THE BAHA f WORLD
1995-96
152 OF THE BAHA'i ERA AN INTERNATIONAL RECORD
BAHA'i WORLD CENTRE HAIFA --------------------------------------------------------------------~
© 1997 World Centre Publications
Order department: 46 High Street K.idlington Oxford OX5 2DN England
Photo credits: cover-Velda Metelmann; p. 111-Brenton Edwards; pp. 126, 127, 133-courtesy One Country; p. 141-courtesy The American Baha'i; p. 149, bottom-Velda Metelmann; p. 154--Shahla Piff; p. 163-courtesy One Count1y. Other photos provided by the Audio-Visual Department of the Baha'i World Centre.
ISBN 0-85398-990-7 (Hardcover) ISBN 0-85398-991-5 (Softcover)
A Cataloguing-in-Publication number is available from the British Library.
THR _, BAHXI WORLD 1995o96
Printed and bound in Great Britain by B iddles Ltd., Guildford and King's Lynn CoNTENTS Introduction to the volume 1 Introduction to the Baha'i Community 3
WRITINGS AND MESSAGES Baha'i Sacred Writings 19 From the Universal House of Justice 27
EVENTS 1995-96 Conference of Baha'i Counsellors 37 Five New National Spiritual Assemblies 43 Mount Carmel Projects: Progress 1995-96 55 The Year in Review 65 The Baha'i International Community: Activities 1995-96 125 Update: The Situation of the Baha'is in Iran 139 Equality, Development, and Peace: Baha'is and the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women and NGO Forum 145 UN 50: Baha'is Commemorate the Fiftieth Anniversary of the United Nations 159 The Baha'i Faith in the Eyes of the World 171
ESSAYS, STATEMENTS, AND PROFILES Covenant and the Foundations of Civil Society, by Wendy M Heller 185 World Watch, by Ann Boyles 223 Statements by the Baha'i International Community: Turning Point for All Nations 241 The Role of Religion in Promoting the Advancement of Women 285 The Realization of Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights 289 Human Rights Education 295 Profile: Association for the Coherent Development of the Amazon (ADCAM) 301
INFORMATION AND RESOURCES Obituaries 309 Statistics 317 Directory 321 Selected New Publications 327 A Basic Baha'i Reading List 331 Glossary 335
Index 341 NTRODUCTION
I n 1995-96, two world-embracing events-the Fourth World Conference on Women, held in China, and the United Nations' fiftieth anniversary-engaged the particular attention of the Baha'i international community, and The Baha'i World 1995-96 features major articles about Baha'i participation in both. Other milestones within the Baha'i community are also noted: the formation of five new National Spiritual Assemblies and the gathering of members of the Continental Boards of Counsellors from around the world to deliberate with other senior officers of the Baha'i Faith about the growth and consolidation of the Baha'i community. The wide-ranging work of the Baha'i International Community, a United Nations-accredited nongovernmental organization which represents the collective voice of national Baha'i communities throughout the world, is also highlighted here, as are activities undertaken by Baha'is in their local and national communities. A survey of the media coverage of the Baha'i Faith, as well as updates on the situation of the persecuted Baha'i community of Iran and the progress of the construction projects on Mount Carmel at the Baha'i World Centre are also included. Aside from reporting on significant events in which the Baha'i community is involved, The Baha'i World offers selections from the Faith's sacred writings, this year focusing on remedies to pressing social problems, and highlights from major communications of the Universal House of Justice. In the "Statements and Essays" portion of the volume, the reader will fmd major documents prepared by Baha'i International Community agencies during the year, including Turning Point for All Nations, which was widely disseminated during the United Nations' fiftieth anniversary, and the statement made at the Fourth World Conference on Women. A major philosophical essay by Wendy M. Heller on the religious foundations of civil society can also be found here, as well as "World Watch," an article reflecting on contemporary social concerns from a Baha'i perspective. Rounding out this section is a profile of a social and economic development project undertaken by Baha'is in Brazil. Finally, the volume contains a collection of "Information and Resources" for those who wish to obtain statistics on the Baha'i world community, locate various agencies in the directory provided, learn about new publications, have a basic reading list of Baha'i books, or use the glossary to become more familiar with specific Baha'i terminology. Brief memorial sketches of noted Baha'is from around the world are also located here. Those wishing to read a general discussion of the Baha'i Faith and its worldwide community can consult the "Introduction to the Baha'i Community" at the beginning of the volume. The Baha'i World volumes have been published at varying intervals since 1925, offering an authoritative account of the activities and achievements of the international Baha'i community. In 1992, the series was revamped to appear on an annual basis, to include many more color photographs, and to be more accessible to the general reading public. Each volume covers the period from Ri<;lvan-an annual twelve-day festival in the Baha'i Faith that commences on 21 April-to Ri<;lvan and seeks to provide a representative survey of the international undertakings, the achievements, and the perspective of this worldwide community.
JNTRODUCTI9N TO THEBAHA'I OMMUNITY
A young man of high caste in Bangladesh volunteers to live amongst the Poschima people, who are of a much lower caste, in the course of his efforts to promote the beliefs of a Faith that teaches the oneness of humankind. In Tasiilaq, Greenland, a small group gathering to study and enjoy fellowship welcomes two determined people who fly in to the remote settlement by helicopter. A princess from Western Samoa travels to Fiji in order to offer tribal chiefs and elders a document outlining a process of development that respects the dignity of all peoples. One hundred and sixty-five people come together in Recife, Brazil, and, in an atmosphere of reverence, mark the launching of the Portuguese translation of a holy book. A young Mongolian woman who has never before left her province walks 70 kilometers in the snow, then travels by truck, and finally catches a plane to Ulaan Baatar, where she participates in the election of her religion's national administrative body. In Salt Lake City, Utah, in the United States, organizers of "Color Me Human Week" devote their energies to the theme of "raising the first
generation free of prejudice"; their efforts attract the hearts of Inany people with a parade, music, performances of dance workshops, and seminars on the elimination of racism. After two weeks of training in basic health care, a woman in Zambia returns to her village and shares what she has learned with her neighbors. A group of youth travels from Alberta to the Northwest Territories in Canada and offers performances depicting positive social values in various community centers. These people, though they have in all probability never met one another, share a united view of the world and its future, as well as their own role in shaping that future. They are members of the Baha'i international community. The Baha'i international community, comprising members of the Baha'i Faith from all over the globe, now numbers some five million souls. They represent 2,112 ethnic and tribal groups and live in over 121,000 localities in 190 independent countries and 45 dependent territories or overseas departments. What was once regarded by some as an obscure, tiny sect is now reported by the Encyclopedia Britannica to be the second-most widely spread independent religion in the world, after Christianity. Its membership cuts across all boundaries of class and race, governing itself through the establishment of local and national elected bodies lmown as Spiritual Assemblies. Its international center and the seat of its world-governing council, lmown as the Universal House of Justice, are located in the Holy Land, in Haifa, Israel. From what source do the members of the Baha'i Faith draw their spiritual strength and their organizational structure? What are the tenets of faith that can so attract and unify such a diverse group of people? How do they see the future? This brief introduction to the Baha'i community, its history, its spiritual teachings, its aims, and its objectives, provides information in response to these questions. Origins In 1844 in Persia, a young siyyid (descendant of the Prophet Mul}.ammad) named Mirza 'Ali-Mul}.ammad declared Himself to be the Promised Qa'im awaited by Shi'ih Muslims. He adopted
THE BAHA'I COMMUNITY
the title "the Bab," which means "the Gate," and His teachings quickly attracted a large following. Alarmed by the growing numbers of "Babis," as His followers were known, the Muslim clergy allied themselves with ministers of the Shah in an effort to destroy the infant Faith. Several thousand Babis were persecuted, tortured, and killed over the next number of years, but the growth of this new religion continued, even after the Bab Himself was imprisoned and subsequently publicly executed by a firing squad in July 1850. The horrific treatment of the Babis at the hands of the secular and religious authorities was recorded by a number of Western diplomats, scholars, and travelers, who expressed their admiration for the character and fortitude of the victims of the persecution. The Babi Faith sprang from Islam in the same manner that Christianity sprang from Judaism or Buddhism from Hinduism. It was apparent from early in the Bah's ministry that the religion established by Him represented not merely a sect or a movement within Islam but possessed the character of an independent Faith. Furthermore, one of the main tenets of Babi belief was the Bab' s statement that He had been sent by God to prepare the way for One greater than Himself, who would inaugurate an era of peace and righteousness throughout the world, representing the culmination of all the religious dispensations of the past. Mirza I:Iusayn-'Ali, known to history as Baha'u'llah, was one of the leading adherents of the Babi Faith who was arrested and imprisoned during the tumultuous years of the Bah's brief ministry. He was spared from execution but was banished from Persia to Baghdad, thence to Constantinople, Adrianople, and finally to the penal colony of Acre in Palestine. Thus, the Persian government, which had secured the support of the rulers of the rival Ottoman empire in suppressing the new movement, expected that His sphere of influence would be severely limited. During His imprisonment Mirza I:Iusayn- 'Ali had received the first divine intimations that He was the Promised One of whom the Bab had spoken. He adopted the title Baha'u'llah, which means "the Glory of God," and publicly declared His mission on the eve of His exile from Baghdad, in April1863.
Baha'u'llah was still nominally a prisoner when He passed away some forty years later in Acre, in November 1892, although the authorities had gradually loosened their restrictions as they became acquainted with Him and the nature of His teachings. During the long years of His exile and imprisonment, Baha'u'llah revealed the equivalent of over 100 volumes of writings, consisting of the laws and ordinances of His dispensation, letters to the kings and rulers of the East and the West, mystical teachings, and other divinely inspired writings. In His will and testament, Baha'u'llah appointed His eldest son, 'Abbas Effendi, who adopted the title 'Abdu'l-Baha (the Servant of Baha), as His successor and sole authoritative interpreter of His teachings. 'Abdu'l-Baha had shared the long years of exile and imprisonment of His Father, being freed only after a new regime was installed by the "Young Turk" movement in 1908. Shortly thereafter, at an advanced age, He embarked on an arduous journey to Europe and America where, from 1911 to 1913, He proclaimed Baha'u'llah's message of universal brotherhood and peace to large audiences, consolidated fledgling Baha'i communities, and warned of the potential catastrophe looming on Europe's darkening horizon. By the time World War I erupted in 1914, 'Abdu'l-Baha had returned to His home in Haifa, just across the bay from Acre in Palestine, and devoted Himself to caring for the people of that city, fending off famine by feeding them from stores of grain He had safeguarded for just such an eventuality. 'Abdu'l-Baha's humanitarian services and promotion of intercultural harmony were recognized by the British government, which, at the end of the war, conferred upon Him a knighthood, a title He acknowledged, although He declined to use it. He passed away in 1921 and is buried on Mount Carmel in a vault near where the remains of the Bab were interred by Him some years before. Among the significant legacies bequeathed to history by 'Abdu'l-Baha was a series of letters, called the Tablets of the Divine Plan, addressed to the Baha'is of North America during the years of World War I. These fourteen letters directed the recipients to scatter to countries on all continents and share with
THE BAHA.'f COMMUNITY
their populations the teachings of Baha'u'llah-a mandate that led to the global expansion of the Baha'i community. Another legacy of' Abdu' 1-Baha was His Will and Testament, which Baha'is regard as the charter of the administrative order conceived by Baha'u'lhih. In this document, 'Abdu'l-Baha appointed His eldest grandson, Sho ghi Effendi, to succeed Him after His passing as Guardian of the Baha'i Faith and authorized interpreter of its teachings. During the period of his Guardianship, from 1921 to 1957, Shoghi Effendi concentrated his attention on four main areas: the development of the Baha'i World Centre in the environs ofHaifa, Israel; the translation and interpretation of the Baha'i sacred writings; the rise and consolidation of the institutions of the administrative order of the Baha'i Faith; and the implementation of 'Abdu'l-Baha's plan for the propagation of the Baha'i Faith around the world. At the Baha'i World Centre, Shoghi Effendi effected the construction of a superstructure for the mausoleum containing the remains of the Bab, which had been brought from Persia to the Holy Land and been interred by 'Abdu'l-Baha in a tomb on Mount Carmel in a spot designated by Baha'u'llah. Shoghi Effendi beautified and expanded the simple native stone structure, which is today a site of pilgrimage for Baha'is from all over the world. He enhanced the Baha'i properties, particularly the site of Baha'u'llah's grave at Bahji, with gardens of striking beauty, and he also initiated the construction of the International Baha'i Archives building to house and preserve artifacts from the early days of the Baha'i Faith. The International Archives building was the first structure built on the arc-shaped path on the site designated as the world administrative center of the Baha'i community. It was completed in 1957. In concert with the actions he took to develop the Baha'i World Centre and lay the foundations, literally and figuratively, for the further course of that development, Shoghi Effendi was also instrumental in interpreting the writings of Baha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha and translating them from the original Persian and Arabic into English. The Guardian had served as secretary for a
number of years to 'Abdu'l-Baha and at the time of the latter's passing was a student at Oxford University. His mastery of Persian, Arabic, and English, coupled with the authority conferred upon him by 'Abdu'l-Baha as the appointed interpreter of those writings, made him uniquely qualified to undertake their translation. He also translated a history of the Babi Faith, authored a history of the first century of the Baha'i Faith, called God Passes By, and wrote thousands of letters to communities and individuals around the world, elucidating passages from the writings, and thus giving direction and impetus to Baha'i activities. Development of the Administrative Order Shoghi Effendi's work in developing the Baha'i administrative order is one of the most dramatic legacies of his years as Guardian. The first step in this development was to encourage the organized, planned expansion of Baha'i communities in places where local and national Baha'i councils, known as Spiritual Assemblies, would eventually be established. The Guardian effected this global expansion of Baha'i communities through a series of international plans that ran for varying numbers of years and during which twelve National Spiritual Assemblies were founded. At the time of Shoghi Effendi's sudden passing in 1957, the Baha'i community was in the middle of a global plan of expansion and consolidation called "The Ten Year Crusade." During this period, which concluded in 1963-the centenary of Baha'u'llah's declaration of His mission in the Garden of Riqvan in Baghdad-the goal was to open 132 new countries and major territories to the Faith and expand existing communities in 120 countries and territories previously opened to the Faith. These ambitious targets were actually exceeded by the end of the plan, in spite of the difficulties posed by the Guardian's death. 'Abdu'l-Baha, in His Will and Testament, had authorized the continuation of the Guardianship through the appointment by the Guardian of a successor from among his own sons, should
THE BAHA:f COMMUNITY
he have them, or other direct descendants of Baha'u'llah. Such a designation was dependent upon the decision of Shoghi Effendi whether an individual could be named who met the demanding spiritual qualifications specified by Baha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha. Shoghi Effendi had no children and died without designating such a Guardian to follow him. He had, however, taken steps toward the election of the Universal House of Justice, the supreme governing body of the Baha'i Faith which was to function, with him, as one of the two authorized successors provided for in the writings ofBaha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha. He had also appointed a number of individual Baha'is to an auxiliary institution of the Guardianship called "Hands of the Cause of God." These individuals had been charged with the duty of protecting the unity of the faith and collaborating with the National Spiritual Assemblies around the world to ensure that the goals of the Ten Year Crusade were won. Upon the passing of Shoghi Effendi, these persons gathered together to guide the Baha'i community to the completion of the plan initiated by the Guardian and towards the first election of the Universal House of Justice, which took place in April 1963. Conceived by Baha'u'llah Himself, the institution of the Universal House of Justice is established on principles laid down in the Baha'i sacred writings. Its election, by the members of the 56 National Spiritual Assemblies that existed in April 1963, clearly demonstrated the principle of unity so central to the Baha'i Faith, with the nine elected members coming from four continents and representing a variety of religious and ethnic backgrounds. Basing itself on the authority conferred on it by the Founder of the Faith, the Universal House of Justice has stood as the acknowledged central authority in the worldwide Baha'i community since 1963. During the last 32 years, the Universal House of Justice has launched six global plans for the advancement of the Faith. From a worldwide population of 408,000 in 1963, the Baha'i community has grown to approximately five million members; the number of National and
Regional Spiritual Assemblies has grown from 56 to 174; and the number of Local Spiritual Assemblies has increased from 3,5 55 to over 17,000. Baha'is live in some 235 countries and territories around the planet. Spiritual and Moral Teachings and Baha'i Community Life The force that unites this widely diverse body of people is a unity of vision gained from belief in Baha'u'llah as a Manifestation of God, in the social and administrative structures He established, and in the spiritual and moral teachings He propagated. Central to these spiritual teachings is the concept that there is only one God and that the major religions of the world have been established by Messengers or Manifestations of this one Divine Reality: Abraham, Krishna, Moses, Buddha, Zoroaster, Jesus, and Mu)fammad, who have been sent by the Creator progressively throughout history to deliver a divine message commensurate with humanity's stage of development. The spiritual essence of all the major religions, in the Baha'i view, is the same: that humanity has been created to know and to worship God. Only the religions' social teachings change through the process of this progressive revelation. The Baha'i perspective is optimistic, seeing the cumulative benefits of progressively revealed religions as fundamental to an "ever-advancing civilization." What divides various religious communities, Baha'is believe, comes not from God but from humanity and its accretions to the essential religious teachings brought by each divine Messenger. In this new stage of humanity's development, the time has come for the recognition of the unity of the human race, for the establishment of the equality of women and men, for the elimination of the extremes of wealth and poverty, and for the realization of the age-old promise of universal peace. Likening the development of the human race to that of a child, the Baha'i writings say that we have passed through the stages analogous to infancy and childhood and are now enduring a tumultuous adolescence, on the threshold of maturity. Baha'u'llah taught that humanity is destined to come of age, but the course it takes to achieve that goal is entirely in its own hands. To promote the development of a society in which Baha'i
THE BAHA'I COMMUNITY
ideals can be fully realized, Baha'u'llah established laws and moral teachings that Baha'is are called upon to follow. Central to these is daily obligatory prayer. Study and meditation upon the Baha'i sacred writings is also enjoined upon believers each morning and evening. Baha'is between the ages of 15 and 70,~ with the exception of women who are pregnant or menstruating, as well as nursing mothers and the sick, observe a nineteen-day, dawn-to-dusk fast each year. Baha'u'llah referred to prayer and fasting as the "twin pillars" of faith, an indication of their importance and the benefits to be gained from them. He also raised work to the level of worship. The main repository ofBaha'u'llah's laws is a volume entitled the l(itab-i-Aqdas, or the Most Holy Book. There are no dietary restrictions in the Baha'i Faith, but the consumption of alcohol and the use of narcotic and hallucinogenic drugs are forbidden, as they affect the mind and interfere with spiritual growth. Baha'u'llah counselled Baha'is to be honest and trustworthy, to render service to humanity with an abundance of deeds rather than mere words, to be chaste in their relationships with others, and to avoid gossip and backbiting. He forbade lying, stealing, adultery, sodomy, and promiscuity. The importance of the family is central to Baha'i community life, as is the moral and spiritual education of children. Baha'is often gather together in their communities to study the sacred writings of their faith and to pray, but a central feature in Baha'i community life is a meeting called "the Nineteen Day Feast," at which all members join in worship, consult about community affairs, and socialize. For the time being, pending the further development of Baha'i communities, these meetings often occur in rented facilities, people's homes, or, in some locations, in the local Baha'i center. The Baha'i writings call for the erection in each community of a beautifully designed House of Worship, set in exquisite gardens and functioning as a spiritual center of activity. A variety of social and humanitarian institutions are also to be established around it. A Baha'i House of Worship presently exists on each continent, and sites have been purchased around the world for construction of many more in the
future. They are open to people of all faiths--or those professing no particular faith-for prayer and meditation. Services are nondenominational. There are no sermons, only readings and prayers from the Baha'i writings and scriptures of other world faiths and music by an a capella choir. This preserves for worshippers the sacredness of the experience of hearing and meditating upon the Holy Word without the interference of man-made concepts. Aims, Objectives, and Activities As the Universal House of Justice stated in a message addressed to the peoples of the world, written in October 1985 on the eve of the United Nations International Year of Peace, "Acceptance of the oneness of mankind is the first fundamental prerequisite for reorganization and administration of the world as one country, the home ofhumankind." The ultimate aim of the Baha'i Faith is the establishment of unity among all the peoples of the world, and it is because of its orientation towards unity on an international scale that the Baha'i community has been active at the United Nations since that organization's inception. Today the Baha'i International Community, an extremely active nongovernmental organization (NGO) which represents the collective voice of the national Baha'i communities around the world, enjoys consultative status with the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). It is particularly involved in addressing human rights issues, the needs of women and children, and environmental concerns, as well as pursuing sound sustainable development policies. To coordinate its international efforts in these areas, the Baha'i International Community's United Nations Office and Office of Public Information, as well as Offices of the Environment and for the Advancement of Women, collaborate with National Spiritual Assemblies around the world in various projects and representations at international gatherings. The activities of the Baha'i International Community at the United Nations have earned it a reputation as one of the most effective religious NGOs in the UN system. Its national and international representatives have taken active roles in major international events such as the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, the United Nations World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in June 1993, the World Summit for Social
THE BAf-IA'f COMMUNITY
Development in Copenhagen in March 1995, and the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in September 1995. Beyond the scope of the United Nations, Baha'is look towards a day when a new international order will be established, a commonwealth to which all the nations of the world will belong. As Shoghi Effendi wrote in 1936,
The unity of the hutnan race, as envisaged by Baha'u'lhih, implies the establishment of a world cmnmonwealth in which all nations, races, creeds and classes are closely and permanently united, and in which the autonomy of its state members and the personal freedom and initiative of the individuals that compose them are definitely and completely safeguarded. This commonwealth must, as far as we can visualize it, consist of a world legislature, whose members will, as the trustees of the whole of tnankind, ... enact such laws as shall be required to regulate the life, satisfy the needs and adjust the relationships of all races and peoples. A world executive, backed by an international Force, will carry out the decisions arrived at, and apply the laws enacted by, this world legislature, and will safeguard the organic unity of the whole commonwealth. A world tribunal will adjudicate and deliver its cmnpulsory and final verdict in all and any disputes that may arise between the various eletnents constituting this universal systetn.
Shoghi Effendi went on to describe the tremendous benefits to humanity resulting from such a world order:
The enormous energy dissipated and wasted on war, whether econmnic or political, will be consecrated to such ends as will extend the range of human inventions and technical developtnent, to the increase of the productivity of tnankind, to the extermination of disease, to the extension of scientific research, to the raising of the standard of physical health, to the sharpening and refinement of the human brain, to the exploitation of the unused and unsuspected resources of the planet, to the prolongation of human life, and to the furtherance of any other agency that can stitnulate the intellectual, the tnoral, and spiritual life of the entire hutnan race. 1
1. Shoghi Effendi, The World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah: Selected Letters, 2d rev. ed. (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1974), pp. 203-04.
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To make its aims and objectives widely known and to promote its perspective on various issues, the Baha'i International Community has been active not only in collaborating with like-minded organizations in and out of the United Nations but has also been engaged in public relations efforts designed to bring spiritual and social principles of the Faith to the attention of the generality of humankind. Information about the Baha'i Faith became much more widely disseminated than it had been as international news media reported the persecution of the Baha'is of Iran which came in the wake of the 1979 Iranian revolution. More than 200 members of the Faith were executed for their belief, considered as heresy by the regime, and thousands more were imprisoned, fired from their jobs, or had their homes confiscated or their pensions cut off as a result of government orders. Baha'is around the world responded in unity to the situation in Iran~the land in which their religion was born~by petitioning their governments to take action against this treatment; and it is, to some degree, as a result of these efforts that the persecutions were not more extreme. Executions have ceased, although Iran's Baha'is are still denied fundamental rights and freedoms. The Baha'i community has also taken a proactive approach in promulgating its views. The statement on peace issued by the Universal House of Justice in 1985, entitled The Promise of World Peace, sparked a worldwide campaign of presentations and public education projects that lasted throughout the International Year of Peace and beyond and encompassed government figures and leaders of thought, as well as the general population. To mark the centenary ofBaha'u'llah's passing in 1992, the Baha'i International Community's Office of Public Information published Baha 'u 'llah, a statement about the Faith's Founder, detailing His life, His teachings, and His mission. Events of the year itself, notably the commemoration in the Holy Land in May 1992 of the centenary of the passing ofBaha'u'llah, involving some 3,000 participants from all over the world, and the Baha'i World Congress held in New York City in November 1992, which attracted some 27,000 Baha'is from around the globe, caused much publicity for the Faith. In January 1995, the Office of Public
THE BAI-IA'f COMMUNITY
Information released another major statement on social development, entitled The Prosperity of Humankind. Widely disseminated at the World Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen in March 1995, the statement promises to lead to further engagement of the Baha'i community with leaders of thought in this field. Most recently, a statement entitled Turning Point for All Nations was released to contribute to the discussions on the future of the United Nations that marked the organization's fiftieth anniversary. 2 Aside from large-scale public relations activities and the publication of statements on different themes, the Baha'i community has been continually engaged in a series of international teaching plans, and it has seen rapid expansion in different parts of the world, most notably in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, where national Baha'i communities have been established in recent years following the collapse of long-standing political barriers. Czechoslovakia, Romania, and the former USSR were the first, in 1991; Albania, Azerbaijan, the Baltic States, Central Asia, Hungary, Poland, and Russia, Georgia, and Armenia, as well as the Ukraine, Belarus, and Moldova, followed in 1992. In 1994 five National Assemblies, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, were established where the single community of Central Asia had existed before. Slovenia and Croatia also elected their first Regional Spiritual Assembly, and National Spiritual Assemblies came into existence in Cambodia and Mongolia. Five National Assemblies were formed in 1995 as well-Armenia, Georgia, and Belarus each formed its own National Assembly, as did Eritrea and Sicily. The existence and growth of the Baha'i community offers irrefutable evidence that humanity, in all its diversity, can learn to live and work together in harmony. While Baha'is are not unaware of the turmoil in the world surrounding them, their view is succinctly depicted in the following words, taken from The Prosperity of Humankind:
2. See pp. 241-83 for the full text of this statement.
THE BAHA'I WORLD
A world is passing away and a new one is struggling to be born. The habits, attitudes, and institutions that have accutnulated over the centuries are being subjected to tests that are as necessary to hutnan developtnent as they are inescapable. What is required of the peoples of the world is a tneasure of faith and resolve to tnatch the enormous energies with which the Creator of all things has endowed this spiritual springtitne of the race.
The source of this faith and resolve is the message of hope offered to humanity by the teachings of Baha'u'llah. It is a message that deserves the thoughtful consideration of all those who yearn for peace and justice in the world.
ITINGS AND ESSAGES Writings ofBaha'u'lhih
T he All-Knowing Physician hath His fmger on the pulse of mankind. He perceiveth the disease, and prescribeth, in His unerring wisdom, the remedy. Every age hath its own problem, and every soul its particular aspiration. The remedy the world needeth in its present-day afflictions can never be the same as that which a subsequent age may require. Be anxiously concerned with the needs of the age ye live in, and center your deliberations on its exigencies and requirements. We can well perceive how the whole human race is encompassed with great, with incalculable afflictions. We see it languishing on its bed of siclmess, sore-tried and disillusioned. They that are intoxicated by self-conceit have interposed themselves between it and the Divine and infallible Physician. Witness how they have entangled all men, themselves included, in the mesh of their devices. They can neither discover the cause of the disease, nor have they any lmowledge of the remedy. They have conceived the straight to be crooked, and have imagined their friend an enemy.
Incline your ears to the sweet melody of this Prisoner. Arise, and lift up your voices, that haply they that are fast asleep may be awakened. Say: 0 ye who are as dead! The Hand of Divine bounty proffereth unto you the Water of Life. Hasten and drink your fill. Whoso hath been re-born in this Day, shall never die; whoso remaineth dead, shall never live.
0 ye members of Assemblies in that land [England] and in other countries! Take ye counsel together, and let your concern be only for that which profiteth mankind and bettereth the condition thereof; ifye be of them that scan heedfully. Regard the world as the human body which, though at its creation whole and perfect, hath been afflicted, through various causes, with grave disorders and maladies. Not for one day did it gain ease, nay, its siclmess waxed more severe, as it fell under the treatment of ignorant physicians, who gave full rein to their personal desires, and have erred grievously. And if at one time, through the care of an able physician, a member of that body was healed, the rest remained afflicted as before. Thus informeth you the All-Knowing, the All-Wise. We behold it, in this day, at the mercy of rulers, so drunk with pride that they cannot discern clearly their own best advantage, much less recognize a Revelation so bewildering and challenging as this . . . .That which God hath ordained as the sovereign remedy and mightiest instrument for the healing of the world is the union of all its peoples in one universal Cause, one common Faith. This can in no wise be achieved except through the power of a skilled, an all-powerful, and inspired Physician.
The Great Being saith: 0 ye children of men! The fundamental purpose animating the Faith of God and His Religion is to safeguard the interests and promote the unity of the human race, and to foster the spirit of love and fellowship amongst men. Suffer it not to become a source of dissension and discord, of hate and enmity. This is the straight Path, the fixed and immovable foundation. Whatsoever is raised on this foundation, the changes
BAHA'I SACRED WRITINGS
and chances of the world can never impair its strength, nor will the revolution of countless centuries undermine its structure. Our hope is that the world's religious leaders and the rulers thereof will unitedly arise for the reformation of this age and the rehabilitation of its fortunes. Let them, after meditating on its needs, take counsel together and, through anxious and full deliberation, administer to a diseased and sorely-afflicted world the remedy it requireth ... It is incumbent upon them who are in authority to exercise moderation in all things. Whatsoever passeth beyond the limits of moderation will cease to exert a beneficial influence. Consider for instance such things as liberty, civilization and the like. However much men of understanding may favorably regard them, they will, if carried to excess, exercise a pernicious influence upon men ... Please God, the peoples of the world may be led, as the result of the high endeavors exerted by their rulers and the wise and learned amongst men, to recognize their best interests. How long will humanity persist in its waywardness? How long will injustice continue? How long is chaos and confusion to reign amongst men? How long will discord agitate the face of society? ... The winds of despair are, alas, blowing from every direction, and the strife that divideth and afflicteth the human race is daily increasing. The signs of impending convulsions and chaos can now be discerned, inasmuch as the prevailing order appeareth to be lamentably defective. I beseech God, exalted be His glory, that He may graciously awaken the peoples of the earth, may grant that the end of their conduct may be profitable unto them, and aid them to accomplish that which beseemeth their station.
