# The Baha'i Faith *Exported from [Holy-Writings.com](https://www.holy-writings.com/) on 2026-06-19 — 1 clipping.* --- > Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Christopher Buck, The Baha'i Faith, bahai-library.com. > ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── > > CHAPTER 13 > > Bahá’í Faith > Christopher Buck > > T he Bahá’í religion had established ethical and social principles for the ennobling of > individuals and the ordering of societies well before “social justice” emerged as a > dominant value in modern democracies. Indeed, the Bahá’í Faith claims to be a religion > “endowed with a system of law, precept, and institutions capable of bringing into exist- > ence a global commonwealth ordered by principles of social justice” (Bahá’í World > Centre, 1993: 107). In the Bahá’í hierarchy of moral values, social justice ranks as a > central and guiding principle. The distinctively pragmatic Bahá’í approach is to promote > social justice through coordinated initiatives of “social action.” > Bahá’ís generally prefer to speak of “social action” rather than “social justice” > because they view the former as proactive and the latter as reactive. Social action, as > they speak of it, anticipates social issues and addresses them prospectively; social justice > aims at remediating injustices that have already occurred. Seen in this light, engaging > in social action could be expected to reduce the need to redress social injustices. If > “social justice” is conceived broadly (i.e., not simply as remedial or corrective), > then “social action” is the name that Bahá’ís use to articulate a proactive model for > achieving social justice. This proactive orientation to social justice involves acting on > the basis of a vision and core values to reorder society by means of a multifaceted, > systematic, and progressive plan of social engagement: multifaceted in that it involves > undertaking different kinds of initiatives and projects simultaneously around the world; > systematic in that it involves coordinating complementary initiatives and programs; > and progressive in that it extends successful local and regional initiatives to communi- > ties around the globe. > The centrality of justice in Bahá’í thought is evident in the declarations of the reli- > gion’s early leaders. Its founder, Bahá’u’lláh (1817–1892), elevated justice by linking > it in several ways to God and by citing its practical utility: “The best beloved of all things > in My sight is Justice . . . turn not away therefrom if thou desirest Me, and neglect it > > The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Religion and Social Justice, First Edition. Edited by Michael D. Palmer and > Stanley M. Burgess. > © 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. > BAHÁ’Í FAITH 211 > > not that I may confide in thee.” “By its aid thou shalt see with thine own eyes and not > through the eyes of others, and shalt know of thine own knowledge and not through > the knowledge of thy neighbor.” “Ponder this in thy heart; how it behooveth thee to be. > Verily justice is My gift to thee and the sign of My loving-kindness. Set it then before > thine eyes” (Bahá’u’lláh, 1978: 37). ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (1844–1921), Bahá’u’lláh’s son and > appointed successor, who led the religion from 1892–1921, also accorded justice a > special status: “Justice . . . is a universal quality”; and “justice must be sacred, and the > rights of all the people must be considered” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, 1969: 159). > But social justice is not an end in itself. In the Bahá’í hierarchy of values, social > justice directs thought and action to a higher principle and to a grand vision of a future > world commonwealth. “The purpose of justice,” Bahá’u’lláh declared, “is the appear- > ance of unity among men” (Bahá’u’lláh, 1978: 67). In other words, social justice is a > means to a higher end, unity, which Bahá’ís view as an organizing principle for their > entire system of community norms and practices, which will, in turn, transform society > on a global scale. They describe this unity not as rigid uniformity or slavish conformity > but as “unity in diversity” – a social culture in which diversity can flourish. > > Historical Setting and Formative Experiences > > Bahá’í concern for social justice appears repeatedly in the religion’s sacred writings as > well as in many of its institutional documents and policy statements, including those > of the Bahá’í International Community, a religious nongovernmental organization > (NGO) with consultative status at the United Nations. But the impetus for the religion’s > concern for social justice lies in the experiences of its founding leaders and the more > recent experiences of its adherents in countries whose regimes are hostile to the > religion. > Officially designated today as the “Bahá’í Faith,” the Bahá’í religion was founded > in 1844 CE by the Báb (“the Gate,” a spiritual title taken by Sayyid ‘Alí-Muḥammad > Shírází, 1819–1850) and further elaborated by Bahá’u’lláh (“Glory of God,” a spiritual > title adopted by Mírzá Ḥusayn-‘Alí Núrí, 1817–1892), a Persian nobleman born to a > high-ranking vizier and grandee. The Báb, by advancing independent prophetic claims > and by revealing a code of laws, the Persian Bayán (thereby asserting the independence > of his own religion and undermining an obsolete Shí‘í orthodoxy and corrupt clerical > order), paved the way for, and openly foretold, the advent of an even greater religious > figure, whom most Bábís accepted as Bahá’u’lláh. The Bábí religion thus evolved > into the Bahá’í religion, which is why both the Báb and Bahá’u’lláh are considered > to be the co-founders of the Bahá’í Faith.1 A number