The Epistolary Before embarking upon this in- vestigation, however, it is necessary Style of Shoghi to have a clear understanding of the terminology that will be used. The Effendi1 words epistle and epistolary have been chosen in preference to the words let- ter and literary because of the former ANN BOYLES pair’s associative rather than definitive meaning. As C. Hugh Holman states, The English letters of Shoghi Effendi “Theoretically an epistle is any letter, to the Bahá’í world during his tenure but in practice the term is limited to as Guardian of the new faith reflect the formal compositions written by an in- revolutionary nature of the Revelation, dividual or a group to a distant individ- not only in their vast and astounding ual or group.” Holman further says that range of content but also in their form an epistle differs from a letter because and style. Aside from the historical it is “a conscious literary form,” which God Passes By, letters constitute the concerns itself with “public matters bulk of Shoghi Effendi’s written com- and with philosophy as well as with re- munications with the Bahá’í world, ligious problems” (199). While Shoghi and many of these epistles were written Effendi did write letters that were less in English. Since Shoghi Effendi must formal in tone and that were in answer rank as the master literary stylist of the to an individual’s private questions, Bahá’í Faith in the English language, in his role as Guardian of the Bahá’í in addition to being the Revelation’s Faith, one could not really class any unique Guardian, his choice, use of, of this correspondence as “private,” and adaptations to this literary form since his answers to any questions al- are significant to Bahá’ís both now and ways constituted the authoritative in- in the future. The purposes of this pa- terpretation of Bahá’u’lláh’s and ‘Ab- per are to investigate the new style of du’l-Bahá’s teachings. Thus, “epistle,” the epistle, to examine the roots of its with its more public and formal con- development, and to demonstrate thar notations, suits the nature of Shoghi elements of the form have been modi- Effendi’s communications much better fied to accommodate the great vision of than does “letter” with its chatty and Shoghi Effendi, architect of the World private connotations, especially since Order of Bahá’u’lláh. in the twentieth century the latter term has come to be associated only with the 1 This a slightly revised version of familiar letter. an essay originally published in The Vision In the Guardian’s usage, the former of Shoghi Effendi: Proceedings of the As- type of communication might be clas- sociation for Bahá’í Studies Ninth Annual sified loosely as an “epistolary essay.” Conference, November 2-4, 1984, Ottawa, This is the Guardians most striking Canada. 10 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 31.4 2021
contribution to English letters. The In the case of Shoghi Effendi, his relation between letter and essay here elegant English prose style reflects is tailor-made for the Guardian’s pur- perfectly his station as Guardian of the pose. The “essay” aspect allows for Bahá’í Faith, elucidating the teachings breadth of subject matter, use of his- and giving direction to its adherents in torical analysis, a world-encompassing language that would endure for the en- perspective, and a scholarly, definitive tire duration of the Revelation. When treatment of the issue at hand. Yet, the deciding on the design and materials direct nature of the address, often in- for the buildings at the World Centre timate in tone, as well as the striking of the Bahá’í Faith on Mount Carmel, blend of formal and highly informal Haifa, the Guardian chose as his mod- levels of rhetoric—perhaps a reflection els the structures of the classical world of the Guardian himself—make these because of their enduring qualities. His letters tremendously powerful on the choice of English prose style is as time- level of personal appeal. less and as enduring, as meticulously Shoghi Effendis choice of the more fashioned and as majestic in the realm formal epistle form is wholly befitting of words as those architectural models to the style of his writing. Again, refer- are in the realm of physical structures. ring to Holman for a working defini- Bearing in mind Holman’s definition tion, style may be said to be “the ar- of style, the reader sees that it is impos- rangement of words in a manner which sible to change even one word of the at once best expresses the individuality Guardian’s communications and retain of the author and the idea and intent in the identical meaning. Rúhíyyih Khá- his mind. . . . Style is a combination num Rabbani, in The Priceless Pearl, of two elements: the idea to be ex- describes the conciseness and density pressed, and the individuality of the of his style, a style lofty enough to author.” Holman goes on to say: carry the complex ideas that he had to communicate to the Bahá’í world. It is impossible to change the She says, “In his translations of the diction or to alter the phrasing of Bahá’í writings, and