. . .The heaven of statesmanship is made luminous and resplendent by the brightness of the light of these blessed words which hath dawned from the dayspring of the Will of God: It behoveth every ruler to weigh his own being every day in the balance of equity and justice and then to judge between men and counsel them to do that which would direct their steps unto the path of wisdom and understanding. This is the cornerstone of statesmanship and the essence thereof. From these words every enlightened
man of wisdom will readily perceive that which will foster such aims as the welfare, security and protection of mankind and the safety of human lives. Were men of insight to quaff their fill from the ocean of inner meanings which lie enshrined in these words and become acquainted therewith, they would bear witness to the sublimity and the excellence of this utterance. If this lowly one were to set forth that which he perceiveth, all would testify unto God's consummate wisdom. The secrets of statesmanship and that of which the people are in need lie enfolded within these words. This lowly servant earnestly entreateth the One true Godexalted be His glory-to illumine the eyes of the people of the world with the splendor of the light of wisdom that they, one and all, may recognize that which is indispensable in this day. That one indeed is a man who, today, dedicateth himself to the service of the entire human race. The Great Being saith: Blessed and happy is he that ariseth to promote the best interests of the peoples and kindreds of the earth. In another passage He hath proclaimed: It is not for him to pride himself who loveth his own country, but rather for him who loveth the whole world. The earth is but one country, and mankind its citizens.
The purpose of religion as revealed from the heaven of God's holy Will is to establish unity and concord amongst the peoples of the world; make it not the cause of dissension and strife. The religion of God and His divine law are the most potent instruments and the surest of all means for the dawning of the light of unity amongst men. The progress of the world, the development of nations, the tranquillity of peoples, and the peace of all who dwell on earth are among the principles and ordinances of God. Religion bestoweth upon man the most precious of all gifts, offereth the cup of prosperity, imparteth eternal life, and showereth imperishable benefits upon mankind. It behoveth the chiefs and rulers of the world, and in particular the Trustees of God's House of Justice, to endeavor to the utmost of their power to safeguard its position, promote its interests and exalt its station in the eyes of the world. In like manner it is incumbent upon them to enquire into the conditions of their subjects and to
BAHA:f SACRED WRITINGS
acquaint themselves with the affairs and activities of the divers communities in their dominions. We call upon the manifestations of the power of God-the sovereigns and rulers on earth-to bestir themselves and do all in their power that haply they may banish discord from this world and illumine it with the light of concord. It is incumbent upon everyone to firmly adhere to and observe that which hath streamed forth from Our Most Exalted Pen. God, the True One, beareth Me witness, and every atom in existence is moved to testify that such means as lead to the elevation, the advancement, the education, the protection and the regeneration of the peoples of the earth have been clearly set forth by Us and are revealed in the Holy Books and Tablets by the Pen of Glory.
We pray God-exalted be His glory-and cherish the hope that He may graciously assist the manifestations of affluence and power and the daysprings of sovereignty and glory, the kings of the earth-may God aid them through His strengthening graceto establish the Lesser Peace. This, indeed, is the greatest means for insuring the tranquillity of the nations. It is incumbent upon the Sovereigns of the world-may God assist them-unitedly to hold fast unto this Peace, which is the chief instrument for the protection of all mankind. It is Our hope that they will arise to achieve what will be conducive to the well-being of man. It is their duty to convene an all-inclusive assembly, which either they themselves or their ministers will attend, and to enforce whatever measures are required to establish unity and concord amongst men. They must put away the weapons of war, and tum to the instruments of universal reconstruction. Should one king rise up against another, all the other kings must arise to deter him. Arms and armaments will, then, be no more needed beyond that which is necessary to insure the internal security of their respective countries. If they attain unto this all-surpassing blessing, the people of each nation will pursue, with tranquillity and contentment, their own occupations, and the groanings and lamentations of most men would be silenced. We beseech God to aid them to do His will and pleasure. He, verily, is the Lord of the throne on
THE BAHA'I WORLD
high and of earth below, and the Lord of this world and of the world to come. It would be preferable and more fitting that the highly-honored kings themselves should attend such an assembly, and proclaim their edicts. Any king who will arise and carry out this task, he, verily will, in the sight of God, become the cynosure of all kings. Happy is he, and great is his blessedness!
... The structure of world stability and order hath been reared upon, and will continue to be sustained by, the twin pillars of reward and punishment. And in another connection He hath uttered the following in the eloquent tongue: 1 Justice hath a mighty force at its command. It is none other than reward and punishment for the deeds of men. By the power of this force the tabernacle of order is established throughout the world, causing the wicked to restrain their natures for fear of punishment. ... Take heed, 0 concourse of the rulers of the world! There is no force on earth that can equal in its conquering power the force of justice and wisdom. I, verily, affirm that there is not, and hath never been, a host more mighty than that of justice and wisdom. Blessed is the king who marcheth with the ensign of wisdom unfurled before him, and the battalions of justice massed in his rear. He verily is the ornament that adorneth the brow of peace and the countenance of security. There can be no doubt whatever that if the day-star of justice, which the clouds of tyranny have obscured, were to shed its light upon men, the face of the earth would be completely transformed .
. . .Among the things which are conducive to unity and concord and will cause the whole earth to be regarded as one country is that the divers languages be reduced to one language and in like manner the scripts used in the world be confmed to a single script. It is incumbent upon all nations to appoint some men of understanding and erudition to convene a gathering and through joint consultation choose one language from among the varied
1. Arabic.
BAHA'I SACRED WRITINGS
existing languages, or create a new one, to be taught to. the children in all the schools of the world. The day is approaching when all the peoples of the world will have adopted one universal language and one common script. When this is achieved, to whatsoever city a man may journey, it shall be as if he was entering his own home. These things are obligatory and absolutely essential. It is incumbent upon every man of insight and understanding to strive to translate that which hath been written into reality and action.
FROM THE UNIVERSAL HOUSE oF JUSTICE
T he Universal House of Justice, the international governing council of the Baha'i world community, was ordained by Baha'u'llah as that body charged "to ensure the continuity of that divinely-appointed authority which flows from the Source of the Faith, to safeguard the unity of its followers, and to maintain the integrity and flexibility of its teachings." 1 Thus explicitly empowered through the writings of the Baha'i Faith, the Universal House of Justice seeks continually to raise Baha'i community members' vision about their contributions to shaping society, while giving full recognition to the obstacles and challenges inherent in current world events. Significant communications of the Universal House of Justice between Ri<;lvan 1995 and Ri<;lvan 1996, which largely focus on both the expansion of the community and various aspects of its development, are highlighted here.
1. The Constitution of the Universal House of Justice (Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1972), p. 4.
Ridvan Message (152 B.E.) Each year between 21 April and 2 May, during the twelve-day commemoration ofBaha'u'llah's public declaration of His mission in the Garden ofRi<;lvan in Baghdad, the Universal House of Justice addresses a letter to the Baha'is of the world, outlining the achievements of the past year and looking ahead to the activities of the coming year. The 1995 Ri<;lvan message (152 B.E.) focuses largely on the growing recognition of the Baha'i Faith, its role in assisting the progress of humanity, and various aspects of its community's affairs. The letter begins by noting "the despair besetting leaders of nations and peoples in their search for solutions to pressing social problems" and by seeing in their "desperation" "a world-wide cry for the Teachings of Baha'u'llah." In the face of the "tnelancholy outlook evident at the World Summit for Social Development" in Copenhagen in March 1995, for example, the Baha'i International Community's considerable presence there and its many follow-up activities undertaken after the gathering evidenced "the further advance of our world community in influencing the processes towards the Lesser Peace. " 2 Indeed, while the international conferences called by the ·United Nations may not appear to have accomplished much, Baha'is see in them "a gradual movement towards the ultimate fulfillment of the will of Baha'u'llah that the rulers of nations meet to consult and decide on the outstanding issues in an increasingly global society." In fact, the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, Shoghi Effendi, described how the parallel processes leading to the political union of nations and to the uniting of people in one common faith would eventually draw closer together towards the end of this century, and the Universal House of Justice sees in current events evidence of the approaching fulfillment of this vision. Baha'is, then, have offered strong support to the recent series of United Nations conferences and summits. · Another indication of the wider recognition of the Baha'i Faith noted by the Universal House of Justice is the increasing number
2. For fmiher details conceming Baha'i pmiicipation in the World Summit for Social Development, see The Balui 'i World 1994-95, pp. 37--46.
THE UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE
of visits to the Baha'i World Centre by dignitaries, high-ranking government officials, and media representatives, underscoring "a trend towards a greater familiarity of the governments of the nations with the evolving center of a World Faith." Such recognition also highlights the necessity for the speedy completion of the current construction projects on Mount Carmel. Baha'is understand the act of erecting these buildings as synchronizing, in the words of Shoghi Effendi, with "two no less significant developments-the establishment of the Lesser Peace and the _evolution of Baha'i national and local institutions." Against the backdrop of despair in the wider society, developments in the Baha'i community are, in contrast, "encouraging." Aside from "heartening" advances in external affairs activities and an increase in the community's efforts to share the message of Baha'u'llah, a number of stimulating factors concerning the internal functioning of Baha'i communities around the world are highlighted. These include evolution in the work of the International and Continental Counsellors, appointed high-ranking officers of the Faith, and their auxiliaries around the globe; the emphasis on the education of children in the Baha'i community; the "vigor of the youth"; and the "gathering strength" of Spiritual Assemblies at both the national and local levels. These institutions, says the Universal House of Justice, "foster a climate of unified action" in the Baha'i community by engaging in complementary collaborative activities with individuals. By establishing such a climate, they will be able to work together "to combat the ravages of a rampant moral decadence" evident in society. The vitality of the Baha'i community is also reflected in the formation, at Ri<;lvan 1995, of five new National Spiritual Assemblies: Armenia, Georgia, Belarus, Sicily, and Eritrea. At the same time, four previously existing Assemblies, in Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, South Africa, and Transkei, tnerged into one under the jurisdiction of the National Spiritual Assembly of South Africa, reflecting the recent political reunion of the region. At Ri<;lvan 1995, then, the total number of National Spiritual Assemblies throughout the world stood at 174. Towards the close of the letter, again drawing the Baha'i community's attention to "humanity's current plight," the Universal
House of Justice reiterates the importance of the efforts of individual Baha'is, reinforced by their institutions, to bring the healing message of Baha'u'llah to the peoples of the world. Indeed, the House of Justice states that "at this extraordinary moment in the history of the planet, nothing whatever is of more critical importance than inviting people of every sort and every gift to the banquet table of the Lord of Hosts," and cites 'Abdu'l- Baha' s reference to the current century as a time that will leave "traces which shall last forever." Judgement by the Supreme Court of India The theme of widening recognition of the Baha'i Faith can be seen again in a letter of 5 May 1995, in which the Universal House of Justice infonns National Spiritual Assemblies around the world of a judgement by the Supreme Court of India that refers to the teachings of the Baha'i Faith as a means for solving religious disputes. The case ruled on by the Court involved strife between Hindus and Muslims occasioned by the razing of a mosque in Ayodhya, the site where Hindus believe the god Ratna was hom thousands of years ago. The mosque's destruction ignited widespread violence and attacks on property. The Universal House of Justice cites this reference to the Baha'i Faith as evidence of its emergence from obscurity and further notes that "Reports have been received that receptive members of governments are now using the ... Teachings and principles of the Faith in directing the affairs of their countries." The House of Justice also pays tribute to the "sacrifices of the Baha'is in Iran and the solidarity of the Baha'i world in rallying around its institutions" in support of the Iranian Baha'is. These factors, it says, have led Baha'is in many parts of the world to contact their governments on behalf of their fellow believers, resulting in a greatly increased awareness of the Faith and its teachings which, in tum, leads to references to the Faith such as that made by India's Supreme Court. Increase in the Number of Continental Counsellors A letter to the Baha'is of the world written 29 October 1995 marks a significant advance in one aspect of community development, with the Universal House of Justice's announcement of the com-
THE UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE
mencement of a new five-year term of service for members of the Continental Boards of Counsellors for the Protection and Propagation of the Faith and the indication that the number of appointees will be raised from 72 to 81. After giving the names of the new Counsellors and thanking the 15 individuals retiring from their duties, the Universal House of Justice states that an important focus for the Counsellors during "the crucial period ahead" will be "fostering the evolution of local and national Baha'i institutions and ... helping the rank and file of the believers to increase their devotion to Baha'u'llah, their ardor in teaching, and their ability to draw on the tremendous power latent in the unified action of Baha'i communities." Messages at the Time of the Continental Boards of Counsellors' Conference The holding of a conference for members of the Continental Boards of Counsellors from around the world in Haifa in December 1995 occasioned several weighty messages from the Universal House of Justice. The letter of greeting to the conference, dated 26 December 1995, refers to the role of the institution of the Counsellors over the past 25 years and announces the launch of a Four Year Plan, at Ri<;lvan 1996, for the expansion and consolidation of the Baha'i world community. It also challenges the Counsellors to call forth "the wholehearted endeavors of the followers of Baha'u'llah," to raise "the level of their spiritual awareness," and to promote "the evolution of national and local Baha'i communities." In its letter specifically about the Four Year Plan, also dated 26 December 1996, the Universal House of Justice outlines its central focus as a single major accomplishment: a significant advance in the process of steady large-scale enrollments. To effect this, it writes, will require "marked progress in the activity and development of the individual believer, of the institutions, and of the local community." Discussing the responsibilities of the individual in teaching the Faith to others and of local institutions in coordinating such efforts, the House of Justice stresses that "those who enter the Faith must be integrated into vibrant local communities, characterized by tolerance and love and guided by a strong sense of purpose and collective will, environments in which the
capacities of all components-men, women, youth and childrenare developed and their powers multiplied in unified action." The letter deals with a number of different aspects of the Four Year Plan, including the planning process itself, as each national community formulates its own plan within the global guidelines set by the House of Justice; the focus of the work of the Continental Counsellors in assisting national communities to formulate their plans and pursue their goals; and necessary elements for effective plans. The House of Justice spends some time on the development of "institutes," wh~ch it defmes as "organizational structures dedicated to systematic training," the purpose of which is "to endow ever-growing contingents of believers with the spiritual insights, the knowledge, and the skills needed to carry out the many tasks of accelerated expansion and consolidation" of the community. "Institutes should be regarded as centers of learning," it notes, which are designed to assist in the large-scale development of human resources in the Baha'i community. The House of Justice concludes, "It is our hope that significant progress in this direction will constitute one of the distinguishing features of the Four Year Plan." Another section of this letter is devoted to development at the local level, about which the House of Justice says, "The community must become imbued with a sense of mission and the Assembly grow in awareness of its role as a channel of God's grace not only for the Baha'is but for the entire village, town or city in which it serves." To this end, in local communities where the participation of women is lagging, "determined steps" must be taken to rectify this situation; proper annual elections of Local Spiritual Assemblies and enhancement of their functioning must be achieved (later in the message the House of Justice announces that as of Ri~van 1996 all Spiritual Assemblies around the world must be elected on the First Day of Ri~van); priority should be given to the regular holding of Baha'i children's classes; youth should be given attention. All of these factors combine to defme a first stage in the process of community developtnent, beyond which the community can further progress. The functioning of members of the Auxiliary Boards of the Continental Boards of Counsellors receives considerable attention
THE UNIVERSALHOUSE OF JUSTICE
in the 26 December letter, focusing on their work locally to assist the growth and development of communities and on their role in the evolution of institutes. At the conclusion of the Continental Counsellors' Conference, the Universal House of Justice released a letter to the Baha'is of the world, informing them of the launch of the Four Year Plan at Ri<;lvan 1996, referring to the deliberations of the Counsellors at their conference, and reiterating the Four Year Plan's one key goal: a significant advance in the process of large-scale enrollments of new believers. The House of Justice also summarizes the requisites necessary for progress "in the activity and development of the individual believer, of the institutions, and of the local community":
The first calls for a vitality of the faith of each believer that is expressed through personal initiative and constancy in teaching the Cause to others, and through conscientious, individual effort to provide energy and resources to upbuild the cotnlnunity, to uphold the authority of its institutions, and to support local and regional plans and teaching projects. The second requires that local and national Baha'i institutions evolve 1nore rapidly into a proper exercise of their responsibilities as channels of guidance, planners of the teaching work, developers of human resources, builders of com1nunities, and loving shepherds of the 1nultitudes. The third, the flourishing of the community especially at the local level, de1nands a significant enhancement in patterns of behavior by which the collective expression of the virtues of the individual1ne1nbers and the functioning of the Spiritual Asse1nbly is 1nanifest in the unity and fellowship of the community and the dyna1nis1n of its activity and growth.
The House of Justice then elaborates the "new dimensions" of the work of the Continental Counsellors, including developments in their mode of functioning, the planning process, human resource development, Local Spiritual Assembly functioning, and further development of local Baha'i communities. In concluding this message, the House of Justice states that "An auspicious beginning for the new Plan will largely depend on the results of the current one, which will end in just a few months" and continues, "There are divine deadlines to be met. Our work is
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intended not only to increase 'the size and consolidate the foundations of our community, but more particularly to exert a positive influence on the affairs of the entire human race. At so crucial a moment in world affairs, we must not fail in our duty to take timely action on the goals set before us in the Three Year Plan." Persian Edition of the Kitab-i-Aqdas On 28 December 1995, the Universal House of Justice announced to all National Spiritual Assemblies the publication of a Persian edition ofBaha'u'llah's Book of Laws, the Kitab-i-Aqdas or Most Holy Book, in January 1996. The text of the K.itab-i-Aqdas itself remains in the original Arabic and other sacred writings in the volume are in their original language, either Persian or Arabic. The introduction, notes, and other supplementary material from the English edition are published here in Persian. New National Spiritual Assemblies, Ri<Jvan 1996 A letter written on 15 February 1996 to all National Spiritual Assemblies announced the formation of two new National Spiritual Assemblies at Ri<;lvan 1996: Sao Tome and Principe, and Moldova. Further to this, "the Regional Spiritual Assembly of the Ukraine and Moldova with its seat in Kiev will become the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the Ukraine." In conclusion, the Universal House of Justice states, "We are delighted by these further evidences of the extension of the institutions of Baha'u'llah' s Administrative Order as the conclusion of the Three Year Plan approaches." Conclusion The letters written by the Universal House of Justice between Ri<;lvan 1995 and Ri<;lvan 1996 indicate both the increasing international recognition accorded to the Baha'i community for its teachings and activities and the importance of strengthening the Baha'i community for the growth it must sustain as it extends its interaction with wider society. Such complementary concerns reflect the gathering strength of an emerging global religion.
E VENTS 1995-96 - - - ------------------ This article reports on the appointment of the Continental Boards of Counsellors for their new jive-year term and on the Counsellors' Conference held 26-31 December 1995.
Conference of
BAHA'i CouNSELLORS
0 n 26 December 199 5, a conference of the Continental Boards of Counsellors was convened at the Seat of the Universal House of Justice, in the presence of the three remaining Hands of the Cause-Amatu'l-Baha Rul}Jyyih Khanum, 'Ali- Akbar Furutan, and 'Ali-Mul)_ammad Varqa-the members of the Universal House of Justice, and the Counsellor members of the International Teaching Centre. Although a Counsellors' Conference had been held at the Baha'i World Centre immediately following the Seventh International Baha'i Convention in 1993, 1 this year's conference was significantly different in that it was called at the beginning of the Counsellors' five-year term of service and was intended to be an opportunity for these high-ranking officers of the Faith to prepare themselves for the challenges of their duties by deliberating on the tasks and opportunities of the years immediately
1. See The Baha'i World 1993-94, pp. 59-66.
ahead. A Counsellors' Conference of this type had not been held since that of27 December 1985 through 2 January 1986. 2 In its 29 October 1995 letter to the Baha'is of the world announcing the Counsellors' appointments, the Universal House of Justice indicated that the Counsellors were being called upon to direct their attention and energies throughout their five-year term to two tasks: fostering the evolution of local and national Baha'i institutions and helping the rank and file of the believers to increase their devotion to Baha'u'llah, their ardor in teaching others about the Baha'i Faith, and their ability to draw on the tremendous power latent in the unified action of Baha'i communities. The gathering itself was marked by an atmosphere of consecration and humility on the part of the participants, and it was characterized by joy and reverence, singing, and the sharing of their diversity of experience. As with the Baha'i community itself, a microcosm of the human race could be seen in the diversity of the group. The newly appointed members of the Continental Boards of Counsellors represent more than ever the variety of humanity. With these appointments, the House of Justice increased the number of Continental Counsellors from 72 to 81 and enriched their numbers through the inclusion of additional Baha'is who are natives of the countries they are serving--countries such as Papua New Guinea, Finland, Niger, Colombia, the Philippines, Hong K.ong, Germany, Cameroon, Mexico, Ethiopia and Romania. It is also significant that 36 percent of the Continental Counsellors are women. The various capacities and experiences of the individual members of that group were collectively directed towards the achievement of one common aim: to consider issues of implementation of the Four Year Plan, to commence at Riqvan 1996. The essential features of the new plan were presented to the Counsellors by the Universal House of Justice in its message to the gathering, dated 26 December 1995 (see article pp. 31-33). With this document in hand, all contributed to the consideration
2. See The Baha'i World, vol. 19, 1983-1986, p. 505.
COUNSELLORS
Members of the Continental Boards ofCounsellorsfrom around the world gather on the steps of the Seat of the Universal House ofJustice with the Hands of the Cause of God, members of the Universal House ofJustice, and Counsellor members of the International Teaching Centre during the Counsellors' Conference in Haifa, December I 995.
of the challenges and opportunities confronting the worldwide Baha.' i community during the coming years. It was of particular note that such a focused and purposeful meeting of people from all parts of the globe should be gathered, dedicated solely to the betterment of humankind, and consulting in a spirit of unity and service, at a time of unprecedented chaos and confusion in the world. Another distinguishing feature of the consultative sessions was the strong emphasis on and encouragement of activity and initiative at the grass roots. According to the Baha'i writings, it is the individual who possesses the moral, intellectual, and spiritual powers central to the advancement of civilization. The release of these creative potentialities is as much a challenge in the governance of human affairs as is the promotion of a democratic process of decision-making. The administrative order established by Baha'u'llah requires the elected insti~tions to stimulate the development and exercise of these powers, but it augments the
THE BAHA'I WORLD
provisions for this requirement through complementary institutions, one level of which is that of the Continental Boards of Counsellors. Charged with counseling, encouraging, and assisting both the individual members of the Baha'i community and its elected bodies, their role is to assist in unlocking the capacity for action of individuals, communities and other institutions. Their deliberations focused on ways and means of doing so. Furthermore, the consultation, rather than following a format of numerous presentations by a few members of senior institutions, was very much an exchange between the Continental Counsellors themselves, who live and work in the communities they serve, face the same social challenges as the rest of the people in their region, and move in the same social milieu. An emphasis was placed on collaborating with and benefiting from the experiences of others: the conference included opportunities for smaller meetings, so that those with mutual interests could consult on various topics. During four of the six conference days, separate afternoon meetings were held for each of the Continental Boards so that the Counsellors could consider in more detail the application in their continent of the principles discussed in the morning plenary sessions. Additionally, as the
Participants in the Counsellors' Conference visit the completed terraces below the Shrine of the Bab, December 1995.
COUNSELLORS
26 December message encouraged the Counsellors to collaborate across Continental Boards, one evening session was devoted to consultation in special intercontinental interest groups- for example, those with responsibilities in the circumpolar areas, those from francophone countries, and those working in the Russian Federation. The 26 December 1995 message of the House of Justice formed the basis of all the consultations. Its major foci include developments in the mode of the functioning of the Continental Boards of Counsellors; the process for the elaboration of the Four Year Plan through the formulation of derivative plans and strategies at the national, regional, and local levels, involving consultation between members of institutions at all levels; the development of human resources to meet the needs of a rapidly expanding community through formally conducted programs of training; effective approaches to the raising up and consolidation of Local Spiritual Assemblies; and further means for the development of local Baha'i communities. Through its message the Universal House of Justice placed in the hands of the Continental Counsellors a major responsibility in the creation and implementation of the next stage of the development of the worldwide Baha'i community; following the conference, the Counsellors began the process of consulting with National Spiritual Assemblies about how to apply the guidance contained in the message to the special conditions and circumstances of each region. The final session of the conference was an especially moving occasion. The members of the Universal House of Justice entered the meeting in file, which roused the participants to their feet. A tablet of 'Abdu'l-Baha was read, 3 followed by the message dated 31 December 1995 to the Baha'is of the world prepared by the House of Justice, which was being electronically transmitted to National Spiritual Assemblies around the world at that same time. Those gathered were profoundly affected by the spirit of the occasion, some of them spontaneously breaking into a
3. Se lections from the Writings of 'Abdu 'l-Baha (Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1982), #204.
devotional song. The meeting ended with the reading of the same tablet of 'Abdu'l-Baha, in the original Persian. Then all of those in attendance traveled to the Shrine ofBaha'u'llah at Bahji, where they prayed together for the success of the Four Year Plan and of their efforts in what was described in the closing session as perhaps the most important four years of their lives. The closing evening was distinguished by a banquet for all attendees, held in their honor by Hand of the Cause Amatu'l- Baha Rul}.iyyih Khanum at the House of 'Abdu'l-Baha, where she resides. After the conference concluded, each of the five Boards of Counsellors took the opportunity to hold a meeting while their members were together in the Holy Land, further deliberating on the application of the guidance imparted in the 26 and 31 December messages to conditions in their regions . In the ensuing weeks, the energizing effect the conference had on the Counsellors became clear as report after report was made of their meetings with the Auxiliary Board members in their areas. Participants in such meetings learned about the conference, studied the 26 and 31 December messages from the House of Justice, consulted on assisting communities to achieve the remaining goals of the Three Year Plan, attained greater clarity of vision regarding their role in the years ahead, and became more resolved to arise to carry out the tasks demanded by this critical period of history. Meetings of this nature were held in places as diverse as Reunion, Kenya, Zimbabwe, the United States, Canada, the Philippines, India, the Mariana Islands, Hong Kong, Turkey, France, and Italy.
This article describes the formation in Apri/1995 offive new National Spiritual Assemblies.
FIVE NEW NATIONAL SPIRITUAL AssEMBLIES
J ust 75 years after 'Abdu'l-Baha's references in His Will and Testament to the establishment of "secondary Houses of Justice" (currently called National Spiritual Assemblies), these institutions have been formed in nearly three-quarters of the countries and territories of the world. 1 At RiQ.van 1995, three republics of the former Soviet Union whose Baha'i communities had been administered by Regional Spiritual Assemblies formed their own National Spiritual Assemblies: Armenia, with its seat in Yerevan; Georgia with its seat in Tbilisi; and Belarus, with its seat in Minsk. At the same time, the independent political status gained by Eritrea called for a National Spiritual Assembly there, with its seat in Asmara, and the development of the Baha'i Faith in Sicily led to the decision to form aN ational Assembly there
1. For an explanation of the nature and purpose of the institution of the National Spiritual Assembly and a brief history of its development, see The Baha'i World 1994-95, pp. 26-28.
with its seat in Palermo. This brought the number of these national Baha'i institutions worldwide to 174. 2 TheN ational Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Georgia The National Spiritual Assembly of Georgia was formed at Riqvan 1995, but the history of the Georgian Baha'i community reaches back to the time of Baha'u'llah. There were enough Baha'is in Georgia and neighboring regions during the period of His ministry (1853- 1892) to warrant formation of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Caucasus in 1925. In 1928, the Baha'is in the Caucasus began facing serious difficulties practicing their Faith. Meetings were disrupted by communist authorities; attendees were arrested and held for ques- .tioning; documents and books were confiscated; mail censored. A long and careful examination by the authorities revealed that the Baha'is were riot guilty of any subversive, anti-Soviet, or political activity, but Baha'i meetings were nevertheless allowed only with special police permission. Ultimately, after the election of Baha'i local councils in the Caucasus republics in April 1928, the government abrogated their constitutions and- after protracted negotiations- imposed a constitution which dissolved all Baha'i committees, decreed that Russian translations of minutes from all Baha'i meetings must be submitted to the authorities, and required that Baha'i children under 18 years of age not be instructed in their religion. Another government order decreed that all synagogues, churches, and other places of worship were state property. In accordance with the laws of their Faith, the Baha'is did not engage in any political activity or agitation; rather, they appealed to the legally constituted local and national authorities for
2. At Ri9van 1994, there were 172 National Spiritual Assemblies, so although five new Assemblies were formed, the increase appears to be only two. This is accounted for by the fact that at Riqvan 1995, the Baha'i communities of Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, South Africa, and Transkei were merged into one community under the jurisdiction of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of South Africa, to reflect the political reunion of that region.
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restitution of their rights. By 1938, however, the Baha'i community of the Caucasus was reduced to remnants and remained in that condition for some 50 years. The sweeping reforms launched in the Soviet Union in the late 1980s opened up opportunities for Baha'i communities in that part of the world to be revived and developed. The Universal House of Justice appointed the National Spiritual Assembly of Germany to coordinate efforts to foster the growth of the Baha'i community in Georgia and to provide guidance and encouragement as the community developed. A Two Year Teaching Plan, focusing on the entire region of the former Soviet Union, was launched by the Universal House of Justice at Ri~van 1990. At Ri~van 1991 the Baha'i community in the Republic of Georgia came under the jurisdiction of the Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the USSR, which was later renamed the Regional Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Baltic States and Georgia when the USSR was officially dissolved and the states adopted new names. By Ri~van 1992 the Faith had grown to the point that four new National/Regional Assemblies were established for the territory of the former USSR and the existing Assembly was renamed the Regional Spiritual Assembly of Russia, Georgia and Armenia. At Ri~van 1992, the Baha'i community in Georgia was still small : one group and several isolated individuals. Baha'i literature in Georgian included Love of God, The Promise of World Peace, and some introductory material. Traveling teachers began to visit Georgia in the summer of 1992, and despite the challenges of an unstable political situation, a still suspicious KGB, and shortages of electricity, gas, food, and water, they sought out the Baha'is and offered support and encouragement. A joyous event occurred when the Local Spiritual Assembly of Tbilisi, the capital city of Georgia, was reestablished at Ri~van 1993. With the assistance of Baha'is from other parts of the world, a house was purchased to serve as a local Baha'i center. By October 1993, there were also Baha'is in the city of , Gouri, not far from Tbilisi, and a Baha'i center had been rented there. Traveling teachers began to regularly visit Georgia from
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Ri<;lvan 1994 and shared Baha'i teachings with people from all strata of society. Among the prominent figures with whom official contacts were made were the prime minister and mayors and deputy mayors of a number of cities. By June 1994 there were 45 new believers in Georgia, a number of whom traveled to Panchgani, India, to participate in an extensive Baha'i study course. The number of Local Spiritual Assemblies had increased to seven, six of which were formed in one week. Members of these Assemblies came from Muslim, Armenian, and Georgian backgrounds, and many of them were highly educated. Five short-term pioneers from the region, particularly Tadjikistan, joined pioneers from England, the Philippines, and Canada to settle in different parts of Georgia. Two national conferences were held in Tbilisi that summer. As of January 1995 there were 12 Local Spiritual Assemblies in Georgia, and the Universal House of Justice announced that the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Georgia would form at Ri<;lvan 1995. Hand of the Cause of God Amatu'l-Baha Rul).iyyih Khanum represented the Universal House of Justice at the first National Convention of the Baha'is of Georgia, held 23- 24 April in Tbilisi. Almost 300 Baha'is, of whom 200 were from 14 different Georgian localities, came together in a beautiful valley surrounded by the snow-capped mountains of the Caucasus to celebrate the birth of this new institution. An Auxiliary Board member participating in the Convention reported that "all the
The first National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Georgia.