of the laws revealed by the > Báb were, in fact, modified by Bahá’u’lláh and incorporated into the Most Holy Book > (Kitáb-i-Aqdas). > Born in 1817 to a high-ranking minister of the Shah in Tehran, Bahá’u’lláh was > incarcerated in a subterranean dungeon in 1852 because he was a leader of the pro- > scribed Bábí religion, where he experienced his first visionary/revelatory moments of > prophetic inspiration. He was exiled to Baghdad in 1853, to Istanbul (Constantinople) > and Edirne (Adrianople) in 1863, and finally to ‘Akká (Palestine, now Israel) in 1868. > 212 CHRISTOPHER BUCK > > These successive experiences of exile, infused with a clear sense of destiny and mes- > sianic purpose, seem to have galvanized his vision of international order and world > peace that would later prove to be distinguishing features of his ministry and lifework. > For example, one of the signal events of Bahá’u’lláh’s ministry was the public procla- > mation, directed to the world’s political and religious leaders, of his mission to unify > the world, a proclamation that stands as one of the first international peace missions > of modern times. > Bahá’u’lláh’s experiences lent further impetus to his international call for nonvio- > lent ways of resolving conflicts among peoples, nations, and religions. Beginning in > September, 1867, he addressed individual and collective letters (“epistles”) to world > leaders, including Queen Victoria of England, Kaiser Wilhelm I of Prussia (now > Germany), Czar Alexander Nicholas II of Russia, Emperor Napoleon III of France, > Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria, Sulṭán ‘Abdu’l-‘Azíz of the Ottoman Empire, Náṣiri’d- > Dín Sháh of Persia (now Iran), and the Presidents of the Americas collectively. In these > letters, Bahá’u’lláh summoned leaders and their nations to disarmament, reconcilia- > tion, justice, and the “Most Great Peace.” To the leaders of the Zoroastrian, Jewish, > Christian, and Muslim faiths, he revealed epistolary “Tablets,” calling these leaders to > religious reconciliation and inviting their recognition of Bahá’u’lláh as the promised > messiah of all religions. > On his death in 1892, Bahá’u’lláh was succeeded by his eldest son, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá > (1844–1921). Like Bahá’u’lláh, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s approach to social justice was informed > by his father’s prophetic vision, reinforced by his experience as a prisoner and exile for > most of his life as he accompanied his father throughout his successive exiles, and > enlightened by an innate wisdom that Bahá’u’lláh accentuated in appointing ‘Abdu’l- > Bahá as his successor, interpreter, and exemplar. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá was liberated by the > Young Turks Revolution in 1908. From 1911 to 1913 he traveled to Europe, North > Africa, and North America, promulgating his father’s principles of social justice and > world unity. > If imprisonment, exile, and revelatory experiences intensified the consciousness of > early Bahá’í leaders, persecution has kept social justice at the forefront of thinking > among contemporary adherents to the religion. This is true nowhere more vividly than > in Iran, where some 300,000 Bahá’ís constitute the country’s largest non-Muslim > minority religion. Persecution of Bahá’ís in Iran has taken place ever since the religion’s > inception there in the mid-nineteenth century. Repression of the Bahá’í community > continues to be official government policy. As a result, Bahá’ís have been targets of > discrimination and violence. Since Iran’s 1979 Islamic Revolution, more than 10,000 > Bahá’ís have been dismissed from government and university posts. Bahá’ís in Iran are > systematically denied jobs, pensions, and the right to inherit property, and the govern- > ment of Iran has prosecuted a systematic campaign to deny Bahá’ís rights in what one > independent scholar has described as “suspended genocide” (Momen, 2005). > Following the 1979 Islamic revolution, the Iranian regime tried to eradicate the > Bahá’í Faith as a viable religious organization by executing its leaders. In 1981, the > state, dominated by the clergy, executed all nine members of the National Spiritual > Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Iran. In 1984, and again in 1986, Iranian authorities > executed the majority of the members of the new National Spiritual Assembly of the > BAHÁ’Í FAITH 213 > > Bahá’ís of Iran, which had been elected to replace the martyred members of that same > council. > In 1983, Iran declared the Bahá’í religion to be an unlawful, criminal organization > and banned it. In strict conformity with the Bahá’í religious commitment to obey civil > authorities, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of Iran complied with the > Iranian ban on organized Bahá’í activity by suspending its administrative network. > Following suspension of its formal system of democratically elected local and national > councils, the Bahá’í community in Iran managed its affairs by an informal seven- > member national committee, known as the “Yaran” (“Friends”). In February 2009, > Iran announced the trial of the seven Yaran, charged with “espionage on behalf of > Israel,” “insult to the sacredness of Islam,” and “propaganda against the regime”; they > were sentenced in 2010 to 20-year prison terms. > The persecution of Bahá’ís in Iran has served to reinforce, for the members of the > worldwide Bahá’í community, the need for precisely the kinds of principles of social > justice and unity that have been central tenets of their religion since its inception. > It has also bolstered their commitment to live by the principles they espouse. Thus, > for example, when the members