Seeking Light in force éclairante qui, lorsqu’elle se traduit par des actions sociales individuelles et the Darkness of collectives, a le pouvoir de transformer la société à mesure que des actions à petite “Race”1 échelle se combinent et entraînent des mouvements d’envergure communautaire.

Resumen JAMAR M. WHEELER En este artículo, el autor explora el Abstract racismo a través de una lente que integra In this article, the author explores racial- una perspectiva sociológica e informada ism through a lens that integrates a socio- por la Fe Bahá’í. Se ofrece un bosquejo logical and Bahá’í-informed perspective. A histórico de cómo el concepto de la historical sketch of how the race concept raza evolucionó, junto con un análisis evolved is offered, along with a contempo- contemporáneo de lo que la historia ha rary analysis of what history has wrought formado en los niveles macro y micro de at the macro and micro levels of society. la sociedad. Viendo el racismo como un Viewing racialism as a dark, subjugating aspecto oscuro y subyugante en la vida aspect of social life, the author presents social, el autor presenta la unidad de la the oneness of mankind as an enlighten- humanidad como una fuerza iluminadora. ing force that, when actualized through Esa fuerza cuando se actualiza a través de individual agency and collective social ac- una agencia individual y una acción social tion, has the power to transform society as colectiva, tiene el poder de transformar la small-scale efforts snowball into commu- sociedad, de los esfuerzos pequeños a los nity-level movements. movimientos de nivel comunitario

Resumé INTRODUCTION Dans cet article, l’auteur examine le racialisme à travers un prisme qui intègre At this critical juncture in the life à la fois la sociologie et la pensée bahá’íe. of society, it is tempting to focus on Il brosse un tableau de l’évolution du the most visible signs of racial con- concept de la race et offre une analyse flict being featured on various media contemporaine de ce que l’histoire a platforms, whether mainstream news engendré aux niveaux macro et micro de outlets or social media. The level of la société. Voyant dans le racialisme un urgency that currently appears to be aspect sombre et assujetissant de la vie en société, l’auteur présente le concept building up with respect to race2 is de l’unité de l’humanité comme une 2 The word race has been used through- 1 I dedicate this article to the memo- out this article with some regret given its ry of Heather Heyer. I would also like to insignificance with respect to its original thank Jeremy Lambshead for his invalu- biologistic intention. Its usage has been able assistance in helping me improve this employed due to its general usefulness for article. social discourse. 58 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017

largely a result of the level of media While I acknowledge that there are attention. However, I would argue numerous examples of positive inter- that the situation has been urgent for racial interactions and social patterns, a long while. Before the recent epi- this article is focused on fundamental sodes of teens and even preteens be- questions such as why “race” seems ing murdered with impunity, names to be a permanent feature of society, like Rodney King, Amadou Diallo, how we got to the present situation and Nicole Brown Simpson became with respect to race, and what might familiar to us. Albeit often under the be some factors in liberating our social radar of the news media, patterns of world from the dark scourge of race. racial inequality have persisted in the As a result, this article tackles mainly criminal justice system, at various so- large-scale sociohistorical dynamics cioeconomic metrics, and in the sense that involve individuals, but mostly of social esteem granted to those of a transcend them, especially those who particular racial background. stand out as exceptions to the rule. With this in mind, this article Given the sensitive nature of race as a seeks to analyze race primarily from a subject matter, it could prove beneficial sociohistorical perspective. This “big for the reader to be mindful that terms picture” approach, I would argue, is such as “White,” “Black,” “whiteness,” more effective in uncovering the so- and several others are mostly em- cial significance of race as opposed ployed as general terms that do not to focusing on highly visible inci- imply a sweeping categorization of dents that are, in the end, symptoms every individual characterized as such. or flare-ups of a deeper problem. The scope of this article is, for the Presented for your consideration is most part, purposefully limited to the a painstakingly forged reconciliation United States, given its unique racial of sociological, spiritual, and expe- history and the sociological sense that riential knowledge concerning race. race looks different in different social In other words, this article reflects a contexts. Our exploration begins with standpoint based on what I have thus a sociological perspective that focuses far gathered from sociological schol- on the nature of race and how it has arship and my study of the spiritual expressed itself throughout US histo- teachings of the Bahá’í Faith, all fil- ry up to the present day at both the tered through my personal experi- structural and interpersonal levels of ence. Despite the inherent challenges society. It is established within this and limitations, I believe that speak- discussion that race has evolved from ing about what I know to be true at misguided ideas on human diversi- this point in my holistic journey as a ty to become a cancerous element of Bahá’í and an aspiring scholar is the our contemporary social structure most effective way for me to contrib- that subjugates the populace and con- ute to the discourse. strains our ability to forge authentic Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 59

interracial bonds. We then explore insights from the Bahá’í Writings that offer an enriching social vision regard- ing human diversity and the means to establish community life conducive to interracial brotherhood. Finally, I of- fer some thoughts on how attaining and sustaining an authentic form of identity, and deepening this transcen- dent sense of identity in the company of like-minded collaborators, is the key building block to constructing transformative communities that em- body the principle of the oneness of humanity—the pivotal social verity of our time that unites science and religion. As a whole, this article runs counter to at least two tendencies, one tied to Bahá’í-centered discourse on race and the other tied to the social sciences in general. Focused mainly on the cur- rent moment and the racialized social condition of the United States as a whole, there will be scant mention of the race amity initiatives spearheaded by the US Bahá’í community at var- ious points in its history. This omis- sion is a result of both its peripheral relationship to my central thesis and a purposeful choice to avoid any trium- phalist tone when speaking on a del- eterious aspect of society that has so far proven to be intractable. With re- spect to the social sciences, this article counters their inherent materialism and the concomitant tendency to avoid metaphysical phenomena and their po- tential to effect social outcomes. The primary assertion of this ar- ticle is that the inability of previous 60 The Journal generations to root out racism as a social force that perpetuates systemic and dehumanizing injustice means we are living under the weight of a racial- ized social structure in the United States (Bonilla-Silva, “Rethinking Racism”). Birthed by what those in power felt were the exigencies of capitalistic ma- terialism, this racialized social struc- ture is animated by sociohistorical forces that place whiteness, as a way of being, at the very center of social life, producing a system of social rela- tions that bestows privileges to those regarded as White and social burdens upon those regarded as non-White. The racialized social structure exerts a subjugating influence on society due to its historical embeddedness and the fact that we are born into this racial- ized social environment, profoundly shaped by it during our lifetime, and most likely to be outlived by it. As a re- sult, deep racial inequalities are widely regarded as “the way it is,” something that we are powerless to change rather than an outcome of systemic injustice. This means that efforts at counter- ing the forces released and sustained by the racialized social structure will need to be revolutionary in character, focused on the principle of universal justice, and animated by forces that transcend material reality. The animating principle that is con- ducive to fueling such countering ef- forts is the spirit of oneness. Seeing it as the conscious expression of the one- ness of humanity at the individual and collective levels, those inspired by the spirit of oneness will work for social of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017