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Baha'is, whether rich or poor, from any metropolis in the world or a tiny village in Georgia were together in a spirit of unity." During her visit, Amatu'l-Baha Rul}.iyyih Khanum was able to meet with the Vice Prime Minister, the Minister for Human Rights, the Minister for Environment, other government officials, and His Holiness Ilia II, Patriarch of the Georgian Orthodox Church. After the Convention, Moscow Television contacted the Baha'is, interviewed the chairman of the new National Assembly, and broadcast the piece in Russia and in Georgia three times. During the year following the Convention, the Baha'i community of Georgia organized its first Youth Camp, helped put together the first Baha'i Youth Convention of Georgia and Armenia, and held three Trans-Caucasian Baha'i Academy courses on topics such as prayer and meditation, Baha'i history, consultation, and administration. The Georgian community had grown sufficiently to establish 35 Local Spiritual Assemblies. The National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Armenia The history of the development of the Baha'i Faith in Armenia closely parallels that of Georgia, with believers residing there during Baha'u'llah's lifetime and both regions being under the jurisdiction of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Caucasus from 1925 to 1938. Baha'is in Armenia suffered the same persecution and prohibitions under the communist regime as did the Baha'is in Georgia. When political and social change swept the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Armenia, like Georgia, came under the Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the
The first National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahil 'is ofArmenia, with Counsellor Abbas Katirai and a representative of the former Regional Spiritual Assembly ofRussia, Georgia and Armenia.
USSR, later renamed the Regional Spiritual Assembly of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Baltic States and Georgia. At Riq van 1992 a Regional Spiritual Assembly was established for Russia, Georgia and Armenia. By November 1992 two pioneers, an 80-year-old woman from Brazil and an 18-year-old Russian girl, had settled in Armenia, joining 20 Armenian Baha'is, and a Baha'i center had been acquired in Yerevan. Despite the difficult conditions of war in Armenia, including lack of heat, electricity, food, and water, Local Spiritual Assemblies were elected in Aparvan, Yerevan, Abavyan, and Dilizhan by March 1994. The first National Teaching Conference of Armenia was held in May 1994, during which 140 adults and twenty youth gathered in Yerevan to become better acquainted, consult about their future, and enjoy their first experience working together on this scale. In November, the Baha'i community of Yerevan was legally registered, and a Baha'i center was purchased in Oktemberyan. By January 1995, there were approximately 200 Baha'is in Armenia and ten Local Spiritual Assemblies. Despite continuing conflict in the region, the first National Convention was held in April1995, attended by Abbas Katirai of the Continental Board of Counsellors in Asia who represented the Universal House of Justice. The National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Belarus In 1978, Helmut Winkelbach, a Baha'i from Germany, saw an ad for an electrician's job in Russia, undertook training for three months, and took a train to what was then called the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. He was the first Baha'i to settle in this territory and fulfill a goal of the Ten Year Plan, 3 and thus he was named a Knight ofBaha'u'llah.
3. In 1953 the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, Shoghi Effendi, launched a ten-year teaching plan to bring the Baha'i Faith to the main unopened territories of the world and to consolidate communities in territories where there were already Baha'is, among other goals. During this period the number of National Spiritual Assemblies increased from 12 to 47. Those who arose at that time or later to open territories named as goals of the Ten Year Plan were named Knights ofBaha'u'llah.
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Mr. Winkelbach remained in what is now called Belarus for two years and then returned in 1986 with his wife, Olga, a native Belarus sian. Their teaching efforts and the arrival of one more pioneer produced a group of eight believers by Riqvan 1991. By September that year a Local Assembly had been formed in Minsk. Other enrollments occurred after a group of 20 enthusiastic traveling teachers came through from the United Kingdom and several groups of Baha'is from the United States visited. By the end of the Two Year Plan jurisdiction over the area was transferred from the National Spiritual Assembly of Germany to the new Regional Spiritual Assembly of the Ukraine, Bielarus 4 and Moldova. The members of this fledgling community were greatly inspired when 164 Baha'is from 16 countries attended an International Youth Conference they organized in Brest in August 1993. Another international event they put together was a women's conference in Brest in April 1994, which was attended by 250 people from Belarus, Russia, other countries in Europe, Canada, Panama, and the United States, 200 of whom were not Baha'is. Sessions were held on psychology and pedagogy; economics and law; culture, literature, and art; and ecology and health. Papers were delivered on issues such as the role of women in protecting the environment and on spiritual and moral development, and the women from North America came prepared to share technical information on health care, cooperative marketing and food distribution. The event was supported by the United Nations Office in Belarus and the Soros Foundation. The Baha'is of Belarus organized a particularly successful teaching project, called "Neman 94," along the banks of the Neman River during the summer of 1994. In September an exhibition on the history of the Baha'i Faith was displayed in Bobruysk. The following month, a children's education institute was held with participants from Moscow, Kiev, and Belarus. By the end of 1994, there were approximately 130 Baha'is in 11 cities of Belarus.
4. At that time, this was the spelling of what is now Belarus.
The first election of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Belarus took place at Riqvan 1995. On this historic occasion, Counsellor member of the International Teaching Centre Hartmut Grossmann represented the Universal House of Justice. In a message to the Baha'i World Centre, the Convention participants wrote: "We feel blessed to be one of the five new pillars of the Universal House of Justice which were elected this Ri<;lvan." Just two months later, representatives from all the Local Assemblies, a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors in Europe, and the Auxiliary Board member for the area met for a "Unity of Vision" conference to form goals and plans of action for the community of Belarus.
t l '#.l.IIUGIIQUIH The first National ~ Spiritual Assembly of the Bahti 'is of Belarus, with Hartmut Grossmann, a Counsellor member of the International Teaching Centre, and Counsellor Larissa Tsutskova.
The National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Eritrea Eritrea, a country which proclaimed its sovereignty on 24 May 1993, was for centuries part of ancient Ethiopia. After being colonized by the Italians at the close of the nineteenth century, it became a protectorate of the United Kingdom when British forces conquered the area in 1941. In the aftermath of the Second World War, Sabri Elias, who had introduced the Faith to Ethiopia in 1934, returned to share Baha'u'llah's teachings with a new generation of Ethiopians (see obituary, pp. 312- 13). They helped to spread the Baha'i Faith to Eritrea, where the first Local Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Asmara (the capital) was established in the early 1950s. By the late 1950s, Asmara had one of the strongest Baha'i communities in the world; in 1958 the Local Spiritual Assembly
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was officially recognized as a religious body through registration with the Federal High Court and the Supreme Court of Eritrea; by the early 1960s large numbers of people in the Kunama region of Eritrea began embracing the Faith. However, the civil war which began in 1963 and raged for 30 years disrupted this process. Still, the Baha'i community survived, operating under the jurisdiction of the Regional Spiritual Assembly ofNorth East Africa from 1956 to 1975 and thereafter under the National Spiritual Assembly of Ethiopia. In October 1992, the Baha'i Teaching and Administrative Committee in Eritrea was formed, and during its first year it arranged three teaching trips and appointed task forces to begin promoting the equality of men and women and addressing the need for Baha'i material in the local language of Tigrigna.
The first National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Eritrea.
In Asmara at Riqvan 1995, in the presence of Counsellor Hushang Ahdieh, representing the Universal House of Justice, and 60 observers from around the nation, including several of the original pioneers, the delegates to the first National Convention of Eritrea elected the country's National Spiritual Assembly. Dr. Ahdieh reported that "this historic and joyous occasion was celebrated amidst expressions of profound gratitude and exhilaration, and was characterized by a spirit of love and unity, of high resolve and determination to expedite the long-awaited day when the Cause of God would cover this long-suffering, receptive nation."
The National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Sicily In the series of letters 'Abdu'l-Baha wrote to the North American Baha'is during the First World War (known as Tablets of the Divine Plan), He named Sicily as one of the regions which should receive the Baha'i teachings after the war. However, it was not until 1953 that six Americans were able to settle in Sicily and introduce the Baha'i Faith there. For this achievement, Carol, Florence, Gerrold, Stanley and Susan Bagley and Emma Rice were named Knights ofBaha'u'llah. Four years of work by the pioneers, Hand of the Cause of God Dr. U go Giachery, the newly declared Sicilian believers, and the Italo-Swiss National Spiritual Assembly (which had been given the development of the Sicilian community as a goal) resulted in the formation of the first Local Spiritual Assembly of Palermo at RiQ.van 1958. This city was later chosen by the Universal House of Justice to be the site of the first Oceanic Baha'i Conference, held in August 1968 to consult about the development of the Faith in the Mediterranean region. More than 2,300 Baha'is took part. By the end of February 1995, the Baha'i community of Sicily had grown to comprise 31 localities, and eight Local Spiritual Assemblies had been formed. The stage was set for the first Spiritual _Assembly of the Baha'is of Sicily to be formed. 5 On 22- 25 April 1995, 350 "strongly united" followers of Baha'u'llah, including supporters from nine countries, gathered together in the presence of the Hand of the Cause of God 'Ali-
5. Generally the jurisdiction of Baha'i National Spiritual Assemblies is defined by political borders; however, there are exceptions, dictated by compelling circumstances. In some instances geographical or cultural characteristics necessitate the formation of a National Assembly in an outlying region or territory of a given country, the better to promote the well-being and efficient functioning of the Baha'i community. For example, Alaska and Hawaii have their own National Spiritual Assemblies and are not under the jurisdiction of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States, which directs and coordinates Baha'i activities in the 48 continental states, but the three National Assemblies collaborate in a manner that preserves the unity of their relations in dealing with the federal authorities.
NEW NATIONAL SPIRITUAL ASSEMBLIES
The first National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahil 'is of Sicily, with Hand of the Cause of God Dr. 'Ali- Muhammad Varqa.
Mul).ammad V arqa, who represented the Universal House of Justice, Counsellor Sohrab Y oussefian, members of the National Spiritual Assembly of Italy, and the Knights of Baha'u'llah who first brought the Faith to their land. Dr. Varqa reported: "In an atmosphere of joy, emotion, enthusiasm and delight, dominated by profound love for Baha'u'llah,.the Sicilian Convention was held in Terrasini in the vicinity of Palermo." By September of that year, the new Assembly was able to report a range of activities in Sicily, including teaching projects, television interviews, presentation of Baha'i literature to civil authorities and schools, a regional youth conference, a women's conference, and vibrant Naw-Ruz celebrations attended by nearly the entire community. The Process Continues As the Baha'i communities of Georgia, Armenia, Belarus, Eritrea, and Sicily prepared for their first National Conventions, the Universal House of Justice announced that at Riqvan 1996 new National Spiritual Assemblies would be formed in Sao Tome and Principe and in Moldova. Baha'is around the world rejoiced at this further evidence that people of every background are finding truth in Baha'u'llah's teachings and are successfully building the administrative order He envisioned.
View of the Shrine of the Bab and the terrace immediately below, October 1995. MOUNT CARMEL PROJECTS: Progress 1995- 96
T he momentous building projects on Mount Cannel continued to gather momentum between Ri<;ivan 1995 and Ri<;ivan 1996. One of the most significant achievements of this period was the fulfillment of a major goal of the Three Year Plan- initiation of all seven phases of construction of the buildings on the Arc and the terraces above and below the Shrine of the Bab. At the conclusion of this fruitful time, the Universal House of Justice wrote to the Baha'is of the world that "The magnificent progress of the projects on Mount Carmel is pre-eminent among the measurable achievements of this period. Indeed, despite numerous difficulties, the stage of accomplishment anticipated in our message announcing the Three Year Plan is entirely evident." There was intense activity throughout the year on the building of the Centre for the Study of the Texts. The concreting operation on this building reached a record pour of 1,000 cubic meters in a single month, enabling the structure to rise speedily. Its entrance portico was cast and bases prepared for eight Ionic marble columns to stand in a semi-circle in the facade of the building. With the major part of the structure complete, a contract was THE BAHA'f WORLD
The almost completed structure of the Centre for the Study of the Texts is defined by its semicircular entrance portico.
Installation of drywall partitions and air conditioning ducts inside the Centre for the Study of the Texts in February 1996 signalled the beginning of interior finishing work.
signed with a Canadian company for the erection of gypsum drywall partitions, precast gypsum moulded ceilings and suspended tiled ceilings. Soon defined spaces within the building took shape as drywall partitions went up. Installation of the mechanical services also commenced. In late November 1995 a special meeting was arranged in Italy for the inspection and approval of the marble columns, during which all the contractors involved met with the project manager to chalk out various strategies for the installation of the marble before the entire consignment of marble columns arrived on site in April 1996. In the meantime, masonry work inside the north patio of the Centre for the Study of the Texts began with the arrival of Turkish masons and the delivery of 800 square meters of local stone. Work commenced on the installation of the roof on the fourstory underground extension to the existing International Baha'i Archives building. By the end of the year it was waterproofed, and concrete screed and polystyrene panels were applied to protect the waterproofing and drainage gravel, preparing the roof for the addition of topsoil. The most important component of the MOUNT CARMEL pROJECTS
Archives extension is a strong room which will house the sacred texts and relics of the Baha'i Faith. The walls of this structure within a structure were waterproofed externally as well as internally for double reinforcement. A massive vault door has been put in place to provide security. A sixty-meter-long, ten-meter-wide, five-meter-high tunnel was constructed to provide access from Crusader Road to the parking building, an ancillary structure between the Centre for the Study of the Texts and the Archives extension. Because of its dimensions, the roof of this tunnel was cast in fifteen sections, each four meters apart. A special steel form was prepared in the shape of the roof to assist in the concreting operations. Steady progress was made on the construction of the International Teaching Centre, a large and complex building situated in close proximity to the Seat of the Universal House of Justice. While construction work progressed on two levels of the building, a ramp which had earlier been constructed to provide access for construction materials to the site was removed. The ramp had occupied almost 25 percent of the building areas and its removal
By March 1996 the structure ofthe International Teaching Centre had reached its second level.
Project manager Fariborz Sahba inspects columns in the marble factory in Italy, November 1995. Also pictured are Mr. Hedayat of the National Spiritual Assembly ofItaly and Mr. Hoffmann, General Manager of Henraux s.p.a.
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enabled the extension of the foundations of the Teaching Centre right up to the retaining wall. About 10,000 cubic meters of earth were excavated and relocated, which also allowed the installation of the remaining three rows of rock anchors in the micropile retaining wall to provide complete support. Thirty-nine micropiles, varying in length from five to seven meters, were poured, bringing the loads of the sloping foundations of the building to a greater depth, and thereby enhancing the stability of these foundations. More than 45 years ago Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, wrote to the Baha'is in the East sharing 'Abdu'l- Baha's vision of a monumental pathway leading from the foot of Mount Carmel to the Shrine of the Bab and reaching beyond to the crest of the mountain. The preliminary outline of nine terraces as an approach to the Shrine from the central avenue of the former German Templer Colony was completed by the Guardian himself in pursuance of this vision. As he wrote, "This beautiful and '""""'""""__,..,. majestic path which extends from the Shrine of the Bab to the City of Haifa in line with the greatest avenue of that blessed city, which is adorned with trees and verdant plants and illumined with bright lights, which is the object of admiration of the people of this . region and a source of joy and pride to the Aerial photograph showing dramatic progress authorities of this land, on the Arc and Terraces Projects, March 1996. will subsequently be
MOUNT CARMEL pROJECTS
converted, as foreshadowed by the Center of the Covenant, into the Highway of the Kings and Rulers of the World." 1 The completion of seven terraces below the Shrine of the Bab and the decision of the Universal House of Justice to open five of them to pilgrims and Baha'i visitors from Ri<;ivan of 153 B.E. (April 1996) has been a major step towards the realization of 'Abdu'l- Baha's and Shoghi Effendi's vision of these terraces. As part of the adornment of the ceremonial approach to the Shrine of the Bab, ornamental statuary, diverse colorful plants within brick edgings and planter urns, and paths covered with crushed ocher-colored roof tiles were prepared. Bronze railings and light fittings were also placed by the sides of the Duranta repens hedges planted on both sides of the central stairway. The informal areas to the east and west of terraces nine to five were developed with beautiful rockery plantings, cacti, succulents and other drought-tolerant plants. In an interview with an architectural magazine, architect Fariborz Sahba explained: "The goal of the design of these terraces is to create the most appropriate setting for the Shrine of the Bah, one of the holiest places of pilgrimage for Baha'is. They are meant to prepare the Baha'i pilgrims, as they walk through these terraces towards the Shrine for pilgrimage, for the spiritual encounter ahead of them. The terraces are primarily being built, then, to heighten the spiritual experience of the Baha'i pilgrim to the Shrine of the Bab. For this reason they must not only be beautiful gardens and landscape, but must create an atmosphere of reverence and peace, conducive to meditation." One element in the creation of such an atmosphere is the use of water as a main concept of the landscape: It flows from the top of the mountain to the bottom in a continuous cascade along the sides of the central stairway. Several beautiful fountains, carefully designed to provide crystal clear water, with a gentle sound to mask the noise of the city, will assist pilgrims to concentrate on their meditation. The irrigation system on the lower terraces became operational, enabling visitors to enjoy the visual beauty
1. From a letter dated Naw-Rliz 108 (March 1952) addressed to the Baha'is in the East by Shoghi Effendi, translated from the Persian.
of the fountains bubbling with water and running down the stone runnels along the sides of the stairs. Work on the steep slopes of the terraces above the Shrine of the Bab was also pursued at a brisk pace. The structure of four of these terraces- numbers fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, and eighteen- was completed, and mechanical, electrical, plumbing and irrigation services were put in place. Soon after, spreading of topsoil and planting on their central slopes began. Concomitantly, the construction of the uppermost terrace, the nineteenth, commenced. This terrace, at the crest of Mount Carmel, is designed with two levels ofbalconies. 'Abdu'l-Baha envisioned that "A person standing on the summit of Mount Carmel . .. will look upon the most sublime and majestic spectacle
Bird's eye view of the bridge over 'Abbas Street, which provides continuity between terraces four and jive below the Shrine of the Bab.
of the whole world ... " 2 These balconies will provide a visitor with a spectacular view of the Shrine of the Bab, and beyond it down to the harbor and across Haifa Bay towards the Shrine of Baha'u'llah. A tunnel under the terrace's first level will connect it to the Louis Promenade on Panorama Street, built by the Municipality of Haifa. This will enable visitors strolling on the promenade to enter the terrace with ease without crossing the road, which sees plenty of vehicular traffic. During the year the structure of the balconies of terrace nineteen was completed; work on the pedestrian tunnel was also finished and a 300-meter-long promenade on the side of terrace nineteen was built.
2. 'Abdu'l-Baha, quoted in Star of the West, Volume XXIV, p. 302.
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Terrace nineteen at the crest ofMount Carmel provides access from Panorama Street and the Louis Promenade to the upper terraces and has over 700 square meters offloor space. This photo was taken in March 1996.
One of the most challenging and critical stages of the Terraces Project was initiated in February of 1996 when a contract was formalized with a well-known Haifa contractor for the lowering of Hatzionut Avenue and the construction of a pedestrian tunnel and retaining walls for the bridge that will span the street, linking the terrace of the Shrine of the Bab to the footpath on the Arc and the upper terraces. A joint announcement by the Baha'i World Centre and the Haifa Municipality was carried in three major newspapers informing the general public of the nature of work to be undertaken and changes in the traffic arrangement in the entire section adjoining the Baha'i properties on this street. Of the three principal stages of work on the roadway, one was accomplished by Riqvan 1996. During the first stage, work was undertaken on the north side close to the terrace of the Shrine. A temporary sewage line was constructed; the north pedestrian sidewalk was reduced to 1.5 meters; and street lamp posts, traffic lights and bus stops were relocated. When this was completed, the traffic was restored to the north side and work began on the excavation of the south side.
As the projects on Mount Carmel have advanced, the interest they have generated among the citizens of Haifa has also become more intense. This resulted in an invitation from Haifa's Chamber of Commerce and Industry to the Baha'i World Centre to participate in "Haifa 2000," an exhibition designed to display unique projects in the city, depicting its development and changing business climate. The organizers offered the Baha'i World Centre, free of cost, the best and most central location to display models of its projects. Held 19- 27 June 1995, the exhibition attracted an estimated 250,000 visitors, including those attending two international conferences occurring in the city at the same time. Visiting dignitaries included Israel's then Foreign Minister Shimon Perez and dignitaries from the United Kingdom, who came with a large delegation of businessmen. Other visitors included well-known Israeli businessmen, economists, investors, and residents of Haifa. The event garnered wide media coverage. Afterwards, the Chamber of Commerce and Industry expressed its appreciation to the Baha'is, saying that the success of the exhibition "would not have been possible without your participation and the presentation of your impressive projects ... " An exciting development related to the Mount Carmel Projects but initiated by the government of Israel was the commencement of the first stage of work on the restoration of the German Templer Colony. Nestling at the foot of Mount Carmel, · the Templer houses flank Ben Gurion Avenue from Haifa harbor to the junction of Hagefen Street, where the entrance plaza to terrace number one is located. In the section immediately conjoining the entrance plaza, work began on the implementation of the German Colony's main axis, the design of which had been previously selected from an array of competitors. The media maintained their interest in the projects and continued to report about them throughout the year. In its July 1995 issue, a prestigious Israeli architectural magazine, Architecture of Israel, published a fourteen-page article on the Mount Carmel Projects in Hebrew and English, with beautiful color photographs. Dedicated to the work of architect Fariborz Sahba and focusing on his design of the Baha'i House of Worship in
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Members of the Universal House of Justice visit the Mount Carmel Projects in December 1995.
India as well as the terraces of the Shrine of the Bab, the article also provided information about the history of the Baha'i Faith. While the beauty of the terraces of the Shrine of the Bab-called "the hanging gardens" by the Israeli media- has often been extolled, this article highlighted the contribution of the Terraces Project to the environment of Haifa, saying: "The eternal shine of the dome of the Baha'i Shrine is one of the best known features of Haifa. In the past few years the construction of the 'Hanging Gardens' has begun- a garden strip of 400-meter width, its foot in the German Colony in lower down-town, and its head at the Panorama Towers on Carmel. With the completion of this project in about four years, these gardens will not only be one of Haifa's significant urban projects but also the most protected 'green lung' in the country." To the worldwide Baha'i community the projects on Mount Carmel are much more than "significant urban projects." Their realization constitutes "part of a process clearly perceived by Shoghi Effendi as synchronizing with two no less significant developments : the establishment of the Lesser Peace and the evolution of Baha'i national and local institutions.'' 3 It is this understanding which impels the pursuance "with deliberate speed [of] the gigantic building projects on God's Holy Mountain."4 But the speedy pursuit of these "gigantic building projects" would
3. The Universal House of Justice, Riqvan 150 B.E. (April 1993). 4. Ibid.
not have been possible without the tremendous material sacrifices of the followers of Baha'u'lhih in every land. In response to the summons to sacrifice issued by the Universal House of Justice, the Baha'is of the world "stepped forward and made sacrificial offerings for the furtherance of this vast undertaking so highly extolled by the beloved Guardian," 5 and the goal of raising 74 million dollars during the Three Year Plan was achieved.
5. The Universal House of Justice, in a letter dated 20 June 1995, transmitted electronically to all National Spiritual Assemblies.
v,THE 1EARrN REVIEW
The Three Year Plan
R i<;lvan 1996 saw the conclusion of the worldwide Baha'i community's Three Year Plan for the expansion and consolidation of the Baha'i Faith around the globe and the inauguration of a Four Year Plan, which will conclude at Ri<;lvan 2000. The process of expansion and consolidation has been pursued through a series of international plans, which took their original impetus from the Faith's sacred writings, particularly 'Abdu'l-Baha's Tablets of the Divine Plan, and from the directives of Shoghi Effendi. Since its establishment in 1963, the Universal House of Justice has launched a series of such initiatives, through the course of which national Baha'i communities have assumed increasing responsibility for formulating and II?-Onitoring plans of their own. Systematic advances in numerical strength and the increasing maturity of its worldwide institutions have been two great benefits of this approach. The Three Year Plan, which ran from April 1993 to April 1996, brought many notable achievements which are highlighted
throughout The Baha'i World volumes covering this period. The "qualitatively enriched community" which emerged from this period could take pride, for example, in the progress made on the Mount Carmel Projects at the Baha'i World Centre in Haifanot only in the visible progress in construction and beautification of the site but in the unity of purpose attained by Baha'is all over the world, who contributed generously to ensure the Projects' steady progress. In the realm of expansion, twelve new National Spiritual Assemblies were formed over the three years; thousands of international traveling teachers and pioneers arose; systematic approaches were made to collective teaching endeavors, and long-term teaching projects were set in motion in a number of countries. The International Teaching Centre encouraged the development of human resources around the globe and increased access to the Baha'i sacred writings of Baha'is in many localities through its promotion of the core literature program, which has made large quantities of a few essential titles available inexpensively in a wide range of languages. Indigenous Baha'is assumed more responsibility for teaching and consolidating their peoples; even in troubled areas of the globe, such as Angola, Cambodia, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, Baha'i activities carried on; newly established Baha'i communities in the countries of the former Eastern Bloc distinguished themselves by their aptitude in administrating the affairs of the Faith; and Baha'i communities on islands around the world were very active. Contributions of Baha'i youth, both to the Faith itself and to the general development of society, were another feature of this plan. Over the three years of the plan, Baha'i communities became more deeply involved with social and economic development, particularly education, as, in one case, Baha'is took on the management of seven schools in an area; in Africa, Baha'i communities in exile because of political unrest continued to work on projects that would make them self-sufficient. Other particular areas of focus included the advancement of women and pilot literacy projects.