of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís > of Iran were executed in 1981, 1984, and 1986, the Bahá’í community responded not > with violence but with elections: they elected members to replace their martyred > colleagues. > > Bahá’ís at the Grassroots Level > > The Bahá’í Faith enjoins followers of the religion to observe a number of social norms > (laws) drawn from the Most Holy Book. For instance, Bahá’í social norms require com- > mitment to family and fidelity in marriage, and place a high value on productive work, > which, when performed in the spirit of service, is regarded as worship of God. Bahá’ís > are also expected to abstain from alcohol and narcotics and, in general, to lead healthy > lives. The primary purpose of a Bahá’í’s life is threefold: to love and worship God, to > acquire virtues, and to carry forward an ever-advancing civilization. > While many of the norms or laws seem directed at shaping personal piety and refin- > ing character, their larger purpose is often to prepare followers of the religion to serve > humanity more effectively. Thus, for example, “backbiting” (speaking maliciously of > another person who is not present) is forbidden, not simply as a matter of personal > integrity, but because it is socially corrosive and undermines the larger goal of social > unity. > The proscription of negative personal behaviors such as backbiting illustrates a > simple but important point in Bahá’í social and moral thought: Bahá’ís aspire to provide > an integrated system of values and socio-moral principles aimed at achieving unity > among all people. Most behaviors that are specifically forbidden, allowed, or required > by religious law fall under some larger principles (often related to social justice), and > these overarching principles aim at achieving the ultimate principle, which is “unity in > diversity” within the framework of a world commonwealth, leading, in time, to a golden > age of world civilization. > 214 CHRISTOPHER BUCK > > The gradual introduction of four “core activities” – devotional meetings, study > circles, children’s classes, and junior youth groups – has had an important transforma- > tive influence on recent Bahá’í community life. Devotional meetings, regular gatherings > of individuals for prayer and worship, are considered an essential practice for the spir- > itual health and well-being of a community. Study circles consist of small groups of > people, who regularly meet to study the Bahá’í sacred writings in a sequence of courses > developed by the Ruhi Institute, guided by a trained facilitator, and supplemented by > artistic, service, and social activities aimed at developing skills and capacities to help > build spiritually and morally grounded neighborhoods and communities. Neighbor- > hood children’s classes provide a moral framework that assists children to achieve > excellence in material, intellectual, and spiritual aspects of life. Junior youth groups, > populated by young people between the ages of 12 and 14, are guided by an “animator” > (an older youth who acts as a peer facilitator). The purpose of the group meetings is to > develop young people’s powers of expression, sharpen their capacity to understand the > moral implications of their thoughts and actions, and engage them in service to their > communities. All of these activities inculcate Bahá’í principles of social justice and > encourage their creative application at the grassroots level. > When the Bahá’í community was relatively small, its contribution to social well- > being was naturally limited. In 1983, however, the Universal House of Justice > announced that the growth of the Faith had given rise to the need and opportunity for > a greater involvement in the life of society. Since that time, Bahá’ís began to engage > more systematically in social and economic development projects of varying degrees > of complexity. Now, Bahá’í efforts to contribute to social transformation have widened > to include participation in the public discourse on issues of concern to humanity, such > as advancing ideal international relations, instituting infrastructures needed to sustain > world peace, systematically eliminating prejudices of all kinds, empowering youth spir- > itually and morally, and promoting social justice through social action. These Bahá’í > endeavors have steadily increased over the past 25 years and will grow in scope and > influence in the future. > While there is a mystical dimension in Bahá’í spiritual life, there are no esoteric > teachings reserved for a spiritual elite. Each Bahá’í is expected to embark on a quest > toward spiritual perfection in an effort to draw ever nearer to the “Great Being.” This > is achieved, in part, by acquiring virtues, which in turn produce noble character leading > to good deeds. Good deeds must be properly motivated, which is to say, they must spring > from pure intentions. Proverbially, one’s heart must be “in the right place” while doing > “the right thing.” The link between pure motives and noble deeds is the well-formed > (virtuous) character. For Bahá’ís, the great example of virtuous character is ‘Abdu’l- > Bahá, one of whose titles is “the perfect Exemplar.” > > Institutions, Affiliations, and Initiatives > > The themes of justice and unity are evident in many of the Bahá’í Faith’s institutions > as well as in its national and international affiliations and initiatives. > BAHÁ’Í FAITH 215 > > In the Most Holy Book (Kitab-i-Aqdas, which is the core Bahá’í code of laws), > Bahá’u’lláh called for the establishment of a local House of Justice in every community. > To distinguish these “Houses of Justice” from institutions with an agenda for political > power, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá gave them