above all in his statement and thus to say exactly own compositions, Shoghi Effendi set the same thing; for what the reader a standard that educates and raises the receives from a statement is not cultural level of the reader at the same alone what is said, but also cer- time that it feeds his mind and soul with tain connotations which affect his thoughts and truth” (Rabbani 197). For consciousness from the manner in Shoghi Effendi, then, style was not which the statement is made. And merely an affected use of language; it from this it follows that, just as no was his vehicle for rendering the divine wo personalities are alike, no two teachings into a definitive and accessi- styles are actually alike. (514) ble language for growing numbers of English-speaking believers around the The Epistolary Style of Shoghi Effendi 11
world who urgently required inspira- virtues of the great English stylists. In tion and direction. the translations of Bahá’u’lláh prayers, The roots of Shoghi Effendi’s fine- one senses the influence of that great ly honed English style must lie in the Renaissance model of style, the King original Persian and Arabic languag- James version of the Bible. This turn- es of the Revelation, the power and ing to a more archaic style on the part beauty of which are exemplified in of Shoghi Effendi reflects his great re- the writings of Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Ab- spect for the elegance of Shakespear- du’l-Bahá. The delicacy and allusive- ean English and also makes use of the ness of the Oriental languages, their most scholarly example of religious role as the first media of God’s most writings rendered into English. recent Revelation, and their strength as In Shoghi Effendi’s original work, the communicators of God’s new laws the style and technique of Edward and principles for the spiritual well-be- Gibbon and Thomas Carlyle exert in- ing and development of humankind fluence. Rúhíyyih Khánum has noted can be best understood and appreciated the Guardian’s fondness for Gibbon’s by native Arabic- and Persian-speak- History of the Decline and Fall of the ing Bahá’ís. These, too, were Shoghi Roman Empire, and it was nor for the Effendi’s first languages. Yet Shoghi content alone that Shoghi Effendi had Effendi was chosen and trained by admiration. She records, “It was his ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to translate the major own pet bible of the English languag sacred writings of the Bahá’í Faith into and often he would read to me excerpts English. It was to this end, he himself from it, interrupting himself with ex- said, that he was educated at Oxford. clamations such as ‘Oh what style; Shoghi Effendi was uniquely endowed what a command of English; what roll- with the talents for this monumental ing sentences” (Rabbani 38). task of translation, not only steeped Gibbon’s penchant for lengthy, bal- in the original writings but also pos- anced sentences and his stylistic habit sessing an exquisite sense of language of building a paragraph that cannot be and the ability to convey its shades of broken apart without serious rupture to meaning. It is obvious thar the require- the meaning of the whole are features ments of translation, with the inherent also apparent in the writings of the necessity of fixing the exact meaning Guardian. A brief passage taken from of the text for the Western believers, so Gibbon’s examination of the early as to eliminate any possible ambiguity history of the Christian church in the in interpretation, would certainly leave Roman Empire will serve to indicate their mark upon the style of the Guard- comparable aspects of style. Gibbon ian’s original works. writes: In addition to his appreciation for Persian and Arabic style, Shoghi Effen- The promise of divine favour, in- di possessed an ear finely attuned to the stead of being partially confined 12 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 31.4 2021
to the posterity of Abraham, was duty,” “inestimable blessing,” and “a universally proposed to the free- benevolent but all-powerful Deity” all man and the slave, to the Greek of which bear great resemblance to the and to the barbarian, to the Jew usage of the Guardian two-hundred and to the Gentile. Every privi- years later. lege that could raise the proselyte Trevor-Roper’s introduction to The from earth to heaven, that could History of the Decline and Fall of the exalt his devotion, secure his hap- Roman Empire points out that in addi- piness, or even gratify that secret tion to syntactical expertise, Gibbon pride which under the semblance combined “beneath a majestic style of devotion, insinuates itself into and the appearance of ease, an equal the human heart, was still reserved mastery of the new ‘philosophy’ and for the members of the Christian the old ‘erudition’” (viii). An exam- church; but at the same time all ple of this philosophy and erudition mankind was permitted, and even is evident in Gibbon’s passage on the solicited, to accept the glorious early miracles of Christianity, when he distinction, which