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The public face of the Baha'i community became better known, too, as external affairs activities multiplied around the world. Increasing numbers of public officials invited the Baha'is to participate in activities and discussions related to the concerns of the day, and initiatives were taken by Baha'i communities to influence government action. Hand of the Cause Amatu'l-Baha Rul).iyyih Khanum participated in events such as the Summit on the Alliance between Religions and Conservation, sponsored by the World Conference on Religion and Peace, and the Fourth International Dialogue on the Transition to a Global Society at the University of Maryland in the US. The establishment of academic programs, the use of the arts, and the Baha'i International Community's participation in United Nations conferences in Copenhagen and Beijing and its contributions to the UN 50 celebrations were other high points of external affairs activities during the three years. With regard to the enrichment of the spiritual lives of Baha'is around the world, the Three Year Plan saw, notably, the release of the first Persian-language edition of the Kitab-i-Aqdas, the Most Holy Book ofBaha'u'llah, which contains Arabic text with supplementary material translated into Persian from the English edition. The English edition, published in 1992 and accompanied by an extensive body of annotations based on the guidance of 'Abdu'l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi, serves as the basis for translations into other languages. As much of the original translation of the text into English, as well as the supplementary material, was rendered by Shoghi Effendi, the appointed interpreter of the Baha'i writings, it provides a unique guide for other translations. In addition, the law of I:Iuququ'llah gained growing support around the world, as Baha'is everywhere recognized this significant law for the benefit of humankind. Dr. 'Ali-Mul).ammad Varqa, Trustee of the I:Iuququ'llah, took up residence in the Holy land, joining the only other two living Hands of the Cause of God, Amatu'l-Baha Rul).iyyih Khanum and Mr. 'Ali-Akbar Furutan. With the stage set for further advances during the Four Year Plan which will carry it to the end of the century and millennium,
the Baha'i community stands poised to greatly expand its membership and address the needs of this turbulent age of transition for humankind. The Year in Review The year beginning at Ri<;lvan 1995 and ending at Ri<;lvan 1996 was characterized by the intense efforts of Baha'is around the world to fulfill the goals they had set for themselves for the Three Year Plan. Through systematic, energetic, creative activity, the Baha'i community grew to a new level of capacity and unity of purpose. An increase in the assumption of responsibility by indigenous Baha'is for the functioning of their own communities, outstanding contributions on the part of the youth, the initiating by Baha'is at the grass roots of much-needed development projects, greater involvement in the efforts of society at large to address various issues, and the steady development of Baha'i communities and administrative institutions- these were some of the hallmarks of this past year. The survey of Baha'i activity which follows does not attempt to be comprehensive. It is intended rather to provide a general sense of the myriad efforts of Baha'is from hundreds of national communities and thousands of localities to contribute to the advancement of the Faith's aims. Baha'i participation in some specific events has been reported in detail in separate articles: observances of the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations, the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, the various activities of the Baha'i International Community, and the Conference of the Continental Boards of Counsellors. Material is arranged in the survey within the following categories: Hands of the Cause, prominent people, children, youth, women, cultural events and indigenous Baha'is, race unity, peace, interfaith activities, environment, social and economic development, involvement in the life of society, recognition, landmark occasions, sharing the message of Baha'u'llah, institutes, scholarship, and the arts. Hands ofthe Cause Each of the surviving three Hands of the Cause of God plays a critical role in Baha'i community life, encouraging and inspiring
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Baha'is through their visits and the books they have written. While in residence in Haifa, they meet with the stream of Baha'i pilgrims to the holy places of the Baha'i Faith. Among their important duties is advising the Universal House of Justice and serving as members of the International Teaching Centre. Highlights of activities in which they engaged this year are detailed below. The Hand of the Cause Amatu'l-Baha Rul).iyyih Khanum led the four official representatives of the Baha'i Faith at the Summit on the Alliance between Religions and Conservation held in the United Kingdom from 29 April to 4 May 1995. The Summit was convened in Windsor Castle, under the patronage of His Royal Highness Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh, and attracted many prominent representatives of nine religions (see pp. 132- 33 for further details). From 29 June to 2 July, Rul).iyyih Khanum was present, as the honored guest, at the Regional Baha'i Teaching Conference held in Tirana, Albania. About three hundred Baha'is attended the event from 18 different countries, many of them leaving directly from the conference to travel and share Baha'u'llah's message with people in the region. While Rul).iyyih Khanum was in Albania, she received a courtesy call from the President's daughter and granted a number of interviews to radio, television, and newspaper reporters. From 14 to 17 October, she was featured as the keynote speaker at the Fourth International Dialogue on the Transition to a Global Society, held at the University of Maryland at College Park (see pp. 102- 03). Additional activities included her address on 22 May to a committee meeting of the House of Lords in the United Kingdom, called by Lord Clinton-Davis; her participation in a Baha'i conference held in Fiuggi, Italy, in July, at which time she also addressed the opening session of a summer school for youth that followed the conference; and a 31 October interview broadcast on the Persian Service of Voice of America. In Azerbaijan, the National Spiritual Assembly reached an agreement with the Education Ministry for use of the book Mothers, Fathers and Children, written by Hand of the Cause
'Ali-Akbar Furutan, as a textbook for moral education in schools and colleges. The book has now been published in eight languages and is widely available as an assistance in the raising of children. This year, as ever, Baha'is who visited the Baha'i holy places in Israel came away with special memories of Mr. Furutan, whose unflagging resolve to join their evening gatherings and shower upon them his love and vast experience has won the hearts of thousands over the course of many years. Hand of the Cause of God Dr. 'Ali-Mul;l,ammad Varqa served as the representative of the Universal House of Justice at the flrst National Convention of the Baha'is of Sicily, held in Palermo from 21 to 25 April 1995 (see pp. 52- 53). He also attended the National Convention of Italy, offering encouragement and support to that community. Dr. Varqa, who is the Trustee of I:Iuququ'llah, took up residence in the Holy Land this year, joining Amatu'l-Baha Rul).iyyih Khanum and Mr. Furutan in bringing inspiration to pilgrims and visitors and to those serving at the Baha'i World Centre. Prominent People This year the Baha'i World Centre saw a steady succession of visits from various ambassadors, embassy officials, and other notable people. On 5 January 1996, Lord Clinton-Davis, a crossbencher in the House of Lords in the United Kingdom, came, accompanied by Lady Clinton-Davis and Eric Mark, Head of the Parliamentary Commission. Visiting ambassadors included Sven Erik Svedman ofNorway, on 11 May 1995; Paulino Romero of Panama, on 2 June; Martin Indyk of the United States, on 11 July; Wojciech Adamiecki of the Republic of Poland, on 13 February 1996; and Arto Tanner of Finland, on 8 April. Officials were received from the Israeli embassy in New Delhi, India; and from the embassies in Israel of China, Poland, and the Republic of Korea. Other visitors included Andrew Joseph, Representative to the United Nations of the Director-General of the World Health Organization, on 17 May 1995; Professor Yehuda Haiut, president of Haifa University in Israel, along with about nineteen other professors and administrators from the university, the Mayor of Haifa, and other municipal staff members, on 29
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November; the Mayor of Haifa again on 26 January 1996, with 40 trustees of the Haifa Foundation; and on 12 April, Nichiko Niwano, president ofRissho Kosei-Kai in Japan and president of the World Conference on Religion and Peace, along with Mrs. Yoshie Niwano and a delegation from Rissho Kosei-Kai. Several Baha'i communities had the honor of hosting government officials this year. President Amata Kabua of the Marshall Islands visited the Baha' i House of Worship in Apia, Western Samoa, on 3 December 1995 . President Kabua met with several members of the National Spiritual Assembly of Samoa, attended the Sunday service, and gave a speech in which he described his association with the Baha'i Faith and its members. President Teburoro Tito of Kiribati attended a reception held in his honor by the Baha'is of the Mariana Islands during his visit to Guam on 14 January 1996. The reception included a luncheon and an address to the gathering by President Tito. Also in the Marianas, the First Lady of Saipan, the Honorable Grace Tenorio, was one of about 150
...... ~'!~ people to attend the Naw-Ruz .·"!~ party held on that island . ••• .. •••.. ••• ••• ••••• •a RillS m• .-'-n•_'!. Baha'is have also continued their efforts to make contact with governmental leaders and heads of state, in order to offer to them the unique solutions to world problems contained in the teachings of their Faith. A representative of the National Spiritual Assembly of the United Kingdom participated in the Commonwealth Day Observance at Westminster Abbey in Visit of Senator Nick Bolkus, Austral- the presence of Her Majesty ian Federal Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs, to the Baha'i Queen Elizabeth II, held on 11 House of Worship in Sydney, 26 March 1996. The words of November 1995. Baha'u'llah were included in
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the service for the first time and were broadcast around the world by the BBC World Service. As in previous years, the National Assembly's representative was introduced to the Queen and His Royal Highness Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh. On 21 April 1995, a Baha'i group, including a number of youth, met with the President of Romania, the Minister of Youth and Recreation, the Representative of Religions in the Parliament, the Representative of Minority Rights in Romania, the officials of the Students' Union Against Racial Prejudice, and other prominent government officials. Baha'i teachings on the unity of humankind were offered to the President. A meeting was held with President Nelson Mandela of South Africa this year in order to present him with a statement on overcoming racial prejudice. A Baha'i delegation also visited President Bakili Muluzi of Malawi, on 3 August 1995. The Baha'is briefly informed the President about the history and principles of their Faith, and presented him with a copy of The Promise of World Peace and other Baha'i books. The President responded by expressing his happiness that the Baha'is are helping the government's program for alleviating poverty in rural areas, and he encouraged them to work on literacy and primary health care programs. On the evening of2 May 1995, members of the Baha'i School Management Team of the Marshall Islands, together with members of the Schools Project Board and others, paid a courtesy visit to President Amata Kabua and the First Lady at their residence. The purpose of the visit was for the team members, who were all non-Marshallese, to greet the Head of State of the country, to express their appreciation for his continued support and guidance, and to update him on the progress of the Schools Project (see The Baha'i World 1994- 95, p. 128). On 31 January 1996, the nine members of the Spiritual Assembly of Puerto Rico met with Governor Pedro Rosello in his office. Members of the Assembly offered the services of the Assembly and of the community to the government, while emphasizing the non-political character of the Baha'i Faith. The Baha'is of Namibia presented information on the Baha'i Faith,
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including the statement Baha 'u 'llah, to a number of regional governors, council members, senior ministry officials and tribal chiefs. Additionally, on 25 April 1995, the First Lady, Mrs. Kovambo Nujoma, visited the home of a Baha'i for tea and to receive the statement Baha 'u 'llah and other literature on the Baha'i Faith. A Baha'i was asked to perform a song during the official celebrations held to mark the anniversary of the birth of President Theodora Obiang Nguema Mbasogo of Equatorial Guinea. After the song, the .youth personally gave to the President copies of Call to the Nations, The Promise of World Peace, a book of Baha'i prayers in vernacular languages, and a book on consultation. Her Highness Princess To' oa Tosi Malietoa, daughter of the Head of State of Western Samoa, paid a visit to Fiji in August. Some 600 people received her during her stay, including eight high chiefs and the elders of their tribes, to whom she presented copies of The Prosperity of Humankind. In addition, she talked about the Baha'i Faith with prominent women and leading members of the government. Her Highness's tour was organized as part of the Ocean of Light Project. Children In the Baha'i Faith, deeds of service and sacrifice belong to all alike, regardless of age. Children, too, are summoned to serve others, to share Baha'u'llah's message, and to work for the betterment of humanity. Baha'is believe that it is through good character and a sincere desire to serve humankind that the benefits of intellectual development can be revealed. For this reason, community efforts to train and educate Baha'i children begin with moral classes. The Baha'i community of Niamey, Niger, takes advantage of the power of universal participation to bring Baha'i teachings to its young people. "Almost every Baha'i in town," according to one account, "is either a parent, a transporter, a teacher, a student, or a host to a Baha'i class." Monthly study sessions are also held for the teachers during which a variety of teaching strategies are presented. The Baha'i community ofYigo in the Mariana Islands hosts regular Baha'i children's classes for almost 50 children
of various religious backgrounds. Parents of children who are not Baha'is often observe the classes. Two communal preschools managed by Baha'is in Managua, Nicaragua, received approval from the Ministry of Education to teach the Baha'i Faith in classes through use of prayers, songs, celebrations of Baha'i Holy Days, and various texts. In Panama, Oscar Torres Wilde, a Baha'i, conducted a seminar on moral leadership at the Faculty of Education of the University of Panama which attracted the participation ~~~~~~~~~===a of various professors Participants in a Baha 'i teacher-training course and students. A moral held on 18 May 1995 in Myanmar. education seminar took place from 9 to 11 June 1995 in Bangkok, Thailand, attended by Baha'is from various ASEAN countries. Quito, in the northern sierras of Ecuador, was the scene for a workshop on moral leadership, which took place on 15 and 16 July 1995. The executive body of the Solomon Islands radio station has approved the use of The Virtues Guide for the content of a radio program sponsored by the Baha'i community. In India, the Inspector General of Prisons expressed to the National Spiritual Assembly her desire that the Baha'is take charge of training trainers for a moral education program that would reach more than 8,000 inmates in four prisons. In addition, the Baha'is were requested to provide audiovisual materials and books, as well as to make monthly visits to speak about spiritual matters to a general meeting of prisoners. The Baha'is of Venezuela have developed classroom material for moral education in primary and secondary schools, which, in September 1995, were adopted by a regional school board. Principles of moral education were offered by Baha'is to school teachers in Costa Rica, Macau, Taiwan, Peru, and Russia (Chita). In January 1996, Universidad Nur, a large private university in
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Bolivia, celebrated its tenth anniversary with a program held in Santa Cruz. The inspiration for Nur comes from the Baha'i Faith. The first Baha'i primary school of Madagascar was inaugurated on 29 May 1995 in Beravina Lovasoa, under the patronage of Mrs. Therese Zafy, the First Lady. The National Minister of Education and a number of other dignitaries also attended the ceremony. In Tuvalu, a Baha'i kindergarten which is registered by the government opened this year in the National Baha'i Center. In February 1996, the Local Spiritual Assembly of Universidad Nur in Santa Cruz, Bolivia, Kwun Tong, in Hong celebrated its tenth anniversary this year. Kong, held its first children's moral education class, in an estate facility. Before approving the Baha'i classes, representatives of the estate observed how the Baha'is conducted a similar class and reviewed the proposed curriculum. In Finland, the Baha'i Child Education Committee organized a Nordic Conference on Child Education, which was held in Marieharnn from 13 to 16 April 1996. The theme was "Civic Education for an Emerging Global Society", and attendees came from Finland, Norway and Sweden. The Malawi Government's Ministry of Education and UNICEF invited Mrs. Nahid Mazloum, a Baha'i of Malawi, to be the interim chairperson of the Sensitization Sub-Committee for launching a program of Malawi's Education for All. The launching day, 6 September 1995, was attended by the State President and the First Lady, as well as other dignitaries. The Malawi Broadcasting Corporation aired the opening prayer, offered by a Baha'i child and then subsequently sung by a group of Baha'i children. On 21 and 22 November 1995 the Baha'i community of Mongolia, representing the Baha'i International Community, took part in a meeting in Ulaan Baatar of nongovernmental organizations whose aim was to promote the Convention on the
Rights of the Child. The event was organized by the Mongolian Development Center, an agency based on Baha'i principles. Youth From the earliest days of the Baha'i Faith's history, youth have played a special role in its promotion. Today's youth continue to contribute significantly by traveling, offering periods of fulltime service, and engaging in special projects. Many Baha'i communities, in their efforts to foster positive action on the part of their youth, have established traveling performance groups known as Baha'i youth workshops (see The Baha'i World 1994- 95, pp. 172- 77). In July, the Pillars of Peace Youth Group from Alberta, Canada, attended the Arctic Knights Conference in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada, and performed on several occasions: at the conference, at a downtown mall, at an alcohol and drug detoxification center, on the Hay River Reserve and in Kakisa, a native community. Their downtown performance was covered by CBC television and radio (the national media) and by the local newspaper, resulting in the group's being the lead story on the prime time news hour. At the native gathering held in Kakisa the youth were officially welcomed by the grand chief and invited to stay and participate in the council, which enabled them to perform and attend workshops. Baha'i Youth in Motion, a workshop in Ethiopia, carried out a well-received performance in July in the area of Nure, followed by a banquet lunch held at the local Baha'i center. As a result, the coordinator of the American Peace Corps requested that the show be staged for his staff of 30 at the Teachers' College. The youth agreed and ultimately performed for more than 300 people, including teachers and students at the college. The youth also performed in the town of Awas sa, where over one thousand people came to see the workshop in action, including members of the media. Other youth workshops which were active this year include the Y akutsk Dance Workshop in Y akutia, Russia; Awake in the Netherlands; the Maui Youth Workshop in Maui, Hawaii; Panacea, composed of youth serving atthe Baha'i World Centre,
which traveled and performed for two weeks in Hungary; the Letters of the Living Project, which performed in Wallsend in the United Kingdom; the Youth for One World workshop from New Zealand, which traveled to Japan; the Dizzy Dance Theatre in Australia; and the Anchorage Baha'i Youth Workshop in Alaska. In addition to the efforts of youth workshops, youth engaged in a number of special endeavors to share the message of Baha'u'llah with the people of various areas. In the Sparks of Peace project, Baha'i youth from all over the Caribbean went to Barbados for a two-week institute to study the Baha'i teachings, and then split into five teams and spent two weeks teaching the Baha'i Faith in Barbados, Tobago, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Antigua, and Jamaica. A "youth movement" initiated in Orissa, India, resulted in the election of five new Local Spiritual Assemblies through an ambitious campaign covering 42 villages and cities in thirteen days. A youth group formed in the Czech Republic, engaging in such activities as regular visits to a home for the elderly, street teaching, and planning Holy Day observances. Anthems of Unity, their youth workshop, began offering performances. In Trinidad, two special teams were formed which focused on teaching the Faith and visiting Baha'i communities to stimulate and encourage them. The Youth for One World BaM 'i youth workshop from New Zealand performing on 9 August 1995 in the park in Nagasaki, Japan, which marks the place where an atomic bomb was dropped exactly fifty years before.
The Baha'i youth of Zaire organized two days of reflection on 23 and 24 July 1995 on the theme of "Supporting Our Youth." The event took place in the Regional Baha'i Center of Lubumbashi and was attended by over 200 people from various denominations and nongovernmental organizations, as well as the local
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Mauritian Baha'i youth visiting the President of the Republic and presenting to him a proposed contribution to a charter for the youth ofMauritius, July 1995.
authorities. Three young people traveled through Portugal to share the Baha'i Faith, visiting Maia, Viana do Castelo, and Braga. The youth in Wa, Ghana, have formed an environmental group to help neighbors clean their surroundings free of charge and a football club as a way of teaching the Faith. Young Baha'is have been active in Seoul and Taejon, South Korea. A peace club and a dance workshop have been organized in each city and include the participation of both Baha'i youth and those of other religions. Members of the European Baha'i Youth Council and youth from the American Baha'i community participated in "Youth '95: Alliance for Progressive Global Change," a conference held in San Francisco, in the United States, from 17 to 20 June 1995. The event's chief organizers were Project Global 2000 and the World Federalist Association. It was also cosponsored by 52 international and national organizations and United Nations agencies, including the European Baha'i Youth Council itself. Participants explored possible United Nations reform initiatives in light of the recommendations contained in the report of the Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood. The Youth Council also sponsored a workshop on "Global Consciousness and the Baha'i Faith," presenting the Baha'i view of the individual's relationship to society and the world. Eighty-one young Baha'is from six localities attended the Youth Music and Art Festival held on Majuro, in the Marshall Islands, from 25 to 30 December 1995. The enthusiasm and energy from the festival carried over to the National Deepening
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Conference, also organized by the Youth Committee, which took place from 1 to 3 January 1996 on Majuro and which was also attended by the 81 youth. The first Baha: i Youth Camp was held in Georgia from 6 to 10 July 1995 "amidst luscious greenery, the environment being most suitable for meditation, prayer and contemplation." Fifty youth from all over Georgia attended the event. Baha'i youth conferences were held in Bolivia, England, Germany, India, Madagascar, Malaysia, the Mariana Islands, and South Africa. In addition to youth gatherings with diverse activities, Baha'i communities often hold special study institutes for youth. The Baha'i community of Argentina held a course entitled "Future Society" as one means of educating the youth. Some 25 facilitators traveled throughout the country during the year to hold classes. The aim is to transform the youth through the knowledge of Baha'i texts and the promotion of learning. Youth study institutes were also held in Australia and Ireland. Women A particular emphasis is placed in the Baha'i writings on the special contributions women will make to the peace process. This fact and the principle of the equality of men and women necessitate that systematic efforts be made both to assist women to reach their potential and to build families which assist this process. Baha'i women and men took part in a workshop in Colombo, Sri Lanka, on 30 September 1995 with a theme of "Health,
Singaporean Baha'i youth Jordan Melic presenting France 's UN ambassador with a copy of A World in Our Hands, which was commissioned by the UN and which he coedited.
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Harmony, and Human Rights of Women," sponsored by the United Nations Development Program. The participants of the Fifth Swiss Congress of Women, held from 19 to 21 January 1996, passed a resolution based on the Baha'i submission which calls upon the Swiss government to include education for peace in the normal school curriculum, giving due consideration to the question of human rights and violence-free conflict resolution. Six members of the Union Luxembourgeoise des Femmes Baha'ies attended and presented a written statement to a public hearing on the status of women held by the Parliament of Luxembourg on 29 January and 2 February 1996. At the International Women's Conference held in Belarus from 24 to 26 November 1995, the Baha'i model of consultation was hailed as an effective tool for conflict resolution. The Baha'i Office for the Advancement of Women of the Eastern Caroline Islands was represented at an in-country workshop on counseling and interpersonal communication skills which was held on Yap from 11 to 15 December 1995. Swedish Baha'i women were active and noticeable participants in the Women's Day ceremonies on 8 March 1996 in their country. Then from 19 to 21 April 1996 the Baha'is of Orebro, Sweden, participated in an exhibition focusing on the role of women in enterprises, held by the Women-Vision organization. A twenty-minute video entitled Waves of One Sea was produced by Token Productions on the women, and particularly Baha'is, from all over the continent of Africa who had gathered in Dakar, Senegal, in November 1994, for the 5th Preparatory Conference for the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women. The film was broadcast during the Beijing conference on 7 September 1995 by the 25 national affiliate broadcasters of WETV, a global access television network based in Canada. Baha'i communities are increasingly organizing events aimed at encouraging, educating, and empowering women. The Olinga Institute in Kerala, India, reported that its fifth course specially designed to promote the empowerment of women was held from 24 to 26 November 1995. Participants included many families. The Baha'i women ofikot Oko Ibon, Nigeria, seoured a piece of land to farm, using the proceeds to support women's activities
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in the state. The women also conducted an institute on the Baha'i Faith and family life. In Kenya, the ninth annual National Women's Conference was held from 10 to 13 August 1995 in Nakuru. The theme of the conference was "Women and Peace." Women of the Bulgarian Baha'i community held the first National Women's Seminar this year, organized by the European Task Force for Women. The theme of the seminar was "Encouragement." In the Baltic States, a seminar was held incorporating the three themes of "Encouragement, Transformation, and Service." The event was attended by five representatives of the three Baltic State Baha'i communities, who gathered in Kaunas on 5 and 6 August 1995. Baha'i women in the Czech Republic held a seminar on 18 and 19 November designed to encourage Baha'i women to arise and use their talents to serve the Baha'i Faith. The European Task Force for Women sponsored a training course to assist Baha'i women in "Becoming Ensigns of Peace." Held in Acuto, Italy, the course attracted 73 women from 26 countries. The Minister of Social Affairs and Promotion of Women in Chad, Mrs. Achta Selgue, approached the Baha'i community of N'Djamena this year to ask for help with organization of a program for Pan-African Women's Day. Consequently, the Baha'i community hosted a public meeting for prayer and meditation and participated in a round table discussion about the status of women and eradication of poverty. In honor of International Women's Day this year, the Baha'i women of the Central African Republic offered an exhibition of
This tapestry, designed and ~. ,.,. assembled by Vickie Hu Poirier, a renowned American Baha'i artist, was displayed for the first time at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing Baha 'f women from around the world contributed to the piece.
sewing, soap-making and other handicrafts, as well as a display of books on women, and made a presentation on women in the Baha'i world community during activities sponsored by the Organization of Women of Central Africa. In Malawi, the Local Spiritual Assembly of Lilongwe sponsored a reception in celebration of International Women's Day on 8 March 1996. Participants included various people of prominence in Malawian society, including Mrs. F. Malewezi, the wife of the Vice-President. In Gabon, a public conference on equality of rights of women and men was held in Libreville on 7 March, organized by the Local Spiritual Assembly to observe International Women's Day. Radio Africa No. 1, which is broadcast in all francophone countries of Africa, covered the event. Then on 8 March, a Baha'i speaker kicked off a seminar organized by the Ministry of Women's Status in recognition of International Women's Day. The President of the Republic was in attendance, as well as the Minister of National Education, the wife of the Prime Minister and other personalities, the media and an audience of nearly 300 women from all over the country. The Baha'i address was covered by a television channel and by l 'Union, the national daily newspaper. In Bariloche, Argentina, five distinguished women were honored by the Baha'i community on 8 March to commemorate International Women's Day. The women were also interviewed for a program on a popular radio station. The National Spiritual Assembly of India's Office for the Advancement of Women, in collaboration with the All India Women's Conference, observed International Women's Day by holding a conference at the National Baha'i Center on 15 March. The theme chosen was "Women and Men: Partnership for a Healthy Planet." Various Baha'i communities have arranged other types of events to promote the advancement of women and their participation in the peace process. In Nepal, David Walker has won acclaim for his work with women who are illiterate. Reports indicate that as Regional Director of PACT, a USAID organization, he has been instrumental in bringing literacy to 150,000
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women a year in Nepal. His efforts were the subject of a documentary video, part of the Visionaries program by the Public Broadcasting System in the United States. Mr. Walker credits the Baha'i Faith as the source of his inspiration for this work. On Rarotonga, in the Cook Islands, the Baha'is held a public meeting on 9 October 1995 on the topic of the equality of women and men. More than thirty people attended the event, including a number of the island's prominent women. A conference entitled "Active Role of Women in the New World Order," held in Adana, Turkey, on 7 April1996, attracted 550 participants, including members of the Union of Adana Women's Associations, and on 9 April a live program was aired on local television in which Baha'i views were discussed. L' Association baha'ie de Femmes in France hosted on 20 January the symposium "Women- A Constructive Complementarity," held in Clemenceau Hall, at the Palais du Luxembourg, the seat of the French Senate. Baha'i women's committees all over the world have given special attention to family life, believing that the condition of women in society and family functioning powerfully affect each other. In Ethiopia, the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs invited the participation of the Baha'is in a two-day national workshop on the situation of displaced/dislocated families and street children, on 29 and 30 June 1995. Chile hosted two events regarding women and family this year. On 3 and 4 June 1995 a conference in Labranza attracted participants from both north and south. On 30 September and 1 October the Local Spiritual Assembly of Puerto Montt hosted a meeting with the assistance of the Committee for Women and the Family for the South and the Baha'is of Bollilco, Loncopulle, Osomo, Temuco, and Valdivia. Reports were received of two fora held in Malaysia on the subject of the family. The Office for the Advancement of Women organized a public forum on laws pertaining to the family, held 17 June 1995, in which the Minister of National Unity and Social Development participated. In Ipoh, the Local Spiritual Assembly sponsored a National Forum on Family on 1
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October. The Baha'is of Sri Lanka also related news of two such events in their community this year. On 31 December a regional family conference was held in Colombo, and another was held in Adams Peak Estate on 7 January 1996. The National Baha'i Women's Committee of Albania held a conference from 27 to 29 October 1995 on the theme of "Man, Woman, Family, Society: In Search of a New Paradigm." Special efforts were made to include both women and men in this conference, and keynote talks and workshops were offered by Albanian professionals and Baha'i speakers from Europe. Albanian State Television filmed part of the opening evening session, brief segments of which were shown on prime time news. The special concern within Baha'i communities for eradicating violence within families spurred seminars and conferences across the globe over the past year. On 5 November 1995 a symposium on creating a violence-free society was held by the Baha'i community of Yokohama, Japan. During the event the need was cited to create unity-based families rather than families based on power and pleasure. In Antigua, in the East Leeward Islands, a symposium was held from 24 to 26 May 1995 to consult on strategies for eradicating family violence. Representatives from eleven Caribbean nations, the United Nations Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), and the Caribbean Community Secretariat gathered for this event, which was cosponsored by the Baha'is of the East Leeward Islands, the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), and UNICEF. On 15 April 1996 a seminar was held in Nuku'alofa, Tonga, on the "Violence-Free Family," attended by the Honorable Prince Ma'atu and his wife the Honorable Alaileula, who is the granddaughter of the Malietoa, the Head of State of Western Samoa; the speaker of the Legislative Assembly; the High Commissioner of Tonga to the United Kingdom; and the Head of the United States Peace Corps. Drs. Moojan and Wendi Momen, Baha'is from the United Kingdom, spoke about the causes of violence in the family and creating peaceful families. The seminar was also noteworthy in that it was the first time the issue of family violence had been addressed in that manner in Tonga.
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In Gaborone, Botswana, .a conference was arranged by the Baha'i National Women and Child Education Committee which was entitled "Creating a Violence-Free Family," to follow up on issues raised during the United Nations Year of the Family. The formal program was followed by music, folk dancing, and a short dramatic presentation by the Gaborone Baha'i youth. The tragedies befalling families in war-tom areas of the world inevitably affect their most vulnerable membe~s in especially brutal ways, as is apparent in the former Yugoslavia. The National Spiritual Assembly of the United States has participated in efforts to bring the issues of concern to women to the attention of those implementing the Dayton Accords. Because of these efforts, Katharine Cosby and Firuz Kazemzadeh of the United States Baha'i community were invited by First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton to a coffee reception at the White House on 29 January 1996 in recognition of ongoing humanitarian assistance to the people of Bosnia. The work of integrating women's concerns and issues more fully into the Bosnian peace process continues. Cultural Events and Indigenous Bah a'is Members of the Baha'i community of Canada participated in the first Sacred Assembly held between aboriginal and non-aboriginal peoples from 6 to 9 December 1995 in Hull, Quebec. The Baha'i presence in the Assembly received media coverage in the form of three interviews for the official video, a television and a radio interview, and the airing by the Inuit Broadcasting Corporation of the Pow-Wow Eskimo Drum performance given by a Baha'i, his presentation about the Faith, and an interview in the Inuktitut language. On 24 and 25 November 1995, the Baha'is of Malaysia held a cultural festival in the Kapit Division, which included performances of Iban cultural dances, the reciting of "pantun" (poems), and field events for women and children. The Baha'i community of Coronado, Costa Rica, organized a celebration of the Day of the Cultures which was attended by about 1,500 people, including many school children. The highlight of the event was a performance by a group of Guaymi Baha'is who had traveled from their homes in the hills near the
Panamanian border to the program's site near the city of San Jose. Approximately one thousand Inuit people from Greenland, Canada, Chokotka (Russia) and Alaska converged on Nome, Alaska, from 24 to 30 July 1995 in order to participate in the Inuit Circumpolar Conference. The Nome Baha'i community contributed significantly towards the success of the event. The Pacific Horizons International Conference, held in Auckland, New Zealand, from 10 to 13 January 1996, attracted over 1,500 Baha'is from 26 countries. The conference program was a blend of workshops, keynote speeches, and entertainment, with a focus on issues that affect indigenous people. Patricia Locke, who is a Baha'i from the United States, is the first Native American woman to win a MacArthur Fellowship. Mrs. Locke served as the chair of the Indigenous Women's Caucus at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing and is the executor of an international institute dealing with Native American language issues. She has helped seventeen American Indian nations establish postsecondary institutions on their reservations and has assisted Indian nations in enacting language, culture, and educational policies within the area of their jurisdictions. Race Unity In the United States and Canada, a great many significant gatherings were convened in various communities in honor of Race Unity Day, reflecting those Baha'is' continuing response to the special appeals addressed to them by 'Abdu'l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi for their "ceaseless exertions" in addressing this "most vital and challenging issue." The following are some representative examples.
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Memorable moments from the Pacific Horizons Conference in New Zealand, January 1996: facing page, a Maori performance; this page, from top, a Samoan group; the children's presentation; a performance by Tongan visitors.