change and transform communities in granted as “the way things are” (Berg- direct accordance to the strength of er and Luckmann). If subscribing to the collaborations forged, and these race had been just one option available transformed communities will effect in the “free market of ideas,” maybe the institutional and cultural changes the eventual collective realization that that will ultimately lead to the de-ra- it was a misguided idea would be all cialization of society. we need to get over it and move on. Instead, race was codified into law and RACIALISM THROUGH A structured into the very life of soci- SOCIOLOGICAL LENS ety through culture and custom (Zinn 38). An idea is fairly easy to discard, While it is rare for contemporary so- but the institutionalization of an idea cial scientists to agree on a lot, there and the resulting structural effects are is general agreement regarding the much harder to do away with. Under- subject of race. There is a consensus standing that race is a social construct that although existing phenotypical provides us with a gateway to a more differences are real—exemplified in nuanced understanding of it, which diversity of skin color, facial features, involves seeing the phenomenon as and other physical characteristics— rooted in false ideas yet carrying sig- such differences are in no way rooted nificant social consequences. in mutually exclusive biological cate- gories. In short, racial categories are RACIALISM: IDEOLOGY not a scientifically valid means of sub- AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE dividing the human race. Given this fact and the visible inequalities largely One of the most prominent socio- founded on a history of racialized dis- logical theories built upon the social crimination, social scientists consider construction of race concept is racial race to be a social construction. formation. Scholars Michael Omi and The social construction of race con- Howard Winant argue that race is an cept is based on the premise that while unstable construct within the sphere “race” is not real in a scientific sense, it of social meanings that is constantly is real in a social sense. Speaking very being contested in the arena of po- concisely, racialism began as a set of litical struggle (116). The racial for- ideas, and people then enacted these mation process is animated by racial ideas through their behaviors, crystal- projects, which are said to be “histor- lizing the ideas into a structure of be- ically situated projects in which hu- liefs, and this structure of beliefs over man bodies and social structures are time became encoded into the life of represented and organized” (Omi and society. In other words, race evolved Winant 117). Each is “simultaneously from false ideation in its genesis to an an interpretation, representation, or aspect of social reality that we take for explanation of racial dynamics, and Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 61

an effort to reorganize and redistrib- to social meaning, we will see that ute resources along particular racial each era is profoundly shaped by forc- lines” (117). At a macro level, the way es tied to social power. The concept in which race is interpreted directly of hegemony becomes central to this connects with social policy and how conversation. For the purposes of interventions either seek to uphold or this article, hegemony represents a attack the existing social structure. system of ideas and social practices For example, if race is regarded as a that are promoted and maintained by historical phenomenon that has lin- a dominant group in society as a nec- gering effects, such an interpretation essary component to sustaining pop- would tend to support policies aimed ular consent to their authority. Once at ameliorating past discrimination. popular consent is generally achieved, Conversely, if race is viewed as insig- societal notions and related practices nificant, as something to be ignored emerge as a “common sense,” laying regardless of what has taken place in the foundation for the establishment the past, such an interpretation would of a hegemonic order. Although the lend credence to a more “hands off ” existence of a hegemonic order does approach (Omi and Winant 118–19). not negate the fact that social mean- In short, the existence of numerous ing is a contested terrain, it does racial projects operating in the field mean that it takes a concerted effort of social action strongly suggests to deconstruct and dislodge it (Omi that the meaning of race is consis- and Winant 127). tently contested along political and Additionally, it should not be lost cultural lines. that during each of these periods, the If racialism is a body of ideas, ra- creed of material accumulation is the cialization is the institutionalization primary driver. While the conquest of these ideas through dominant ra- era can be defined by the rawness cial projects and the internalization of its capital accumulation process, of the beliefs and practices concom- during the nation-building period we itant with a particular instance of find that the process of accumulation race-making. I would argue that the is much more complex, involving a evolution of the process of racializa- web of trade patterns that evolved tion can be segmented into three eras: into an industrialized, transnational 1) the conquest era (1419-1619), 2) economy. Lastly, in the post-war era, the nation-building era (1620-1945), questions emerge with respect to how and 3) the post-war era (1946-pres- to redress the racialized exploitation ent). Each historical period of mo- and discrimination that was charac- dernity exemplifies the dynamic of teristic of a history of oppression— contestation highlighted in racial questions with pecuniary implica- formation theory. Despite race be- tions in a “zero-sum” socioeconomic/ ing a contested terrain with respect sociopolitical framework. 62 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE PROCESS along these lines facilitated a sense of OF RACIALIZATION ideological coherence between the merchant conquerors, the monarchs, At the beginning of the conquest and the ecclesiastical authorities (Omi era, we find that the early European and Winant 122). While the hegemon- explorers were faced with a bit of a ic order of the day was well estab- conundrum when they encountered lished—an order that served to justify populations in the New World that the material appropriation of newly were very different from them. Differ- entered lands and the total domination ent in skin, in language and culture, of the people residing there—a few and in myriad other ways, questions brave souls consulted their conscience arose regarding where these “natives” and challenged the “common sense” stood in the “family of man.” Surely of the time Dominican friar and Span- these people could not be equal to the ish historian Bartolomé de las Casas Europeans, but to what extent could may be the most prominent example they be exploited or enslaved? Over of one who, having witnessed the hu- time it became clear that this contact man atrocities, implored the Catholic with native populations throughout Church to respect the rights of Native the Americas consolidated a world- Americans, at least in some form or view that placed European Christian fashion. Las Casas’s plea to the Church civilization at the center while periph- was heard, at least for a time, but the eralizing Native American and Afri- cosmic weight of the conquest era can populations that were regarded greatly diminished the impact of that as heathens to be exploited. It is this counterhegemonic attempt (Dussel). dynamic of in-group and out-group What began as European conquest distinctiveness that released the seeds eventually became European colonial- of modern racial awareness. ism. While conquest was largely de- Although racial considerations are fined by the material appropriation of in their infancy at this point, it is ar- foreign lands, colonialism was defined gued that the conquest era is one de- by emerging European nation-states fined by the religious civilization stand- maintaining a sustained presence in point. Despite the existing competitive these lands, exemplified by the eventu- struggles and the internal turmoil al presence of formal institutions. As that they produced, European powers Europe’s colonial enterprise expand- were united by the sense that their ed, a burgeoning intellectual revolu- civilization was locked in a battle with tion was developing that would have barbarism; therefore, the subjugation a lasting impact on the North Amer- of such peoples was not only condu- ican colonies as well as on Europe as cive to riches, but could be seen as a a whole. The Enlightenment ideas Christianized campaign for social bet- promoted and embraced by a growing terment. Interpreting human diversity contingent of Europeans conflicted Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 63

with the reality that much of the The most successful racial project economic life of Europe depended on to transform a historical instance of slave labor and the material appropri- racial “common sense” was the one at ation of foreign lands. In an attempt the core of the civil rights movement, to achieve logical coherence between which is widely regarded as coming Enlightenment ideas and European into form in 1955 with the Montgom- domination, a set of notions regarding ery Bus Boycott. Partially facilitated human diversity were advanced that by Cold War global politics, the civil would accrete to scientific racism. rights movement successfully trans- I contend that it was the consoli- formed the social meaning of race dation of this racialized logic that has through an organized and concert- permanently shaped American culture ed effort that included non-violent when it comes to race. The political protests, appeals to the federal gov- machinations aimed at separating ernment, the legal advocacy of the Whites and Blacks, the racial logic NAACP, and voter registration drives being promoted by highly esteemed (Carson). Each of these efforts had philosophers and the religious and one thing in common, which effected political leaders of the time, and the a lasting transformation of the so- compelling vulnerability of enslaved cial meaning of race—the unequiv- Africans and Native Americans, fused ocal affirmation of the humanity of together in a socially toxic mix to Americans of African descent. The produce a highly racialized society hegemonic order regarding race was that lingers with us to this day. De- dismantled by the protagonists of the spite the sociopolitical changes that civil rights movement and members of resulted from the emancipation of the the general public that were inspired slave population, Reconstruction, the to embrace a new social reality imbued emergence of Jim Crow, and the Great with racial justice. The passage of the Migration to the North, the social Civil Rights (1964) and Voting Rights meaning of race was still rooted in Acts (1965), like the ignominious laws biologically essentialist notions. Such passed during the days of slavery, were a racialized conception was reflected the institutional expressions of the in the strict segregationist structure transformed meaning of race. It was of the South and the pattern of wide- understood for a time, however brief, spread job and housing discrimination that for American society to move for- in the North. Regardless of where ward the injustices of the past and the Black persons found themselves, at the inequalities produced as a result had to institutional and interpersonal levels be rectified through ameliorative so- of society they were most likely to be cial policies such as affirmative action. regarded as inferior beings whose civil This wave of social change, while rights and pursuit of happiness need powerful, meaningful, and revolution- not be respected or even considered. ary, was soon countered by another 64 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017