the temporary title of “Spiritual Assemblies.” Each nine- > member local and national Spiritual Assembly is charged with overseeing the growth > and welfare of the Bahá’í community within its jurisdiction. Each national spiritual > assembly, as mandated by its constitution and bylaws, is tasked with fostering unity > among the various elements of society within its power to do so and to advance the > work of social and economic development. > As declared in its Constitution, the mission of the Universal House of Justice, the > supreme governing institution of the Bahá’í Faith, is “to do its utmost for the realization > of greater cordiality and comity amongst the nations and for the attainment of univer- > sal peace”; “to safeguard the personal rights, freedom and initiative of individuals”; “to > give attention to the preservation of human honour, to the development of countries > and the stability of states”; “to provide for the arbitration and settlement of disputes > arising between peoples”; and “to foster that which is conducive to the enlightenment > and illumination of the souls of men and the advancement and betterment of the > world” (Universal House of Justice, 1973: 5). These duties elaborate on and reinforce > the more general themes of justice and unity to which the religion is committed. > The Bahá’í International Community, formed in 1948 as a nongovernmental organ- > ization (NGO) at the United Nations, represents an association of democratically elected > national and regional spiritual assemblies. Serving as the voice of the worldwide Bahá’í > community in international affairs, the Bahá’í International Community focuses on > four core areas, each related to social justice: > > 1 Promotion of a universal standard for human rights. > 2 Advancement of women. > 3 Promotion of just and equitable global prosperity. > 4 Development of moral capabilities. > > It also defends the rights of Bahá’ís in countries where they are persecuted, such as in > Iran and Egypt. > In 1970, the Bahá’í International Community was granted consultative status (now > called “special” consultative status) with the United Nations Economic and Social > Council. It was granted a similar status with the United Nations Children’s Fund in > 1976 and with the United Nations Development Fund for Women in 1989, the same > year it established working relations with the World Health Organization. The Bahá’í > International Community views its work with these and other organizations and offices > (e.g., the United Nations Environment Program; the Office of the High Commissioner > for Human Rights; the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organiza- > tion; and the United Nations Development Program) as primary channels for promoting > Bahá’í social justice values at the international level. > On the 60th anniversary of the founding of the United Nations (October 2005), the > Bahá’í International Community issued The Search for Values in an Age of Transition, a > document that articulates its recommendations on democracy, human rights, collective > 216 CHRISTOPHER BUCK > > security, and development. In it, the Bahá’í International Community endorses democ- > racy not simply as an expression of majority rule, but as a form of political governance > in which the rights of the governed are respected, leaders function transparently, prin- > ciples of fairness and equality of opportunity are observed, and decisions are predicated > on assessment of community needs. In the view of the Bahá’í International Commu- > nity, a democracy that satisfies these criteria qualifies as good governance and is essen- > tially an expression of social justice. Moreover, these criteria are not limited by any legal > or jurisdictional boundaries, but are universal in scope and applicability. > > Engaging the Global Community > > One way in which Bahá’ís engage in proactive social justice (social action) is by sup- > porting, participating in, or partnering with United Nations initiatives. For instance, > Bahá’í representatives provide leadership in a number of United Nations-related bodies, > including the Values Caucus, the Commission on the Status of Women, the Commission > on Sustainable Development, the Committee of Religious NGOs, the NGO/Department > of Public Information Executive Committee, and the Millennium NGO Network for UN > reform. > Bahá’ís also partner with regional or national organizations to effect change at the > international level. Established in 2002 in The Hague, Netherlands, the International > Criminal Court (ICC) is mandated to try individuals accused of war crimes, crimes > against humanity, and genocide. In an effort to achieve the full support of the United > States for the ICC, the world’s first permanent court, the National Spiritual Assembly > of the Bahá’ís of the United States decided to become a founding member of the Wash- > ington Working Group for the International Criminal Court (WICC) and the American > Coalition for the International Criminal Court (AMICC). The Faith and Ethics Network > of the ICC was created to promote awareness of the Court and to support justice and > reconciliation efforts in countries where the ICC conducts investigations and prosecutes > cases. A Bahá’í representative currently serves as co-chair of this international inter- > faith coalition. > Bahá’ís also initiate activities of their own in order to demonstrate how local and > international social action projects complement each other. The following sections > highlight several such social justice (or social action) projects. > > Advancement of women > > For Bahá’ís, establishing the equality of men and women is one of the most basic ways > to reorder societies. Bahá’í writings draw an analogy between the ideal