The Baha'is in Salt Lake City, Utah, organized a "Color Me Human" conference in late June/early July 1995 whose theme was "raising the first generation free of prejudice." The event was extremely successful, was attended by members of a number of Baha'i Youth Workshops, and included the participation of about eighty Baha'i youth in a local parade. The mayor of Salt Lake City proclaimed "Color Me Human" week, and the conference concluded with an outdoor festival. A number of Baha'i communities in Indiana participated in and hosted celebrations of Race Unity Day. The Bloomington Baha'is organized festivities in a park which included a presentation by a representative of Indiana University. In Fort Wayne, the Baha'is took part in the Black Expo, at which the Indian Dawnbreakers Baha'i Youth Workshop performed and invited people to the next day's Race Unity Day program. Observances were also held in Gary and Indianapolis. An observance of Race Unity Day in Peoria, Illinois, called upon the expertise of Reginald Newkirk, a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada and a worker in the field of human rights and race relations for more than two decades. Mr. Newkirk spoke at a meeting on 10 June 1995 to students and parents of the group Tomorrow's Scientists, Technicians and Managers, at which the Central Illinois Baha'i Youth Workshop also performed. The Mayor of Peoria declared 11 June "Race Unity Day." On 10 June the Baha'i community of Jackson-Madison County, Tennessee, were joined by Baha'is from Henderson and Decatur counties at the first-ever race unity gathering in the three neighboring counties, held at Jackson's Highland Park. A city councilman proclaimed "Race Unity Day" in Jackson. From 22 to 25 February 1996, the Local Spiritual Assembly of Charleston, South Carolina, sponsored a conference with the theme of "Race Unity: A Prescription for the Healing of the Nation," during which an array of speakers "diagnosed" the problem of racial disunity and "prescribed" remedies from the teachings ofBaha'u'llah. Each year many Baha'i communities in the United States take part in local events commemorating the life and work of Martin
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Luther King Jr. In Torrance, California, Baha'is made an effort to unite diverse groups in the city on 14 January 1996 in the "Revitalize the Dream" event, dedicated to remembering and recommitting to Dr. King's dream of racial harmony. Hard work on 1996's Martin Luther King Day events in Savannah, Georgia, earned the Baha'is an even greater role in the
Participants in a conference on racial unity organized by the Baha'is of Romania.
future. The Baha'i community was one of the celebration's major sponsors, alongside various corporations, and Baha'is worked behind the scenes on several of the weekend's events, including the annual parade- billed as the nation's largest, as Atlanta's parade was not held this year. In addition, a Baha'i was named to the mayor's newly formed Human Relations Commission. At the end of March 1996, the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada presented its fourth annual Baha'i Race Unity Award to Sylvia Hamilton, a noted filmmaker, human rights educator, published author, and coeditor and contributor to the first-ever collection on African-Canadian women's history. Late April 1995 saw more than 30 students from schools throughout the Cowichan Valley in British Columbia, Canada, plus more than 70 students from the Maxwell International Baha'i Secondary School, gather together for a conference entitled "Healing the Wounds of Racism," held at the Maxwell School in British Columbia. For the fourth year in a row, many mayors across Canada proclaimed "Unity in Diversity Week," a concept originally put forward by the Baha'i community. Educational fora, multicultural suppers, pancake breakfasts and many arts evenings with
entertainment from representatives of different cultures were held. The focus of Unity in Diversity Week is to celebrate diversity as a source of strength and unity. Efforts to promote race unity are not exclusive to American and Canadian Baha'i communities. In Bermuda, the Baha'i community organized a concert in Victoria Park, Hamilton, in celebration of Race Unity Day. Subsequently, the House of Assembly of Bermuda voted to send a letter of thanks and congratulations to the Baha'i community. From 27 May to 3 June 1995, the Baha'i community of Rockdale, Australia, in association with other concerned groups in that country, hosted a week of prayer for reconciliation between non-Aboriginal Australians and Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders. The Honorable George Thompsom of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly, who was asked to give an address, later spoke in Parliament about the program. The Albury and Wodonga Baha'i communities of Australia held their annual multicultural evening on 24 June 1995 to commemorate National Refugee Week. Held at the W odonga Civic Center, the event attracted 400 people of 30 different nationalities. The Honorable Lou Liebermann, Federal Member for Indi, opened the evening. On 24 March 1996, the Council of Churches of Leiden, the Netherlands, held an interreligious meeting on Anti-Racism Day with the cooperation of the Baha'is of Leiden and Leiderdorp, a Buddhist group, representatives of several Christian churches, and a Muslim community. The motto of the event was "Unity in Diversity." The program included a performance by the Baha'i youth workshop Awake and the reading of a few Baha'i texts on the theme. On 19 August 1995 in Hawaii, as part of the activities for Aloha Peace Week, which commemorates the end of World War II, Joy DeGruy Leary offered insights into "Post-Traumatic Slave Syndrome: America's Legacy of Enduring Injury" during a seminar held on the university of Hawaii campus. More than 70 people attended the event. Mrs. Leary, a cultural diversity consultant and a Baha'i, stated that world peace will only be
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established after the long-standing prejudices that separate people are abolished. Peace Innumerable presentations, big and small, are made on the subject of peace each year by Baha'i communities throughout the world. The following are just a few of the efforts which have taken place in the Baha'i world this year. The Baha'is in the Congo played a leading role in the organization of the World Peace Day observance held on 19 September 1995 at the United Nations Information Center in that country. The Baha'i speaker represented all the national religious communities at the event. The Baha'is of Quetta, Pakistan, organized a peaGe walk on 17 September 1995, involving about 1,300 students from six different boys' schools. The walk ended at the Baha'i Center in Quetta, where 2,000 gas balloons were released. The Local Spiritual Assembly of Athens, Greece, decided to create a poster in commemoration of the United Nations International Day of Peace. The text was quoted from 'Abdu'l-Baha, " ... let us try ... peace, and if the results of peace are bad, then we can choose ... to go back to the old state of war!" As the Baha'is put up the posters during September they met with many positive responses. The quotation was published in Athens News on 19 September 1995. More than one hundred people attended a celebration of International Peace Day on 17 September 1995 at the Baha'i House of Worship in Panama City, Panama. The celebration included a devotional program and presentations on peace. The Local Spiritual Assembly of Puerto de la Cruz in the Canary Islands organized a series of activities for World Day of Prayer for Peace on 24 September. The theme for the effort, which was supported by the municipality and a number of civic organizations, was "United for Peace." The Fourth Festival for International Understanding, organized by Baha'is, was held in Altenkirchen, Germany, on 21 May 1995, with the motto "World Peace through World Unity," under the patronage of the Minister of State for the Interior and
Sport in Rhineland-Palatinate. The event was also attended by the district council president, the mayor and some 450 guests. This year on World Environment Day, soil from sixteen additional countries was deposited into the Peace Monument in Brazil. 1 The countries which contributed soil this year were the Bahamas, Bermuda, Guinea, Jordan, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Latvia, Malaysia, New Caledonia, Peru, Romania, the Philippines, the Slovak Republic, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey, Ukraine, and Vanuatu, bringing to 84 the total number of nations and territories contributing thus far. This year's ceremonies were attended by approximately 200 people, including diplomats from Switzerland, Latvia, and Romania, and the Secretary of the Environment for the state of Rio de Janeiro.
The Peace Pavilion, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada, dedicated on 24 June 1995.
On 16 June 1995 in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada, the foreign ministers attending the conference of the "Group of Seven" richest industrial nations (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States) being held in Halifax officially unveiled the World Peace Pavilion. On 24 June, more than 500 people came to the pavilion to celebrate peace and to participate in its local dedication. The idea of the World Peace Pavilion was conceived in 1989 by a group called Metro Youth for Global Unity, whose members were from various cultural and religious backgrounds, including the Baha'i
1. See also The Baha'i World 1992-93, pp. 185- 87, The Baha'i World 1993-94, p. 135, and The Baha'i World 1994- 95, p. 147.
Faith. The words of Baha'u'lhih, "Let your vision be worldembracing," are inscribed in the concrete of the monument in letters 25 centimeters high, extending across fourteen meters. For the inauguration, Dartmouth's mayor, a federal member of Parliament, and the Premier of Nova Scotia all gave short talks applauding both the spirit of the project and the initiative of the youth who had begun it. Interfaith Activities On 13 August 1995, an "Interfaith Gathering for Peace with Justice" was held at Kakaako Waterfront Park in Honolulu, Hawaii, officially kicking off the Aloha Peace Week. A peace offering was made on behalf of the Hawaiian Baha'i community in the form of conch shell blowing, and the Hawaiian Institute of the Baha'i Faith offered sacred Hawaiian chants and sang the words ofBaha'u'llah which begin "Blessed is the spot." Each year one of the major churches in the Bhunya region of Swaziland holds a unity night vigil, the purpose of which is for the different churches to gain a better understanding of each other's beliefs and activities. The Baha'is have been invited to participate each year; this year they were able to introduce an audience of about 450 to the Faith and to offer Baha'i songs. On 5 November 1995, Baha'is ofDrogheda, Ireland, were the only non-Christian group represented at a special ecumenical service held to commemorate the 700th anniversary of the arrival of Augustinian friars in the area. The President of the Republic of Ireland, Mary Robinson, was in attendance at the ceremony, during which a verse from Baha'i writings was read. The Baha'i Faith was one of the four faiths featured in a symposium organized by the Faculty of Catholic Theology of Burgos, in Spain, for the study of leading monotheistic religions, attended by the Archbishop of Burgos. Other interfaith activities in which Baha'is participated this year included the following: on 30 July 1995, Baha'is in the Cook Islands participated in and sang three songs for a national prayer service organized by the Religious Advisory Committee and attended by over 1,000 people, including the Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister; Baha'is participated in an interreligious
gathering held on 6 August in the gardens of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization's offices in Paris, France, offering writings ofBaha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha during the service; and from 19 to 22 October in Geneva, Switzerland, Baha'is offered their perspective during a program featuring round table discussion about teaching tolerance in schools. Baha'is have taken a central role in interfaith efforts initiated since the bombing of the federal building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, in the United States. A Baha'i was elected chairman of Interfaith Disaster Recovery of Greater Oklahoma City, and the new organization's mission statement begins with the words of Baha'u'llah "So powerful is the light of unity that it can illuminate the whole earth." The mission statement has been distributed to all churches and synagogues in the area, as well as to governmental and other agencies involved in cleanup and recovery. The Baha'is of Angola are now represented on a Council of the National Institute of Religious Affairs in Angola, which has the task of coordinating the activities of the various religious organizations in the country. The Baha'i representative has also been invited to participate in a Commission for Humanitarian · Assistance. World Religion Day observances sponsored by Baha'i communities in Singapore, Tanzania, and Sri Lanka each involved the participation of leaders of various religions. Environment David Chittleborough was the representative of the Baha'i International Community at the Earth Charter Workshop, held at the Peace Palace in The Hague from 29 to 31 May 1995. The intent of the Earth Charter is to set out the moral imperatives of sustainable development as well as norms and standards for state and interstate behavior. Former Prime Minister of the Netherlands, R. Lubbers, chaired and addressed the opening session of the workshop, as did the heads of the two partners for the Earth Charter Initiative, Mikhail Gorbachev as President of Green Cross International and Maurice Strong as Chairman of the Earth
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Council. During the workshop, several interventions were made giving the Baha'i perspective on global environmental problems. At the end of the workshop, Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands invited a group of about ten members to a reception and lunch which she and Prince Claus held in Noordeinde Palace. At that event, Dr. Chittleborough was introduced to the Queen as the representative of the Baha'i International Community. The Baha'i community of Brazil, through its Office of the Environment and Development (EMAD), participated in ECO APLICADA 95, the Third Latin American Encounter of Environmental Educators, from 12 to 15 October in Rio de Janeiro. Parallel to the encounter, the Second International Show of Ecological Video Tapes took place. The video of the Baha'i environmental art education project "Tomorrow Belongs to the Children" received two prizes. The Baha'i International Community was invited to send a representative to participate in the "Revelation and the Environment" symposium sponsored by the Ecumenical Patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church and held from 20 to 27 September on a cruise ship based in Piraus, the main port for Athens, Greece. William Hatcher, as the Baha'i representative, presented a paper. From 21 to 26 April1995, an exhibition of children's art from 3 8 different countries around the world was held at the Singapore Science Center. Entitled "Our Fragile Environment," the exhibition consisted of 220 pieces of artwork mounted onto specially designed and individually decorated canvas panels. The event was jointly organized by the Baha'i Office of the Environment for Singapore and its counterpart in Taiwan, where the exhibition was first shown. The Baha'i Office of the Environment for Taiwan, with the assistance of the Nantou and Tsaotun Baha'i communities, and the sponsorship of the Jong Hsin New Village Provincial Library, held a showing of the Second Annual International Children's Art Exhibition "Animals and Me" from 17 to 22 October. From 27 January to 4 February 1996, the Baha'i community of Macau organized an exhibition resulting from an international
art contest for children to promote environmental awareness. Four schools then invited Baha'is to conduct workshops for their students which used games and activities to help teach the children to preserve the environment. The Baha'is of India marked 1995 World Environment Day with a special conference in the 'I~~~= village of Sondhwa, 11ii1 organized with the assistance of local women's groups and of volunteers from """'----- - - --= .,._~=~~;;;...,_--= twenty villages in Activity associated with the International the Dhar and Jhabua Children's Art Exhibition "Animals and Me, "held districts and under in Macau in early 1996. the auspices of the Baha'i Vocational Institute for Rural Women in Madhya Pradesh. About 200 women and men gathered for this conference, which was the first of its kind to be held in the area. Three students from PRODES, a social development program, organized a seminar held in Santa Ana, El Salvador, on 10 November 1995. The event was entitled "Working for Our Future and the Environment," and presenters offered comments on "Approaches to the Environmental Crisis," "Reconceptualizing the Environmental Problem," and "Alternative Solutions- A Moral Perspective." Social and Economic Development From 5 to 16 June 1995, ten Baha'is in Vanuatu took part in the Literacy Awareness Workshop in Tanna, sponsored by the National Community Development Trust. Following the participation of three Baha'is in a literacy training workshop at the beginning of 1995, an agreement was made between the Baha'i community and the Literacy Association of Vanuatu for the funding of a three-year literacy project. The Baha'is are to offer trainers and trainees.
The National Spiritual Assembly of Guinea is operating a Baha'i Village Schools project, consisting of three phases: establishing schools in four villages during a period of three years; literacy training for the women of the same villages; and a social and economic development project with a special emphasis on women. As of 1995, seven commu- ~ities were. involv~d ) m the proJect, w1th rJ three villages in phase one, three in phase two, Children's environmental activity, Macau, 23 July 1995. and one in phase three. The Baha'i community of Pakistan reported that it held its first national conference on social and economic development on 26 December 1995 in Rawalpindi. Projects included a tree planting, free medical or eye camps, and academic tutoring. In Uganda, the Local Spiritual Assembly of Nabyoto initiated a number of social and economic development activities, including working with other concerned parties to begin adult literacy classes. The Baha'is ofDalkeith Estate, Sri Lanka, began conducting a class in English and one for literacy which has a focus on women. The Baha'is of Guyana are involved in several initiatives, including the development of a pilot literacy project targeting preadolescent youth. On 5 August 1995, ten members of the Radio Baha'i Institute in the Philippines completed a course on broadcasting, which featured hands-on training in programming, production, and broadcasting. One of the goals of Radio Baha'i is the upliftrnent of the social, economic and cultural life of the people. The sixth seminar for Baha'i radio stations was held in Vinto, Bolivia, from 3 to 13 February 1996, with radio personnel from the five Latin American stations- Panama, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chile- as well as Radio Baha'i in the United States.
The third North American Baha'i Conference on Social and Economic Development took place in Orlando, Florida, United States, from 21 to 26 December 1995. The conference had as its theme "Paths to Peace: Global Prosperity through the Advancement of Women, Human Rights, and Moral Development," and was attended by about 800 people from 28 countries. Guests of honor at the event were the Honorable Luiz Gushiken, member of the Brazilian Chamber of Deputies, and David Hofman and David Ruhe, former members of the Universal House of Justice. Eight National Assemblies sent representatives. The emphasis in the Baha'i Faith on service to humanity finds expression in a number of ways in community life. One such expression is the contribution to the health of various segments of society. The organization Health for Humanity joined with the University of Tirana in Albania to hold the first International Medical/Surgical Conference of Tirana, on 30 and 31 May and 1 June 1995. The event attracted more than four hundred Albanian physicians and 34 visitors from Switzerland, Holland, Spain, the United States, Canada, England, France, and Germany. Twenty Albanians and 16 visiting professors made 38 presentations in surgery, internal medicine, obstetrics/gynecology, and pediatrics . The national television aired a summary of the scientific proceedings and some interviews four times a day throughout the country. 1995 was also the first year of Health for Humanity's project to improve eye care in Albania, with a goal of reducing vision loss and blindness in that country.
Family greenhouse project sponsored by the ..,.......~, Mongolian Development Center, an agency based on Baha 'i principles. The project aims at encouragingfamilies to grow vegetables, thus improving the nutrition of children.
Village representatives in Vientiane, Laos, purchase cement rings for two water-wells destroyed by floods, October 1995.
The Baha'is of Cote d'Ivoire are taking part in a nationwide effort to eliminate river blindness. Local Baha'i communities participated this year in distributing the medicine used to combat the disease. In February 1996, the Baha'i Health Agency of South Africa, with the assistance of that of the United Kingdom, carried out a health care project in Polini in which 60 people were served by a doctor and nurses. The doctor, who is a Baha'i, also addressed the women in the village about child care, hygiene and primary health care and gave a presentation to the students of two schools on primary health c'are. This same health agency assisted the community of Zingqayi in conducting a feasibility study and submitting to the authorities a request for a supply of water to the area. The continuing problem of polio was highlighted in a health project in Uganda, jointly funded by the Baha'i community and the Canadian Public Health Authority. The objectives of the campaign were to increase immunization coverage against the six "killer diseases" and to improve general health through health education in the community. As a result of the campaign, immunization coverage has been shown to have doubled or tripled in more than half the communities where health workers have been trained, new immunization centers have been established, at least 80 percent of the communities have cleaned their water sources, some have collected funds and repaired their boreholes and others are building protected springs, and there are an increased number of pit latrines in many villages.
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In Kenya's Primary Health Care Course, held from 13 to 25 July 1995 at the Menu Baha'i Teaching Institute in Bungoma, 24 women and men were trained as primary health workers for their home communities. A Baha'i development committee held a seminar for community health agents from 22 to 31 May in Kaboke Nundu, Zaire, with participants from Fizi, Mwenga and Uvira. Trainers were provided by the committee and by a nearby hospital. Mrs. Lyowa of Zambia undertook a similar, two-week training course in March 1995 to become a Baha'i community health educator. Upon returning home, she cleaned up the family compound, dug a rubbish pit, and held a workshop for the people in her compound and for the teachers in the neighboring high school. She and Jeddah Bradley, a Baha'i youth from Australia serving in the area, arranged to teach the importance of primary health care and education for children through a four-day program which resulted in the formation of a women's club, called Twikatane (Come Together United). Many of the club members then took steps to improve sanitation in their homes and around their compounds. Mrs. Lyowa and Miss Bradley, joined by five other Baha'is, scrubbed and disinfected the women's ward of the Mporokoso District Hospital, and the Local Spiritual Assembly of Mporokoso agreed to adopt a part of the hospital grounds for flower gardens. Mrs. Lyowa and two other Baha'i community health educators joined another Baha'i in much-needed volunteer work in the hospital's pediatrics clinic, through which they noticed that the clothes for the patients were being washed by their relatives and put on the ground to dry. This fact was brought to the attention of the Local Assembly, which consequently had a clothesline built outside the ward. In August, a refresher course was held for the Baha'i health educators, after which there was a special ceremony to unveil on the hospital grounds a plaque declaring that part of the hospital grounds had been adopted by the Baha'is of Mporokoso. This prompted a representative of the secondary school to say that the school would also adopt some of the hospital grounds and would go into competition with the Baha'is in making the area beautiful. These many improvements in the lives of the people of Mporokoso are
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the result of the effort to offer just a short period of training to one woman. Involvement in the Life of Society In obedience to the behest of Baha'u'llah to "be anxiously concerned with the needs of the age ye live in, and center your deliberations on its exigencies and requirements," Baha'is the world over are stepping up the tempo of their contributions to dialogue on the issues confronting humanity today. The Baha'is in the Eastern Caroline Islands presented a paper at the recent Federated States of Micronesia Economic Summit held in Pohnpei. The paper, which was entitled "The Purpose of Development and the Decision-Making Process," included concepts from the Baha'i statements Turning Point for All Nations (see pp. 241 - 83) and The Prosperity o.f Humankind (see The Baha'i World 1994- 95, pp. 273- 96) and was the only paper offered by a nongovernmental organization. Jaime Duhart- a Baha'i and a member of the board of Universidad Bolivariana of Chile- toured a number of Latin American countries this year including Peru, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Cuba. In each country he presented The Prosperity o.f Humankind to nongovernmental organizations, university staff, and other interested groups. His efforts were covered by local media in many of the places he visited. As a follow up to the Copenhagen Social Summit, the Baha'is of Botswana hosted a seminar on human prosperity at the University of Botswana, in Gaborone, on 26 September 1995. The Cook Islands Baha'i community of Te Au 0 Tonga, working with its National Spiritual Assembly, presented The Prosperity o.f Humankind to 150 people, beginning with the Queen's Representative, the Prime Minister and the Deputy Prime Minister, various other ministers, and the country's Arikis (chiefs). On 15 July 1995, a public meeting was held to introduce the statement, which was attended by Pa Ariki--one of the traditional leaders- and the Minister of Health and Tourism. Subsequently, a television program about The Prosperity o.f Humankind was aired by the Baha'is, followed two weeks later . by the screening of the same program translated into Maori.
Presentations and meetings on the theme of human prosperity were also held in Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Venezuela, Senegal, India, and Guyana. Swaziland hosted a meeting on the subject as one of a series of monthly fora on various related topics.
Presentation of f The Prosperity of Humankind in August 1995 to Her Excellency Dame Nita Barrow, Governor General of Barbados, by a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of Barbados.
On behalf of the Baha'i International Community, Guilda Navidi-Walker and Arthur Dahl attended a conference in Bucharest, Romania, called by President Ion Iliescu, entitled the Workshop Worldwatch Conference on Sustainable Development and International Co-operation, and held on 22 and 23 March 1996. Dr. Dahl presented Baha'i views on the spiritual dimension of sustainable development, which were eagerly received by participants. The Fourth International Dialogue on the Transition to a Global Society was convened at the University of Maryland at College Park, from 14 to 17 October 1995. The conference was organized by the Baha'i Chair for World Peace and the university's Department of History on behalf of the Center for International Development and Conflict Management, and Landegg Academy, and held under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The theme this year was "Divisive Barbarity or Global Civilization: The Ethical Dimensions of Science, Art, Religion and Politics," and the objectives of the dialogue were to find answers to the challenge of building a global civilization
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and to inspire action by leaders in all realms of society to realize the proposed solutions. The keynote speaker was the Hand of the Cause Amatu'l-Baha Rul).iyyih Khanum, who was followed by five other speakers: His Excellency Amine Gemayal, former President of Lebanon; Her Royal Highness Princess Rahma bint El Hassan of Jordan; Ervin Laszlo, President of the Club of Budapest and International Adviser to the Dialogue; Dr. Bertrand Schneider, Secretary-General of the Club of Rome; and His Excellency Dr. Karan Singh, head of the Auroville Foundati9n in India and former Ambassador of India to the United States. The final speaker of the session was His Excellency Amata Kabua, President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, who delivered a special address. Also in attendance were Ambassador Paul- Marc Henry, Ambassador-at-Large of France; Lily Boeykens, former President of the International Council of Women, and currently the Commissioner of Belgium to the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women; Ambassador Tahseen Basheer, Director of the National Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Cairo, Egypt; Edy Kaufman, from the Center for International Development and Conflict Management at the University of Maryland at College Park; and Eberhard Zeidler, a prominent North American architect. The Landegg Academy held a forum on global governance in Germany's Haus der Demokratie on 20 September 1995. Some 40 nongovernmental organizations delivered statements in the presence of more than 200 participants, calling for a variety of measures to reform and restructure the international order and the UN. The "First European Baha'i Conference on Law and International Order" was held in the Netherlands this year at the de Poort Conference Center. Presentations addressed such subjects as the Kitab-i-Aqdas; international law and the new world order; the ethical aspects of crime and punishment; and the coming of world peace. One evening the gathering was visited by two prominent jurists, one working at the State Council and the other at the International War Crimes Tribunal for former Yugoslavia, both of whom offered presentations.
France's Association medicale baha'ie sponsored a dialogue on the ethics related to medically assisted procreation on 25 November 1995 in Nice. The meeting entitled "Embryo: Who Are You?" benefited from the contributions of a Justice of the Supreme Court and Vice-President of the National French Committee of Ethics, and the Director of the Center of Bioethics at the Catholic University of Lyon. A National Consultative Workshop on Adolescent Health and Youth Development Programs was held on 11 March 1996 in Quezon City, in the Philippines. A representative of the Baha'i community actively participated in group discussions and workshops. Many Baha'i communities this year put special efforts into observing the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations and presenting the statement Turning Point for all Nations to government officials, hoping to win wider appreciation for the need to strengthen the United Nations and improve its capacity to coordinate the responses of nations to the challenges facing humanity (see pp. 159-70). The National Spiritual Assembly of the Russian Federation sponsored a reception to commemorate UN 50, highlighting the Turning Point document. Programs were also held in both Bamenda and Limbe, Cameroon, on 24 October, accompanied by presentations of Turning Point for All Nations and radio coverage of the events in English, French and a number of vernacular languages. In April 1996, the Mayor of Velika Gorica, Slovenia, was given a translation of Turning Point for All Nations and other Baha'i literature. Inspired by the contents, the mayor asked the Baha'is how to make Velika Gorica a "Model City" in order to promote the idea of world peace, harmony and justice. He also suggested that a series of seminars could be held on world and local governance according to the Baha'i teachings. The United Nations-sponsored Human Rights pay was also observed by many Baha'i communities. The National Spiritual Assembly of Greece hosted a reception in its honor on 7 December 1995 in Athens. The reception was held under the
auspices of the United Nations Information Center in Athens, the main United Nations Office in Greece. The National Assembly of Romania also held such a reception, on 12 December 1995, in the Diplomat Club of Bucharest. Among others, the event was attended by their Excellencies the Ambassadors of Austria, France, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, and the United Nations. Other prominent guests included some twenty members of the Romanian Chamber of Deputies and over 40 senators. The Baha'is of Luxembourg observed Human Rights Day by hosting a reception for prominent people who had assisted Baha'is in Iran by defending the community. Baha'is were interviewed on Tele Cartagena and on Onda Cera as a result of the Human Rights Day celebration held in Spain, on 12 December 1995, and a long report about the event was aired on Radio Voz. The observance took place at the Regional Baha'i Center in Murcia, and involved the participation of eight different representatives of various organizations in a roundtable discussion about human rights . A seminar was held for directors of homes for the elderly, at the Blanco Cervantes Hospital in San Jose, Costa Rica, and was cosponsored by the Baha'i community and the National Crusade for the Protection of the Elderly. Some 125 directors of such facilities from every part of the country attended, and several asked to have the program repeated in their communities. The Representative in Greece of the UN High A public meeting on Commissioner for Refugees, Janvier de Riedmatten, speaking at a UN Human Rights Day the topic of tolerance was reception held by the National Spiritual held in Mons, Belgium, Assembly of Greece, December 1995.
at the City Hall on 11 December 1995. It was organized by the Baha'i community. The European Baha'i Business Forum (EBBF) participated in the third annual conference on "Moral and Ethical Principles in a Social Market Economy" from 20 to 22 October 1995 in Sofia, Bulgaria. The event was cosponsored by EBBF, the Bulgarian Association of the Club of Rome, the Institute for Sustainable Development, the College of Management, Trade and Marketing, the Sofia Commodity Exchange, and the National Spiritual Assembly of Bulgaria. Sixteen papers were presented, including four by members of EBBF. Several national Baha'i communities had the opportunity this year to contribute to the constitutional processes in their countries. The National Spiritual Assembly of the Gambia sent a representative to public hearings held by the Constitutional Review Committee which took place in the Parliament building and contributed Baha'i viewpoints on national unity, the equality of men and women, and the use of consultation in governance. The National Assembly of Eritrea submitted its views to the Constitutional Commission in that country. In the Mariana Islands, the Third Constitutional Convention in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands provided that National Assembly with an opportunity to hold a luncheon for the convention delegates during which Baha'i principles of governance were offered. In the Netherlands, the newly established Commission for Equal Treatment, which has been given the role of an independent legal consultant able to pass verdicts on disputes submitted to it or refer them to courts of law, has one Baha'i member out of a total of 24. The Commission is designed to combat all forms of injustice, and will make recommendations to the government and advise judges about how to ensure fair treatment of all people. The Baha'i community of Brazil published a document in 1995 addressed to the "new governors and legislators of Brazil." The statement deals with such essential matters as education and the rural population; the advancement of women; leadership and
morality; and the prosperity of humanity. In July 1995 the Baha'i community of Brazil was invited to send a representative to be a member of the Human Rights and Citizenship Special Commission. The Baha'i community of the Canary Islands was one of only a small number of nongovernmental organizations invited to participate in the Tri-Continental Conference of the parliamentary commissioners from Africa, the Americas, and Europe, organized by the parliamentary deputies of the Canary Islands and inaugurated by the King and Queen of Spain. The commissioners consulted on their role in the defence of human rights. The Baha'is were able to offer many of the commissioners a document on world citizenship, which was relevant to discussions on the movement of people fleeing poverty and the xenophobia they often face in other countries. In France, many prominent individuals gathered on 2 May 1995 at the Baha'i National Center for the presentation of the National Order of Merit to Christine Samandari-Hakim, a Baha'i of that community. Dr. Samandari-Hakim was elevated by the French Government to the rank of Knight in the National Order of Merit in recognition of her humanitarian activities and her contribution to the promotion of human rights in general. Recognition Although the Baha'i Faith is now represented in virtually every country in the world, the process of obtaining various forms of official recognition continues. In the Cook Islands this year, for the first time Baha'is were invited to take part in the religious ceremony for the opening and closing of Constitution Week (30 July and 6 August 1995). The Baha'i community of Vanuatu succeeded in obtaining on 11 December a certificate of registration under the Religious Bodies Act of 1995. The Faith was also registered in Tonga this year under the Government Incorporated Societies Act, Section 7. In Hong Kong, government authorities have approved the Baha'i community's application to license the Baha'i Hall as a place of public worship; thus, Baha'i marriages conducted there can be legally recognized. The government of St. Eustatius in the Netherlands Antilles has issued a letter to that
Baha'i community recognizing the Faith as a religion, the Spiritual Assembly of St. Eustatius as the administrative body of the Faith for the Baha'i community on Statia, and the National Spiritual Assembly of the West Leeward Islands as its regional administrative body. On the local level, the Baha'i communities of Tallinn, Estonia, and Asmara, Eritrea both succeeded in registering with their national governments. Landmark Occasions Occasionally in Baha'i communities, certain landmark events occur which offer a glimp·se of the potency of principles and teachings of the Baha'i Faith. One such event occurred in Burundi, in early 1996. It was reported at that time that the Local Spiritual Assembly of Rohero had been reformed and was actively taking up its duties, Rohero being the zone which includes what is known as downtown Bujumbura. The Assembly elected was made up of two people from the Hutu tribe, three from the Tutsi tribe, three Canadians and one Iranian and, as the report also stated, it, "unlike the rest of the country, meets in absolute harmony." During RiQ.van 1995, the National Convention of Sierra Leone took place, in the face of dangerous civil upheaval, some of the delegates traveling through the most dangerous areas to reach the Convention. The first Local Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Gibraltar was elected that same Ridvan. On 26 November, 150 people, including members of the media, gathered for a Day of the Covenant celebration held at the University of Liberia's auditorium. The Director of the Catholic radio station (ELCM), Amelia Wreh, was present, as well as a representative from the national radio station (ELBC). Also present were representative journalists from the electronic press media and the New Patriot Journal. The keynote address focused on the significance of the Covenant in the Baha'i Faith, and special prayers for peace in Liberia were read. The first National Baha'i Winter School of Estonia was held in December in Pamu. Its attendees came from Sweden, Finland, Latvia and Russia, as well as Estonia. The first National Baha'i Summer School was held in Perm, Russia, from 11 to 15 August
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attracting the participation of 75 Baha'is from 12 cities in this landmark occasion. The National Baha'i Center of Bulgaria had its official opening in Sofia on 30 September 1995. It was reported that well over 200 Baha'is from virtually every region of Zimbabwe congregated at the newly built Baha'i National Center to witness its official opening on 21 October. A handful of Baha'is joyfully gathered in Tasiilaq, Greenland, from 10 to 12 July for a summer school. The event was characterized by study of the Baha'i Faith, high spirits and laughter. The Louis G. Gregory Baha'i Institute in South Carolina, USA, saw the Ninth Annual Black Men's Gathering in July. Participants from Botswana, Canada, Kenya, Liberia, South Africa, and the United States, engaged in study of the Baha'i Faith, consultation, prayer and song, in what was described as the largest and one of the most potent of these annual events. This year's gathering was also distinguished by the presence of a large number of fathers and their young adult sons, adding a new vitality to the occasion. Tirana, Albania, saw the inauguration of a Baha'i Cultural Center on 25 May, attended by the President of the Albanian Parliament, Pjeter Arbnori, five deputies, a representative of UNICEF, and the first secretary of the Italian Embassy. The National Spiritual Assembly of Belize established an Office of External Affairs to maintain relationships between the Baha'i community and both governmental and nongovernmental organizations. In April 1996, Alice Buffet, the first native Norfolk Islander to become a Baha'i, presented the National Spiritual Assembly of Australia with the text of a translation into the Norfolk language of the Short Obligatory Prayer which she had prepared. Translation of some of the Baha'i writings into the Norfolk language was one of Australia's goals for the Three Year Plan. Sharing the Message of Bah a 'u 'llah The primary motivation for Baha'is to teach others about their Faith is their belief that its teachings represent the remedy prescribed by God for the healing . and regeneration of human-
kind today. It is against the spirit of the Baha'i Faith either to impose their religious beliefs on others or to offer material inducements in an effort to "convert" them. Baha'i communities often hold conferences, institutes and seminars designed to increase the capacity of individuals and of groups to teach. The Baha'i community of Lithuania held its first such conference from 28 to 30 December, and it was attended by people from Poland, Russia, Scotland, Kaliningrad, Denmark and Lithuania, in spite of the many and long delays on public transportation due to the weather. Other such gatherings were held in Liberia, Malaysia, Australia, Cambodia, France, Tonga, India, Sweden, Spain, Tur- The Baha'i Cultural Center, Tirana, Albania. key, Botswana, and the Faroe Islands. The Baha'is of Australia participated in the annual Port Adelaide Parade in South Australia on Saturday, 25 November 1995 with a float on the theme of unity in diversity. On 20 and 21 May, Baha'is of Oulu, Finland, participated in a conference entitled "The Days of Spiritual Growth." The community of Chinamora, Zimbabwe, set up a Baha'i stand for both days of the Chinamora Agricultural Show, held on 13 and 14 July. The Baha'is also had an opportunity to offer musical and dramatic presentations and to say a few words about the Faith. A special Tanzania/Zambia border conference was held from 9 to 11 June 1995 at Chiwezi village, with the principal aim of introducing the Faith to all the villages around the area, especially to the members of the Sinai Church, a large number of whom became Baha'is in recent months and hosted this event. On 20 Au_pust, the first in a new series of programs dedicated to the writings ofBaha'u'llah was broadcast on Radio Sodre, an
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Uruguayan station that can be heard by people throughout the country and in parts of Argentina and Brazil. The series is named Imagine. In Peru the staff of Radio Baha'i on Lake Titicaca was asked by the Organization of Women in San Cristobal to proclaim the message of Baha'u'llah in its town. As part of their effort, the Baha'is performed two dramas about equal rights and opportunities for men and women.