was not only states: proffered as a favour, but imposed as an obligation. It became the The duty of an historian does not most sacred duty of a new convert call upon him to interpose his pri- to diffuse among his friends and vate judgment in this nice and im- relations the inestimable blessing portant controversy; but he ought which he had received, and to not to dissemble the difficulty of warn them against a refusal that adopting such a theory as may rec- would be severely punished as a oncile the interest of religion with criminal disobedience to the will that of reason, of making a proper of a benevolent but all-powerful application of that theory, and of Deity. (92) defining with precision the limits of that happy period, exempt from One notes, in the first sentence, the list- error and from deceit, to which we ing of balanced prepositional phrases might be disposed to extend the appearing in pairs of opposites, a syn- gift of supernatural powers. (110) tactical technique designed to demon- strate the truth of the universality of Shoghi Effendi’s philosophy and Christianity. In the second sentence, erudition were, perforce, much broad- multiple verb phrases are embedded er than that of the eighteenth-century in the first of the two major clauses, Gibbon, but the technique of reason- while the second major clause quali- able and thorough scholarship through- fies and elaborates upon the first. The out his epistles shows how Shoghi final sentence of the quotation includes Effendi built upon Gibbon’s solidly vocabulary usage such as “most sacred laid foundations. In The World Order The Epistolary Style of Shoghi Effendi 13
of Bahá’u’lláh, Shoghi Effendi clearly attain their salvation from present evils outlines the historical perspective of through work, follows: the rise of the Bahá’í Faith. He writes: Awake, ye noble Workers, war- Should we look back upon the riors in the one true war: all this past, were we to search out the must be remedied. It is you who Gospel and the Qur’án, we will are already half-alive, whom l will readily recognize that neither the welcome into life; whom I will Christian nor the Islamic Dispen- conjure in God’s name to shake sations can offer a parallel either off your enchanted sleep, and live to the system of Divine Econo- wholly! Cease to count scalps, my so thoroughly established by gold-purses; not in these lies your Bahá’u’lláh, or to the safeguards or our salvation. Even these, if which He has provided for its you count only these, will not be preservation and advancement. left. Let bucaniering be put far (20) from you; alter, speedily abrogate all laws of the bucaniers, if you From this point, the Guardian proceeds would gain any victory that shall with historical analysis of the develop- endure. Let God’s justice, let pity, ment of Christianity and Islam, demon- nobleness and manly valour, with strating their deviations from the origi- more gold-purses or fewer, tes- nal teachings of their divine Founders. tify themselves in this your brief Certainly Gibbon’s call for a reasoned Life-transit to all the Eternities, examination of religion is answered the Gods and Silences. It is to you here. Thus, not only in style but also in I call; for ye are not dead, ye are approach, Gibbon served as one major already half-alive: there is in you model for Shoghi Effendi. a sleepless dauntless energy, the Nineteenth-century historian, man prime-matter of all nobleness in of letters, and stylist, Thomas Carlyle man. Honour to you in your kind. was also admired by the Guardian. It is to you I call: ye know at least Again, the style is complex, reflect- this, That the mandate of God to ing the complexity of thought present His creature man is: Work! The in the writer himself. Carlyle’s power future Epic of the World rests not of rhetoric was perhaps his most im- with those that are near dead, but portant talent as far as Shoghi Effendi with those that are alive, and those was concerned, and for an example of that are coming into life. (166) this power it is instructive to examine a paragraph of the “Captains of Indus- Carlyle had no way of knowing the try” chapter in the philosophical histo- true significance of that final sentence, ry Past and Present. Carlyle’s rallying written in 1843, but certainly the air of cry to his fellows, that they arise and expectancy and prophecy found in this 14 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 31.4 2021