wave of social sentiment that crystal- Abstract Liberalism is described as a lized into an ideology that character- frame that seeks to rationalize opposi- ized social policies designed to redress tion to “racial fairness policies” based historical wrongs as problematic. One on principles such as equality of op- of the key ingredients of this ideol- portunity, individualism, and basing ogy was addressing racial issues in a decisions related to hiring or admis- race-neutral manner, and this discur- sions on merit alone. Briefly, the argu- sive strategy is at the core of what is ment posits that society is best served known as the colorblind racial ideology when it allows equality of opportuni- (Bonilla-Silva, Racism without Racists ty to be employed in a “race-neutral” 3). Over time, in the battle for the so- fashion. Despite obvious racial ineq- cial meaning of race, colorblindness uities and their potential causes, any reached a position of hegemony and a efforts to expand opportunities to dis- new version of racial “common sense” advantaged groups are thus labeled as was consolidated. While various racial “preferential treatment” or examples projects continue to wage, it seems of “reverse discrimination.” Addition- that colorblindness is today’s watchword ally, from such a viewpoint, programs for the hegemonic order of today. like affirmative action are attacked as “group-based” preferential programs COLORBLINDNESS AS that disregard individual talents and THE RACIAL HEGEMONY OF TODAY capacities, which penalizes more qual- ified (i.e. White) individuals (Bonil- The ideological components of col- la-Silva, Racism without Racists 78). orblindness combine classical liberal The second frame, naturalization, sentiments, such as liberty and equal- largely consists of sentiments that ex- ity before the law, with some of the plain visibly racial phenomena as the discursive elements employed by civil “way it is,” as natural occurrences that rights activists, such as judging peo- are the result of human nature. Fea- ple by the content of their character tures of the social landscape such as rather than by the color of their skin. segregated neighborhoods, schools, According to Bonilla-Silva, this racial and religious communities are viewed ideology is composed of four central as products of the tendency of dif- frames: abstract liberalism, naturaliza- ferent racial groups to “stick to their tion, cultural racism, and minimization own.” It should be noted that Whites of racism. Leveraging his analysis of who make this claim are careful to hundreds of interviews, Bonilla-Silva attribute this behavior to all racial is quick to point out that these frames groups to ensure that it is known that are mutually reinforcing and often “all groups do it” (Bonilla-Silva, Rac- employed in various combinations in ism without Racists 84). particular lines of discourse (Racism One of the more potent frames without Racists 74). of the colorblind racial ideology is Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 65

cultural racism. The success of the civ- “bad apples out there.” Another key il rights movement meant that overt element of this frame is attributing claims regarding the racial inferiority certain social outcomes that are racial of Blacks and other racialized minori- in character to non-racial factors. For ties have been rendered immoral. As example, the widely stated claim from a consequence, inequalities are rarely Blacks (and social scientists) that job conceptualized as a result of biological discrimination still exists is regarded limitations; they are now conceived as with skepticism, while other factors resulting from a deficient culture that such as qualifications and attitudinal promotes certain undesirable traits characteristics are used as explana- and behaviors. For example, the status tions. More general claims of experi- of Blacks in this country is viewed as encing racial discrimination through- resulting from laziness and the lack out one’s life are regarded as making of motivation to upraise themselves excuses and “finding what you’re look- through education and hard work. ing for” (Bonilla-Silva, Racism without Often this phenomenon, in an attempt Racists 91). to be “gentle and kind,” is attributed A great example of the tensions to the family life of Blacks and other created by the hegemonic order of minorities, the implication being that, colorblindness are readily apparent “while it is true that they are lazy and in the Black Lives Matter movement unmotivated, it is not 100% their fault (BLM). Founded in 2013 as a spirited because they were never taught any response to the acquittal of George better” (Bonilla-Silva, Racism without Zimmerman in the death of Tray- Racists 87). von Martin, the movement received The final frame, and the one that national attention in the wake of the seems to tie everything together, is police shooting of Michael Brown in the minimization of racism. This per- Ferguson, Missouri (Day). According spective portrays racial discrimination to its website, “#BlackLivesMatter is a as a phenomenon that is no longer a call to action and a response to the vir- significant factor in limiting the social ulent anti-Black racism that permeates mobility of racialized minorities. The our society” (“About”). The counterhe- elasticity of this particular frame is the gemonic response being mounted by source of its potency because it allows BLM seems to be especially directed for the recognition of discrimination toward opposing the criminalization at the level of individual action while of Black youth, especially with re- denying its structural impact. This dy- spect to policing as a matter of pub- namic enables proponents to decry in- lic policy. The goal of the movement stances of racially motivated violence, in reference to the racial formation for example, yet still hang on to the framework is to transform the mean- belief that “we’re moving past race” as ing of race surrounding Black people. a society since there are always some Success in this regard would equate 66 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017

to measurable changes both in how stage in its development has allowed Blacks are perceived and how they are this social malignancy to produce a treated in public spaces, whether by structure of social relations that ren- the police or the general public. From ders everyday interactions and prac- the BLM viewpoint, transforming the tices as both racist and rational (Bonil- meaning of race will help minimize la-Silva, “Rethinking Racism” 475). In the instances of state violence against other words, the racialization process Blacks and uphold their common hu- has evolved to such a degree that ac- manity and dignity. tions that could accurately be read Conversely, the spirited reaction as racist could also be read as logical against the Black Lives Matter move- choices given the social context. For ment can be summarized in the phrase example, if a young White couple has “All Lives Matter.” Those who sym- been priced out of a certain residen- pathize with the logic underlying this tial area but finds that there is a hip, counter-response are, for all intents on-the-rise neighborhood within their and purposes, aligned with colorblind- price range, their moving into that ness. Just as colorblind proponents in- neighborhood is logically beneficial fer that the cardinal racial sin is to inject to them, despite the fact that they are race into public policy as a means of contributing to a large-scale pattern addressing inequalities and injustices of Black displacement that is charac- of a racial character, the advocates of teristic of gentrification. In essence, “All Lives Matter” reject the mention many of the contemporary racial of “Black lives” for similar reasons. dynamics are shaped by the socioeco- The core critique of BLM from these nomic vulnerability of Blacks, which proponents is centered on the ratio- leads to limited choices with respect to nale that the incidents highlighted by housing in conjunction with the more BLM are race-neutral incidents or at expansive options available to Whites most are isolated incidents that do not in accordance with their particular merit the level of protest and angst tastes. This housing dynamic becomes raised. The “All Lives Matter” stance more compelling when considering is a pure reflection of the hegemonic that the tastes of Blacks and other order of colorblindness, positing that racial minorities have rarely been ac- in the absence of clear, explicit racism, corded a similar level of respect in the the “real racists” are those who inject housing market, regardless of socio- race into the conversation. economic background (Lewis, Emer- son, and Klineberg). RACIALIZED SOCIAL STRUCTURE Overall, the reality of a racialized AS A PRODUCT OF HISTORY social structure as the outcome of the historical forces detailed earlier ulti- The inability of the US social collec- mately means that contemporary ra- tive to root out racialism at an earlier cial antagonisms are often reflective Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 67