Teams of Baha'i children on the islands of Tabiteuea and Nonouti in Kiribati participated this year in a number of visits to each other's communities for the purpose of sharing the message ofBaha'u' llah with the people. Baha'i students at Ouagadougou University in Burkina Faso participated in an exhibition organized by an association of students of the Science and Economy Faculty and held from 26 to 29 April 1995. A similar informational activity was organized by students of the Faculty of Medicine. Baha'is participated in Havana, Cuba's International Book Fair, held from 7 to 13 February 1996. The exhibition takes place biennially and is a major event in Central America, with more than 30,000 people attending this year. This was the local community of Havana's first opportunity to present the Baha'i Faith to a broad cross-section of society, and the booth was one of the most popular at the fair. About 100 titles were available at the Baha'i stall.
The Baha'i community of Hungary participated in Budapest's International Book and Video Fair this year. The Hungarian Head of State, President Arpad Gonez, visited the Baha'i stand and was presented with a copy of The Promise of World Peace and some additional information. An exhibition of Baha'i literature was also offered at the State Scientific Library in Liberec, Czech Republic. Organized campai~s of teaching took place all over the world. Sierra Leone, Madagascar, South Africa, Uganda, and Rodrigues Island (with the efforts of Baha'is from Mauritius and the Seychelles) all reported teaching projects. The Light of Unity Campaign in West Africa comprised two teaching groups: a French-speaking drama and dance group, which visited Benin, Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Niger and Togo; and an Englishspeaking musical and dance group, which visited Cameroon, Ghana and Nigeria. The Enoch Olinga teaching project in the Kumi and Soroti districts of Uganda was kicked off with a special teaching conference. Another teaching project named after the Hand of the Cause Enoch Olinga was operating in Senegal this year. That effort includes literacy classes in several communities, so that new Baha'is will be able to read the Baha'i scriptures for themselves. Women have been the focus of several activities. The Liberian Baha'i community engaged in a flurry of activity in January 1996, sharing the message of Baha'u'llah in Bamersville, Johnsonville, and Schefflin, and holding two study classes in Momovia. An unusual campaign of teaching was carried out in Zambia from December 1995 to March 1996. Those who took part were Baha'is who were refugees from Rwanda, and they contacted people in the four main francophone compounds around the town of Lusaka. Related initiatives include language classes in the Lusaka Baha'i Center and ongoing courses for women. ·Projects undertaken in the Americas this year included the Cabudare Project in Lara State, Venezuela; a special project in Canada aimed at reaching the East Indian population in British Columbia and Ontario, assisted by the participation of a member of the National Assembly of India; and an ongoing teaching
project in Woodburn, Oregon, United States, which aims at bringing the Baha'i Faith to migrant workers from Mexico. In Paraguay, following the success of National Baha'i Week in July 1995, which involved much radio and television coverage and intensive teaching, the National Spiritual Assembly called for a National Day of Teaching to take place on 17 September. Baha'is in many communities responded by holding introductory meetings in their homes and going out to visit interested people. The community of Nicoll's Town on the island of Andros in the Bahamas has submitted a series of articles which have been printed in the local newspaper, the Chicharney Times. Topics covered have included world order, happiness, love, the environment, and agriculture. The Fazli Teaching Project was initiated in Andhra Pradesh, India, and the Marian Jack VII Project traveled across Russia, Siberia and Mongolia, with participants from Alaska, Canada, Russia and the United States. This year the Baha'is of Uzbekistan embarked on a special project to introduce the Faith to the people of Karakalpakstan and to its officials and other prominent people. An effort was made in Japan to acquaint members of media organizations with the true nature of the Baha'i Faith through an explanatory letter. In Papua New Guinea a series of traditional teaching projects has been undertaken, each relying on local expressions of culture. Projects and campaigns to reach the indigenous peoples of the Pacific inspired by or growing out of the Ocean of Light Project carried forward efforts to introduce the Baha'i Faith to traditional chiefs in the Cook Islands, New Caledonia, Fiji, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Tuvalu. The Holy Mariner Project reached out to the Maori people of New Zealand; the Heart of Australia Calling Project made strides in its efforts to reach aboriginal people. Related events included a cultural exchange visit by Maori Baha'is from New Zealand to the Amooguna tribe of Napperby, Australia. New Zealand also saw the Ephraim Te Paa Project in Mangere, Auckland, in which Baha'is invited interested people to participate in weekly activities.
A mixed group of Uzbek, Tajik, Kazakh, Turkmen, and Kyrgyz Bahci 'is in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, prepares for an activity to share Bahci 'u 'llah 's message with others, June 1995.
In 1992 a group of Maori Baha'is from New Zealand traveled across Canada on their return from the Second Baha'i World Congress and visited Native American Baha'is, finding bonds of commonality wherever they traveled. In 1994 a different group of Maori Baha'is traveled from New Zealand to Canada, making contacts with prominent Native American people, encouraging isolated Baha'is, and visiting communities. In July 1995 Maori Vision III began with the arrival in British Columbia of a Maori Baha'i family from New Zealand, with the explicit purpose of teaching the Baha'i Faith. A reciprocal trip of Native Canadian Baha'is to New Zealand was planned. Efforts to share Baha'u'llah's message with the people of the former Yugoslavia have been made in Pula and Zagreb, Croatia; Velika Gorica, Slovenia; Belgrade, Serbia; and in the former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia. Turkish Baha'is from Germany and Turkey traveled to the town ofKornrad in Moldova from 8 to 12 October 1995 to visit the Baha'is there and to help with the teaching work among the Gaugasian people- Moldovans of Turkish background. In Iceland, a teaching campaign which began in October 1995 each week featured introductory meetings in several locations, a study class, and a public meeting. A "home page" on the World Wide Web was established with information about the Baha'i Faith given in Icelandic and Faroese. The youth of the Faroe Islands embarked on an effort to bring Baha'u'llah's message to the people of T6rshavn and Toftir, while the Hackney Project
in England is resulting not only in declarations of faith in Baha'u'llah but also in personal transformation. A successful teaching project was carried out in Notteroy and Tonsberg, Norway, from 8 to 10 March 1996, which introduced the Baha'i Faith to students. 15 to 20 April was "Baha'i Week" in Linehammer, and the event evoked a very positive response from the public. Activities included a midnight prayer gathering at the top of the Olympic Park. Local and regional media covered the events. Communities all across the globe are encountering greater receptivity to the message of Baha'u'llah. In Gujarat, India, 95 students of the Vallabh Uttam Buniyadi Girls High School, with the consent of their parents, became Baha'is. In the Marshall Islands, training has been provided for those wishing to teach on the outer islands. As a result of the subsequent teaching endeavors over 100 people enrolled as Baha'is and four new Local Spiritual Assemblies were formed. In Bangladesh, partly through the efforts of a youth volunteer, all the inhabitants of 88 villages became Baha'is and Local Spiritual Assemblies were elected. In Zambia, a chief and seven
Guests assembled for presentations on the Baha'i Faith, as part of a traditional teaching project in the Chimbu province of the highlands of Papua New Guinea, February 1996.
of his family members and visitors became Baha'is. Two new Local Spiritual Assemblies were also elected in that area. In Spain a number of Gypsies declared themselves to be Baha'is this year. Because of teaching efforts associated with a summer
school in Gime, Cyprus, involving Baha'is from both the north and the south of the island as well as from several other countries, a sizeable group of people declared their belief in Baha'u'llah. Remarkable and dramatic teaching successes have been reported for Guinea-Bissau and Haiti.
A Baha 'i gathering in Ulaan Baatar, Mongolia, summer 1995.
During August 1995, three youth from Portugal visited Maputo, Mozambique, initiating workshops and activities for introducing the Faith to the people, and then making themselves available for discussions, resulting in a number of enrollments in the Faith. More than one hundred Baha'is gathered at Shin Hyub Institute near Taejon in South Korea to participate in the summer school held from 28 to 30 July 1995. After this event, a teaching project dedicated to the Hand of the Cause Ral).matu'llah Muhajir was launched, during which nine people declared their faith in Baha'u'llah, and one new Local Spiritual Assembly was formed. Institutes The absence of clergy in the Baha'i Faith places responsibility on the shoulders of every Baha'i. As a result, each Baha'i community needs many individuals who are knowledgeable about the Faith and have the spiritual qualities and other skills and capacities necessary to promote its functioning. It follows that some sort of systematic training is needed to assist people to fulfill their own potentialities. Such a system exists in the Baha'i community in various forms, one of which is that of the institute.
An institute is not defmed by a venue or by paid staff; institutes are simply organizational structures dedicated to systematic training with the purpose of endowing ever-growing contingents of Baha'is with the spiritual insights, the knowledge, and the skills necessary to carry out the many tasks occupying the community. Through the prompting and guidance of the Universal House of Justice, increasing numbers of communities are engaged in this institute process. Due to the large numbers of people who became Baha'is in Haiti in the summer of 1995, teams from the Anis Zunuzi School held successful institutes in three of the affected localities during November. The National Deepening Institute of the Baha'i community of Kazakhstan held its tenth course from 4 to 10 January 1996, in Almaty. The program was the first which was especially designed to train teachers of children's classes. Institute courses and programs have also taken place in communities as diverse as Tonga, Singapore, Myanmar, Colombia, Malaysia, the United States, the Solomon Islands, Togo, Uzbekistan, New Zealand, Zimbabwe, Liberia, Brazil, Norway, Niger, and India, among many others. Scholarship In Bangladesh, the Institute of Personal Law and Research, which is recognized by the Supreme Court of Bangladesh, held its first certificate course on Baha'i Personal Law in the first week of
Students attending the Anis Zunuzi School in Port au Prince, Haiti, 1995.
A group ofBahti 'is consults on a new Bahci 'i radio program during an institute held in Monrovia, Liberia, September 1995.
December 1995. Nineteen people participated, including an assistant attorney general, a former assistant attorney general, and eleven other advocates of the Supreme Court. The inauguration of Lucknow University's Chair for Baha'i Studies, endowed by the National Spiritual Assembly of India, took place on 14 December 1995, in the auditorium of the University. His Excellency the Governor of Uttar Pradesh and Chancellor of the University formally inaugurated the Baha'i Chair, which is situated in the Department of Western History. Dorothy Nelson delivered the Second Annual Baha'i Lecture at the University of Maryland at College Park on 15 May 1995. The event was held under the auspices of the Baha'i Chair for World Peace and the Center for International Development and Conflict Management at the university. Her paper, "Alternative Forms of Conflict Resolution: A Pathway to Peace," was well received by an audience of over 200, including university administrators, faculty and staff, and Baha'is from Washington D.C., Virginia, and Maryland. An interfaith symposium on religion and the environment, organized by the Association for Baha'i Studies in Ghana, was held on 26 July 1995, chaired by the Minister of Environment, Science and Technology. Three speakers addressed the gathering on the role of religion in the conservation of nature. This activity was also the inaugural event of the Association. The fourth annual conference of the Association for Baha'i Studies in Japan took place in Yamaguchi in December 1995, with the theme "Family, Community, and the World." Con-
The Ruhi Ins titute, Colombia, March, 1996.
ference activities included a display of works by Baha'i artists, speakers on community development from Tonga, the premiere performance of a play about Lady Blomfield, an early British Baha'i, and the presentation of a suggested model for the future Japanese House of Worship. The annual conference of the Association of Baha'i Studies for English-Speaking Europe was held on 14 October 1995 at the London School of Economics and Political Science, with a theme of "The Role of Morality and Ethics in Society." Workshops were offered on ethics in business, the new morality, and morals and education. The annual conference of the Association for Baha'i Studies, North America, was held for four days in San Francisco, California, in mid-October 1995, with about 800 participants from more than a dozen countries. The theme was "Anarchy into Order: Uniting the Nations." The event featured a seminar for leaders of community organizations outside the Baha'i Faith to discuss with Baha'is various issues related to local community challenges, and it included a number of guest presentations in addition to presentations by Baha'is active in community work. The plenary sessions featured the participation of three guest speakers: Justice Frank Newman of the California Supreme Court, who spoke on human rights; Ben Crow of Stanford University, who spoke on global prosperity; and Betty Reardon of Columbia University Teachers College, who spoke on the advancement of women. On the last evening Amin Banani
offered the Hasan Balyuzi memorial lecture on the subject of Tahirih. 2 A four-day children's program emphasizing virtues in everyday life was held in the hotel. Landegg Academy in Wienacht, Switzerland, this year began to offer Master of Arts programs in ethics, conflict resolution, Baha'i studies, and spiritual psychology. These programs are oriented along the parameters of a new field of study designated as "Applied Spirituality." Landegg's programs focus on training scholars who are universal in perspective, scientific in approach, ethical in conduct, and humble in attitude. The National Spiritual Assembly of the United States alinounced the establishment of a four-year study program focusing on "Spiritual Foundations for a Global Society." The
UNim~... ~ Program for the inauguration of the Chair for Baha 'i Studies at Lucknow University, Lucknow, India, 14 December 1995.
program aims at imparting knowledge; developing reading, writing, research, analytical, and teaching skills; strengthening the desire to serve others; and fostering Baha'i identity. Europe's first Irfan Colloquium in Persian was held in June 1995 at the Baha'i Permanent Teaching Institute in Acuto, Italy. The word "irfan" in Persian indicates mystical, spiritual, or theological knowledge. Irfan Colloquia, sponsored by the Haj Mehdi Arjmand Memorial Fund, are devoted mainly to scriptural studies and are conducted separately in English and Persian. Newcastle University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom,
2. Tahirih was one of the disciples of the Bab, called Letters of the Living, and an outstanding heroine of Babi history. She is renowned for her audacity and courage in championing of the rights of women.
YEAR IN REVIEW
was the venue from 8 to 10 December 1995 for the eighth Irfan Colloquium and the semiannual meeting of the Religious Studies Seminar of the Association for Baha'i Studies for English- Speaking Europe, cosponsored by the Institute for Baha'i Studies, Wilmette, United States. The ninth Irfan Colloquium was held at the Baha'i National Center in the United States from 29 to 31 March 1996, with a theme of "anti-Baha'i polemic" and ways of responding to it. Arts Baha'i individuals and communities continued to strive this year for excellence in the realm of the arts. A representative sample of efforts is provided below. In South Africa, as part of the Johannesburg Art Biennial, the Karen Mckerron Art Gallery invited the National Spiritual Assembly to cosponsor an exhibition of art works by the winners of the 1995 awards in honor of Baha'i artist Reginald Turvey and of a small collection of Turvey's later works. Four works were shown by each of the four merit award winners: Scott Bredin, Belinda Chapman, Arik Reiss, and Hester Pullinger. This year's bursary winner, Henk Serfontein, exhibited thirteen works. Baha'is in T6rshavn, Faroe Islands, organized a multicultural concert and art exhibition from 18 to 24 March 1996. Local radio and a newspaper covered the event. An exhibition of painting and sculptures by Baha'i artist Sima Baher de Caballero opened at the National Library in Montevideo, Uruguay, with a ceremony which was attended by almost one hundred people. The theme of the work was "Nature: The Sublime Expression," and the invitation for the exhibition featured Baha'u'llah's words "Nature is God's Will and is its expression in and through the contingent world." Syble Douglas, a Baha'i from Georgetown, Guyana, participated in November 1995 in the Guyanese Women Artists' Exhibition at Casteleni House, showing some of her paintings. She and her son, Allister Douglas, also mounted an exhibition of paintings and textile art at the Hadfield Foundation Gallery in Georgetown. Radio Baha'i Ecuador sponsored "Nucanchic- Tono," the 15th Andean Music Festival, on 10 September 1995. The event
was attended by more than 3,000 people. On the evening of the first day of the convention for the election of the Regional Spiritual Assembly of the Baltic States, the Baha'is held a Baroque concert in Tallinn, Estonia, with three themes which were expressed through music and through the reading of the words of Baha'u'llah in Estonian, Russian, and several other languages. The themes were "Love and Harmony," "Compassion," and "Unity."
Youth who participated in a performance of a play about Lady Blomfield, an early Baha'i in England, during a meeting of the Association f or BaM 'i Studies in Japan.
The musical group Light in the Darkness toured Europe in summer 1995, visiting Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, and Lithuania. The Wilmette Choir performed in Paris, France, on 23 March 1996 as part of a tour of Europe. The Northern Ireland Baha'i Choir was part of a six-thousand-voice World Choir singing with the Irish National Symphony Orchestra to an audience of over 16,000 people at Landsdown Road Stadium in Dublin in the presence of President Mary Robinson of the Republic of Ireland. On 18 February 1996, a drama group sponsored by the Local Spiritual Assembly of Kampemba, Zambia, gave a presentation in the town's family center of a cultural play entitled "The White Robe." It demonstrated the importance of spiritual qualities for individuals and institutions. About three hundred Baha'is made their way to Southport, United Kingdom, for the two-day "Arts Awakening" gathering. It included exhibitions, carnival displays, videos, slide shows, a Persian tea garden, and a mural for the children to help paint. In the Performance Cafe, people shared their poetry, dance, music,
yEAR IN REVIEW
songs and even jokes. The evening "Stage Light" performance included songs from Gershwin, "West Side Story," "The Phantom of the Opera," and "Miss Saigon." A workshop entitled "Finding Our Creativity" was held in the National Baha'i Center in Santiago, Chile, this year. A three-day drama and music program entitled "The Dawnbreakers" was held in May 1995 in Sri Lanka, in which stories from Nabil 's Narrative 3 were depicted through drama, poetry, songs, and speech. In January 1996, over 200 Baha'is from various countries visited Reno, Nevada, in the United States, for a weekend of arts and media activities, held in conjunction with the newly formed media and arts association. Events included the multicultural stage presentation "Global Village," in which eighteen differing ethnic and religious groups performed and made presentations to an audience of over 400. NBC television news ran a special segment on the Saturday evening news featuring visual artists and a theater piece. A Baha'i drama series titled To Catch a Glimpse was also filmed in a Reno television studio before an invited audience. The Local Spiritual Assembly of Reno was subsequently invited to work on a state arts foundation to secure a grant for a future exhibition of religious paintings.
3. Nabil 's Narrative is an early history of the Babi Faith.
B aha'is have been involved with the United Nations (UN) since its inception. Baha'i representatives were present in San Francisco fifty years ago when the UN Charter was signed, and the first official observer to the United Nation~ was appointed in 1947. The Baha'i International Community was granted consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) in 1970 and with the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) in 1976. Over the years, the Baha'i International Community has become known as an international nongovernmental organization (NGO) actively engaged in efforts to promote the advancement of women, human rights and responsibilities, universal education, and sustainable, participatory approaches to development. The Baha'i International Community represents more than 5 million people in at least 235 countries and dependent territories and has 174 national and regional affiliates around the world. Its United Nations Office is based in New York with a branch in Geneva, and there are representations to regional UN agencies in Addis Ababa, Bangkok, Nairobi, Rome, Santiago, and
Vienna. Its Office of Public Information, based at the Baha'i World Centre and with a branch in Paris, disseminates information about the Baha'i Faith around the world and oversees the production of an awardwinning quarterly newsletter, One Country. The Baha'i International Community has in recent years established an Office of the Environment and an Office for the Advancement of Women as United Nations Under-Secretary part of its permanent United General Gillian Sorensen, center, Nations Office. receives the statement Turning Point for All Nations from Through NGOs like the Baha'i Bahti 'i International Community International Community, the representatives Bani Dugal, left,people of the world contribute and Techeste Ahderom, right. substantially to the programs and projects carried out under UN auspices. Indeed, one of the great accomplishments celebrated during the United Nations' fiftieth anniversary year was the steadily increasing participation by civil society in the work of the organization, as anticipated and provided for in the opening words of the UN Charter: "We the peoples of the United Nations." High Points The fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations (UN 50) provided the Baha'i International Community and many of its national affiliates an occasion for both celebration and reflection. 1 Reflection on the challenges ahead for the United Nations took a variety of forms . The Baha'i International Community's United Nations Office produced a major statement entitled Turning Point for All Nations, which was published as a contribution
1. Celebrations around the world either sponsored or supported by Baha'i communities and the Baha'i International Community United Nations Office are covered in an article beginning on p. 159 of this volume.
BAHA.'f INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY
to the consultations about the future of the United Nations during the observation of its fiftieth anniversary. The statement reflects on past accomplishments- and shortcomings- of the UN and recommends modifications in the current structure that could equip the organization to meet the challenges that lie ahead.2 On the same theme, invited guests took part in a one-day seminar entitled "Turning Point for All Nations" to reflect on humanity's collective future. Sponsored by the Baha'i International Community's United Nations Office, the seminar touched generally on the need for reform of the UN but focused on two specific issues: peacekeeping and the need for an international auxiliary language. The two dozen individuals from government
Seminar on Turning Point for All Nations held at the Baha'i International Community's offices at the United Nations in New York, 18 October 1995.
missions, UN agencies, academia, and nongovernmental organizations who attended the seminar generally agreed that any restructuring of the United Nations would require both a longterm vision for the organization and a strong partnership between governments and nongovernmental organizations. "We can't restructure the United Nations without a vision of where we are going," said Ruth Engo, Senior Liaison Officer with the office of the Special Coordinator for Africa and the Least Developed Countries in the Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development, who chaired the afternoon session. The keynote address by President Amata Kabua of the Marshall Islands set the tone for discussion by acknowledging that the United Nations had entered a new era and by calling for a
2. Turning Point for All Nations is published in its entirety, pp. 241- 83.
THE BAHA'i WORLD
response at once pragmatic and principled. "The immutable law of change and decay necessitates the need for the United Nations to dispassionately examine its performance, revise its aims, and reassess its structures in a genuine search for practical and long lasting solutions," said President Kabua. "There is no choice. The current political landscape is vastly different from that of fifty years ago. There is now more than a threefold increase in the number of nations with membership in the United Nations. The rapidly increasing desire on the part of civil society and corporations to become more fully engaged in the change process itself has added a prominent dimension to the nature of active agencies in the field." UN Under-Secretary General Gillian Sorensen, who oversaw the United Nations' fiftieth anniversary commemorations, welcomed ideas for reform, assuring participants that new ideas represented an "opportunity and not a threat" to the organization. The morning session was chaired by John Biggar, first secretary of the Permanent Mission of Ireland to the UN. Three presentations laid the groundwork for the consultation. First, Virginia Strauss, executive director of the Boston Research Center for the 21st Century, gave an overview of current proposals for UN restructuring. Her talk focused on the response to the recent book, Our Global Neighborhood, the report of the Commission on Global Governance. Next, Brian Lepard, an assistant professor of law at the University of Nebraska, reviewed the successes and failures of UN peacekeeping operations over the last 50 years and pointed to the need for public support for a UN force that can respond quickly and impartially to global crises. Finally, Jeffery S. Gruber, a professor of linguistics at the University of Quebec, explored how a universal auxiliary language, promoted under UN auspices, could help address the underlying sources of conflict, poverty, and miscommunication that so challenge the international community today. The concerns of women also emerged as an important theme in the ensuing discussions. "In all the conflicts in the world today, it is men who made the decision in the conflicts and women who are the sufferers," said Misrak Elias, senior advisor,
BAHA.'f INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY
women's development program, UNICEF. "What would make the force effective and useful is the degree to which women are decision makers." Ms. Elias and others urged that any restructuring of the UN also address underlying issues of conflict. "When I look at issues of peace and violence," Ms. Elias continued, "it is clear to me that conflict among nations has to be closely related to conflict in the country and conflict in the family." Other participants stressed the practical importance of having a standing force that can step in quickly when efforts to prevent conflict fail. Participants agreed that NGOs have a special responsibility to contribute to a long-term vision for the UN which is based on efforts to eradicate the underlying sources of conflict- whether poverty, human rights violations, or misunderstanding. It is anticipated that this event will be followed by other seminars designed to provide a forum for discussions on the key issues facing humanity at the end of the 20th century. Human Rights The protection of human rights, particularly those of Baha'is in various parts of the world, is an important part of the work of the Baha'i International Community's United Nations Offices in New York and Geneva. 3 Protection, however, is only half the work; the other half is the promotion of human rights, including human rights education. Among the human rights issues with which the Baha'i International Community is actively involved are those of the child, of women, and of minorities, including indigenous people; freedom of religion or belief; and the elimination of racism, genocide, torture, and extreme poverty. During 1995-96 representatives of the Baha'i International Community attended and monitored annual sessions of the Sub- Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities in Geneva and the UN Commission on Human Rights in Geneva, presenting statements to these bodies on human rights education; the rights of minorities; and economic,
3. Developments during the past year in the human rights situation of the Baha'is in Iran are treated at length in a separate article on pp. 139-44 of this volume.
THE BAHA'I WORLD
social, and cultural rights. The Baha'i International Community also co signed joint statements on the rights of the child, freedom of religion and belief, the girl child, human rights defenders, and extreme poverty. During the 1995 session of the UN General Assembly in New York, representatives attended sessions of the General Assembly's Third Committee, which is charged with overseeing human rights activities. Public Information The Baha'i International Community's Office of Public Information undertook a variety of initiatives during 1995- 96. One of the most extensive projects was preparation of materials for an authoritative site for the Baha'i International Community on the Internet's World Wide Web, to be launched in the summer of 1996. As a follow-up to the release of its statement The Prosperity of Humankind in January 1995, the Office of Public Information provided advice to various national Baha'i communities around the world on issues connected to the statement, and the Paris office conducted several seminars on the topic. A program was also launched for the dissemination of a scholarly resource on the Baha'i Faith by William P. Collins, entitled Bibliography of English-Language Works on the Babi and Baha'i Faiths, 1844- 1985, to some 1,500 major libraries around the world. In Haifa, the office facilitated 145 visits of some 2,200 dignitaries, media representatives, and other special visitors to the Baha'i World Centre during the year. Elsewhere, the Office coordinated public relations efforts connected to the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing and conducted training sessions on public relations in preparation for the Habitat II conference on human settlements in Istanbul, Turkey. It also arranged international coverage on the Baha'i Faith in various media over the course of the year and disseminated public information materials to Baha'i communities around the world. The Paris office facilitated a series of public information training seminars, exploring ways in which Baha'i communities can address the needs of society, particularly in the communities in which they live. These seminars occurred in the Czech
B AHA'f l NTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY
Republic, Albania, Canada, Greece, and Turkey. The largest one, in Prague, was attended by representatives of 29 European National Assemblies. The Paris office also collaborated with numerous National Assemblies on other public relations projects, was responsible for the French translation of materials, and made a number of approaches to the French government concerning the situation of the Baha'is in Iran and other human rights issues. Representatives of the office assisted the Baha'i community of Greece in arranging commemorations of United Nations Human Rights Day in Athens and in Bucharest, Romania, and facilitated the participation of a Baha'i International Community representative at the Workshop W orldwatch conference in Bucharest in March 1996, held under the patronage of the President of Romania, Mr. Ion Iliescu. During 1995- 96, One Country, a quarterly newsletter produced by the Baha'i International Community's Office of Public Information, entered its seventh year of publication. Published in six languages- English, French, Chinese, Russian, German, and Spanish- it was circulated to more than 30,000 people in some 170 countries in all of its editions. One Country is distributed to individuals and organizations with a demonstrated interest in international affairs, sustainable development, human rights, the advancement of women, and the creation of a peaceful and just world. This year One Country carried major news stories on the Summit on the Alliance between Religions and Conservation, the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, and the Fourth International Dialogue on the Transition to a Global Society. It also had feature stories on Baha'i-sponsored social and economic development projects in Zambia, Bolivia, and Kenya. The story on the Summit on Religions and Conservation in the English edition was recognized with an APEX '95 Award for Publications Excellence by Communications Concepts in the newsletter writing category. The Religious Public Relations Council, an international association of religious communicators, also recognized One Country with awards for editorial writing and feature writing during the year.
