# Covenant, The, and Covenant-breaker

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> Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Moojan Momen, Covenant, The, and Covenant-breaker, bahai-library.com.
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> 
> Covenant, The, and Covenant-breaker
> 
> Moojan Momen
> published in The Bahá'í Encyclopedia
> 
> 1995
> 
> [draft, never published]
> 
> Covenant (Pers., Arab. `ahd,
> mítháq) The spiritual contract binding God
> and humanity. The Bahá'í Faith recognizes two covenants:
> first, the greater covenant, between God, represented by the Manifestation
> of God (q.v.), on the one hand, and humanity on the other, in which God
> promises to continue to send guidance to humankind, while humanity, on its
> part, promises to obey and follow these teachings when they come. Part of
> this greater covenant is the obligation which each Manifestation of God
> places upon his followers to accept the next Manifestation. Second, the
> lesser covenant, which obliges individual Bahá'ís to accept
> the leadership of Bahá'u'lláh's appointed successors and the
> administrative institutions of the Faith. Firmness in the covenant is one
> of the chief Bahá'í religious virtues and includes not just
> acceptance of the legitimacy of the Bahá'í institution but
> much more general attitudes of loyalty and whole-hearted commitment to the
> Bahá'í Faith and Bahá'í community. Challenging
> the authority of the center of the Bahá'í Faith is the most
> serious spiritual offence that a Bahá'í can commit. It
> called Covenant-Breaking and is considered to be a spiritual disease and
> is punished by expulsion from the community.
> 
> A. History of the Covenant
> 
> The Bahá'í scriptures note and indeed emphasize the
> continuity of the theme of the greater covenant in the history of religion
> (or at least that of the Western religions). The covenant that God made
> with Abraham that He would make Abraham the father of many nations and
> bless his descendants (Genesis 17:1-7, 18-21) is invoked when
> Bahá'u'lláh's ancestry is traced to the line of Abraham
> through Katurah. (GPB 94, Genesis 25:1-2) But more important is the
> Sinaiatic Covenant which involves the obligation of the Israelites to
> acknowledge and follow the laws of God in return for which God will exalt
> Israel. (Exodus 24:4-8; 28:1-2) Also of importance from the
> Bahá'í viewpoint is the prophetic covenant made by God
> through Jeremiah (Jeremiah 32:37-42) in which He promises a day in which
> He will gather up Israel from all the countries to which they have been
> driven and bring them back to the Holy Land. God promises not to turn away
> from them and to do them good. ("And they shall be my people, and I will
> be their God." Jeremiah 32:38) This covenant is important both because
> the first part is considered by Bahá'ís to have been
> fulfilled by Bahá'u'lláh with the in-gathering of Jews to
> the Holy Land and because the latter part can be considered the archetypal
> form of the greater covenant which has been re-confirmed in subsequent
> revelations.
> 
> The important difference between the usual understanding of the
> covenant in the Hebrew Bible and the Bahá'í understanding is
> that Bahá'u'lláh emphasizes God's testing of humanity
> through the covenant. In the Kitáb-i-Íqán and
> elsewhere, Bahá'u'lláh writes of the fact that when humanity
> makes the covenant that it will obey God's guidance, this is then put the
> test when the next Manifestation of God comes. The people are put to the
> test of whether they are truly attuned to the voice of God and recognize
> it when it comes from a new source or whether they reject the new
> revelation.
> 
> In the New Testament, the blood of the sacrificial animals that marked
> the seal of the covenant in Judaism (Exodus 24:8) is replaced by the
> sacrificial blood of Christ (Hebrews 9:13-28). The covenant thus changes
> from being concerned with obedience of the law to a covenant wherein
> whoever believes is assured of grace with God. The Bahá'í
> scriptures powerfully support the importance of the sacrifice of Christ.
> (GWB 36:85-86) The covenantal relationship for Bahá'ís,
> however, involves both belief and obedience to the law of God on the part
> of humanity (see below).
> 
> The Qur'an conveys a close parallel to the description of the covenant
> in the Bahá'í scriptures, depicting that it is concerned
> with God's guidance to humanity through a succession of messengers of God.
> (Q 3:80-85)
> 
> The Báb's writings are full of references to the covenant, and
> in particular to the messianic figure "He whom God shall manifest" (q.v.):
> "Thus, should the followers of the Bayán (the Bábís)
> observe the precepts of Him Whom God shall make manifest at the time of
> His appearance, and regard themselves and their own works as stars exposed
> to the light of the sun, then they will have gathered the fruits of their
> existence...". (Persian Bayán 8:1; SWB 97) "Bear Thou witness that,
> through this Book, I have covenanted with all created things concerning
> the mission of Him Whom Thou shalt make manifest, ere the covenant
> concerning My own mission had been established." (GPB 30) To one of his
> most illustrious followers, Vahíd (q.v.), the Báb is
> reported to have said: "Were I to be assured that in the day of His
> manifestation thou wilt deny Him, I would unhesitatingly disown thee....
> If, on the other hand, I be told that a Christian, who beareth no
> allegiance to My Faith, will believe in Him, the same will I regard as the
> apple of My eye." (GPB 30)
> 
> As well as the greater covenant, the Bahá'í authoritative
> writings trace out the history of the lesser covenant in previous
> religions. Peter is acknowledged as the chief of the Apostles after Jesus
> and `Alí as the legitimate successor to the Prophet Muhammad (Momen
> 153-4, 157). However, the appointment of these was only made orally and
> was easily contested and disputed, in contrast to the written and clear
> appointment of the Center of Bahá'u'lláh's Covenant,
> `Abdu'l-Bahá. (WOB 145)
> 
> B. The Greater Covenant
> 
> The Greater Covenant (also referred
> to as "the general Covenant", WOB 137, and "the Eternal Covenant" SWA 227)
> concerns the promise on the part of God, given through one of the
> Manifestations of God, that He will not leave humanity without guidance
> and will therefore send a further Manifestation of God. Humanity's part of
> the agreement is that it will obey God's law as sent by the present
> Manifestation and will recognize and obey the next Manifestation when he
> comes. This covenant is most succinctly summed up by the Báb in the
> Persian Bayán: "The Lord of the universe hath never raised up a
> prophet nor hath He sent down a Book unless He hath established His
> covenant with all men, calling for their acceptance of the next Revelation
> and of the next Book; inasmuch as the outpourings of His bounty are
> ceaseless and without limit." (Persian Bayán 6:16; SWB 87)
> 
> `Abdu'l-Bahá describes the sequence of the covenants established
> by the successive manifestations: "His Holiness Abraham... made a covenant
> concerning His Holiness Moses and gave the glad-tidings of His coming. His
> Holiness Moses made a covenant concerning the Promised One, i.e. His
> Holiness Christ, and announced the good news of His Manifestation to the
> world. His Holiness Christ made a covenant concerning the Paraclete and
> gave the tidings of His coming. His Holiness the Prophet Muhammad made a
> covenant concerning His Holiness the Báb and the Báb was the
> One promised by Muhammad, for Muhammad gave the tidings of His coming.