working rela- > tionship between men and women and the way the wings of a bird function together. > The bird’s flight is possible only if it can effectively coordinate its wings, and that can > happen only if both wings are equally strong and fit. Similarly, Bahá’ís believe, human > relationships will be maximally effective only if men and women, as the respective > BAHÁ’Í FAITH 217 > > “wings of a bird,” are equally empowered to perform their roles. Consistent with the > “wings” imagery and the supporting ideology found in Bahá’í sacred writings, the > Bahá’í International Community has identified the advancement of women toward > equality with men as one of its four core values. Thus, in The Search for Values in an Age > of Transition, the Bahá’í International Community asserts that a healthy democracy > must be founded on the principle of the equality of men and women (and, by extension, > the equality of all peoples). Commending the international community’s commitment > to democracy, the Bahá’í International Community stresses that ideal democracy is > good governance – an essentially moral exercise – which can only come about with the > full participation of women and minorities. > The Bahá’í effort to realize its vision for gender equality illustrates the way in which > the religion pursues complementary local, national, and international plans of action. > At the local level, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States > developed a manual, Guidelines for Spiritual Assemblies on Domestic Violence, to provide > informed, consistent, and explicit guidance on domestic violence to local Bahá’í coun- > cils (known as Local Spiritual Assemblies). The same National Spiritual Assembly also > encouraged Bahá’ís to urge their American congressional representatives to support > ratification of the United Nations’ Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Dis- > crimination against Women. > > Wealth equity > > “Tell the rich of the midnight sighing of the poor, lest heedlessness lead them into the > path of destruction, and deprive them of the Tree of Wealth,” Bahá’u’lláh counseled > (Bahá’u’lláh, 1985: 39). The words of the founder vividly convey the historical Bahá’í > concern for the poor and the needy. In Bahá’í thought, economic values must be meas- > ured by human values, which is to say, justice requires that economic policies and > practices must serve society’s most disadvantaged citizens. Thus, Bahá’ís are committed > to the elimination of extremes of wealth and poverty by such practices as profit sharing > among workers, redistribution of wealth through system of graduated income taxa- > tion, voluntary sharing of one’s wealth for the betterment of society, and equitable > distribution of the world’s resources. > As with the strategy they have adopted toward gender equality, Bahá’ís approach > issues of poverty on multiple fronts. For instance, at the local level, Bahá’í commu- > nities have launched more than 1700 development projects worldwide, including > more than 600 schools (with over 400 village tutorial schools) and seven radio > stations broadcasting educational, health, and agricultural programs, all aimed at > mitigating the effects of poverty. Internationally, the Bahá’í Office of Social and > Economic Development, an agency of the Bahá’í World Centre in Haifa, Israel, monitors > the progress of Bahá’í-inspired development programs worldwide. The Office provides > advice and support for these projects, and facilitates collaborative undertakings with > like-minded organizations as well. Bahá’ís also actively cooperate with several inter- > national relief organizations, economic development organizations, and the World > Health Organization. > 218 CHRISTOPHER BUCK > > Environmental issues > > In “Seizing the Opportunity: Redefining the Challenge of Climate Change” (2008), > the Bahá’í International Community states that “a need for new approaches centered > on the principles of justice and equity is apparent.” Bahá’ís regard environmental > concerns as social justice issues to the extent that they influence one’s capacity to pro- > mote healthy physical conditions for human beings while developing sustainable > economies. > As with other social issues, the Bahá’í International Community has addressed envi- > ronmental issues in several ways. For instance, as one response to global warming, which > is seen as having a cumulative impact through industrial and other carbon-based emis- > sions and thus threatens the planet’s future as a whole, Bahá’ís established the Interna- > tional Environment Forum in 1997. The Forum, a nongovernmental, professional > organization with more than 200 members in 56 countries on five continents, promotes > the application of spiritual and ethical principles to the global challenges of the environ- > ment and sustainable development. Accredited by the United Nations as a scientific and > technological organization to the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johan- > nesburg, 2002), the Forum networks with a wide array of organizations with similar > missions and sponsors annual conferences. Also, in 2009, the Bahá’í International > Community endorsed the “Interfaith Declaration on Climate Change.” > > Interfaith relations > > The Bahá’í concern to nurture interfaith relations flows directly from its commitment > to the overarching principle of unity. Bahá’ís place a high premium on interfaith rela- > tions that conduce to widening the circles of unity in human society. One of their most > prominent initiatives was launched by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís > of the United States, which in 1949 instituted an annual “World Religion Day.” Then, > as now, the third Sunday of January each