THE BAHA'I WORLD
Environment, Development, and Global Prosperity At Windsor Castle in the United Kingdom, a Baha'i delegation joined religious leaders representing nine major faiths at a ground-breaking Summit on Religions and Conservation. The representatives discussed among themselves and with key officials from several major secular institutions how the world's religious communities might become more involved in protecting and preserving the earth's environment. This auspicious gathering, held from 29 April to 4 May 1995, was the second session of the Summit on the Alliance between Religions and Conservation, sponsored by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the Pilkington Foundation, and MOA International, a Japanese humanitarian foundation. The first session was held three weeks earlier in Japan. 4 Prominent representatives from Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism, Judaism, Islam, Sikhism, Taoism, and the Baha'i Faith were invited to attend. By one count, the assembled leaders represented more than two billion religious adherents- roughly one third of the earth's population. The Baha'i delegation was headed by Amatu'l-Baha Rul)iyyih Khanum and included Kimiko Schwerin, International Counsellor, and Lawrence Arturo, director of the Office of the Environment. Arthur Dahl attended as a representative of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Rul)iyyih Khanum's talk, which covered theology, history, environment, the importance of involving children in the work of conservation, and the need for a world parliament, opened the way for substantial Baha'i contributions during the three days of discussions between secular leaders and the various religious representatives. The discussions produced concrete results, including a plan for religious communities to collaborate with UNEP in monitoring changes in the local environment; and agreements for meetings between religious leaders and key directors of the World Bank, major industrialists, and global broadcasters, both public and commercial. The 1995 Summit was called primarily to assess the work
4. See The Baha'i World 1994-95, pp. 148-49, for a report of that meeting.
BAHA'I INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY
done since 1986 when the WWF convened what was perhaps the first major international interfaith meeting on environmental issues. At that gathering in Assisi, Italy, representatives from five major religions- Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, and Islam- created the Network on Conservation and Religion. In 1987 the Baha'i Faith joined the network; in 1988, the Sikhs and Jains also became members; and at this meeting the Taoists were welcomed into membership. "The crucial point of why we held the Summit," explained Martin Palmer, director of the International Consultancy on Religion, Education and Culture (ICOREC), which organized the Summit on behalf of the three sponsors, "is that some religionsand the Baha'is would stand as a notable example here, along with the Buddhists and some Christian groups- have done a tremendous amount of work in promoting conservation since Assisi. They have been busy creating new offices, funding projects, and producing material for their schools." A major goal of the Summit was to stimulate other religions into action. The final statements of the nine faiths including their action plans were bound and distributed by the WWF. The Office of the Environment was also heavily engaged in
Hand of the Cause of God Amatu '1-Baha Ruhiyyih Khimum, center, with Buddhist representative Kushok Bakula, left, and Xie Zongxing of the Taoist religion, at the Summit on the Alliance between Religions and Conservation.
THE BAHA'I WORLD
preparations for the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II) scheduled for June 1996 in Istanbul. At the international level, the Office participated in sessions of the Preparatory Committee (PrepCom) for the UN conference, where the draft agenda for Habitat II (the Statement of Principles and Commitments and Global Plan of Action) was negotiated; at the national level in Turkey, the Office supported the efforts of the National Spiritual Assembly of Turkey to assist the UN and the NGO organizing committee to prepare for the conference and NGO Forum in June. Baha'i participation in the third and final session of the PrepCom, which was held in New York City in February, was marked by a new level of involvement. Although NGOs with consultative status have for a long time been involved in shaping UN programs, documents, and processes, their participation in government meetings has often been strictly constrained, with genuine interaction confined to caucuses and working groups. At this PrepCom, however, as with the second PrepCom in Nairobi, local authorities and NGOs were allowed to offer text from the floor on each paragraph as governments negotiated the specific language of the conference documents. This process was not always smooth, but Dr. Wally N'Dow, the Secretary General of the conference, did not allow the PrepCom to retreat from this procedure even in the face of governmental opposition. The Baha'i International Community distributed suggested changes to the text of the draft Habitat Agenda along with Baha'i International Community publications The Prosperity ofHumankind and World Citizenship: A Global Ethic for Sustainable Development. At least 14 Baha'is took part, including representatives of the European Baha'i Youth Council, Health for Humanity, and the National Spiritual Assemblies of Brazil, Turkey, and the United States. Baha'is actively participated in numerous caucuses including those on family, human rights, Latin America, peace, rights of the child, sustainable societies, urban-rural linkages, the US citizens' network, values, and youth. Many of these caucuses adopted text suggested by Baha'is participating in their deliberations.
BAHA:f INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY
Advancement of Women The Office for the Advancement of Women was deeply involved in the process leading up to and including the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing and the parallel NGO Forum in Huairou. Held in September 1995, twenty years after the United Nations convened its first global conference on women in Mexico City, the conference and the accompanying forum for nongovernmental organizations drew more than 500 Baha'i women and men from around the world. 5 As part of the preparations for the Conference in Beijing, a survey of the participation of women in Baha'i community lifethe third such survey in 20 years-was conducted by the Baha'i International Community's Office for the Advancement of Women. The survey found that the percentage of women in positions of leadership in the Baha'i Faith compares favorably with the percentage of women in positions of political leadership worldwide. Women compose on average about 30 percent of the elected membership of national-level Baha'i governing councils and some 47 percent of the membership in special Baha'i appointed positions for the sub-national and regional level. The average percentage of women members in the world's parliaments is about ten percent, according to the Inter-Parliamentary Union. While these percentages fall short of an idealized 50 percent, they reflect the earnest efforts of a highly diverse worldwide community to live up to and put into practice a religious value that often runs counter to traditions and culture. "The equality of women and men is a cardinal principle for Baha'is," said Rebequa Getahoun, one of the team that conducted the survey for the Office for the Advancement of Women. "The fact that women compose an average of 30 percent of our elected governing councils at the national level shows the degree to which Baha'is-who use secret ballots when voting-have already begun to overcome traditional prejudices."
5. See pp. 145-58 for a full report of these activities. The text of the Baha'i International Community statement distributed to all delegates at the Conference is on pp. 285-87.
"Further," Ms. Getahoun continued, "the fact that appointed positions do approach a 50/50 ratio shows that the community's leadership is making an earnest effort to further combat the trends in society at large." A report of the results of the survey appear in a book, The Greatness Which Might Be Theirs: Reflections on the Agenda and Plarform for Action for the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women: Equality, Development and Peace. Published by the Office for the Advancement of Women, this compilation of essays and Baha'i International Community statements offers a Baha'i perspective on nine of the twelve topics on the agenda of the conference in Beijing. Distributed in Beijing in English and Chinese, it is now available in both French and Spanish as well. Around the world, national Baha'i communities are promoting the advancement of women as an effort to influence the processes toward peace. Offices for the Advancement of Women have been established in Australia, Canada, India, Malaysia, New Zealand, Nigeria, and Puerto Rico. With support from the Baha'i International Community's Office for the Advancement of Women, national Baha'i communities are strengthening relations with their governments, UN agencies, and organizations of civil society by advancing this principle. Recently the crisis in the family has drawn the attention of governments and NGOs alike. On this topic, 1995 saw the release of a publication entitled The Violence-Free Family: Building Block of a Peacefitl Civilization, the text of which is based on the keynote address by H.B. Danesh, M.D., to the Symposium on Strategies for Creating Violence-Free Families, an event initiated in 1994 by the Baha'i International Community and cosponsored by UNICEF and UNIFEM. The book, an Association for Baha'i Studies publication, was distributed widely at the Fourth World Conference on Women, to all UN missions in New York, and to all Baha'i National Assemblies. Building on the success of last year's symposium in New York, a number of spin-off seminars on Creating Violence-Free Families have been held at the national and regional levels. For example, the Baha'i community of Antigua, in collaboration
BAHA'I INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY
with UNIFEM, cosponsored a symposium in May 1995, at which 31 participants, including representatives of 11 Caribbean nations and UNICEF, gathered to consult on strategies for eradicating family violence. The Baha'i community reported heartening results: "One participant shared afterwards that all her life she has been angry, fighting injustice, and that she dreads meetings about violence against women because they reactivate her anger. At this meeting, she added, she realized for the first time that love was a much more effective way to address the problem, and that this is the first meeting on this subject that she is leaving with a sense of hope." One effort made in a number of communities to change family dynamics has been the Traditional Media as Change Agent project, which seeks to improve the status of women by changing the attitudes and behavior of men. The project was undertaken in Bolivia, Malaysia, and Cameroon, with funds from UNIFEM. The first phase of the project was completed in 1993, and responsibility for the second phase of the project was transferred to national communities. In Cameroon, part of the second phase was a formal evaluation which found evidence in project villages that men have begun assisting their wives with tasks usually considered to be women's work, that women are becoming more involved in community affairs, and that beliefs about male and female attributes related to work and making decisions are changing. Further, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) funded a mill for grinding grain to ease the burden of work borne by women. Because of its ongoing involvement in development in many parts of Africa, the Baha'i International Community was one of a select group ofNGOs invited to participate in the midterm review of the United Nations New Agenda for the Development of Africa in the 1990s to take place in September 1996. When asked to submit a report on exemplary Baha'i development projects in Africa, the Baha'i International Community selected two: the Traditional Media as Change Agent project in Cameroon and the Masethla Institute in Zambia, which operates the Banani Rural Secondary School for Girls.
Meetings Meetings and UN sessions monitored by the Baha'i International Community during 1995-96 included the Commission on Sustainable Development in New York; the Commission on the Status of Women in New York; the Substantive Session of the United Nations Economic and Social Council; the meeting of the UNICEF Executive Board in New York; and Planning Meetings of the Second Biennial Session of the Youth Forum of the United Nations System in New York and in Brussels. Much of the work of NGOs in consultative status is carried out through NGO committees which address specific issues. During this last year, a Baha'i International Community representative chaired the New York NGO Committee on Human Rights and another chaired the New York NGO Committee on the Family. Conclusion The Baha'i International Community, working with National Spiritual Assemblies around the world, undertook numerous and varied activities during 1995-96, mainly focusing on women, the environment, and human rights. Certain highlights, such as the Fourth World Conference on Women, the celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations, the Summit on the Alliance between Religions and Conservation, marked the year, but numerous other endeavors, enacted on a smaller scale in various parts of the globe, also helped the Baha'i International Community pursue its cherished goal of promoting the establishment of a peaceful planetary civilization.
Update: The Situation of THEBAHA~fs rNlRAN
T he 300,000-member Iranian Baha'i community has suffered severe persecutions since the ascendancy of the Islamic Revolutionary Government in 1979. In the past seventeen years, 201 Baha'is have been killed or executed, fifteen are missing and presumed dead, and hundreds have been imprisoned. Property confiscations (totaling 150 in the city of Y azd last year alone), dismissal from public sector employment, expulsion from institutions of higher learning, discriminatory treatment in the judicial system, arbitrary arrests, and prohibition of all forms of religious community life, including worship meetings, are some of the difficulties experienced by this beleaguered community. In recent years, more than one hundred Baha'is throughout the country have been arrested, detained for periods ranging from 48 hours to six months, and then released, in an effort to create an atmosphere of uncertainty and fear in the community. Numerous cases of torture and summary trials have been documented. As of March 1996, eight Baha'is were in prison, three under sentence of death. The situation of the Iranian Baha'i community continued to receive the close attention of the United Nations during 1995-96, particularly in reports issued by the Special Representative on Iran and the Special Rapporteur on Religious Intolerance, and the sentencing of another Baha'i to death on the charge of "religious apostasy" prompted a number of governments around the world to further action. 1 The Case of Dhabil}u'lhih Mal}rami In the winter of 1995-96, the Baha'i community learned that a Baha'i in the city of Yazd in Iran, Mr. Dhabil).u'llah Mal).rami, had been charged with religious apostasy, or abandoning the Faith of Islam. The Baha'i community was permitted to hire a lawyer to defend Mr. Mal).rami, a right that has only been recently granted to Baha'is. While the defense did not succeed in freeing Mr. Mal).rami and the death sentence was passed on him on 2 January 1996, Iran's Supreme Court rejected the Revolutionary Court's decision on the grounds that it was incompetent to hear the case. The case was then referred to the civil court in Y azd, from which a verdict has still not been heard. When the facts of the case involving Mr. Mal).rami became known around the world, Baha'i communities took a variety of actions. One result was the adoption by the European Parliament of a resolution on human rights abuses in Iran, which made reference to the suffering of the Baha'is in Iran and to Mr. Mal).rami's case in particular. Baha'i communities in Australia, Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, the United K.ingdom, and the United States all received support from their governments. Significant media coverage included short pieces in Le Monde and Liberation in France, and Reuter and AFP (Agence France Presse) publicized the story. The BBC World Service Persian Service, the BBC World Service Arabic Service, and other arms of the British Broadcasting Corporation also reported the story.
1. For a detailed account of these human rights violations, see "The Case of the Baha'i Minority in Iran" by Douglas Martin, in The Baha'i World 1992-93, pp. 247-71. See also "Update: The Situation of the Baha'is in Iran" in The Baha'i World 1993-94, pp. 139-45, and in The Baha'i World 1994-95,pp. 133-38.
BAHAJs IN IRAN
Other actions regarding the situation of Iran's Baha'is Baha'i communities around the world also wished to make the general situation of the Baha'is in Iran better known to their elected representatives. In Uruguay, this resulted in three senators urging a favorable vote supporting the human rights of Iran's Baha'is, in which they stated, "A vote in this sense will not only be in accordance with the country's tradition, but shall encourage the members of this community to continue their benevolent work within Uruguay and the rest of the world." The Great and General Council of the Republic of San Marino unanimously approved a proclamation condemning persecutions against the Baha'i community of Iran. A special exhibit documenting responses by the United States and other countries to the repression of the Baha'i community in Iran was displayed in the U.S. House of Representatives in Washington, D.C., in early May 1995. At a reception held to mark the exhibit's opening, the American Baha'i community honored Representatives Ben Gilman and Lee Hamilton. Together with Representatives John Edward Porter and Tom Lantos, who sponsored the current exhibit, Messrs. Gilman and Hamilton have been leading backers of a series of congressional resolutions calling on the U.S. government to work to extend internationally recognized human rights to the Baha'is in Iran.
The exhibit "Defending Religious Liberty" in the Cannon Rotunda of the U.S. House of Representatives, May 1995.
United Nations Again this year, the Baha'i International Community was successful in appealing for the assistance of the United Nations. The 50th Session of the UN General Assembly's latest resolution condemning the human rights situation in Iran once more makes specific mention of the Baha'is. The Baha'i International Community also presented statements to both the 52nd Session of the UN Commission on Human Rights and to the 47th Session of the UN Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities. Perhaps most notable, however, was the release of two significant reports which mentioned the Iranian Baha'i community in some detail. Report of the Special Rapporteur on Religious Intolerance The report of the new United Nations Special Rapporteur on Religious Intolerance, Abdelfattah Amor of Tunisia, to the 52nd Session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights regarding religious intolerance in the Islamic Republic of Iran devotes a section to the Baha'i situation, outlining aspects of discrimination in the religious, sociocultural, educational, and professional fields, in the field of justice, and in the security of persons. Noting the banning of Baha'i administrative institutions in Iran since 1983, the report concludes that "Since, by virtue of its fundamental principles, the Baha'i faith [has] no clergy, the very existence of the Baha'is as a viable religious community [is] apparently being threatened in the absence of those institutions." The Special Rapporteur makes a number of significant recommendations concerning the situation of the Baha'is in Iran. First, he states: "Considering the religious principles of the Baha'i community, the Special Rapporteur believes that there should not be any controls that might, through prohibition, restrictions or discrimination, jeopardize the right to freedom of belief or the right to manifest one's belief." The report continues:
For this reason, the Special Rapporteur recommends that the ban on the Baha'i organization should be lifted to enable it to organize itself freely through its adtninistrative institutions, which are vital in the absence of a clergy, and so that it can engage fully in its religious activities. Likewise, all the
BAHA:fs IN IRAN
community and personal property that has been confiscated should be returned and the places of worship that have been destroyed should be reconstructed, if possible, or, at least, should form the subject of cotnpensatory 1neasures in favor of the Baha'i community. The Baha'is should also be free to bury and honor their dead. Concerning freedom of tnovetnent, including departure from Iranian territory, the Special Rapporteur believes that the question on religion should be deleted from passport application forms and that this freedom should not be obstructed in any way.
Further recommendations are that no discrimination should bar Baha'is from study in universities or from employment in the governmental or private sectors, that "the physical integrity of any person should not be affected by the person's religion or belief," and that death sentences passed on Baha'is should be reviewed or set aside through amnesties or other appropriate measures. To address problems faced by Baha'is and members of other religious minorities in the judicial system, the report recommends that judicial and administrative personnel should be trained in human rights, "particularly with regard to tolerance and non-discrimination based on religion or belief." Report of the Special Representative on Iran Maurice Danby Copithome of Canada, appointed as the new United Nations Special Representative on Iran to replace Professor Reynaldo Galindo-Pohl, also submitted a report to the 52nd Session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, an eightparagraph section of which focuses specifically on the Baha'is. This section opens with an endorsement of Professor Amor' s recommendations concerning their situation. Some specific instances of discrimination against Baha'is in the judicial system are detailed, including a case in September 1995 where the family of a deceased person was not permitted rights of succession because they are Baha'is and another case in May 1995 when people found guilty of manslaughter were exempted from paying "blood money" to the victims' families because the deceased and other family members are Baha'is. Instead, the defendants were ordered to pay money to a government fund. Another case, where an individual was denied reinstatement to a
job from which he had been dismissed unless he renounced his Faith in a "widely distributed newspaper," is cited by the Special Representative as an example of discrimination in employment against the Baha'i community. A crucial concern, as noted by the Representative, is "the right of the Baha'i community to maintain its administrative institutions." The Special Representative concludes that "Overall, while there appears to be some improvement in the lot of the Baha'is in the Islamic Republic of Iran, there continue to be grave breaches of human rights, which in the Special Representative's view are only likely to disappear with a significant change of attitude on the part of the Iranian authorities." Report of the UN Secretary General The United Nations Secretary General's report on "The Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities," also submitted to the 52nd Session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, comments in two paragraphs about the situation of the Baha'is in Iran, reiterating the request "that careful consideration be given to the legal situation of Baha'is who [are] in prison, particularly those who [have] been sentenced to death or accused of apostasy," and demanding an end to the harassment and discrimination faced by Baha'is. Conclusion During 1995-96, the plight of Iran's Baha'i community, and specifically that of Mr. Dhabil)_u'llah Mal)_rami, was well documented through the reports of the Special Rapporteur on Religious Intolerance and the Special Representative on Iran. Governments, encouraged by many Baha'i communities, once again voiced their opposition to the injustice suffered by this religious community. While the situation of the Baha'is in Iran remains that of an oppressed minority, the spotlight shone upon them by the world's governments and media has not only reminded people in all parts of the globe of their suffering, but also appears to have constrained the level of their persecution.
QUALITY, DEVELOPMENT, AND PEACE: Baha'is and the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women and NGO Forum
nited by their belief that full and equal partnership between women and men is necessary to bring about the peace that humanity desires, some 500 Baha'is--ofboth sexes-made what were in many cases long and difficult journeys to China in the fall of 1995. Their goal was to contribute to two gatherings of monumental proportions called by the United Nations to address the existing inequalities which continue to prevent the realization of full partnership. Representing a diverse worldwide community with a 150-year commitment to promoting equality, 1 they came from more than 50 countries and a wide range of occupations, ages, and backgrounds, from a Russian reindeer herder to a United States appellate court judge to a 16-year-old author from Malaysia. They came to share, learn, celebrate, contribute, and be of service, and to offer hope that true equality can be achieved.
1. For an overview of this history, see The Baha '{ World 1993-94, pp. 237-75.
It would have been easy for them to be daunted by the gravity of the world situation they came to address. Just two weeks prior to the opening of the Forum, a new study of the status of women worldwide was released, and it showed that in no country are women offered the same education and health opportunities as men, women seriously lag behind men in economic and political status, and violence against women is rampant. The study was prepared by independent experts commissioned by the United Nations Development Program to gather statistics on women for international comparison. It found that more than 900 million women are living in poverty; an estimated 1 million children, mostly girls, are forced into prostitution annually; an estimated 1 in 6 women in several major Western countries is raped during her lifetime; and women occupy only 14 percent of top managerial jobs in the world, 10 percent of national legislative seats, and 6 percent of cabinet level positions. The report estimated the annual value of the unpaid and underpaid work done by women to be $11 trillion. In the foreword to the report, United Nations Development Program administrator James Gustave Speth wrote that the report is "a major indictment of the continuing discrimination against women in most societies." He also asserted that "investing in women's capabilities and empowering them to exercise their choices is not only valuable in itself but is also the surest way to contribute to economic growth and overall development." The Baha'i community shares the view that the status of wo1nen is not a "women's issue" but is fundamentally linl(ed to the well-being and progress of all people. As the Universal House of Justice wrote in 1985 in a statement addressed to the peoples of the world, "Only as women are welcomed into full partnership in all fields of hu1nan endeavor will the moral and psychological cli1nate be created in which inten1ational peace can emerge." This was the central concept which Baha'is shared at the Fourth World Conference on Wo1nen held in Beijing 4-15 Septe1nber 1995 and at the NGO (nongovernmental organization) Forum on Women which began several days earlier in nearby Huairou.
EQUALITY, DEVELOPMENT, pEACE
The NGO Forum The "sudden emergence of a university, full of highly intelligent, intensely curious women learning all about everything," was how one participant characterized the NGO Forum on Women '95, held 30 August to 8 September 1995, with the theme "Equality, Development and Peace." Despite press emphasis on the logistical problems associated with the site chosen for this companion event to the UN conference for government leaders, Baha'i participants reported that the opportunities for exchange in Huairou were unprecedented and the extraordinary capacity demonstrated by the approximately 30,000 women and men who attended testified to the progress underway and the potential for even greater change. The Forum opened with a ceremony on the theme of peace which involved 5,000 performers, the release of 20,000 doves, and the arrival of a peace torch which had begun its journey in Africa. Then the representatives of more than 2,500 NGOs and community-based organizations proceeded to share their ideas and experiences with each other through some 5,000 workshops, seminars, and other activities. The Forum marked the culmination of two years of regional fora organized to help NGOs develop recommendations for presentation to governments at the Fourth World Conference. Baha'i participation in the Forum also began years before the actual event. The Director of the Baha'i International Community Office for the Advancement of Women, Mary Power, chaired the NGO Committee on the Status of Women in New York from 1991 to 1995 and served on the Global Forum Facilitating Committee responsible for organizing the F on1m. Another Baha'i, Giovanni Ballerio, chaired the NGO Forum Working Group of the Committee on the Status of Women in Geneva. A Baha'i International Community representative also acted as Rapporteur for the Asia/Pacific NGO Working Group in Bangkok. All over the world, Baha'i communities participated in the regional forums leading up to Huairou. Once the Forum began, Baha'i participants put their energy into three main areas: sponsoring workshops, maintaining a special "Quiet Space" to meet participants' needs for a calm
environment in which to reflect and meditate, and volunteering to help the entire event run smoothly. Baha'is sponsored, coordinated, or organized more than 30 workshops at the Forum. The Baha'i International Community, as an NGO, cosponsored "Community Reconstruction: A Consensual Framework for Global Peace and Security" with the International Peace Research Association and the Association of African Women on Research and Development. Participants examined the components of a paradigm of global security, exploring the practice of conflict resolution, the concept of consultation, and the processes of reconciliation and reconstruction as vital aspects of community building and social reintegration. The Baha'i International Community also offered a video presentation and discussion about the Traditional Media as Change Agent project undertaken in Bolivia, Cameroon, and Malaysia in cooperation with the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) to help local communities use theater, dance, songs, and storytelling to examine and change existing attitudes about gender roles. A workshop presenting program models that aim to address gender roles in the family was also cosponsored by the Baha'i International Community with UNICEF, the YMCA, and Save the Children, and another workshop called "The Right to Food" was convened by BIC and presented by Advocates for African Food Security. Among the topics addressed by other Baha'i agencies in their workshops were consultation in the family; young women and a violence-free society; the impact of development on indigenous families; women, work, and family; and women and men in partnership promoting equality. Some of these presentations were made by Baha'i institutions, such as the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Greece, and others were made by organizations founded by Baha'is, such as 1' Association medicale baha'ie. In one case, a Baha'i agency, the Office for the Advancement of Women of the Baha'i Community of Malaysia, was appointed as a South East Asian Focal Point for Family and Young Women's Issues for the Forum, and in that capacity presented several workshops.
EQUALITY, DEVELOPMENT, pEACE
Whenever Forum participants found the need for some time away from the lively exchange of some 30,000 voices, they were able to make use of"The Quiet Space." Facilitated by the Baha'i International Community at the request of the NGO Forum Office, the space was arranged with flowers and potted plants placed amidst the chairs, a rug on the floor, and quiet music from different parts of the world playing in the background. Hanging in the tent was an 8' x 12' tapestry called "Threads of Unity" created by artist Vickie Hu Poirier with contributions from more than 60 Baha'is; the design included Baha'i quotations in a variety of languages woven throughout. Many people came regularly to "The Quiet Space" and often expressed their appreciation for having such a haven. "The Quiet Space, " facilitated by the BaM 'i International Community at the NGO Forum in Huairou. See p. 8lfora photograph of the tapestry "Threads ofUnity" which was displayed in "The Quiet Space. "
Volunteers at the Baha'i International Community booth at the NGOForum on Women '95 in Huairou.
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Prior to the Forum itself, as Baha'is prepared themselves for the event, it was suggested that those who would participate might draw inspiration from the figure of Bahiyyih Khanum, daughter of Baha'u'llah and an example to all women of how leadership and strength can be combined with humility and service to humanity. Thus when they arrived at the Forum, a number of Baha'is found that a natural way of expressing Baha'i principles and ideals was to use their talents in service to their fellow attendees. One Baha'i acted as a facilitator of scores of volunteers, helping to link them with needs throughout the Forum. The volunteers also helped make possible distribution of the daily NGO newspaper, managed the marketplace at which women from all over the world sold their crafts, and assisted with maintaining the atmosphere of "The Quiet Space." Among the Baha'i participants at the Forum were approximately 50 youth. In addition to volunteering and participating in activities throughout the Forum, the Baha'i Youth Workshop from the United States-a diverse group of young people who use the performing arts to promote the principles of racial and sexual equality and the oneness of humanity-performed five times during the Forum, including once at a youth arts night before 500 people. They also presented "Partnership is the Key: Young Women and Young Men as Agents of Change," a panel discussion and question and answer period on developing attitudes of partnership within the Baha'i Youth Workshop and the potential of the Workshop as a social and educational development tool. At the Forum's closing ceremonies, before a crowd of 15,000, the Workshop performed a dance portraying the need for both sexes to work together to achieve equality and a rap on the nobility and dignity of women. Members of the group were enthusiastically approached for more information by people from the Bougainvillaea Islands in the South Pacific who were trying to find ways to stop gang violence; by others from Pakistan examining the role teenage boys play in the self-esteem of girls; and by a woman living as a refugee in Kenya who uses the arts to address the trauma of children in refugee camps. The youth from Malaysia also played a significant role in the Forum. They offered a workshop on the increasing burden of
EQUALITY, DEVELOPMENT, pEACE
poverty on young women, and the final speech of the youth presentation at the closing ceremonies was given by Malaysian Baha'is Kim Siew Yen and Anyssa Ludher. The torrential rains which regularly flooded some NGO tents at the Forum and the difficulties associated with the relatively late move of the Forum site from Beijing to Huairou did not in the end prevent the women and men who attended from carrying out the important work they had come to accomplish. "The tone of the women present at the closing of the NGO Forum is one of confidence and determination," wrote Dr. Elizabeth Bowen in one of a series of reports sent electronically to fellow members of Health for Humanity and through SatelLife to health care providers in Africa, Asia, Australia, and Canada. "The sense of unity and appreciation of diversity among the women in their quest for justice is impressive." The NGO Forum '95 provided more evidence of the truth of 'Abdu'l-Baha's words, spoken in 1912: "The world in the past has been ruled by force ... But the balance is already shifting; force is losing its dominance, and mental alertness, intuition, and the spiritual qualities of love and service, in which woman is strong, are gaining ascendancy. Hence the new age will be ... an age in which the masculine and feminine elements of civilization will be more evenly balanced." The United Nations Conference Halfway through the NGO Forum, the Fourth World Conference on Women began at the Beijing International Conference Center. Although this Conference was organized to give government representatives an opportunity to forge a Platform for Action, nongovernmental agencies continued to play vital roles in the process. In fact, the Conference, held 4-15 September 1995, was described by conference officials as the largest international meeting ever convened under United Nations auspices, with some 17,000 people registered, including 5,000 delegates from 189 states and the European Union, 4,000 NGO representatives, and more than 3,200 members of the media. While continuing their educational and networking activities in Huairou, NGOs also contributed substantively to the conference in Beijing through direct participation in the debate about the Platform for Action. In
a message to the conference, United Nations Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali called this a demonstration of "the new partnership in international life which has been forged between governmental and nongovernmental organizations" and of the "new legitimacy of the organizations of civil society as actors on the international scene."2 Seven Baha'i delegations were accredited to the conference: the Baha'i International Community, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States, the Baha'i community of the Netherlands, the Baha'i community of Canada, 1' Association baha'ie de Femmes (France), !'Association medicale baha'ie (France), and the National Baha'i Office for the Advancement of Women (Nigeria). In addition, two organizations founded by Baha'is sent delegations: Health for Humanity and Women for International Peace and Arbitration. Individual Baha'is were also selected to serve on the delegations sent by their countries. The conference was called by the United Nations to review progress made toward implementation of the "Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women" adopted at the Third World Conference in Nairobi in 1985. By the end of the conference in Beijing it was determined that much remains to be done, and the government representatives adopted a Declaration and Platform for Action aimed at launching a global campaign to bring women into full and equal participation in all spheres of public and private life worldwide. The Platform addresses twelve critical areas of concern: poverty, education, health, violence, armed conflict, economic structures, power sharing and decisionmaking, mechanisms to promote the advancement of women, human rights, the media, the environment, and the girl child. Caucuses were held on each of these issues, as well as on the common issues being faced by various regions of the world.