> The Báb made a Covenant concerning the Blessed Beauty of
> Bahá'u'lláh and gave the glad-tidings of His coming for the
> Blessed Beauty was the One promised by His Holiness the Báb.
> Bahá'u'lláh made a covenant concerning a promised One who
> will become manifest after one thousand or thousands of years. (Tanyi
> 20-21)
> 
> Bahá'u'lláh claims to be the fulfillment of the covenant
> established by all of the prophets of the past concerning a great day in
> the future when all of God's promises will be fulfilled. "The Revelation
> which, from time immemorial, hath been acclaimed as the Purpose and
> Promise of all the Prophets of God, and the most cherished Desire of His
> Messengers, hath now, by virtue of the pervasive Will of the Almighty and
> at His irresistible bidding, been revealed unto men. The advent of such a
> Revelation hath been heralded in all the sacred Scriptures." (GWB 3:5)
> 
> Humanity's part of the covenantal arrangement from the viewpoint of the Bahá'í teachings can
> best be summed up in the opening sentence of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas:
> 
> The first duty prescribed by God for His servants is the recognition of Him Who is the Dayspring
> of His Revelation and the Fountain of His laws, Who representeth the Godhead in both the
> Kingdom of His Cause and the world of creation... It behoveth every one who reacheth this most
> sublime station, this summit of transcendent glory, to observe every ordinance of Him Who is the
> Desire of the world. These twin duties are inseparable. Neither is acceptable without the other.
> Thus hath it been decreed by Him Who is the Source of Divine inspiration. (SCK 11)
> 
> Bahá'u'lláh continued the greater covenant into the future by stating that in due time another
> Manifestation of God would arise but that this would not occur for at least one thousand years:
> "Whoso layeth claim to a Revelation direct from God ere the expiration of a full thousand years,
> such a man is assuredly a lying impostor." (WOB 132)
> 
> C. The Lesser Covenant
> 
> The Lesser Covenant (also referred to as "the specific Covenant" WOB 137) refers to the
> agreement between a Manifestation of God and his followers regarding the continuation of
> authority in his religion. Although there are considered to have been precedents for this in the
> previous religions (see section 1 above), Shoghi Effendi asserts that in no previous religion has
> the question of the succession been of such importance nor the appointment of the successor been
> so clearly made. The fact that the succession in authority and the central institutions of the Bahá'í
> Faith were established by written documents so that they could not later be questioned is
> emphasized by Shoghi Effendi as a "distinguishing feature" of the religion of Bahá'u'lláh. (WOB
> 21-22)
> 
> While the Tablet of the Branch, composed in the Edirne period had clearly signaled a high station
> for "the Branch of Holiness" and the Kitáb-i-Aqdas has specified that this high station involved
> leadership of the Bahá'í community after Bahá'u'lláh's passing, it was only with the unsealing of
> the Kitáb-i-`Ahd (the Book of the Covenant, q.v.) after the passing of Bahá'u'lláh (see
> "Bahá'u'lláh, Ascension of") that it was confirmed that the Branch referred to was indeed
> `Abdu'l-Bahá. So decisive and clear-cut was this nomination that even Mírzá Muhammad-`Alí,
> who came out in rebellion against `Abdu'l-Bahá's authority, never questioned the fact that
> `Abdu'l-Bahá had been appointed the successor of Bahá'u'lláh. He only disputed `Abdu'l-Bahá's
> manner of functioning as leader.
> 
> The lesser covenant was extended by `Abdu'l-Bahá in his Will and Testament (q.v.) by the
> appointment of Shoghi Effendi as Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith. In this document, `Abdu'l-Bahá
> also affirms the authority of the Universal House of Justice, thus confirming the other Bahá'í
> institution upon which leadership has been conferred by the processes of the Bahá'í Covenant.
> Shoghi Effendi writes of the Will and Testament as being the result of the "mystic intercourse"
> between Bahá'u'lláh and `Abdu'l-Bahá. "The creative energies released by the Law of Bahá'u'lláh,
> permeating and evolving within the mind of `Abdu'l-Bahá, have, by their very impact and close
> interaction, given birth to an Instrument which may be viewed as the Charter of the New World
> Order..." (WOB 144, cf GPB 325-6). Apart from the function of leadership of the Bahá'í
> community, the Covenant confers upon `Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi the position of being the
> sole authorised interpreters of the Bahá'í scripture. In the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, Bahá'u'lláh states: "Refer
> ye whatsoever ye understand not in the Book to" `Abdu'l-Bahá (KA 174). Similarly `Abdu'l-Bahá
> states that Shoghi Effendi is "the expounder of the words of God" (WT 11).
> 
> The authority of the Universal House of Justice is also derived from the evolution of the covenant.
> The following is from its Constitution:
> 
> The provenance, the authority, the duties, the sphere of action of the Universal House of Justice
> all derive from the revealed Word of Bahá'u'lláh, which, together with the interpretations and
> expositions of the Centre of the Covenant and of the Guardian of the Cause--who, after
> `Abdu'l-Bahá, is the sole authority in the interpretation of Bahá'í Scripture--constitute the binding
> terms of reference of the Universal House of Justice and are its bedrock foundation. The authority
> of these Texts is absolute and immutable until such time as Almighty God shall reveal His new
> Manifestation to Whom will belong all authority and power." (CUHJ 3-4)
> 
> D. Purpose of the Covenant
> 
> The purpose of the covenant is explained in a number of places in the Bahá'í writings. Since the
> purpose of religion itself is held to be the establishment of unity and concord amongst humankind
> (TB 6:63-4, 129-30; GWB 101:206), Bahá'u'lláh warns, in his Book of the Covenant: "O
> servants! Let not the means of order be made the cause of confusion and the instrument of union
> an occasion for discord..." The covenant established in this book was specifically to forestall such
> a development. `Abdu'l-Bahá confirms that the central purpose of the covenant was to prevent
> schism and dissension:
> 
> Inasmuch as great differences and divergences of denominational belief had arisen throughout the
> past, every man with a new idea attributing it to God, Bahá'u'lláh desired that there should not be
> any ground or reason for disagreement among the Bahá'ís. Therefore, with His own pen He wrote
> the Book of His Covenant, addressing His relations and all people of the world, saying, "Verily, I
> have appointed One Who is the Center of My Covenant. All must obey Him; all must turn to Him;
> He is the Expounder of My Book, and He is informed of My purpose. All must turn to Him.