year was designated for this celebration. The > first World Religion Day was held on January 15, 1950, and was observed by Bahá’í > communities across the United States. For Bahá’ís, World Religion Day serves as an > occasion to highlight what they regard as the essential harmony of the world’s reli- > gions, and to raise awareness of the contributions of Bahá’í principles in promoting > religious reconciliation and confraternity. Celebrated with interfaith dialogue, confer- > ences, and other events that advance mutual understanding (or what scholars call > “spiritual literacy”), Bahá’ís see World Religion Day as an occasion to foster transcon- > fessional affinity among religions and, most importantly, to promote the idea and ideal > of world unity. World Religion Day, which Bahá’ís consider a natural expression and > extension of their emphasis on the unity of religions, races, and nations, is now observed > internationally. > Some other prominent Bahá’í interfaith initiatives have been launched by the Uni- > versal House of Justice, an institution that directs the spiritual and administrative > affairs of the global Bahá’í community, and by the Bahá’í International Community as > BAHÁ’Í FAITH 219 > > a nongovernmental organization. In 2000, in a session of the Millennium World Peace > Summit of Religious and Spiritual Leaders at the United Nations (the first assembly of > prominent religious leaders ever held in the United Nations), Albert Lincoln, Secretary- > General of the Bahá’í International Community, called on the world’s religious leaders > to identify those “core values that are common to all religious and spiritual traditions” > (Bahá’í International Community, 2000). Two years later, the Universal House of > Justice issued a public letter, “To the World’s Religious Leaders” (2002), in which it > charged that the interfaith movement has lacked “both intellectual coherence and > spiritual commitment,” to the extent that the “greater part of organized religion stands > paralyzed at the threshold of the future, gripped in those very dogmas and claims of > privileged access to truth that have been responsible for creating some of the most bitter > conflicts dividing the earth’s inhabitants.” Describing the Bahá’í community as “a > vigorous promoter of interfaith activities from the time of their inception,” the letter > claims that interfaith activities in general will be of limited value, unless and until > “interfaith discourse” honestly addresses, without further evasion, “that God is one and > that, beyond all diversity of cultural expression and human interpretation, religion is > likewise one.” The letter also calls on religious leaders to acknowledge that “religion > and science are the two indispensable knowledge systems through which the potentiali- > ties of consciousness develop.” > The Bahá’í International Community has also participated in a number of interfaith > organizations, including the North American Interfaith Network, the Council for a > Parliament of the World’s Religions, the Tripartite Forum on Interfaith Cooperation for > Peace, and the Committee of Religious Non-Governmental Organizations at the United > Nations. > > Human rights > > International law is informed by a set of universal moral norms, which include certain > entitlements (rights) that individuals are believed to possess and that are commonly > regarded as transnational; that is, beyond the legal jurisdiction of any single state. In > 1948 the United Nations adopted a Universal Declaration of Human Rights and thus > became the first international body in history to issue a collective proclamation express- > ing a consensus on core values as they relate to the rights of all people. While the > Declaration is not a legally binding treaty, some of its provisions have come to be embod- > ied in international law in such instruments as the International Covenant on Civil and > Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cul- > tural Rights (ICESCR), adopted by the General Assembly in December 1966. Together > with the United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Covenants are > referred to as the “International Bill of Human Rights.” > Informed by their own experiences (Bahá’ís have historically been the victims of > abuse and persecution, primarily in the Middle East) and by their sacred writings > (Bahá’ís believe that human rights are ultimately God-given), Bahá’ís sought to influ- > ence the crafting of the United Nations’ Declaration of Human Rights. To this end, the > National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of the United States and Canada presented > 220 CHRISTOPHER BUCK > > A Bahá’í Declaration of Human Rights and Obligations to the first session of the United > Nations Commission on Human Rights in February, 1947 at Lake Success, New York. > This statement broadly addressed human rights in seven categories: the individual; the > family; race; work and wealth; education; worship; and social order. In 1995, the Bahá’í > International Community presented another statement on human rights and social > justice, The Realization of Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, for the 47th session of > the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities > Geneva. While the influence of these documents is unclear, there is no doubt that they > express a longstanding and fervently held conviction among Bahá’ís that the protection > of human rights remains a moral priority of the highest order. > Since 1985, American Bahá’ís have taken prominent leadership roles in pressing > the United States to ratify international human rights treaties, including the Interna- > tional Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the United Nations