brief passage is representative of much East or West to achieve such as- early Victorian writing. Content aside, cendancy as shall deprive her of however, Carlyle’s literary techniques that spiritual primacy with which of exhortation, caution, praise, and she has been invested and which promise are apparent in passages of the she has thus far so nobly retained? Guardian’s writings as well. Witness Will she not rather contribute, by the following from the conclusion of a still further revelation of those his letter “America and the Most Great inherent powers that motivate her Peace,” included in The World Order of life, to enhance the priceless heri- Bahá’u’lláh: tage which the love and wisdom of a departed Master have conferred Fellow-believers in the American upon her? continent! Great indeed have been Her past has been a testimony your past and present achieve- to the inexhaustible vitality of her ments! Immeasurably greater are faith. May not her future confirm the wonders which the future has it? (Shoghi Effendi 94) in store for you! The Edifice your sacrifices have raised still remains The same basic rhetorical stance is to be clothed. The House which taken by the writers in both of these must needs be supported by the lengthy passages; the authors are seek- highest administrative institution ing to move their audiences to action. your hands have reared, is as yet Both overtly challenge their audiences unbuilt. The provisions of the to respond to their calls; both praise chief Repository of those laws their audiences, Shoghi Effendi for the that must govern its operation are Americans’ accomplishments in the thus far mostly undisclosed. The past and Carlyle for the inherent capac- Standard which, if ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s ities of people; both, in a sense, tem- wishes are to be fulfilled, must be per their praise, Carlyle by cautioning raised in your own country has yet the workers not to be “bucaniers” and to be unfurled. The Unity of which Shoghi Effendi by listing the tasks that that standard is to be the symbol still lie ahead. Carlyle, too, looks to the is far from being yet established. future, but he lacks the specificity of The machinery which must needs vision that Shoghi Effendi expresses. incarnate and preserve that unity is This lack gives Carlyle’s exhortation a not even created. Will it be Amer- tentative air, on the whole, while that ica, will it be one of the countries of the Guardian radiates confidence in of Europe, who will arise to as- its challenge to the American Bahá’í sume the leadership essential to community. the shaping of the destinies of this A comparison of Carlyle, Gibbon, troubled age? Will America allow and Shoghi Effendi not only reveals the any of her sister communities in influences of the former two upon the The Epistolary Style of Shoghi Effendi 15
Guardian but also shows their points of friends,” “friends and fellow-heirs of difference. Certainly, the scope of the the grace of Bahá’u’lláh,” “friends Guardian’s vision was beyond that of and fellow-defenders of the Faith of Carlyle, and while this breadth of vi- Bahá’u’lláh,” and numerous other lov- sion may be more a legacy of Gibbon, ing and tender appellations. who wrote not only history, as Hugh Throughout the letters, he rallies Trevor-Roper points out, but also “uni- the troops of his followers around versal history” or “philosophic histo- him, giving the authoritative interpre- ry” (viii). Still, there are further differ- tation of events, yet including himself ences. Gibbon wrote the history of a in the numbers of believers undergo- civilization long dead, where historical ing the turmoils of the age, as in the interpretation was made easy because following example: “Dearly-beloved of the era’s remoteness. Shoghi Ef- friends! Can our eyes be so dim as to fendi, however, used this technique of fail to recognize in the anguish and historical interpretation and analysis to turmoil which, greater than in any oth- clarify the significance of the clouded, er country and in a manner unprece- ever-changing events that were taking dented in its history, are now afflicting place around him as he wrote. Aston- the American nation . . . ?” (Shoghi ishingly, these writings still read as if Effendi 79). Many times the eyes of they were written only yesterday. the average Bahá’í were “so dim,” but Stylistically, one of the most strik- Shoghi Effendi’s eyes, possessing that ing differences between the Guardian sweeping perspective with which he and his predecessors is the nature of was endowed as Guardian, were nev- rhetorical address. Of course, in both er dimmed. Another example of the the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Guardian’s including himself with the the rhetorical stance of the writer was rest of the Bahá’ís occurs in his let- conventionally formal, and although ter “The Goal of a New World Order” there might occur the occasional ad- where, in speaking of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, dress to the “gentle reader,” the dis- he states: tancing of writers from their audience was a rhetorical device designed to How well we, the little band of enhance the authority of the authors His avowed supporters who lay over their addressees. Shoghi Effen- claim to have recognized the di completely reverses this form of Light that shone within Him, can address. Throughout his writings are still remember His repeated allu- scattered numerous intimate address- sions, in the evening of His earth- es to the communications’ recipients, ly life, to the tribulation and tur- such as the “fellow believers” of moil with which an unregenerate the passage quoted earlier, “beloved humanity was to be increasingly co-workers,” “fellow laborers in the afflicted. (29) Divine Vineyard,” “dearly-beloved 16 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 31.4 2021