of rational self-interests, given the dated 10 April 2011; emphasis added.). perception that the material gains of Racialism has become a fixed feature an out-group will have an adverse of the US social structure, its life, and effect on the in-group . This attitude its culture. Evidence suggests that creates a social dynamic in which the even the most innocent daily activities socioeconomic gains of racialized can have racial connotations, be they groups are regarded as offensive in- shopping, eating out, watching tele- cursions into the field of social status vision, going to the park, or choosing and prestige, while the consolidation to live in a certain neighborhood. Our of socioeconomic gains on the part social ecology has been so thoroughly of the dominant group is viewed as polluted by race that the reproduction the continuance of white supremacy. of deep racial inequalities is seen as a According to Herbert Blumer, these natural features of contemporary so- dynamics are undergirded by the “col- ciety. Upholding social privileges for lective process of characterization,” those regarded as White, while racial which perceives distinctive racial minorities bear the burden of denial, groups as alien and their desires for is a sociocultural phenomenon that social mobility as indicative of har- appears to be fundamental to the con- boring “designs on the prerogatives temporary American way of life. of the dominant race” (4). At the same time, the dominant racial group has a feeling of “proprietary claim to cer- RACIALISM: SOCIAL INTERACTION tain areas of privilege and advantage,” AND IDENTITY which may explain the sense of am- bivalence with respect to the social im- It could be said that a natural out- plications of gentrification and similar growth of the process of racialization matters (Blumer 4). was the erection of social barriers The dynamic of mundane self-in- separating the White population from terested actions producing racialized non-White populations, with Blacks outcomes and the manner in which being the primary example of a group socioeconomic gains are perceived from which to be socially distanced. across the color line testify to the During the post-Reconstruction pe- degree that racialism permeates the riod of US history, W. E. B. Du Bois, sociocultural and sociopolitical life a preeminent Black sociologist and of the United States. This condition activist, introduced to the world “the brings to mind a statement from the veil” and “double consciousness” as Universal House of Justice: “The interrelated sociological concepts. In expressions of racial prejudice have his well-known The Souls of Black Folk, transmuted into forms that are mul- Du Bois discusses both concepts in the tifaceted, less blatant and more intri- following way: cate, and thus more intractable” (Letter 68 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017

After the Egyptian and Indian, go hand in hand with the racialization the Greek and Roman, the Teuton process. It is this very process that and Mongolian, the Negro is a yields “double consciousness”—the sort of seventh son, born with a sense of twoness that stems from the veil, and gifted with second-sight inherent struggle to enjoy the fruits in this American world,—a world of US citizenship while being regard- which yields him no true self-con- ed as undeserving. sciousness, but only lets him see One of the more troubling aspects himself through the revelation of of the veil is the way in which it pre- the other world. It is a peculiar vents mutual recognition across the sensation, this double-conscious- color line. As an ever-present phenom- ness, this sense of always looking enon, the obscuring quality of “the at one’s self by the tape of the veil” prevents true communication world that looks on in amused from happening between racializing contempt and pity. One ever feels and racialized groups (Itzigsohn and his twoness,—an American, a Brown 237). In a later work, Du Bois Negro; two souls, two thoughts, thus elaborated on the nature of the two unreconciled strivings; two veil: warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone It is as though one, looking out keeps it from being torn asunder. from a dark cave in a side of an (45) impending mountain, sees the world passing and speaks to it; In post-Reconstruction America, Du speaks courteously and persua- Bois believed that the ascriptive na- sively, showing them how these ture of the racialization process and entombed souls are hindered in its resulting reification3 prevents the their natural movement, expres- racializing group (Whites) from rec- sion, and development; and how ognizing the full humanity of the their loosening from prison would racialized because the process itself be a matter not simply of cour- is one of “othering” segments of the tesy, sympathy, and help to them, population and portraying them as de- but (an) aid to all the world . . . . It viations from the norm of whiteness gradually penetrates the minds of (Itzigsohn and Brown 237). Racialized the prisoners that the people pass- subjects, therefore, are forced to recon- ing do not hear; that some thick cile their own sense of humanity while sheet of invisible but horribly tan- battling the dehumanizing forces that gible plate glass is between them and the world. They get excited; 3 The treatment of socially construct- they talk louder; they gesticulate. ed concepts as concrete aspects of the real Some of the passing world stop world. in curiosity; these gesticulations Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 69

seem so pointless; they laugh relative social blindness—its inability and pass on. They still either do to recognize the humanity of the ra- not hear at all, or hear but dimly, cialized as well as their “own position and even that they hear, they do as oppressor within the system of ra- not understand. Then the people cialization” (Itzigsohn and Brown 243). within may become hysterical. Because of their position of dominance They may scream and hurl them- within the system of racialization, the selves against the barriers, hardly social vision of Whites is limited to realizing in their bewilderment their own world of privilege. The veil that they are screaming in a vac- does not allow them to fully see, under- uum unheard and that their antics stand, or empathize with the communi- may actually seem funny to those ty in its entirety. Even the most well-in- outside looking in. (Dusk 66) tentioned White persons are said to be ill equipped to accurately interpret the This eloquently descriptive allegory il- Black experience, which leads them to lustrates how difficult it is to communi- misdiagnose the remedy for race-based cate across the veil and achieve mutual inequalities (Du Bois, Dusk 67). recognition. It matters not how articu- The inability to walk in the shoes of lately or forcefully one speaks; the voice racialized groups blinds Whites to the of the racialized either goes unheard or oppressive nature of the system of ra- is misunderstood by the racializing col- cialization and fosters a sense of social lective. This dynamic creates troubling delusion. This delusion has two rein- outcomes for the racialized group, forcing components, the first being the but the racializing group does not go sense that the existing social order, de- unaffected. spite the presence of racial inequalities, As a consequence of the incongru- is essentially just, and the second being ous relationship between its continual that Whites are, therefore, ontological- defense and assertion of its common ly superior to racialized minorities. The humanity and the actual amount of presence of the veil as a powerful so- progress made, the racialized group cial barrier produces two separate life- struggles to appreciate the humanity worlds—one Black, one White. While of the racializing group. Along with the White world can be discerned the exhausting efforts to reaffirm the through the limitations it imposes on humanity of their group comes a con- the racialized world in contrast to its gealed sense of resentment and a cor- position of privilege, the world of responding lack of faith that those on Blacks and other racialized minorities the other side of the veil can exhibit is invisible to Whites because of their fairness and show a degree of reason inability to see through the eyes of the when it comes to racial matters (Du “othered” while they themselves are Bois, Dusk 67). The effects on the ra- enmeshed in privilege (Itzigsohn and cializing group, instead, center on its Brown 243). 70 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017