> Whatsoever He says is correct, for, verily, He knoweth the texts of My Book. Other than He, no
> one doth know My Book." The purpose of this statement is that there should never be discord
> and divergence among the Bahá'ís but that they should always be unified and agreed. (PUP
> 322-323, also PUP 382, 455-6, SWA 209)
> 
> The specific mission of Bahá'u'lláh relates to world unity. Since it would be impossible for the
> Bahá'í Faith to unite the world if it were itself disunited, the role of the covenant as the guarantor
> of the unity of the Bahá'í community becomes inextricably linked with the goal of world unity: "It
> is evident that the axis of oneness of the world of humanity is the power of the Covenant and
> nothing else." (TDP 49, cf GPB 239, SWA 208-9).
> 
> Shoghi Effendi also refers to the covenant as the means of directing and controlling the spiritual
> power unleashed by the coming of Bahá'u'lláh: "to direct and canalize these forces" and "to insure
> their harmonious and continuous operation after His ascension." (GPB 237) He refers to its
> purpose as being to "perpetuate the influence of [the] Faith, insure its integrity, safeguard it from
> schism, and stimulate its world-wide expansion..." (GPB 244-5)
> 
> E. Power of the Covenant
> 
> Because it is the focal point of unity both for the Bahá'í community and ultimately for the world
> and is also the channel for the spiritual energies released by Bahá'u'lláh, the Covenant is described
> in the Bahá'í writings as being possessed of power. Indeed it is seen as the motivating force behind
> all the positive forces at work in the world: "The power of the Covenant is as the heat of the sun
> which quickeneth and promoteth the development of all created things on earth. The light of the
> Covenant, in like manner, is the educator of the minds, the spirits, the hearts and souls of men."
> (GPB 239)
> 
> F. Firmness in the Covenant
> 
> The institution of the covenant being so central and vital a component of the Bahá'í Faith,
> firmness in the covenant is considered in the Bahá'í texts as one of the main religious virtues. In its
> more general sense, this means carrying out the laws and teachings of the Bahá'í Faith:
> 
> ...ye must conduct yourselves in such a manner that ye may stand out distinguished and
> brilliant as the sun among other souls. Should any one of you enter a city, he should become
> a center of attraction by reason of his sincerity, his faithfulness and love, his honesty and
> fidelity, his truthfulness and loving-kindness towards all the peoples of the world... Not until
> ye attain this station can ye be said to have been faithful to the Covenant and Testament of
> God. For He hath, through irrefutable Texts, entered into a binding Covenant with us all,
> requiring us to act in accordance with His sacred instructions and counsels. (SWA 71)
> 
> In a more specific sense, firmness in the covenant refers to the inner conviction by the individual
> Bahá'í that the guidance of the center of the Bahá'í Faith (whether `Abdu'l-Bahá or Shoghi Effendi
> in the past or the Universal House of Justice at present) represents the will of God: "Whatsoever
> they decide is of God." (WT 11) Shoghi Effendi relates the success and progress of the Bahá'í
> Faith to this:
> 
> Neither the administration, nor the general teaching work of the Cause... will progress, or
> be able to accomplish anything, unless the believers are truly firm, deep, spiritually
> convinced Bahá'ís.... once a Bahá'í has the profound conviction of the authority from God,
> vested in the Prophet, passed on to the Master, and by Him, to the Guardians, and which
> flows out through the assemblies and creates order based on obedience--once a Bahá'í has
> this, nothing can shake him. (LDG2:83-4)
> 
> G. Covenant-breaker, Covenant-breaking
> 
> In Bahá'í terminology, internal opposition to the center of the Faith is known as "Covenant-breaking" and those who do this are known as "Covenant-breakers" (being the translation of the
> two terms Naqd-i-`Ahd and Náqidín respectively). This terminology at once indicates what is
> deemed to have been the transgression of these internal opponents: they have broken the Covenant--considered to be the greatest spiritual crime that a person can commit. It is, however, only in
> relation to the "lesser covenant" (see "Covenant") that this term is used (i.e. the covenant made by
> the Manifestation of God, q.v., about his immediate successor and the subsequent chain of
> succession). Those who refuse to accept the validity of the claim of a Manifestation of God may
> be said to be breakers of the "greater covenant" but this is not the usual Bahá'í usage.
> 
> G.1. Definition of Covenant-breaking
> 
> In trying to arrive at a definition of Covenant-breaking, a
> number of points need to be born in mind: those who merely oppose the Bahá'í Faith or its head
> (such as the many Muslim religious leaders who have done so) are not considered Covenant-breakers; those who leave the Bahá'í Faith because they have lost faith are similarly not considered
> Covenant-breakers; and those who commit minor infractions of of Bahá'í law may loose their
> administrative rights (see "Community, Bahá'í.4"), but are not considered Covenant-breakers. It is
> those who remain within the Bahá'í community, professing loyalty to the Bahá'í Cause and yet
> oppose the authorized leadership of the Bahá'í Faith or actively try to split the Bahá'í community
> by setting up an alternative center of leadership who are considered Covenant-breakers.
> 
> `Abdu'l-Bahá writes: "These do not doubt the validity of the Covenant but selfish motives have
> dragged them to this condition. It is not that they do not know what they do-- they are perfectly
> aware and still they exhibit opposition" (SWA 215-216). Thus a cardinal factor in Covenant-breaking is considered by `Abdu'l-Bahá to be willful and conscious opposition to the divine will as
> manifested in the Covenant.