At the close of his communications, New Testament of the Bible. Paul’s he signs simply as “your brother and epistles to the Romans, the Corinthians, co-worker” or “your true brother,” his the Thessalonians, and numerous other name given simply as “Shoghi” rather groups are prime examples of these than the more formal “Shoghi Effendi” communications. Other apostles also that one might well expect from the addressed groups of early Christians appointed head of a world religion. It in the epistle form. It was their only is a mark of the Guardian’s humility means of communicating with scat- and his great sense of the necessity tered groups of believers, to encourage that Bahá’ís work together in order them, to clarify what they perceived to achieve enduring victories that he Christ’s teachings to be, to exhort the included himself in the number of people to live by their new beliefs, the rank and file, much like a general and to go out and teach others. These marching to the front lines with his were the same objectives with which troops. This, in itself sets him apart Shoghi Effendi sat down to write his from his stylistic models and indicates letters to the Bahá’í world. The import- that he is willing to put his words into ant and obvious difference in the two action, not merely to write academic cases is that Shoghi Effendi possessed tomes. divine authority in his interpretations The choice of the epistle form is also of Bahá’u’lláh’s teachings, while the indicative of the Guardian’s desire to apostles had no definitive authority and inspire to action. He could conceivably incorporated their personal ideas into have written straight essays, nor direct- the small body of Christ’s teachings. ly addressing anyone, but the purpose In so doing, they may have diluted the of his communication was always to strength and changed the intention of move his audience to deeds, not mere- the original Word of God. ly to inspire them with his words. To The epistles of Christianity, then, this end, the epistle form with its direct while providing an early example of address is uniquely suited. It is diffi- communication, are not suitable mod- cult for the recipient of a letter (be it els to which one may turn for explain- a nation or an individual) to miss the ing Shoghi Effendi’s choice of this purport of a document that bears the re- form. Infinitely more rewarding is a cipient’s name at the beginning, while turning to the tablets of Bahá’u’lláh a formal essay written in the third per- and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. The English trans- son can easily be put out of mind once lation of one of Bahá’u’lláh’s most read. comprehensive writings is, in fact, Historically, the epistle has been the titled Epistle to the Son of the Wolf, vehicle for teachings in former reli- addressed as proof of His teachings to gions, notably Christianity. One thinks the son of the eminent Muslim leader immediately of those written by the who was responsible for the execution Apostles of Jesus and included in the of two devoted and innocent Bábís. The Epistolary Style of Shoghi Effendi 17
Numerous others of Bahá’u’lláh’s to analyze extensively the global chal- works, such as The Seven Valleys and lenges confronting Bahá’ís. Historical The Four Valleys, are addressed to perspective on the Bahá’í Faith, was leading intellectuals, and his tablets to possible by Shoghi Effendi’s time, as the kings and rulers of the world pro- well, and played a large part in the vide an important example for Shoghi Guardian’s messages. The sense of Effendi, dealing directly as they do urgency as an effect of the Guardian’s with the problems and challenges of use of direct address is also a result of the immediate future. The many, more the convergence of his historical anal- intimate personal addresses of ‘Abdu’l- ysis and his world-encompassing per- Bahá serve as models for the render, spective of the future. understanding, and intimate aspects of This same sense of urgency lies Shoghi Effendi’s letters. Still, ‘Abdu’l- behind another method of communica- Bahá’s tablets were written in Arabic tion employed by the Guardian and for or Persian. In Shoghi Effendi’s own which he adapted the English language letters to the Bahá’í world, humanity to suit his purpose. Whenever a matter received for the first time in its history was too urgent for conveyance via let- divinely inspired direction originating ter, or whenever Bahá’ís did not arise in the English language. in response to his direction, the Guard- The differences between Shoghi ian would send a cable. In composing Effendi’s communications and those cables, he did not abandon his majestic of Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá are epistolary style; he merely pared it, many. Significantly, the contents of eliminating connectives unnecessary the Guardian’s letters are much more to the meaning but retaining