THE PROBLEM OF WHITENESS be consistent among Whites, regard- less of their political affiliations (e.g., I would argue, in alignment with nu- white nationalist, anti-racist). Hughey merous scholars, that much of the asserts that hegemonic whiteness story of American-style racialism is is composed of two comingled ele- defined by the creation, maintenance, ments: first, the conceptual framing and perpetuation of whiteness. Gen- of whiteness as both different from erally speaking, whiteness refers to a and superior to forms of non-white- particular worldview and a concomi- ness; and second, the marginalization tant dimension of behaviors and prac- of any alternative forms of whiteness tices that reflect an internalization of that do not conform to the formulated white racial identity. According to Ian ideal (16). In essence, whiteness oper- Haney López, white racial identity is ates as an aspirational form of identi- ultimately defined by the double neg- ty, separating good Whites from bad ative of being “not non-White.” In Whites, while non-Whites are essen- short, López finds that there is a sig- tially barred because of how they are nificant relationship between contem- inferiorized. porary white racial identity and the Revisiting earlier concepts, white- judicial rulings of various US courts ness as a combination of a worldview regarding immigration at a time when and collective social practices tied to immigration was limited to those re- that worldview is a logical expression garded as White. Finding that the of agency on the part of a socially courts focused more attention on the privileged group. Due to the racial- non-White plaintiffs, rather than de- ized nature of the social structure, fining what constitutes whiteness, he Whites mobilize their resources in asserts that white racial identity is pri- ways that are rational but that have marily animated by a sense of norma- the effect of perpetuating their social tive transparency, which renders the privilege—white privilege. In addi- existence of non-Whites as differen- tion, the obscuring quality of the veil, tiated from this standard of transpar- conjoined with the social blindness ency. In essence, non-Whites become that regularly affects any privileged “raced,” and this differentiation from group—whether on the basis of race, the standard is regarded as ontologi- gender, or class—results in renders cally inferior. Therefore, whiteness is any attempts of racially subordinat- not simply the opposite of non-white- ed groups to transform the existing ness; it is perceived as the superior op- social order as hostile, misguided, or posite (López 20). premature. Consistently perceived as Matthew Hughey elaborates on the “social aliens,” racialized minorities nature of whiteness in White Bound. In encounter a barrage of messages that, this book, he identifies “dimensions of for all intents and purposes, commu- hegemonic whiteness” that appear to nicate to them the need to accept a Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 71

lower status because, according to the American toward his Negro fellow rules of whiteness, they will never be citizen” would be necessary to avoid accepted as social equals. bloodshed (Citadel 126). All signs in- It should be made abundantly clear dicate that such a transformation in that individual Whites can refuse consciousness is still necessary, as the to participate in whiteness or even mainstream discourse on race appears choose to dedicate time and energy to to be paralyzed by ideological postur- disrupting whiteness as a social force ing, while blood is literally being shed that ultimately seeks to defend social as a result of cross-racial conflict. boundaries in the face of “intruders.” By the same token, the compelling THE GUIDING LIGHT OF ONENESS weight of the racialized social struc- ture suggests that it takes high levels If we can use our social imagination of personal resolve and social percep- and perceive US society as being in a tiveness to navigate such a path. The state of organic growth much like a objective here is not to cast aspersions garden and as being ultimately judged on White people but to identify how by the health of the garden in its the perpetuation of whiteness as a entirety, we would be anxiously con- social force concretizes the social rela- cerned with the health and growth of tions that act as the brick and mortar each plant, hopeful that each would of the racialized social structure. The bloom and display its latent beauty. collective failure to disrupt a system If a friend were invited over and hap- of social relations that effectively pened to see our garden and observe places whiteness at the center of each the health of the lilies while lamenting social space of significance is tanta- the state of the violets, what would be mount to deliberately perpetuating the the appropriate reaction? Would we entrenchment of racialism as a dimen- blame the significant differences in the sion of social life. state of the flowers on their individual The socially toxic mix of whiteness, traits, or would we take responsibili- a racialized social structure, and the ty as gardeners and admit that we’ve related inability to recognize the com- neglected the violets? Better yet, what mon humanity of “the other” across actions would we take to ensure that racial lines are powerful social forces the violets grew just as healthily as the that greatly constrain our collective lilies? How would we treat the soil? vision as well as our collective will to How would we go about extracting build toward a social reality imbued the strangling weeds? with the oneness of humanity. Shoghi In the 240-year history of the Unit- Effendi, as part of a larger statement, ed States, plus the more than 100-year exhorted in a cautionary tone that a period before the Declaration of Inde- “revolutionary change in the concept pendence, those in positions of lead- and attitude of the average white ership have failed to tend the garden 72 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017

of humanity existing on this soil in a conflict will continue to fester and way that leads to the organic growth erode ties between citizens and social and health of all. To the contrary, the institutions. tendency has been to direct resources As of today, evidence suggests to those deemed “worthy” through pe- that interracial social relations are riodic social interventions and to deny encumbered by the specter of white- the same benefits to those deemed un- ness, meaning that large-scale social worthy by the dint of race. Whether institutions, whether public or private, it was the extension of land to for- legal or commercial, exhibit a high de- mer White indentured servants while gree of responsiveness to Whites as a slave codes were being enforced, the social group, despite the consequences New Deal policies (1933-1939) during to non-Whites. The various examples the Jim Crow era, or the extension of of this dynamic could fill scores of GI Bill benefits (1944-1968) at a time pages; therefore, it is prudent to say when redlining policies and housing that for Blacks, there are many sto- discrimination were the de facto laws ries of unmerited police interactions, of the land, the process of racializa- whether precipitated by the phone tion has expressed itself through a calls of neighbors or through police social system that has exhibited recep- officers’ insidious practice of racial tivity to the social plight of Whites profiling. Similarly, the history of while largely ignoring the plight of Native Americans is replete with ex- racial minorities. amples of White incursions into their Much of the racial story in the US sovereign territory in the guise of has hinged on the issue of justice. justified legal action, when in fact such Historically, those deifying whiteness annexations are more reflective of the have sought to defend the racial sta- dominant group doing as it pleases. tus quo of various eras regardless of If we envision social progress as the the injuries inflicted upon humankind garden of humanity on full display as a whole, while those asserting the and not as lilies standing out while need for equal justice envisioned a the other flowers wither and wilt, it is society that bonded all its citizens to imperative that justice, both legislated the rule of law with no glint of racial and enforced, be evenly applied to each preference. Speaking on the issue of citizen regardless of the accidents of justice, Bahá’u’lláh said, “The light of birth. men is Justice. Quench it not with the contrary winds of oppression and tyr- HUMANITY REDEFINED anny. The purpose of justice is the ap- pearance of unity among men” (Tablets The Bahá’í teachings offer a trans- 66–67). In the context of this article formative vision of the human race, the implication is clear: until the paving the way for reformative jus- standard of justice is met, interracial tice that is inclusive of three major Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 73

themes: 1) the nature of human cre- of Adam. This signifies that ra- ation, 2) the socio-spiritual realness of cial assumption and distinction the oneness of humanity, and 3) unity are nothing but superstition. In in diversity as a social way of being. the estimate of God there are In a collection of verses titled The no English, French, Germans, Hidden Words, Bahá’u’lláh writes, “O Turkish or Persians. All these in Children of Men! Know ye not why the presence of God are equal; We created you all from the same they are of one race and creation; dust? That no one should exalt him- God did not make these divisions. self over the other. Ponder at all times These distinctions have had their in your hearts how ye were created” origin in man himself. Therefore, (Arabic no. 68). Bahá’u’lláh not only as they are against the plan and signifies that humanity was “created purpose of reality, they are false from the same dust”; He also exhorts and imaginary. (299) us to ponder and reflect on the impli- cations of how we were created. In the Considering the themes outlined in current social context, this mode of this article, what emerges as especially active reflection and internalization of significant is the statement that racial the social meaning has the potential to divisions and distinctions “are against free us from snap judgments that em- the plan and purpose of reality” (299). ploy racial stereotypes as social tem- What does this mean with respect to plates that characterize certain groups our common ability as US urbanites to of people as “safe” or “dangerous,” identify in what part of town Blacks “trustworthy” or “criminal.” Under- and Latinos live? What is the impli- standing that skin color, style of dress, cation when there are clear patterns and other outward characteristics say showing that a racialized group has little about one’s inner character and been overpenalized and, at the same potential is surely a progressive step, time, underserved by the criminal jus- although counterintuitive in a highly tice system? If we are encompassed by racialized environment. a social environment that is inimical to If we accept that humanity is of a a social reality more congruent with single origin, questions regarding the human nature, what is the scope of social significance of it all naturally our responsibilities to ensure a more emerge. On this subject, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá complementary environment? The states: dictates of colorblindness would have us simply accept the society we’ve in- All humanity are the children herited and chalk up numerous indica- of God; they belong to the same tions of racial inequality to “natural” family, to the same original race. human processes. There can be no multiplicity of Accepting the ontological realness races, since all are the descendants of the oneness of humanity and its 74 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017