Convention to Elimi- > nate Racial Discrimination, the United Nations Convention against Torture, and the > United Nations Convention against Genocide. Current ratification efforts focus on the > Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women as well > as the Convention of the Rights of the Child. Bahá’ís currently serve on the steering > committees of the Campaign for US Ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the > Child and the Working Group on the Ratification of the Convention on the Elimination > of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. > > Race unity > > Bahá’í efforts to eliminate racial prejudice stand at the center of their efforts to eradi- > cate prejudice of all types. In 1921, the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States > and Canada inaugurated a series of “race amity” conferences throughout the United > States. Alain Locke (1885–1954) – the first African American Rhodes Scholar (1907), > leader of the Harlem Renaissance (1919–1934), and prominent American Bahá’í > (1918–1954) – helped organize the first such conference in the nation’s capital. > Bahá’í “race amity” initiatives were as radical as they were historic. These events took > place during the period of legal segregation in the United States known as the Jim Crow > era, described by some as America’s apartheid system. While many politically liberal > Americans of the time advocated abolishing Jim Crow laws and endorsed racial toler- > ance, Bahá’ís went much further and urged interracial harmony, even intermarriage. > Locke saw not only the need for authentic reconciliation between the races but also its > promise: “If they will but see it, because of their complementary qualities, the two racial > groups (Black & White) have great spiritual need, one of the other” (Locke, 1933: 50). > Bahá’í efforts to eradicate racial segregation and promote harmonious race relations > continued throughout the second half of the twentieth century. In 1957, in order to > foster ideal race relations, the National Spiritual Assembly inaugurated Race Unity Day > on the second Sunday in June. (This event is now recognized by the United Nations.) > In 1991, the United States National Spiritual Assembly issued The Vision of Race Unity, > a statement addressed to all Americans. Since racism is a global issue, the National > Spiritual Assembly also urged the United States to ratify the International Convention > BAHÁ’Í FAITH 221 > > on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), which it finally did > in 1994. In 1997, the National Spiritual Assembly broadcast a video, The Power of Race > Unity, to audiences across America via several networks, including the Black Entertain- > ment Network. Similar efforts, all animated by the impulse to eradicate racism and > promote racial harmony, have been undertaken by Bahá’í communities in other coun- > tries around the globe. Specifics vary from place to place, but they share a common > strategy: the way to eliminate racism is to foster a genuine appreciation of diversity by > nurturing a new global consciousness, which the Bahá’í religion seeks to encourage > individually, institutionally, and internationally. Appreciation of racial diversity pro- > motes racial justice, which is a species of social justice. > > Conclusion > > On May 28, 1942, in NBC’s nationally broadcast radio show “Town Meeting of the Air” > on the question “Is there a spiritual basis for world unity?”, Bahá’í philosopher Alain > Locke observed that such venerable ideals as world unity, world order, and the brother- > hood of man have long “wandered disembodied in the world – witness the dismembered > League of Nations.” Criticizing “superciliously self-appointed superior races” and “self- > righteous creeds and religions expounding monopolies on ways of life and salvation,” > Locke stressed that social justice must be approached pragmatically if world peace, > which is predicated on social justice, is ever to be realized: > > The fact is, the idealistic exponents of world unity and human brotherhood have through- > out the ages and even today expected their figs to grow from thistles. We cannot expect to > get international bread from sociological stone, whether it be the granite of national self- > sufficiency, the flint of racial antagonisms, or the adamant of religious partisanship. . . . The > question pivots, therefore, not on the desirability of world unity, but upon the more realistic > issue of its practicability. (quoted in Buck, 2005: 179) > > Locke’s statement, while not directly referencing the Bahá’í Faith, captures the essence > of the distinctively pragmatic Bahá’í approach, which is to promote social justice > through coordinated initiatives of “social action” at local, regional, and international > levels, while reorienting human consciousness through a global outlook. > Bahá’í social justice practices and strategies are animated by religious conviction, > global orientation, and moral fitness globally translated into local initiatives – orches- > trated under the auspices of a democratically elected administration, and informed by > social principles nuanced by moral and pragmatic considerations. Where possible, > Bahá’ís prefer to engage in proactive “social action” rather than remedial forms of > social justice. Either way, social justice is not an end in itself, but a means to achieve a > grand vision: that peoples of diverse backgrounds, races, and religions can live in unity, > even as they respect each other’s differences. Questions of international peace, human > security, and equitable access to goods, services, and knowledge are all interrelated. > Social justice, therefore, is a means to an end. World unity, in the Bahá’í conception of > it, is