> 
> A further insight into `Abdu'l-Bahá's views can be gained from his commentary upon the Biblical
> verse: "Wherefore I say unto you, All manner of sin and blasphemy shall be forgiven unto men:
> but the blasphemy against the Holy Ghost shall not be forgiven unto men. And whosoever
> speaketh a word against the Son of man, it shall be forgiven him: but whosoever speaketh against
> the Holy Ghost, it shall not be forgiven him . . ." (Matthew 12:31-2). `Abdu'l-Bahá states that
> there are two aspects to the Manifestations of God. There is the physical form and personality,
> which `Abdu'l-Bahá likens to the lamp, and the Holy Spirit that dwells within, which `Abdu'l-Bahá
> likens to the light. If one turns away from a particular lamp, this act can be forgiven as it may be
> that one is mistaken or unaware of that from which one has turned away and one may yet be led
> to the light. But if a person hates the light itself and rejects it, then that person cannot be guided
> and is unreceptive to the mercy and forgiveness of God (SAQ 31:127-8).
> 
> It should be noted that according to Bahá'í teaching, Covenant-breaking is something that is not
> confined to the Bahá'í Faith. It is a general religious phenomenon that has existed in every religion
> although, since the lesser covenant was less clearly defined and less central in other religions, the
> phenomenon has also been less clear cut and less important.
> 
> From this it would appear that a definition of Covenant-breaking would be: "willful opposition to
> the authorized center of the Bahá'í Faith (or any other religion), despite a conscious knowledge
> and understanding of the spiritual station of that center."
> 
> This definition explains, for example, the position of Mírzá Yahyá Azal (q.v.), who was never a
> follower of Bahá'u'lláh, but who is stated to be a Covenant-breaker. Similarly, some apostates
> who have attacked the Bahá'í Faith are referred to in terms that resemble those used to refer to
> Covenant-breakers.
> 
> The question of who has a "conscious knowledge and understanding" must inevitably involve a
> degree of judgment; this may be the reason why the decision to declare someone a Covenant-breaker can only be taken by the center of the Bahá'í Faith and is never delegated.
> 
> G.2. The history of Covenant-breaking.
> 
> One of the most interesting features of Bábí and Bahá'í
> history is the manner in which the phenomenon of opposition from within the ranks of the
> believers to the established head of the religion has recurred in every generation since the
> founding of the religion over a hundred years ago.
> 
> a. The Báb (1844-1850):
> 
> The immediate antecedents of the religion of Bahá'u'lláh lie of course in
> the Bábí movement. Probably owing to the intense external opposition, there appears to have
> been very little internal opposition to the Báb in the Báb's own lifetime.
> 
> Some few persons, such as Mullá Javád Baraghání, Mullá `Abdu'l-`Alí Hirátí, and Mírzá Ibráhím
> Shírází became followers of the Báb and then split away and began to attack the Báb, eventually
> joining up with Hájí Mírzá Karím Khán Kirmání (q.v.), the Shaykhí leader who was vehemently
> opposed to the Báb. According to Nabíl, these three persons were compared in the Báb's writing
> with Sámirí who, according to Islamic tradition, produced the calf for the Israelites to worship,
> and with Jibt and Tághút (DB 162)--language very similar to that later used by Bahá'u'lláh and
> `Abdu'l-Bahá with regard to the Covenant-breakers (SoW 1922, 13:20-22).
> 
> b. After the Martyrdom of the Báb and during Bahá'u'lláh's lifetime (1852-92):
> 
> Most sources,
> whether Bahá'í or otherwise, are agreed that some form of leadership or successorship was vested
> in Mírzá Yahyá Azal (q.v.) by the Báb (TN 62-3; GPB 163). The successorship was not,
> however, clear, nor was it undisputed. A number of person laid claim to various positions of
> leadership, and there was much schism and contention. `Abdu'l-Bahá is reported to have stated
> that as many as twenty-five persons laid claim to the leadership of the community (GPB 125).
> None of these except for Azal is, however, regarded as a Covenant-breaker because they all put
> forward their claims at a time when there was no clear authority in the religion. Many of them
> became followers of Bahá'u'lláh once he put forward his claim. Only Azal opposed and worked to
> undermine the position of Bahá'u'lláh. Estimates put the number of Azalís remaining in Iran at no
> more than 5,000. They have no organization. (see "Azal, Azalís").
> 
> It is interesting that Bahá'u'lláh's own actions with regard to Azal were to set the pattern of
> relationships with those designated as Covenant-breakers. Once it was clear that no reconciliation
> was possible with Mírzá Yahyá, Bahá'u'lláh gave instructions that all of the furniture and other
> effects in the house should be divided and half be given to Azal. Thereafter he severed all
> connections with his half-brother. He withdrew, moreover, from the company of the other Bábís
> in Edirne for two months, instructing them to decide whether they intended to follow him or Azal
> (GPB 167).
> 
> c. During the period of `Abdu'l-Bahá's leadership:
> 
> In the Book of the Covenant (q.v.), Bahá'u'lláh
> designates `Abdu'l-Bahá as his successor and the interpreter of his writings with a subordinate
> position being assigned to Mírzá Muhammad `Alí (q.v.), the half-brother of `Abdu'l-Bahá (TB
> 15:221-2). Yet, within a short time of the death of Bahá'u'lláh, Mírzá Muhammad `Alí, at the
> instigation of his cousin Majdu'd-Dín (the son of Mírzá Músá Kalím, q.v.), challenged the
> leadership of `Abdu'l-Bahá. His main contention was that `Abdu'l-Bahá had over-reached his
> authority and was claiming to be a new Manifestation of God, a charge which `Abdu'l-Bahá
> explicitly and emphatically denied. Mírzá Muhammad `Alí called himself and his supporters the
> Muwahhidún (the Unitarians, Browne 77-82, 155).
> 
> The challenge of Mírzá Muhammad `Alí was at first very serious. He held control of the Mansion
> of Bahjí (q.v.) and had won over almost all of the family of Bahá'u'lláh (the exceptions were
> Bahiyyih Khánum and `Abdu'l-Bahá's immediate family), some of the family of the Báb (the
> Afnán, q.v.), as well as many of the Bahá'ís of the Haifa-Akka area and some leading figures in
> Iran. Gradually, however, the tide turned against Mírzá Muhammad `Alí. `Abdu'l-Bahá was at
> first reluctant to expose the division, but when Mírzá Muhammad `Alí himself had openly asserted
> his claim in 1896, `Abdu'l-Bahá announced that Mírzá Muhammad `Alí and his supporters were to
> be regarded as Covenant-breakers. Individuals such as Ibn-i-Abhar (q.v.) traveled to different
> communities to refute Mírzá Muhammad `Alí's claims.