rootedness in the image of our cre- is indicative of the inherent beauty ation offered by Bahá’u’lláh, it would of the whole of humanity. Addition- be fair to ask how humanity should ad- ally, He offers a vision of society in dress racial diversity. Further deepen- which people of distinct ethno-racial ing the garden metaphor I borrowed backgrounds freely associate with one from the writings of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, I another “without discord or disagree- share the following passage in its pur- ment between them” (69). But given er form: the racialized character of existing social relations, how can this condition Bahá’u’lláh has proclaimed the be realized? oneness of the world of human- It seems that a major first step ity. He has caused various nations would be the institutionalization of and divergent creeds to unite. He interracial justice in terms of both the has declared that difference of “laws on the books” and their enforce- race and color is like the variegat- ment. Holding people accountable for ed beauty of flowers in a garden. their actions regardless of their role If you enter a garden, you will see within the criminal justice system and yellow, white, blue, red flowers in the non-politicization of agencies re- profusion and beauty—each ra- sponsible for ensuring equality under diant within itself and although the law would be key ingredients to different from the others, lending justice being wielded in ways that lead its own charm to them. Racial dif- to a greater sense of interracial unity. ference in the human kingdom is It could well be argued that mass in- similar. If all the flowers in a gar- carceration and the differential treat- den were of the same color, the ment of Whites and racial minorities effect would be monotonous and when confronted by police emboldens wearying to the eye. those tantalized by the notion of white Therefore, Bahá’u’lláh hath said supremacy while exasperating those that the various races of human- who envision a social world more in kind lend a composite harmony keeping with our metaphysical re- and beauty of color to the whole. alities as children of the same God, Let all associate, therefore, in this equally valued and equally beloved. great human garden even as flow- ers grow and blend together side OVERCOMING “THE VEIL” by side without discord or dis- agreement between them. (68–69) The principle of the oneness of hu- manity—animated by universal equal- According to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, human di- ity with respect to human station versity, specifically that of a so-called and an unrestrained appreciation of racial character, should be regarded human diversity—offers a corrective as a virtue, a delightful element that social vision for which to aspire, but Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 75

what are the implications at the lev- the past, and their ability to wipe el of identity and social interaction? out every trace of suspicion that The concept of “the veil” posits that may still linger in their hearts and a racialized social barrier is not only minds. (Advent 40) in place, but is so embedded in the field of social relations as to obscure In these two paragraphs, the leader the ability of a racial group to see the of the worldwide Bahá’í community common humanity of another group. implicitly acknowledges the weighti- With a penetrating sense of social ness of the racialized social structure perceptiveness, especially for one who and its potential to have a deleterious never set foot in the United States, effect on the ability of a religious Shoghi Effendi, shortly before the community to live out its socially start of the Second World War, coun- transformative principles, especially seled both White and Black Bahá’ís in those tied to the oneness of humanity. the following way: Speaking primarily to the US Bahá’ís, Shoghi Effendi, I believe, is exhorting Let the white make a supreme both Black and White Bahá’ís not to effort in their resolve to contrib- content themselves with a surface-lev- ute their share to the solution of el sense of brotherhood. Most sig- this problem, to abandon once for nificantly, a religious community still all their usually inherent and at slight in membership was encouraged times subconscious sense of supe- by its leader to fight an uphill battle in riority, to correct their tendency defense of its core beliefs against the towards revealing a patronizing social forces that surrounded it. attitude towards the members of We established earlier that the veil the other race, to persuade them has a negative effect on the ability of through their intimate, sponta- both racially dominant and racially neous and informal association subordinate groups to fully see the with them of the genuineness of humanity of the other. Those in the their friendship and the sincerity dominant group are prone to assume of their intentions, and to master their inherent superiority when en- their impatience of any lack of gaging with racialized minorities, responsiveness on the part of a while racialized minorities tend to people who have received, for so assume that members of the domi- long a period, such grievous and nant group will somehow reveal racist slow-healing wounds. tendencies, however unintended, that Let the Negroes, through a cor- may cause offense. In this context, responding effort on their part, wouldn’t it be easier to avoid contact show by every means in their altogether? It may be so in the short power the warmth of their re- term, but Shoghi Effendi, cognizant sponse, their readiness to forget of the true nature of humanity and 76 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017

its ultimate purpose, in clear language agencies that stand outside the encourages both groups to muster the orbit of their Faith. Let neither heart and soul to fully engage in an think that anything short of gen- intimate manner until any walls sepa- uine love, extreme patience, true rating them are destroyed through the humility, consummate tact, sound power of their mutual affection. initiative, mature wisdom, and de- It is rather remarkable how well liberate, persistent, and prayerful Shoghi Effendi was able to read the effort, can succeed in common reality of the racial situation in the country. Let them rather believe, United States. Clearly, he was able and be firmly convinced, that on to determine that both Blacks and their mutual understanding, their Whites have challenges to overcome amity, and sustained cooperation, in order to meet the standard of be- must depend, more than on any ing free from racial prejudice. It seems other force or organization oper- the primary challenge for Whites is ating outside the circle of their to detach themselves from feelings of Faith, the deflection of that dan- superiority and the related tendency gerous course so greatly feared to be condescending toward racial mi- by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, and the material- norities. Similarly, the primary chal- ization of the hopes He cherished lenge for Blacks seems to be showing for their joint contribution to the a willing receptivity to Whites that fulfillment of that country’s glo- is free of the tendency to presuppose rious destiny. (Advent 40–41) someone’s intentions as a consequence of the influence of an oppressive his- Although speaking primarily to what tory. Both are encouraged to cleanse was then a small religious community their eyes, hearts, and minds of their struggling to live up to its Founder’s societal miseducation and to see one spiritual teachings, Shoghi Effendi another anew. In this context, Shoghi clearly intended for these words to Effendi goes on to say: have deep implications for the United States as a whole. The racialized social Let neither think that the solu- barriers that exist must be overcome tion of so vast a problem is a by the force of interracial engage- matter that exclusively concerns ment. This engagement must go be- the other. Let neither think that yond civility and politeness and lead to such a problem can either easily genuine, systematic, and heartfelt in- or immediately be resolved. Let teractions that have the effect of slow- neither think that they can wait ly melting away the iciness that tends confidently for the solution of to characterize cross-racial social rela- this problem until the initiative tions. This social imperative implies a has been taken, and the favor- burgeoning community of mavericks able circumstances created, by that can serve as an effective model to Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 77

help fellow citizens see what can be, mutual reactions” (qtd. in Universal instead of limiting our collective so- House of Justice, letter dated 26 No- cial imagination to what is. vember 2012). Keeping in mind the racialized character of the US social THE QUEST FOR AUTHENTIC IDENTITY environment, we are challenged to AND SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION vie for transformational outcomes that effectively cleanse society of this O Man of two visions! scourge by resisting the influence of Close one eye and open the other. racial ideologies and their concurrent Close one to the world and all that is therein, social practices, while harnessing their and open the other to the hallowed beauty agency, or individual initiative, to effect of the Beloved. change. The way in which we view —Bahá’u’lláh, The Hidden Words ourselves as human beings becomes (Persian no. 12) critical at this stage. As we have established, “race” as a While a forceful engagement across social construction has its beginnings the color line is necessary in order to in the colonial period, deployed as a overcome “the Veil,” something deeper means of justifying the systemic ex- is necessary to animate and sustain our ploitation of those who were pheno- efforts. The subjugating weight of the typically and culturally different. This racialized social structure requires the dark social experiment has always been means of fortifying ourselves against rooted in capitalistic materialism, or the the dark forces of racialism and also a set of values and practices that regard way to strike back and build new pat- the accumulation of wealth, goods, terns of interaction that will accrete and power as chief priorities. Despite to a new social order imbued with the historical class differences existing spirit of oneness, expressed in the im- between those regarded as White, the plementation of the principle of “unity force of racialization created condi- in diversity.” As human beings, we are tions that allowed Whites on the low- organically linked with the social en- est economic rungs to hold themselves vironment that surrounds us. Shoghi in higher esteem than members of oth- Effendi emphasized that there is a er racial groups. While whiteness ap- dynamic of mutual reactions when it pears to be a significant cultural reality comes to the inner life of the individu- for those of a middle-class background al and the social environment in which or higher, for those in the low-income he or she is embedded: “Man is organic group whiteness has become a critical with the world. His inner life molds the fulcrum in their lifeworld. Whenever environment and is itself also deeply racial minorities seem to be gaining a affected by it. The one acts upon the socioeconomic foothold, it is typically other and every abiding change in lower-income Whites that bluster the the life of man is the result of these most. 78 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017