the appropriate and desirable end or goal of social justice. > 222 CHRISTOPHER BUCK > > Note > > 1 With an estimated 5.5 million adherents, the Bahá’í religion is relatively small in > numbers, yet is the second most widely diffused religion in terms of the number of > countries in which Bahá’í communities have been established. Significant Bahá’í > communities exist in 235 countries and territories, of which 182 are organized as > national (or regional) affiliates, with more than 12 500 organized local communities. > The religion’s global scope is mirrored in the diversity of its adherents, with above > 2100 distinct ethnic and tribal groups represented. The Bahá’í World Centre is located > on Mt. Carmel in Haifa, Israel. The Universal House of Justice, democratically elected > every five years, oversees the global Bahá’í community from the Holy Land. The essence > of the Bahá’í teachings may be summed up in these words of Bahá’u’lláh: “The well- > being of mankind, its peace and security, are unattainable unless and until its unity is > firmly established” (Bahá’u’lláh, 1978: 167). > > References > > ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (1969) Paris Talks: Addresses Bahá’u’lláh (1978) Tablets of Bahá’u’ lláh > Given by ‘Abdu’ l-Bahá in Paris in 1911– Revealed after the Kitab-i-Aqdas, Bahá’í Pub- > 1912, 11th edn, Bahá’í Publishing Trust, lishing Trust, Wilmette, IL. > London. Bahá’u’lláh (1985) The Hidden Words of > Bahá’í International Community (2000) Com- Bahá’u’ lláh, Bahá’í Publishing Trust, Wil- > plete Statement Submitted by Albert Lincoln to mette, IL. > the Millennium Summit, Bahá’í World Centre, Buck, Christopher (2005) Alain Locke: Faith and > Haifa, http://info.bahai.org/article-1-1-2- Philosophy, Kalimat Press, Los Angeles. > 2.html (accessed April 10, 2011). Locke, Alain (1933) The Negro in America, > Bahá’í International Community (2005) The American Library Association, Chicago. > Search for Values in an Age of Transition: A Momen, Moojan (2005) The Bábi and Bahá’í > Statement of the Bahá’í International Commu- community of Iran: A case of “suspended > nity on the Occasion of the 60th Anniversary genocide”? Journal of Genocide Research 7(2, > of the United Nations, http://www.bic-un. June): 221–241. > bahai.org/05-1002.htm (accessed April 10, Universal House of Justice (1973) The Constitu- > 2011). tion of the Universal House of Justice, Bahá’í > Bahá’í World Centre (1993) The Kitab-i-Aqdas: World Centre, Haifa. > Its place in Bahá’í literature, The Bahá’í World Universal House of Justice (2002) To the World’s > 1992–93, Bahá’í World Centre, Haifa. Religious Leaders, Bahá’í World Centre, Haifa. > > Bibliography > > ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (1978) Selections from the Writ- lenge,” presented to the Plenary of the United > ings of ‘Abdu’ l-Bahá, Research Department of Nations Conference on Environment and > the Universal House of Justice (ed.), Marzieh Development, Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro, > Gail et al. (trans.), Bahá’í World Centre, Haifa. Brazil, June 4, http://info.bahai.org/article- > Bahá’í International Community (1992) Sus- 1-9-2-14.html (accessed April 10, 2011). > tainable Development and the Human Spirit: Bahá’í International Community (1995) The > Based on the Statement “The Most Vital Chal- Prosperity of Humankind, http://info.bahai. > BAHÁ’Í FAITH 223 > > org/article-1-7-4-1.html (accessed April 10, Elements of Justice in the New World Order, > 2011). Charles O. Lerche (ed.), Bahá’í Publishing > Bahá’í International Community (2005) Trust, London. > Bahá’í International Community Response Huddleston, John (1991) The Search for a Just > to the Secretary General’s Report, In Larger Society, George Ronald, Oxford. > Freedom: Towards Development, Security Lerche, Charles O. (ed.) (1996) Toward the Most > and Human Rights for All, http://bic.org/ Great Justice: Elements of Justice in the New > statements-and-reports/statements/bahai- World Order, Bahá’í Publishing Trust, > bic-response-secretary-report-large-freedom London. > (accessed September 27, 2011). Lerche, Charles O. (ed.) (2004) Healing the > Bahá’í International Community (2006) A Body Politic: Bahá’í Perspectives on Peace and > New Framework for Global Prosperity: Bahá’í Conflict Resolution, George Ronald, Oxford. > International Community’s Submission to National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’ís of > the 2006 Commission on Social Develop- the United States (2004) In Service to the > ment on the Review of the First United Common Good: The American Bahá’í Commu- > Nations Decade for the Eradication of Poverty, nity’s Commitment to Social Change, http:// > http://www.bic-un.bahai.org/pdf/06-0101. www.bahai.us/in-service-to-the-common- > pdf (accessed April 10, 2011). good (accessed April 10, 2011). > Bahá’í International Community (2008) Schaefer, Udo (2007) Bahá’í Ethics in Light of > Seizing the Opportunity: Redefining the Chal- Scripture, Vol. 1: Doctrinal Fundamentals, > lenge of Climate Change: Initial Considera- George Ronald, Oxford. > tions of the Bahá’í International Community, Shoghi Effendi (1971) The Advent of Divine > h t t p : / / b i c. o r g : 8 0 8 1 / b i c _ c l e a n / b i c / Justice, 3rd edn, Bahá’í Publishing Trust, Wil- > statements - and - reports/bic - statements/ mette, IL. > seizing - opportunity - redefining - challenge - Walbridge, John (n.d.) Aqdas. Kitáb-i- (al-Kitáb > climate (accessed October 4, 2011). al-Aqdas, The Most Holy Book), http://bahai- > Hanson, Holly (1996) The process of creating library.com/walbridge_encyclopedia_kitab_ > social justice, in Toward the Most Great Justice: aqdas (accessed September 27, 2011). > > — *The Baha'i Faith (Used by permission of the curator)*