always his concerned with the practical aspects of unmistakable dignity of language. building the Administrative Order of Shoghi Effendi was never domi- the Bahá’í Faith, a project which was nated by form or convention in his advanced primarily in the West, and communications. Rather, he adapt- particularly in North America. For this ed and used form and convention (as purpose, English was more functional any good craftsperson uses tools) to than Persian or Arabic. Also, during accomplish the task before him—the Shoghi Effendi’s lifetime there existed building of the Administrative Order of the means to disseminate such letters Bahá’u’lláh. It is illuminating to note widely and efficiently to the rapidly the enduring influence of the Guard- growing number of English-speaking ian’s style in communications from the believers. Because of improvements Universal House of Justice since its es- in worldwide communications, as well tablishment in 1963. In continuing the as the spread of the Bahá’í Faith, the same use of epistolary and cable forms Guardian was able to give much more initiated by the Guardian, in its blend- up-to-date and comprehensive reports ing of formal and intimate language, of the global progress being made and in its dignified yet loving tone, in its 18 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 31.4 2021
dual historical and futuristic perspec- ample assurance of victories to tive, and in its world-encompassing yet come if we but follow the path personal scope, this second “twin pil- of His guidance. He rewards our lar” of the Administrative Order has, in humble efforts with effusions of turn, upheld the standard toward which grace which bring not only ad- all Bahá’í institutions must strive. vancement to the Cause but assur- While it is difficult to choose one ance and happiness to our hearts, passage that exemplifies all of these so that we may indeed look upon features, the opening sentences of our neighbors with bright and the 1979 Naw-Rúz message from the shining faces, confident that from Universal House of Justice indicated our services now will eventuate the similarities of style. “Dearly-loved that blissful future which our de- Friends,” the Institution writes: scendants will inherit, glorifying Bahá’u’lláh, the Prince of Peace, The decline of religion and moral the Redeemer of Mankind. (¶ 11) restraints has unleashed a fury of chaos and confusion that already The features seen in these messages bears the signs of universal anar- are indeed the legacy bequeathed to chy. Engulfed in this maelstrom, us by the beloved Guardian, who not the Bahá’í world community, pur- only gave to the Bahá’í World his great suing with indefeasible unity and vision but also set the example of how spiritual force its redemptive mis- to carry forward this “ever-advancing sion, inevitably suffers the disrup- civilization” in language, style, and tion of economic, social and civil form worthy to be its medium. life which afflicts its fellow men throughout the planet. (¶ 1)
This passage reflects the lofty style and world-encompassing vision of the Uni- versal House of Justice, while the ten- derness also apparent in the Guardian’s writings can be seen in the concluding paragraph of the 1984 Riḍván message to the Bahá’ís of the world:
Beloved friends, the bounties and protection with which the Blessed Beauty is nurturing and sheltering the infant organism of His new world order through this violent period of transition and trial, give The Epistolary Style of Shoghi Effendi 19
Works Cited
Bahá’u’lláh. Epistle to the Son of the Wolf, trans. Shoghi Effendi. 3d ed. US Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1988. ———. The Seven Valleys and The Four Valleys, trans. Marzieh Gail, 3d ed. US Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1973. Carlyle, Thomas. “Captains of Industry,” In Prose of the Victorian Period, ed. William F. Buckler. Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1958. Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, abridged and edited by Hugh Trevor-Roper. Twayne Publishers, 1963. Holman, C. Hugh. A Handbook to Literature, 3d ed. Bobbs-Merrill, 1972. Rabbani, Rúhíyyih. The Priceless Pearl. UK Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 2000. Shoghi Effendi. The World Order of Bahá’u’lláh, 2d ed. US Bahá’í Publishing Trust, 1993. Trevor-Roper, Hugh. Introduction. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Ro- man Empire, by Edward Gibbon. Twayne Publishers, 1963. Universal House of Justice. Naw-Rúz 1979 Message to the Bahá’ís of the World. Bahá’í Reference Library. bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/the-uni- versal-house-of-justice/messages/#19790321_002 ———. Riḍván 1984 Message to the Bahá’ís of the World. Bahá’í Reference Li- brary. bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/the-universal-house-of-jus- tice/messages/#19840421_001 The Vision of Shoghi Effendi: Proceedings of the Association for Bahá’í Studies Ninth Annual Conference, November 2-4, 1984, Ottawa, Canada. Associ- ation for Bahá’í Studies, 1993.