language never fail to produce on Western minds, drew
> others out of pure curiosity. He succeeded in establishing
> new centres -of -BahAis_n1 in Germany, France and elsewhere,
> while in America he gained a final ascendancy over the followers
> of his brother.
> 
> In Persia the persecution of BAbis and Bahfiis has_gradnally
> TE e 0 who
> ceased. e-re--are a few BASIs belongi g to th Id school,
> Ml themselves Kullu Shavis, and do not care about the quarrel
> between Ezelis and Balifiis, and a large but indeterminable
> number of BahAis proper. Lord Curzon in his book on "Persia
> and the Persian Question," published in x892, wrote : "the
> lowest estimates place the number of BAbis in Persia at half of a
> million. I am disposed to think from conversations with persons
> well qualified to judge that the total is nearer one million. They
> are to be found in every walk of life from the ministers and
> nobles of the Court to the scavenger or the groom, not the least
> arena of their activity being the Musalman priesthood itself. JU
> B6bism continues to grow at its present rate of pj~gress, a -time
> 
> may conceivably come when it will oust Mollaniiiiadaiiisin from
> This, I think it would be uiilikelv to do.
> did it appear upon the_:__roun-Cu~ner the fla- of a hostile faith.
> ut il~iT~e its recruit~ ~a~ won fr~m the best soldiers of the
> garrison whom it is attacking, there is greater reason to ~elieve
> that it may ultimately prevail." This prediction however was
> 1 not fulfilled; the movement after a phenomenal rise again
> subsided within normal limits.
> Abdul BahA survived the Great War, and saw a good deal
> 
> [page 77]
> 
> of his life-work come to fruition. The Bahá'ís set a good example
> of material work in transforming the barren Akka (Akbrab-
> ulbilfid) into a little garden. They organized extensive agricul-
> tural operations near Tiberias during the war, and secured a
> great supply of wheat by which a famine was averted. Since
> the. British occupation of Syria, Abdul BahA became the centre
> of a large circle listening to_!1lS__L11_UMiR4iP9_~s, and hundreds
> of visitors from the East and West flocked to his house. The
> British Government was so profoundly impressed -by Kvs_in~i~
> character and his great work in the interest of peace and pros-
> perity of the people that they conferred on him a knighthood of
> the British Empire. When he departed from the earthly life
> in ig2i the British High Commissioner officially took part in
> his fumeral. -
> He died without inale issue. His grand-son Shauk-i-
> _Rabb:a~ni ~astu~dent of Oxford, was- vroclaimed as his succes.sor,
> but he was unable to im a group of foil _.- it
> is..not unlikely that the MUG -movement will ebobbotitAn-plati-
> t6des of uni~J_salism_._ A typical exanipl_eof -recent writings is
> furnishe&Vy_tNe_'F6-ok on 'the New Humanity' by Mirza Alimad
> Sohrab, the Secretary of Abdul Bahfi, in which the idea of
> universality is indiscriminately applied to such concepts as
> universal peace, universal patriotism,- universal language,
> universal opinion, universal dawn (?), universal age,' univer-
> sal newspaper, universal feminity,' universal painting and
> 
> 'P. 181. "This is the age of women, for this very reason if for no other, it
> is a universal age."
> ' P. 290. "In her hands is the jar of star (scent) of the rose of understanding.
> An artist whiarred into my ear; "I would rather spend one hour with her than
> seventy years it a Saint."
> 
> [page 78]
> 
> literature, universal aviation and broadcasting, universal
> penance and so on. It is a work not devoid of charm but with-
> out the slightest basis of science or a positive back-ground of
> history.
> 
> The after-effects of the Great War in Persia are however
> not very conducive towards the growth of mysticism. In the
> West there was a decided reaction against materialism, in the
> East there was a movement towards positivism, a process which
> has its psychological as well as social reasons. Bahfiism is not
> likely to continue to exercise its old majzic influenm--on
> 
> is now more inclined to be captivated
> by the forward march of industrialism.Romance will pass
> away with the gro;thand the colour of life will
> dissolve into the gray haze of outward uniformity. Nothing is
> more cruel than realities, for even if they give contact with truth,
> they fail to bring happiness, the illusion of. pious hearts.
> 
> Water when analysed consists of two elements without taste
> and flavour, still it quenches the thirst and is the substance of
> life. Likewise every religion can be analysed into elements of
> myth, legends and popular lore; still it- quenches the thirst of
> man for guidance and truth and sustains him in his stumbling
> progress through errors and deficiencies in his slow approach
> to the harmony pervading the universe.
> 
> METADATA
> 
> Views11907 views since posted 2002-02; last edit 2025-04-30 03:14 UTC;
> 
> previous at archive.org.../germanus_modern_movements_islam;
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