> 
> There was another brief success for Mírzá Muhammad `Alí when, in about 1899, he succeeded in
> recruiting to his side Ibrahim Kheiralla (q.v.), who had been primarily responsible for propagating
> the Bahá'í Faith in the United States of America. Most of the American Bahá'ís remained loyal to
> `Abdu'l-Bahá, however, and there was little long-term advantage to Mírzá Muhammad `Alí's
> position which went into a steady decline.
> 
> By the time of `Abdu'l-Bahá's journeys to the West, the threat from Mírzá Muhammad `Alí and
> his supporters had faded into insignificance in both Iran and America. In 1929 they were forced to
> evacuate the Mansion of Bahjí as they had allowed it to deteriorate to such a point that it was no
> longer habitable (PP 231). They remained in buildings surrounding Bahjí until 1957 (PP 233-4,
> MBW 120-21). A recent sociological study of the remnants of this group remarks that they are
> now outwardly indistinguishable from Muslims and proposes that they be called a "residual
> religious community," an ossified or fossilized remnant (Cohen 121, 132-3, 140).
> 
> `Abdu'l-Bahá's method of dealing with Mírzá Muhammad `Alí's rebellion and other episodes,
> which was to become the standard approach to this problem, was three-fold. First, `Abdu'l-Bahá
> would refrain from making any public pronouncements while he communicated with the individual
> personally or through intermediaries to try to bring about a reconciliation. Second, once it became
> clear that this was not possible and that there was the possibilty of damage to the community, he
> wrote general and individual letters to the Bahá'ís explaining the situation, identifying the
> individuals concerned, and instructing the Bahá'ís to sever all links with these persons. Third,
> `Abdu'l-Bahá would send special envoys to those areas most affected by the problem. The
> function of these envoys was to explain matters to the Bahá'ís and to encourage them to persevere
> in cutting all contacts with the Covenant-breakers. Often these individuals would have `Abdu'l-Bahá's authority to open up communications with the Covenant-breakers to try to persuade them
> to return to the fold. In Iran, such envoys were principally the four persons who had been named
> by Bahá'u'lláh as the Hands of the Cause (q.v.).
> 
> The other major episode of Covenant-breaking during the period of `Abdu'l-Bahá's leadership was
> of a different kind in that it involved direct disobedience of `Abdu'l-Bahá's instructions rather than
> any attempt to set up an alternative center of leadership. Dr. Amínu'lláh Faríd (Ameen U. Fareed)
> was the nephew of `Abdu'l-Bahá's wife, Munírih Khánum (see "Nahrí Family"). He was educated
> in America and was one of `Abdu'l-Bahá's interpreters during the latter's journeys in the West. He
> disgraced himself, however, by importuning some of the wealthier American Bahá'ís for money.
> `Abdu'l-Bahá therefore insisted on his return to Haifa when he himself returned there. Faríd was
> not happy in Haifa and when, against `Abdu'l-Bahá's instructions, he left for America, `Abdu'l-Bahá expelled him from the Bahá'í Faith. Faríd took with him most of his immediate family and
> caused a few of the British Bahá'ís to leave the Bahá'í Faith, but few others were affected (SoW
> 1914, 5:237).
> 
> d. Episodes during the period of Shoghi Effendi's leadership:
> 
> The passing of `Abdu'l-Bahá caused
> the followers of Mírzá Muhammad `Alí briefly to rekindle their activities. They seized the keys of
> the Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh and forced Shoghi Effendi to appeal to the authorities to have them
> returned. There were several other major episodes of "Covenant-breaking" during this period. The
> main features of these can be outlined thus:
> 
> i. Ruth White.
> 
> Shoghi Effendi's priority after becoming Guardian was to put in place the Bahá'í
> administration. As he pressed ahead with this goal, he faced the opposition of some Bahá'ís who
> were against the organization of the Bahá'í Faith. The first was Ruth White in 1926-29. She based
> her opposition on a report of some of `Abdu'l-Bahá's words that implied that the Bahá'í Faith
> could not be organized because it is the "Spirit of the Age" (SoW 1914, 5:67), and the report of a
> British hand-writing expert, who claimed that the hand-written Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá, upon which Shoghi Effendi's authority was based, was a forgery. The report was based on
> photographs and was only provisional pending a closer inspection of originals. Doubts about the
> authenticity of the Will and Testament were, however, refuted by those, such as the secretaries
> and close associates of `Abdu'l-Bahá, who were in the best position to judge both hand-writing
> and style; even Ahmad Sohrab after he became disaffected (see below) upheld the validity of the
> Will. Ruth White's assertions had little impact on the American Bahá'í community. Only in
> Germany did they evoke a response when Wilhelm Herrigel, one of the earliest Bahá'ís, took up
> her case (Lerche).
> 
> ii. Ahmad Sohrab (1893-1958). In 1929 Ahmad Sohrab, who had been `Abdu'l-Bahá's secretary
> and interpreter, and Mrs. Julie (Lewis Stuyvesant) Chanler set up the New History Society in
> New York as an indirect way of spreading the teachings of the Bahá'í Faith. Ahmad Sohrab
> refused, however, to allow the New York Spiritual Assembly any say in the way that the New
> History Society promoted the Bahá'í Faith. This led to a confrontation with the National Spiritual
> Assembly and to Sohrab's and Chanler's expulsion from the Bahá'í community.
> 
> The New History Society gave rise in 1930 to the Caravan of East and West, designed to prepare
> children and youth to join the New History Society. The Caravan outgrew its parent body and
> severed all remaining religious links with the Bahá'í Faith. It existed for a time as a worldwide
> pen-pal club with social ideals. The New History Society is now defunct and the Caravan
> maintains at a low level of local activity in New York under the name of Caravan House.
> 
> iii. Fá'iq (Faeg). After the death of Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl Gulpaygání (q.v), some of his pupils set up in
> Cairo, with the approval of `Abdu'l-Bahá, a society which they named "al-Jam`íyah al-`Ilmiyyah
> al-Adabiyyah" (The Scientific and Literary Society). After some years, this society under the
> leadership of a Bahá'í of Armenian background, Fá'iq, came into conflict with the Bahá'í
> administrative institutions in Egypt, and Fá'iq was expelled from the Bahá'í community. A few of
> the Egyptian Bahá'ís followed him and he also managed to convert some others, but many of these
> returned to the Bahá'í community eventually (GPB 327, RM 2:210-213).