In my own preliminary research, I take the form of active defiance in the have observed that in this day, Blacks face of racial stigmatization. Regard- often bear the brunt of the policing less of social perception, the deter- of social boundaries associated with mination to be oneself, to recognize whiteness. In seemingly race-neu- one’s equal worth, and to realize one’s tral social spaces, whiteness exerts inherent potential as a “mine rich in its presence in both subtle and overt gems” is paramount (Bahá’u’lláh, Tab- ways through microaggressions and lets 162). Succumbing to internalized hyper-surveillance, respectively. An racism and becoming a shell of one’s example of a typical microaggression self in relation to one’s potential as is a social slight in a public place such a human being is not only a personal as a restaurant, where the service re- failure; it is equivalent to a candle’s ceived by someone of color is clearly flame being snuffed out by the winds of lesser quality when compared to of human negation, thereby leaving the attention rendered to someone of more darkness in its wake. Once an a lighter hue. Hyper-surveillance is of- individual has established a solid foot- ten witnessed in retail establishments, ing on the path of racial defiance, it is where racial minorities, especially critical that he or she initiate togeth- Blacks and Latinos, are regularly fol- erness by joining hands and hearts lowed or watched. with a group of collaborators, and in What a transformative social out- this way, walk a path of service that, come with respect to race requires is while difficult and arduous, is never- a social imagination that rejects the theless a path that will ultimately lead racialized social structure, regarding to a social reality in which the inher- it as a manifestation of evil, and pro- ent nobility and the exquisite talents motes the revolutionary recovery of of racialized minorities will not only one’s authentic self-identity. This rev- be recognized, but, more importantly, olutionary form of identity can then will also contribute vitally to the pros- be leveraged in collaboration with perity of humankind. others to effect social change. While it For American Whites, actively re- should ever be kept in mind that soci- sisting the racialized social structure ety requires transformation on gender, will come in the form of rejecting class, and other social fronts , speaking whiteness as a way of being. It will to race specifically, it is imperative that demand a heartfelt struggle to rec- each individual take a stance of active ognize the ways in which whiteness resistance against the forces of racial- requires the marginalization of non- ization in accordance with their social Whites and how colorblindness at its position within the racialized social core implies the cultural erasure of structure. racialized minorities as people with For American Blacks and other unique capacities, histories, and social racial minorities, this response might needs. Most of all, overcoming the Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 79

racialized social structure requires one of two conditions—duality or tearing down the social walls that have oneness. Living in a state of duality been erected over time as a means to refers to a state of being in which one maintain a “pure community” from the is cognizant of their metaphysical self incursion of “racial otherness.” The but fails to fully nourish that aspect fundamental recognition that human of themselves, leading to a condition authenticity means “to be with” in- of spiritual alienation. A condition stead of “to be better than” or “to be of oneness, on the other hand, can be in control of ” becomes paramount for defined as living in a spiritual state individuals socially positioned among in which one nourishes and sustains the dominant group in the racialized a spiritualized self-image, which has social structure. the effect of forging a deep connec- The Bahá’í Writings offer a meta- tion with the spiritual reality of the physical definition of human existence Creator, oneself, and all of humanity that allows those interested to tran- (Saiedi 166). The metaphysical sense scend identities tethered to the exist- of connection that results from living ing social structure. As an elaboration in a state of oneness is an expansive on the Abrahamic verity that man is embracing of human reality that frees “made in the image of God,” human one’s identity from any particularity, beings are regarded as fundamentally which means that one can perceive noble spiritual beings capable of re- more keenly his or her interconnection flecting all of God’s attributes. This with all other human beings (166). capability to mirror the Ultimate Spir- While living in a state of oneness itual Reality within the inherent lim- is ultimately liberating to one’s con- itations of human nature or ontology sciousness, it can lead to much pain is what is said to separate human be- when one witnesses daily occurrences ings from all other earthly life forms. associated with a dehumanizing social A corollary aspect of human reality is existence and has to navigate a social free will, including the capacity to sub- world that is struggling to manifest due our material nature, which is in- the latent socio-spiritual truth of the formed by the struggle for existence, oneness of humanity. The inner trans- for the sake of our essential reality— formation that results from abiding in our soul—which the Bahá’í teachings a state of oneness necessitates enter- affirm emanates from the Creator. ing the field of social action to engage In this sense, human existence in a path of service that has the effect is defined by the journey of the in- of both contributing to the better- dividual, even as human history is ment of society and deepening one’s defined by the collective journey authentic sense of identity. As individ- of “an ever-advancing civilization” uals changed in this way collaborate to (Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings 109:2). And transform communities, and as these yet, both journeys are susceptible to communities work to transform social 80 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017

institutions, the matrix of social rela- of American-style racialization is one tions that are the bones and sinew of defined by the erection of a hege- the racialized social structure will be monic order to preserve white racial transformed as well, with the ultimate dominance, the incursion of social result being the realization of social movements to disrupt and dismantle justice and the concurrent emergence the structure of dominance, and an of social relations that are emblematic orchestrated backlash to reestablish of unity in diversity. It is in this con- dominance in a new form. text that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá comments on The large-scale social trends that the implications of interracial unity: gave birth to and nurtured the ra- cialized social structure have also Strive earnestly and put forth profoundly affected individuals and your greatest endeavor toward communities at the interpersonal lev- the accomplishment of this fel- el of society. As human beings born lowship and the cementing of into and navigating this society, we this bond of brotherhood be- encounter the social barriers that have tween you. Such an attainment is been constructed to separate Whites not possible without will and ef- and non-Whites, walls that act as a fort on the part of each . . . . Each subjugating force that disempowers one should endeavor to develop those who have the propensity to forge and assist the other toward mu- social bonds across racial lines. Rela- tual advancement . . . . Love and tively mundane aspects of social life— unity will be fostered between such as living in neighborhoods, shop- you, thereby bringing about the ping, dining out, and driving—take on oneness of mankind. For the ac- a significant racialized character pre- complishment of unity between cisely as the result of how thoroughly the colored and white will be an racialism has imbued social relations. assurance of the world’s peace. The divergent social experiences (qtd. in Shoghi Effendi, Advent 39) of Whites and non-Whites and the inability to walk in the shoes of “the CONCLUSION: SEEKING LIGHT other” makes mutual recognition IN THE DARKNESS OF RACE across racial lines difficult. While there are always exceptions, the gen- Racialism, as a set of beliefs that con- eral trend is for Whites to regard their veniently sought to bridge the gap social position as being the result of between Enlightenment ideals and their hard work, ingenuity, and values, the hyper-exploitation of non-Euro- while the position of Blacks is seen as peans, evolved to take on a structural due to their deficiency in being and character through formal legislation doing the same. Blacks, on the other and informal practices that soon be- hand, tend to view their social posi- came customary. The cyclical history tion as resulting from a history of Seeking Light in the Darkness of “Race” 81