> 
> iv. Family of `Abdu'l-Bahá. Mírzá Muhammad `Alí's break with `Abdu'l-Bahá resulted in the
> expulsion of the majority of Bahá'u'lláh's descendants from the Bahá'í Faith. These were all the
> descendants of Bahá'u'lláh from his second and third marriages and included the daughter of the
> third marriage Furúghiyyih and her husband Sayyid `Alí Afnán. The children of this marriage did
> not, however, share in their parents expulsion, and in the early 1920s Sayyid `Alí Afnán himself
> turned to Shoghi Effendi and was accepted back into the Bahá'í community. All remained
> quiescent until the late 1930s when the case of the House of Bahá'u'lláh (q.v.) arose in Iraq.
> Shoghi Effendi asked Husayn Afnán (d. 1952), the son of Sayyid `Alí, to resign a high post that he
> held with the Iraqi government so that he would not be placed in the position of endorsing that
> government's actions in the case. Husayn refused and was expelled; one-by-one his brothers
> Faydí, Hasan, and Nayyir (Nayyir-`Alí, d. 1952) were also expelled.
> 
> Events then proceeded rapidly. A series of marriages, engineered, according to Shoghi Effendi
> (MB), by Nayyir, occurred, linking the grandchildren of `Abdu'l-Bahá with the expelled sons of
> Sayyid `Alí Afnán. Rúhangíz, Shoghi Effendi's elder sister, was already married to Nayyir himself;
> Thurayyá, cousin of Shoghi Effendi, married Faydí; and Mihrangíz, Shoghi Effendi's younger
> sister, married Hasan. Later, a daughter of Nayyir was married to Hasan Shahíd, cousin of Shoghi
> Effendi. This series of marriages disrupted the family of `Abdu'l-Bahá. Since the remaining
> members of the family refused to cut their links with the expelled members, they too were
> expelled. The marriage of one of Shoghi Effendi's brothers, Husayn, in 1949 against the wishes of
> Shoghi Effendi, and the links between another brother, Riyád, and Majdu'd-Dín completed, in
> 1951, the process whereby the entirety of the remaining descendants of `Abdu'l-Bahá except
> Shoghi Effendi himself had been expelled (UD149, CF87, MBW16, 24-4, 48). The family of
> `Abdu'l-Bahá have remained outside the Bahá'í Faith pursuing their own affairs.
> 
> v. Apostates. Although most individuals who leave the Bahá'í community because of loss of belief
> are not considered any differently from those who have never been Bahá'ís, there have been a
> small number of persons who left the community and then began to attack it maliciously and
> vehemently and whom Shoghi Effendi referred to in terms identical to those he used of the
> Covenant-breakers. In the years immediately after the death of `Abdu'l-Bahá, one of the
> prominent Iranian Bahá'ís, Mírzá `Abdu'l-Husayn Taftí, known as Ávárih (1290/1873-1953),
> pressed for a position of leadership in the Bahá'í community. When he failed to obtain this, he
> withdrew from the Bahá'í Faith and began to denounce it publicly. He published a book called
> Kashfu'l-Hiyal (The Uncovering of Trickery) in three volumes. Under the name Áyatí, he went on
> to become fairly well-known as a literary figure, editing the magazine Namakdán.
> 
> Two persons who were much influenced by Ávárih and who eventually joined him in apostasizing
> from the Bahá'í Faith and attacking it publicly were Faydu'lláh Subhí, who had served as `Abdu'l-Bahá's secretary for a number of years, and Hasan Níkú, who had visited India as a Bahá'í teacher
> and also went to Haifa in 1923. The latter published a three-volume work (Falsafiy-i-Níkú)
> attacking the Bahá'í Faith.
> 
> e. After Shoghi Effendi (1957-)
> 
> The most important divisive episode after the passing of Shoghi
> Effendi was the claim by one of the Hands of the Cause, Charles Mason Remey (q.v.), to be the
> second Guardian. Although he had signed the 1957 declaration of the Hands of the Cause that
> Shoghi Effendi had left no Will and no successor, Remey advanced a claim to be the second
> Guardian, in April 1960. He based his claim on the fact that the Guardian would, according to the
> Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá, be the head of the Universal House of Justice, and Remey
> had been designated by Shoghi Effendi as President of the International Bahá'í Council (q.v.), the
> body which was the forerunner of the Universal House of Justice. This claim was rejected by most
> of the Bahá'í world since the same Will and Testament also made it clear that all Guardians would
> have to be descendants of Bahá'u'lláh. Remey succeeded in gathering a few supporters, mainly in
> the United States, France, and Pakistan, but the majority of Bahá'ís stood by the Hands of the
> Cause who expelled Remey as a Covenant-breaker.
> 
> The followers of Remey have decreased in importance over the years, especially as they
> fragmented into contending factions. One faction split off under a "third Guardian" appointed by
> Remey, Donald Harvey. After his death in 1991, leadership of this group went to Jacques
> Soghomonian, a resident of Marseilles. In the United States, the Remey Society founded by
> Francis Spataro supports Harvey. Another group is led by Joel Marangella, who declared that
> Remey had originally appointed him as "Third Guardian" but had gone senile and then appointed
> Harvey. This group call themselves the Orthodox Bahá'í Faith and are based in Roswell, New
> Mexico. They number no more than one hundred (Chicago Tribune, 10 June 1988, section 1, p.
> 9). Another faction rejected all claimants to the Guardianship after Shoghi Effendi including
> Remey but stated that Rex King was regent pending the emergence of the second Guardian
> (hence this group call themselves the Orthodox Bahá'í Faith under the Regency). King died in
> 1977 and appointed four of his family as a council of regents. Lastly, Leland Jensen (whose group
> is called "Bahá'ís under the Provisions of the Covenant") achieved brief public notoriety when he
> claimed that the world would experience a nuclear catastrophe in 1980 (Balch et al.). Small
> Remeyite groups are now confined to a few states in the United States.
> 
> In about 1964 an Iranian named Jamshid Ma`ání put forward a claim to be a third Manifestation
> of God after the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh. He produced writings which he claimed were divine
> revelation and called himself "The Man" and "Samá'u'lláh" and organized his supporters into
> "Houses of Mankind." He had a few supporters in Pakistan, but his principal supporter in the
> United States, John Carre, based in Mariposa, California, later rejected him. Another Iranian,
> Jamshid Meghnot, also put forward a claim to be a prophet but is not thought to have any
> followers.
> 
> There have been a number of episodes of opposition to the Bahá'í administration. In Germany,
> Hermann Zimmer resurrected the claims of Ruth White in a small book published in 1971 (English
> translation in 1973), A Fraudulent Testament devalues the Bahá'í Religion into Political
> Shogism. In Switzerland, Francesco Ficicchia wrote a comprehensive attack aimed mainly at the
> Bahá' administration, Der Bah'ismus Weltreligion der Zunkunft? (Evangelische Zentralstelle für
> Weltanschauungsfragen, Quell Verlag, Stuttgart, 1981) . Both of these works were financed and
> distributed by Evangelical Protestant organizations in Germany. Charles Seeburger set up a
> similar group in Philadelphia in about 1967. There were plans to form an Association of Free
> Bahá'ís (or the World Union of Universal Religion and Universal Peace) but it is not certain that
> this ever came into being.
> 
> G.3. Links between the different groups of Covenant-breakers.
> 
> One of the remarkable features of
> the phenomenon of Covenant-breaking has been the extent to which the three generations of
> Covenant-breakers have been in contact with one another. By three generations is meant:
> 
> First generation: Followers of Azal in his opposition to Bahá'u'lláh.
> 
> Second generation: Followers of Mírzá Muhammad `Alí in his opposition to `Abdu'l-Bahá.
> 
> Third generation: Opponents of Shoghi Effendi, both from within the family of `Abdu'l-Bahá and
> others, such as Ahmad Sohrab, who opposed the Bahá'í administration.
> 
> In theory, the second generation, who accepted Bahá'u'lláh, should have had nothing to do with
> the first generation followers of Azal, the enemy of Bahá'u'lláh. Similarly, the third generation,
> accounting themselves loyal followers of `Abdu'l-Bahá, should have had nothing to do with the
> second generation who were vehement opponents of `Abdu'l-Bahá; even less should they support
> the first generation. But in fact strong links formed between these generations.
> 
> The various marriages arranged between the grandchildren of `Abdu'l-Bahá and the sons of
> Sayyid `Alí Afnán first established the links between the second and third generation. Jalál Azal,
> who was a grandson of Mírzá Yahyá Azal and became a strong proponent of the Azalí position,
> may be regarded as a representative of the first generation. He married `Ismat, the daughter of
> Badí`u'lláh, representing the second generation. These two, together with `Ismat's sister, Qamar,
> made a concerted effort to unite all three generations of Covenant-breakers. Peter Berger
> reported in 1953 that Qamar "is now trying to unite all dissident Bahá'ís, whether Abbasite or
> "Unitarian" in background, in opposition to Shoghi" (Berger 140, n. 4). Riyád, Shoghi Effendi's
> brother, was in contact with Majdu'd-Dín and others of the second generation and visited Jalál
> Azal in Cyprus on four occasions. Yvonne, a daughter of `Izzu'd-Din Wudúd, as well as Mírzá
> Jalál, the grandson of Mirzá Músá Kalím, both second generation opponents, collaborated with
> Ahmad Sohrab, the New History Society, and the Caravan of East and West, third generation
> opponents. (MBW 16, Azal's Notes, see letters dated 21 Jun. 1968, 7 Jan. 1969)
> 
> G.4. A classification of types of Covenant-Breaking.
> 
> From the historical survey, it would appear
> that there are four main types of Covenant-breaking:
> 
> a. Leadership challenge. These are persons who disputed the authority and legitimacy of the head
> of the religion and advanced claims either for themselves or for another. The main examples of
> these are Azal, Mírzá Muhammad `Alí, and Remey.
> 
> b. Dissidence. Those who disagree with the policies and actions of the head of the religion
> without, however, advancing an alternative claim for leadership. This group consists mostly of
> opponents of the Bahá'í administration such as Ruth White, Ahmad Sohrab, and Hermann
> Zimmer.
> 
> c. Disobedience. Those who disobeyed a direct instruction from the head of the religion. Often the
> instruction was to cease to associate with a Covenant-breaker. Examples of this type include most
> of the descendants of `Abdu'l-Bahá during Shoghi Effendi's time.
> 
> d. Apostates who maliciously attack the Bahá'í Faith. Examples include Ávárih and Níkú.
> 
> G.5. Dealing with Covenant-breaking.
> 
> Both `Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi were quite emphatic
> as to the attitude that should be taken by Bahá'ís towards Covenant-breakers: ". . . one of the
> greatest and most fundamental principles of the Cause of God is to shun and avoid entirely the
> Covenant-breakers, for they will utterly destroy the Cause of God, exterminate His Law and
> render of no account all efforts exerted in the past" (WT 20). Covenant-breakers were described
> as persons who had an infectious spiritual disease and it was necessary therefore to avoid all
> contact with them (SoW 1921, 12:233) This spiritual quarantine could only be broken by the head
> of the Faith or on his instructions.
> 
> It is of interest that there has only been a gradual implementation of the sanctions against
> Covenant-breakers and those continuing to associate with them. Many of Bahá'u'lláh's writings
> contain passages instructing the Bahá'ís to avoid contacts with the Covenant-breakers (see
> passages quoted by `Abdu'l-Bahá in SoW 13:19-25). Despite this, Bahá'u'lláh seems to have
> made little effort to enforce such a teaching. During the whole of Bahá'u'lláh's ministry, there
> appear to have been extensive contacts between Bahá'ís and Azalís. In the first few years after
> Bahá'u'lláh put forward his claims, there was a series of open discussions between the two groups
> in various towns, each attempting to win the other over. Such meetings are known to have
> occurred in Baghdad, Tabriz, Qazvin, Shiraz, and Isfahan at least. There is some evidence that
> meetings were held and letters passed backwards and forwards between the two groups until a
> comparatively late date.
> 
> It was `Abdu'l-Bahá who moved the question of the Covenant to the forefront of the attention of
> the Bahá'ís and introduced the concept of Covenant-breaking. He expressed very strongly his wish
> that the Bahá'ís should break all contacts with the Covenant-breakers and sent envoys to try to
> encourage the Bahá'ís to do this. He rarely, however, imposed any sanctions upon those who
> maintained links.