racialized oppression and the continu- loyalty and devotion to their reli- ance of discrimination even in today’s gion when once they believe, their time, which, in turn, characterizes the purity of heart, God has richly social position of Whites as ill gotten. endowed them, and their contri- Regardless of the materialistic roots bution to the Cause is much need- of these sentiments, the most prob- ed. (qtd. in Hornby 533) lematic aspect of this dynamic is the failure of both groups to recognize The Guardian attaches the utmost the common humanity of the other. importance, as you know, to the For Whites, this translates to a fail- teaching of the natives of Amer- ure to see fully that Blacks are fully ica. In the Tablets of the Divine capable of accomplishing anything Plan, the Master pays the utmost intellectually, physically, and spiritual- attention to this most important ly that Whites can accomplish, while matter. He states that if the Power Blacks fail to see that Whites have the of the Holy Spirit today properly capacity to be loving, fair-minded, and enters into the minds and hearts socially just. of the natives of the great Amer- Shoghi Effendi, shepherding a re- ican continents that they will be- ligious community seeking to realize come great standard bearers of the oneness of humanity, counseled the Faith, similar to the Nomads both Black and White Bahá’ís to bat- (Arabians) who became the most tle with the dark forces of racialism in cultured and enlightened people order to build a unified community im- under the Muhammadan civiliza- bued with an authentic sense of inter- tion. (qtd. in Hornby 524) racial brotherhood that would serve as a beacon of hope for their country- In the context of our current society, men. Cognizant that both groups are it is important to acknowledge the organically linked with their social en- subjugating effects of the racialized vironments, he implored them to en- social structure, the social imperative gage in an interracial fellowship that of realizing and institutionalizing the was spiritually authentic and would principle of the oneness of humanity, lead to the recognition of the inher- and the need to transcend racial iden- ent nobility of “the other.” Along with tities for a sense of identity that is this encouragement, Shoghi Effendi more congruent with modern science shared the following regarding Blacks and religious scripture. In texts rang- and Native Americans, respectively: ing from the Book of Genesis to the tablets penned by Bahá’u’lláh as the The qualities of heart so richly nineteenth century came to a close, possessed by the Negro are much human beings have been characterized needed in the world today—their as being made in the image of God. great capacity for faith, their As genomic sciences have validated 82 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 27.3 2017

the physical unity of humanity as one by the specter of “race” is the light of species, we must bind again with the oneness. The source of this light lies metaphysical verity that the human in the metaphysical plane of existence, essence is universally noble, which meaning it is both transcendental to means that every human being is de- our sociopolitical reality and requires serving of honor, rights, privileges, some form of spiritual education to and the ability to realize his or her effectively tap into its transformative inherent potential—regardless of the power. The fact that the reality of accidents of birth, whether related to oneness transcends our sociopolitical skin color, gender, or nationality. reality makes it an especially potent As a cadre of individuals come to and creative force for attracting hu- recognize their human essence as re- man hearts and building community flecting the metaphysical unity of from a renewed foundation, free of individuality, godliness, and intercon- racialized assumptions and sensibili- nectedness with all of humanity, they ties. As individuals abide in the reali- will naturally seek to collaborate with ty of oneness—that inner sense that the like-minded and channel their their human reality cannot be divorced agency to effect social change. While from the Source of all reality, nor from they are surrounded and impacted by the reality of all of humankind—they the racialized social structure, their ef- will be liberated from the subjugating forts to create change are corollary to influence of the racialized social struc- their ability to sustain their authentic ture to the point of actively strug- sense of identity and to reinforce it in gling against it and thereby forge the field of social action in collabora- bonds with like-minded collaborators tion with others. Efforts of this kind to de-racialize society for the sake of taken on by individuals, and then by both reformative justice and expe- collaborative groups, will eventually riencing a social reality that is much compound and secure the participation more humane. The road will be long, of the larger community, as the hope painful, intense, and arduous, but for of interracial unity and reconciliation the sake of our very humanity and the dawns through the power of example. humanity of those who will come after Surely, such efforts are already taking us, “we shall overcome.” place. Surely, it will be a tremendous struggle to undertake a project of so- WORKS CITED cial transformation that aims to de-ra- cialize society for the sake of securing ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. The Promulgation of a future for generations to come that Universal Peace. US Bahá’í is more congruent with the “plan and Publishing Trust, 1982. “About.” Black Lives Matter, http:// purpose of reality” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá 299). blacklivesmatter.com/about/. The light to be sought within social Accessed 15 Jan. 2017. environments that have been darkened

Bahá’u’lláh. Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh. US Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1990. ———. The Hidden Words. US Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 2012. ———. Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh. US Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1988. Berger, Peter, and Thomas Luckmann. The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise on the Sociology of Knowledge. Anchor, 1966. Blumer, Herbert. “Race Prejudice as a Sense of Group Position.” The Pacific Socio- logical Review, vol. 1, no. 1, 1958, pp. 3–7. Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. Racism without Racists. Rowman & Littlefield, 2014. ———. “Rethinking Racism: Toward a Structural Interpretation.” American Socio- logical Review, vol. 62, no. 3, June 1997, pp. 465–80. Carson, Clayborne. “American Civil Rights Movement.” Encyclopedia Britan- nica, 27 Jan. 2017, http://www.britannica.com/event/American-civ- il-rights-movement. Accessed 14 March 2017. Day, Elizabeth. “#BlackLivesMatter: The Birth of a New Civil Rights Movement.” The Guardian, 19 July 2015, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/ jul/19/blacklivesmatter-birth-civil-rights-movement. Accessed 14 March 2017. Du Bois, W. E. B. Dusk of Dawn. Oxford UP, 2007. ———. The Souls of Black Folk. Penguin, 1995. Dussel, Enrique. “Bartolomé de Las Casas.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 4 Dec. 2015, http://www.britannica.com/biography/Bartolome-de-Las-Casas. Accessed 13 March 2017. Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Herder and Herder, 1972. Hornby, Helen. Lights of Guidance. Bahá’í Publishing Trust of India, 2001(?) Hughey, Matthew. White Bound: Nationalists, Antiracists, and Shared Meanings of Race. Stanford UP, 2012. Itzigsohn, José, and Karida Brown. “Sociology and the Theory of Double Conscious- ness.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, vol. 12, no. 2, 2015, pp. 231–48, http://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/ content/view/S1742058X15000107. Accessed 21 November 2015. Lewis, Valerie A., Michael O. Emerson, and Stephen L. Klineberg. “Who We’ll Live With: Neighborhood Composition Preferences of Whites, Blacks, and Latinos.” Social Forces, vol. 89, no. 4, 2011, pp. 1385–1407. López, Ian Haney. White By Law: The Legal Construction of Race. New York UP, 2006. Omi, Michael, and Howard Winant. “Racial Formation: Second Edition.” Oppres- sion, Privilege, & Resistance: Theoretical Perspectives on Racism, Sexism, and Heterosexism, edited by Lisa Heldke and Peg O’Connor, McGraw-Hill, 2004, pp. 115–42. Saiedi, Nader. Gate of the Heart. Wilfrid Laurier UP, 2008. Shoghi Effendi. Advent of Divine Justice. US Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1939. ———. Citadel of Faith. US Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1980. Universal House of Justice. Letter to an individual believer on the subject of race and serving the Divine Plan, 10 April 2011. ———. Letter to all National Spiritual Assemblies, 26 November 2012. Zinn, Howard. A People’s History of the United States. HarperCollins, 2003.