> 
> The principal change that Shoghi Effendi introduced in the method of dealing with Covenant-breaking was to enforce the policy that whoever maintained links with Covenant-breakers himself
> or herself became a Covenant-breaker. It was also Shoghi Effendi who established the institutional
> forms for dealing with Covenant-breaking when he designated this as one of the responsibilities of
> the Hands of the Cause in conjunction with the National Spiritual Assemblies, although the final
> decision always lay with him (MBW 122-3).
> 
> At present the institutions of the Bahá'í Faith are primarily responsible for dealing with any
> episodes of Covenant-breaking that arise, in particular the Hands of the Cause, the Continental
> Board of Counselors (q.v.), and their Auxiliary Boards. Individual Bahá'ís may take no action
> other than reporting any concerns they have to these institutions. These then investigate the
> matter but the final decision lies with the Universal House of Justice.
> 
> H. Summary
> 
> The concept of the covenant in the Bahá'í Faith may be divided into two. The greater covenant
> involves recognizing the Manifestation of God and obeying his laws and teachings: "...according
> to the irrefutable texts, He [Bahá'u'lláh] has taken from us a firm covenant that we may live and
> act in accord with the divine exhortations, commands and lordly teachings." (TAB 1:42) This
> greater covenant also relates to the promise of a further Manifestation of God in the future:
> "Bahá'u'lláh made a covenant concerning a promised One who will become manifest after one
> thousand or thousands of years." (BWF 358) The second or lesser covenant relates to the
> succession in authority within the Bahá'í community first to `Abdu'l-Bahá then to Shoghi Effendi
> and the Universal House of Justice. "He [Bahá'u'lláh] likewise, with His Supreme Pen, entered
> into a great Covenant and Testament with all the Bahá'ís whereby they were all commanded to
> follow the Center of the Covenant after His departure . . ." (BWF 358) `Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi
> Effendi were given, under the provisions of this Covenant, the authority to give authoritative
> interpretation of the Bahá'í scripture; the Universal House of Justice has been given the authority
> to legislate in any areas which are not already covered by the Bahá'í scriptures.
> 
> Since the eventual aim of the Bahá'í Faith is to unite the world, it is clear that this could not be
> achieved if the Bahá'í Faith itself were divided. One of the most striking of the claims made by the
> Bahá'í Faith is that the religion is divinely protected from schism (PUP 455-6, WOB 145). Clearly
> this statement does not mean that it is impossible to set up a group that rejects the authority of the
> head of the religion since that has happened on numerous occasions. What it appears to mean is
> that, although it is possible for some to set up an independent group and to call themselves
> Bahá'ís, that group is like a branch that has been cut off from a tree--although it may appear alive
> and verdant, eventually, because it is cut off from its source of life, it will wither and die.
> 
> The main mechanism for this protection from schism is stated to be, first, the fact that the
> Covenant made by Bahá'u'lláh and his successors is clear and in writing; and second, through the
> methods established for dealing with Covenant-breakers.
> 
> Bibliography
> 
> The two key documents of the covenant are Bahá'u'lláh Kitáb-i-`Ahd (TB
> 15:219-223) and `Abdu'l-Bahá, Will and Testament. Other important passages from the
> authoritative texts include: SWA 207-229; WOB 143-6; GPB 237-40, 325-8. A large number of
> compilations and explanatory works have also been published on this subject: The Covenant,
> compilation issued by the Universal House of Justice, December 1987, COC1 212-257:111-129;
> LG 593-629:181-191; Enoch Tanyi (comp.), The Covenant: Daily Readings from the Bahá'í
> Teachings Oxford: George Ronald, 1989; The Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh: a compilation, London:
> Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1963; Lowell Johnson, The Eternal Covenant, 2nd ed., Johannesburg:
> National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of South Africa, 1989; The Power of the Covenant (in
> 3 parts) Thornhill, Ont.: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada, 1977; The
> Covenant: its meaning and our attitude toward it, Wilmette?: National Spiritual Assembly of the
> Bahá'ís of the United States, 1988; The Covenant and Administration, Wilmette: Bahá'í
> Publishing Committee, 1951. Adib Taherzadeh, The Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh, Oxford: George
> Ronald, 1992. Other books cited: M. Momen, Introduction to Shí`í Islam.
> 
> On Covenat-breaking: SWA 185-193:210-233. Adib Taherzadeh, The Covenant. The Power of
> the Covenant (part 2) Thornhill, Ont.: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of Canada,
> 1977. Enoch Tanyi (comp.) The Covenant: Daily Readings from the Bahá'í Teachings Oxford:
> George Ronald, 1989, pp. 187-195. The Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh: a compilation, London: Bahá'í
> Publishing Trust, 1963, pp. 121-146. Ministry of the Custodians, see index under Covenant-breakers, Covenant-breaking, and Remey. Sources cited: Jalal Azal, Manuscript Notes, Princeton
> University Library; Robert Balch, Gwen Farnsworth, and Sue Wilkins, When the Bombs Drop:
> Reactions to Disconfirmed Propheecy in a Millennial Sect, Missoula, Montana: University of
> Montana, 1982; Peter Berger, "From Sect to Church: a sociological interpretation of the Bahá'í
> movement", Ph. D. Thesis, New School for Social Research, New York, 1954; E.G. Browne,
> Materials for the Study of the Bábí Religion. Eric Cohen, "The Bahá'í community of Acre"
> Folklore Research Center Studies, vol. 3 (1972) pp. 119-141; Loni Bramson Lerche, "Some
> aspects of the establishment of the Guardianship" in SBBR 5: 253-93; Peter Smith, "The
> American Bahá'í community, 1894-1917: a preliminary survey" in SSBR 1:85-223.
> 
> An extensive bibliography of works by covenant-breakers can be found in
> Collins, Bibliography of English-language works 294-302, and
> Bjorling, The Bahá'í Faith 130-160. Vernon E. Johnson, "An
> Historical Analysis of Critical Transformations in the Evolution of the
> Bahá'í World Faith," Ph. D. diss. Payam Afsharian, personal comunication,
> 14 May 1994. Encyclopedia of American Religions (ed. J. Gordon
> Melton), 4th ed., Detroit: Gale Research, 1993, 1453-1457.
> 
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