2. The role played by NGOs at international United Nations conferences has continued to grow significantly during the last several years, as witnessed by their prominence at the World Summit for Social Development. For a description of Baha'i International Community involvement at that Summit, see The Baha'i World 1994-95, pp. 37-46.
EQUALITY, DEVELOPMENT, pEACE
Through participating in these caucuses, NGO representatives were able to work collectively to develop language which could be recommended to the governmental working groups for inclusion in the Platform for Action. Brenda Maxwell, one of the delegates representing the Baha'i community of Canada, worked long hours drafting a statement for the health caucus. Patricia Locke, representing the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States, was elected chair of the indigenous women's caucus. Two members of the Women for International Peace and Arbitration, an organization founded by Baha'is, played key roles in the peace caucus, helping to draft a statement which was delivered orally to the Conference. A portion of the statement read: "Equality is one of the most important though less acknowledged prerequisites to peace. Therefore, women must participate fully in all stages of peace processes and negotiations. From peace education, preventive diplomacy, non-violent peace building and peacekeeping to post-conflict peace building, women's skills and experience as mediators and conciliators in all spheres of society will make a qualitative difference in the effectiveness of these activities." The selection of the girl child as one of the twelve priority areas of concern to be addressed in the Platfonn for Action was particularly gratifying to the Baha'i International Community, whose members had worked for years to draw attention to this subject. As far back as the early 1970s, after the Baha'i Interna~ tional Community became accredited to the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) and became an NGO observer at meetings of the Commission on the Status of Women, it submitted a statement to the Commission calling attention to the importance of educating girls. In the early 1980s, a strong statement was made to the UNICEF Executive Board supporting the initiative taken by UNICEF's Women's Senior Programme Advisor to advocate for the girl child, and the Baha'i International Community worked closely with UNICEF to promote awareness of the needs of girl children. In Geneva, BIC representative Giovanni Ballerio worked with representatives of the
A diverse group of participants at the NGOForum on Women '95, held in conjunction with the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, September 1995.
International Federation ofUniversity Women and other international NGOs to promote inclusion of this issue in the Beijing Platform for Action. He also promoted the importance of the issue at the Economic Commission for Europe Preparatory Conference in Vienna in October 1994 and the fmal session of the UN Preparatory Committee in New York in March 1995. Continuing its work after the Beijing conference, the Baha'i International Community gained representation on UNICEF's NGO Working Group on the Girl Child. In addition to participating in issue caucuses, the Baha'i International Community distributed a statement entitled "The Role of Religion in Promoting the Advancement of Women" to all delegations represented at the conference. The statement was going to be presented orally at the Conference, as the Baha'i International Community had been one of approximately 50 NGOs selected to speak, but at the last moment organizers requested that a slot be relinquished to the Moscow Center for Gender Studies which was represented for the first time at a world conference. Given the importance of Eastern European women's gaining recognition for the challenges they face, the Baha'i International Community decided to offer its place on the program and distribute its statement in print form only. Applauding the fact that the Platform for Action addresses the advancement of women from the standpoint of moral principle and not just pragmatism, the Baha'i International Community asserted in the statement that if the Platform is to receive the
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worldwide support it requires for implementation, "the equality of men and women needs to be understood as an essential aspect of an even broader principle: the oneness of humanity. Properly understood in the context of the oneness of humanity, equality of the sexes must be embraced not only as a requirement of justice but as a prerequisite for peace and prosperity. Nothing short of a compelling vision of peace, and commitment to the values on which it must be based, will have the power to motivate the revolutionary changes in individual behavior, organizational structures, and interpersonal dynamics called for by the Platform for Action." Specifically addressing the role of the religious community in this process, the Baha'i International Community stated, "Because religion is such a potentially powerful force for progress, religious leaders and people of faith everywhere are urged to step forward as lovers of humanity to promote those eternal unifying principles--or spiritual values-that can inspire in both individuals and governments the will to implement the Agenda for Equality." Speaking to the contributions which must equally be made by both sexes, the statement said, "Men must use their influence, particularly in the civil, political and religious institutions they control, to promote the systematic inclusion of women, not out of condescension or presumed self-sacrifice, but out of the belief that the contributions of women are required for society to progress. Women, for their part, must become educated and step forward into all arenas of human activity, contributing their particular qualities, skills and experience to the social, economic and political equation." Baha'i perspectives on equality were also shared with both Conference and Forum participants through distribution of The Greatness Which Might Be Theirs, a collection of Baha'i International Community statements and essays by Baha'is reflecting on the Agenda and Platform for Action. The booldet' s title is drawn from the words of 'Abdu'l-Baha: "As long as women are prevented from attaining their highest possibility, so long will men be unable to achieve the greatness which might be theirs." For the first time since the World Conferences on Women began in 197 5, the United Nations invited youth to take an active
role. The Baha'i International Community was among a small number of organizations selected by the UN to send representatives to youth consultations organized at the regional preparatory conferences in Jakarta, Mar del Plata (Argentina), Dakar, and Vienna. In Beijing, Ashley Avaregan was the only male on a panel of NGO youth representatives making a presentation called "International Youth NGOs: Actors in Implementation" on Youth Day. As mentioned earlier, youth also played an important role in the NGO Forutn. Near the end of the conference, the Baha'i International Community celebrated the achievements of the Fourth World Conference on Women by hosting a reception for 300 old and new friends from 30 different countries at the Great Wall Sheraton in Beijing. Music, food, and conversation was shared with ambassadors, a princess, members of the Chinese community, government ministers, presidents of NGOs, United Nations personnel and others. In her address to the fmal session of the Conference on 15 September, Gertrude Mongella, Secretary General of the Conference, exclaimed, "My dear sisters and brothers, we have made it! We have managed to transcend historical and cultural complexities; we have managed to transcend socioeconomic disparities and diversities; we have kept aflame our common vision and goal of equality, development and peace. In a number of areas, we have significantly expanded the horizons of previous conferences." Of course the goals agreed upon in Beijing will not become a reality unless the conversation continues and inspires widespread action. The Baha'i communities around the world worked to maintain the momentum begun at the Conference and Forum. In Canada, local communities had held "Beijing-connect" conferences at the same time as the World Conference, to inform those who couldn't travel to Beijing about the Conference's proceedings, and following the Conference, "Post-Beijing" gatherings kept the issues alive. The gatherings included panel discussions with various community leaders; an evening of song, poetry, story-telling and video clips from the Beijing conference; and a public discussion which kicked off a three-month series of events focusing on issues faced by women. In Anchorage,
EQUALITY, DEVELOPMENT, pEACE
Alaska, the Baha'i Center filled up with people wanting to hear from those who had attended the NGO Forum in Huairou. The panel members, representing the Baha'i community and seven community organizations, spoke about the history of UN activities related to women, the documents produced in Beijing, and the issues identified as priority areas of concern. Some Beijing participants travelled beyond their home communities to present the results of the Conference. Dr. Hoda Mahmoudi, a university professor from California, shared her thoughts on Beijing with a number of audiences in Puerto Rico. Before a group of lawyers and educators she spoke about "Why Women are the K.ey to World Peace: The Baha'i View"; at the Puerto Rican Bar Association she addressed the audience on "The United Nations 50 Years Later: Are We Closer to World Peace?"; and at University College, University of Puerto Rico, she took part in a symposium entitled "Gender and Law: Toward the Next Millennium." Prominent people took part in post-Beijing events initiated by Baha'i communities. The Prime Minister of Guyana, Sam Hinds, provided opening remarks for the Post-Beijing Symposium on Women cosponsored by UNICEF and the Baha'i community of Guyana. Representatives from some 35 organizations attended and speeches were given by members of UN agencies in the region. The post-Beijing conference hosted by the Baha'i Women's Group of Trinidad drew the country's First Lady, the Director of the Women's Affairs Division of the Ministry of Community Development, Culture and Women's Affairs, a UN representative from the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, and the Secretary of the Network for the Advancement of Women. As these examples of follow-up activities suggest, the effects of the deliberations and the connections made at Beijing will continue to be felt for some time as women and men strive to forge entirely new relationships based on equality. One metaphor for the work ahead is that of weaving a tapestry: different kinds of thread are needed to make the tapestry beautiful, and each thread must support the others for a strong fabric to emerge. In Beijing, this metaphor was used to demonstrate the qualities of
women through the "Weaving the World Together" project, initiated in 1994 by Asia-Pacific women. They called on women around the world to contribute to a banner, which in the end was one kilometer long and reflected the talents of women from at least 122 countries. On 7 September, 200 women carried 200 meters of the ribbon to the Great Wall of China and displayed it. "Weaving means many elements are made into one strong piece, so it represents the diversity, the strength, the dignity and the unity of women," said Chartikavanij Sumalee from Thailand, quoted in an article on the banner in World Women. The Baha'is who contributed chose to view weaving as a metaphor for harmony between women and men. The World Women article on the project finished by noting that the portion created by Baha'is used another metaphor for the work that must be done: "At the end of the ribbon, a huge banner from the Baha'is of Southeast Asia cried out the will of women all over the world: 'The world of humanity has two wings: One is women and the other men. Not until both wings are equally developed can the bird fly.'"
u Baha is Commemorate the Fiftieth Anniversary of the United Nations
he people on the island of Tanna in the South Pacific country of Vanuatu have long lived with a prophecy that one day all the nations of the world would come to the "Laminu nakamal," a traditional dancing area regarded by Tannese as having great customary significance. Early in 1995, several of the Baha'is on Tanna expressed their desire to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the United Nations, and eventually an offer was made by the National Spiritual Assembly of Vanuatu to the country's UN 50th Birthday Organizing Committee. Working with the Pacific Operations Center (EPOC) of the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), the Vanuatu Department of Foreign Affairs, and the Tafea Provincial Council, the Baha'is began to put together a major event. Baha'i Local Spiritual Assemblies from all over the island cooked enough food for 1,000 people, traditional dancers practiced their craft, speeches were written by representatives of EPOC, the Department of Foreign Affairs and the National Spiritual Assembly, and traditional chiefs from all over Tanna were invited
THE BAHA'I WORLD
to attend. The day before the gathering, which was scheduled for 24 October, the Baha'i community cleared vegetation at the celebration site, made a pole for the UN flag, and erected shelters for the invited guests. When the day arrived, spectators began to gather under the shade of three enormous banyan trees at the Laminu nakamal. The ceremony began when students marched from their primary school around the celebration site and to the Niko Letan Center, headquarters of the Tanna Island Council of Chiefs. Speeches were interspersed with performances of traditional dances, two of which had never before been performed in public and one choreographed specially in honor of the United Nations. When the UN flag was raised to the sound of a traditional conch shell being blown, the Custom Chief of the Laminu nakamal, pointing out that it was the first time the people on Tanna had seen the flag, asserted that the prophecy was fulfilled. Although events officially ended in the afternoon, many guests remained until sunset simply to gaze at the flag. The celebration on Vanuatu was one of many events sponsored by Baha'i communities around the world to commemorate the anniversary, events that bear witness to the widespread and deeply felt commitment among Baha'is to the ideals reflected in the United Nations Charter. The optimism about the future of international cooperation that Baha'is brought to their commemorations contrasted with the focus on the UN' s shortcomings apparent in the steady stream of editorials that appeared when the United Nations reached its 50th birthday. Commentators varied in their levels of patience with the organization, some advocating a complete overhaul of the UN bureaucracy and reevaluation of the organization's aims, particularly citing its nearly $3 billion debt, and others counselling greater support for an institution attempting to achieve so much with relatively little serious financial and moral support. But virtually all the editorials lamented the fact that the UN had not yet lived up to its original aim of eliminating war, and expressed skepticism about its ability to reform enough to meet this and other goals. The Baha'i community also raised its voice to call for UN reform but did so in the context of a belief in the deep significance of the UN' s very formation and appreciation of its achievements thus far.
UN 50
Baha'is view the establishment of the United Nations as an important sign of humanity's ever-increasing acceptance of its global interdependence, so they approached the 50th anniversary with the attitude that the UN' s accomplishments are extremely significant given their uniqueness in the broad sweep of history. At the same time, its shortcomings must also be addressed if its great potential is to be realized. The Baha'i perspective is informed by half a century of involvement with the UN; Baha'is were present at the historic San Francisco conference which gave birth to the institution, and since 1948 the Baha'i International Community has been registered as a nongovernmental organization (NGO), now representing more than five million people from a wide diversity of ethnic, economic, educational, and cultural backgrounds. It secured consultative status, Category II, with the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) in 1970, consultative status with the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) in 1976, and working relations with the World Health Organization in 1989. It also works with other UN agencies and programs, such as UNIFEM and UNEP and has participated in major UN conferences focusing on paramount issues of the day. Support for the UN and practical sugges~ions for its reform are expressed in a statement issued by the Baha'i International Community on the occasion of the 50th anniversary. Turning Point for All Nations 1 cites historical evidence for "the trend toward ever-increasing interdependence and integration of humanity" and describes the UN as "a unique institution standing as a noble symbol for the collective interests of humanity as a whole." It also acknowledges that the overall goals of the institution have remained elusive, and it urges world leaders to convene a world summit on global governance to examine how the international political order can be restructured to meet the needs of society as it is currently evolving. The statement suggests a number of specific, immediate courses of action to strengthen the capacity of the UN, but it also calls for a long-term view. "Judged in isolation from the reality in which it operates," the statement
1. See pp. 241-83 for a complete reprint of this statement.
operates," the statement reads, "the United Nations will always seem inefficient and ineffective. However, if it is viewed as one element of a large process of development in systems of international order, the bright light of analysis would shift from the UN's shortcomings and failures to shine on its victories and accomplishments. With an evolutionary mindset, the early experience of the United Nations offers us a rich source of learnings about its future role within the international regime." The release of the Turning Point document and its presentation to a wide variety of people throughout the year and beyond was one element of the Baha'i community's efforts to assert the significance of the United Nations and to stimulate discussion about its reform. One of the points made in the statement is that "with a focus on building institutions and creating a community of nations, international bodies have historically remained distant from the minds and hearts of the world's people" and "discussions about the future of the international order must involve and excite the generality of humankind." Thus Baha'i activities on the occasion of the 50th anniversary reached out to world leaders and individual citizens alike. International Events In June 1995, a series of commemorative activities took place in San Francisco, the site of the original meeting at which the UN Charter was signed. The National Spiritual Assembly of the United States was represented at a meeting addressed by United States' President Bill Clinton, held at the San Francisco War Memorial Opera House, the location of the original signing. On 25 June an interfaith service was held in Grace Cathedral and attended by President Clinton, United Nations Secretary General Dr. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Nobel Prize winner Archbishop Desmond Tutu of South Africa, HRH Princess Margaret of England, a number of UN ambassadors, and members of the public. The Baha'i World Choir of Northern California sang a selection of hymns, a Baha'i read a section from the Parliament of the World's Religions' "Declaration Towards a Global Ethic," and another Baha'i chanted a prayer. Baha'is also attended the United Nations Association's annual convention and a four-day
UN 50
conference called "We the People," held to discuss the present and future role of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in the UN system. Other Baha'i contributions to the San Francisco celebrations included a public meeting called "Baha'i Call to the Nations: Forum on Global Governance" at which presentations were made on the early years of the UN, the development of the nation-state, and meeting the challenges facing the United Nations; an exhibition entitled "A Vision of World Unity" at the Baha'i Center; and a ceremony to honor youth who had demonstrated moral and ethical leadership within their communities. The largest gathering of world leaders ever to take place occurred inN ew York in October when the UN' s anniversary was officially commemorated. The Baha'i International Community provided a venue for discussion by hosting a seminar called "UN Restructuring: Turning Point for All Nations." His Excellency the President of the Marshall Islands Amata Kabua and Under- Secretary General of the United Nations Gillian Martin Sorensen were among the presenters at the day-long meeting. Also attending were diplomats from Ireland, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States as well as senior staff members of the UN Secretariat and representatives of NGOs. Two papers presented by Baha'is were "The Creation of an International Force" and "Establishing a Commission to Explore the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language." An element of the official anniversary celebration was a seminar on religious dialogue for spiritual leaders from around the His Excellency the President of the Marshall Islands Amata Kabua delivering the keynote address to the "Turning Point for All Nations" seminar held at the Baha'i International Community's United Nations Offices, October 1995.
world. One of the invited speakers was the current holder of the Baha'i Chair for World Peace at the University of Maryland, College Park, Dr. Suheil Bushrui. Dr. Bushrui also read a Baha'i prayer before an audience of 2,000 at the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York City. National and Local Events The events organized by national and local Baha'i communities to demonstrate support for the UN and to draw attention to prospects for its improvement varied in scope, as communities large and small found their own unique ways to relate to the issues being faced by this international body. However, a common element of many of these events was the distribution, presentation, or discussion of Turning Pointfor All Nations. Prior to the statement's release, an exhibit on its themes was mounted at the Palais des Nations in Geneva. The exhibit opened on 17 August in the presence of 37 diplomats from 29 countries, three Sub-Commission Experts, staff of the UN Center for Human Rights, representatives of NGOs, and high officials of the UN. It was displayed for two weeks. When Turning Point was released in the fall, it was presented formally to Gillian Martin Sorensen, the official in charge of the UN 50th Anniversary Secretariat. 2 On the same day, the statement was also presented to Farida Ayoub, Chief of the NGO Liaison Unit of the United Nations. During the rest of the year, the document was presented by national Baha'i delegations to numerous officials, including the Prime Minister of Belize, the President of Hungary, the Prime Minister and Speaker of the National Assembly of Togo, and the Foreign Minister of Swaziland. In Mauritius, Turning Point was presented to the President of the Republic during a one-hour program attended by more than 30 dignitaries, including the Ambassador of Madagascar. The U.S. Baha'i community presented the statement to local and national political leaders. The National Spiritual Assembly of Swaziland and the UN office in that country cohosted a panel discussion on Turning
2. See also pp. 126-29.
UN 50
Point with participants from government ministries and NGOs, during which they gave time for comments from audience members. Likewise in Togo, the statement was introduced to the public during two meetings cosponsored by the National Spirihml Assembly and the United Nations Development Program. The first meeting was attended primarily by ministry officials, university professors, media representatives, and other leaders of thought, and the second meeting was held in a high school for students to explore the issues. A United Nations building on the Green Line which has separated the northern and southern regions of Cyprus since 197 4 was the venue for presentation of Turning Point to the UN Special Representative of the Secretary General for Cyprus in October. On the same occasion, copies of the document were shared with the Chairman of the World Federation of UN Associations and local representatives of the Cyprus UNA. The repetition of the words of Baha'u'llah, "The earth is but one country, and mankind its citizens," by the UN representative was especially poignant at this border, which has divided neighbors and families for more than two decades. Faculty members from Edith Cowan University, the University of Western Australia, and Curtin University of Technology, all in Western Australia, attended a dinner/reception sponsored by the Baha'is of Wannaroo to celebrate the UN's 50th anniversary. Following a keynote address, each of the guests received a copy of The Prosperity of Humanldnd. 3 In Singapore, leaders of interreligious organizations and civic societies were among the 100 people who took part in a public forum on Turning Point in October. In Tanzania, the readers of the daily newspaper Express learned about the Baha'i perspective on the UN through an article highlighting points made in the Baha'i International Community's statement. An exhibit of posters and materials showing "Achievements of the UN at 50" greeted the 250 people who attended a function in New Delhi, India, to mark the anniversary. The proposals outlined in Turning Point were reviewed by a member of the
3. See The Baha'i World 1994-95, pp. 273-96 for the text of this statement.
Continental Board of Counsellors in Asia, Zena Sorabjee, after an inaugural address by former Chief Justice of India, R. S. Pathak and a keynote address by Dr. Hans von Sponeck, Resident Coordinator, UN system in India. At the end of the program, each guest was given a copy of the Baha'i International Community's statement.
Dr. Hans von Sponeck UN Resident Coordinator for India, receives Turning Point for All Nations at a UN 50 commemoration in New Delhi, India, October 1995.
Awareness of Baha'i perspectives on issues facing the UN was also spread through press coverage of anniversary events. A celebration organized by the Baha'i Association for World Peace at the University of the North-West in South Africa made headline news on Bophuthatswana Television, was one of the main items on Mmabatho Television, and was covered in several major newspapers. Photographs showed the 20 Baha'is and their 250 guests exchanging ideas on women and world peace, the rights of children, and the future of the UN. The university's 60-member choir filled the gathering with inspiring music. In Bangladesh, three important newspapers published articles on a public meeting sponsored by the Local Spiritual Assembly of K.hulna to mark the founding of the UN. Tents on the grounds of the Baha'i Center were filled with 50 Baha'is and 200 guests who listened to speeches and then enjoyed the performance of songs written by Baha'i youth on the theme of unity and amity among the nations and races of the earth.
UNSO
The presentation of World Citizenship Awards, a special service at a Baha'i House of Worship, and an art exhibit were some other types of events that marked the anniversary in various locations. The Awards were established in Brazil by the National Spiritual Assembly and were given to eight international agencies and the two married couples who founded the School of the Nations in Brasilia, where each month teachers work with students on a theme related to spiritual and social virtues such as unity, protection of the environment, and the value of work. The special worship service was held at the Baha'i House of Worship in Apia, Samoa; 250 people enjoyed the service and then moved to an adjacent building for speeches by a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors in Australasia and the Resident Coordinator of the United Nations Office in Western Samoa. The art exhibit, entitled "Vision of World Peace," was set up in the main entrance of Estonia's Pedagogical University in Tallinn and featured the work of Baha'is Nastia and Ksenia Stanishevski. Baha'i commitment to the United Nations was recognized when Baha'is were invited by others to take part in UN anniversary gatherings. For example, the Baha'i community of the Netherlands was asked to send a representative to the country's official celebration, held in the Knights' Hall in The Hague and attended by Queen Beatrix. The secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly of Costa Rica spoke at an ecumenical gathering organized by the Ministry of External Relations and attended by two
Baha'is in Tallinn, Estonia, hosted an art exhibit and an international prayer meeting in commemoration of the United Nations' fiftieth anniversary, October 1995.
former presidents of Costa Rica, current vice presidents, and members of the diplomatic corps. Baha'is also cosponsored Washington, D.C.'s largest UN 50 commemorative event and contributed two workshops: "Moral, Ethical, and Spiritual Values and the UN" and "Religious NGOs and the UN." This national gathering on the United States and the UN, organized by the United Nations Association and cosponsored by more than 100 organizations, was attended by more than 400 people from 3 5 states. Youth Involvement Some Baha'i communities marked the anniversary with activities aimed to engage young people in the issues being faced by the UN. The Baha'i community of Costa Rica sponsored an essay contest, and winners participated in the 50th anniversary celebrations in San Francisco. In India, the Baha'i District Teaching Committee of K_annur organized a speech competition on the theme "One World: My Concept" in which students from seven of the district's twelve colleges took part. "The Baha'i Faith and Education" was the theme of a Baha'i booth at a UN 50 exhibition held in Hong Kong in October. Baha'is also contributed to a program organized by the Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLAC) for the children attending schools sponsored by members of the Association ofNGOs working with ECLAC. Ten students from Colegio Baha'i Nur and the school's headmistress participated, and six Mapuche Indians travelled 700 miles from their home in Labranza, Chile, to the site of the event in Santiago to perform music and dance for the children. Two Baha'i youth dramatically demonstrated their understanding of UN issues and willingness to take action. Thirteen-year-old Jordan Melic of Singapore worked on an article that was selected for publication in A World in Our Hands, a book produced by Peace Child International and Paintbrush Diplomacy for the 50th anniversary. Then he applied and was chosen to be one of 24 editors of the volume, which includes pieces on the history of the UN and views for its future written by young people between nine and twenty. In June 1995, Jordan was the only editor to be flown
UN 50
to the United States for the official presentation of the book. In the U.S., he gave a 30-minute talk at the World Trade Center in New York to an audience of 200 distinguished guests, and he presented A World in Our Hands to Dr. Boutros Boutros-Ghali at the Hearst Theater in San Francisco, where the UN Charter had been signed 50 years earlier. After Jordan spoke the words, "The earth is but one country, and mankind its citizens," Dr. Boutros-Ghali asked him to inscribe them in his copy of the book. Mariana Eghrari of Brazil, also thirteen, was invited by the organization Peaceways to represent the children of her country at the World Conference of Children in San Francisco, organized as part of the 50th anniversary events. The 150 participating children prepared a document called Keeping the Promise Report about the main challenges facing the children of the world. Mariana was among 15 of these children selected to travel to Geneva to present the document to UN officials and to consult with them. Taking Stock In one International Herald Tribune editorial (27 June 1995) about the UN at 50, some of the institution's accomplishments are listed: "Agencies of the United Nations have eradicated diseases (completely, in the case of smallpox), countered famine, housed 30 million refugees, probably halved child mortality and taught millions to read and write. Politically, the United Nations has sped decolonization, provided a forum for poor but populous new members and spotlighted, if selectively, human rights offenders." The Baha'i International Community document Turning Point for All Nations likewise notes the UN' s achievements: "As an international organization, the United Nations has demonstrated humanity's capacity for united action in health, agriculture, education, environmental protection, and the welfare of children. It has affirmed our collective moral will to build a better future, evinced in the widespread adoption of international human rights Covenants. It has revealed the human race's deepseated compassion, evidenced by the devotion of financial and human resources to the assistance of people in distress." The Herald Tribune article, like many other editorials, goes on to cite the UN's shortcomings, particularly its inability thus far
to prevent wars between and within member states. The Baha'i International Community agrees that the UN has a long way to go to fulfill its potential, but it remains confident that solutions to its organizational and financial problems can be found if discussions about its future take into account the broader, evolving international order and if they involve and excite the generality of humanity. Viewed in historical context, this grand experiment to "save succeeding generations from the scourge of war ... and reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be attained, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom" has been a singular success, if only for what its proponents have believed to be possible. The Baha'i community commemorated the UN' s anniversary by doing its part to bring these dreams closer to reality.
This article highlights print media coverage of the Baha'i Faith during 1995-96.
The Baha'i Faith in the
EYES OF THE WORLD
I n surveying the attention afforded Baha'i communities and events by the media this year, the steadily increasing tempo and diversity of such coverage becomes instantly apparent. Not only are more Baha'i institutions formalizing mechanisms for offering material to the press, but to an increasing degree media agencies in every part of the world are finding Baha'i initiatives and approaches to social issues newsworthy and are reporting on their developments, in English and in a wide variety of other languages. The following survey touches on some of the highlights, as well as those activities which received the most coverage. The Baha'is of Iran A number of articles on the plight of the Baha'is of Iran were published during the visits of Olya Roohizadegan to Austria, Belgium, and the United States. Mrs. Roohizadegan was imprisoned by the Iranian authorities for being a Baha'i; her book, Olya 's Story, details her experiences and those of her fellow Baha'i prisoners. Among other articles on the Baha'is of Iran were those printed in Bergens Tidende in Norway on 21 February 1996; in
Mid-Day in South Africa on 25 April1995; in three newspapers in India on 2 March 1996; in four New Zealand newspapers in February and March 1996; and in the Iran Times in the United States on 16 and 23 February. The special exhibit on the response of the United States government to the persecution of the Baha'is of Iran, demonstrating its commitment to religious freedom, was announced in Roll-Call, the Capitol Hill newspaper, on 1 May 1995, and in the Washington Post on 6 May 1995. Several articles were written for Irish newspapers reporting Baha'i activities commemorating the tenth anniversary of the admission of 26 Iranian Baha'is as refugees by the government of Ireland. On 21 March 1996, the Donegal Democrat carried an item on a reception held at the Baha'i National Center for the men and women of Ireland who aided the Iranian refugees, and Derry People and Donegal News printed a similar item on 22 March. On 6 April, the Meath Chronicle covered one Iranian Baha'i man's visit with the Baha'i couple in Slane who had helped him integrate into Irish life years before. The Sligo Champion on 28 February announced a segment of the Would You Believe program focusing on a Baha'i couple's journey from persecution in Iran to becoming a real part of the Sligo community. Baha'i Community Life A great deal of attention was accorded to Baha'i holy days by the press worldwide. In American Samoa the Samoa Journal and Advertiser ran a piece on 23 October 1995 on the birthday of the Bab; in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, both the Daily Telegrams and the Andaman Herald on 19 October 1995 carried front-page announcements of celebrations of the birth of the Bab. On 11 November the Daily Telegrams printed a front-page item on the observance for the birth of Baha'u'llah, and on 12 November the Andaman Herald published a longer piece providing some details ofBaha'u'llah's life. In the United States an announcement in the Dallas Morning News of the observance of the Declaration of the Bab was printed on 13 May; in the Shetland Islands, United Kingdom, the Baha'i community advertised the observance of the Martyrdom of the Bab in the Shetland Times. The Shetland Times also carried an announcement about the birthday ofBaha'u'llah, on 10 November 1995.
In New Zealand as well two articles were printed about the birthday of Baha'u'llah and the Baha'i community published announcements about the Baha'i fast and about the Ri<;lvan Festival. The Azores newspaper Correia dos A9ores printed on 23 April1995 a description by the Sao Miguel Baha'i community of the history and significance of Ri<;lvan. The article included a photograph of the Ri<;lvan Garden in the Holy Land. Newspapers all over India reported on local communities' observances of Baha'i holy days. The Baha'i celebration ofNaw- Ruz-New Year-resulted in an article in the Washington Post on 18 March 199 5, as well as in newspapers in New Zealand, Scotland, Singapore, Malaysia, Canada, Hawaii, the U.S.A., and Guyana. The Marianas Observer, the Pacific Star, and the Pacific Daily News in the Mariana Islands all published stories covering that community's Eighteenth National Baha'i Convention. In Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, on 2 June 1995 the Vincentian printed a photograph of the newly elected National Spiritual Assembly. The participation of a Manitoban Baha'i in the National Convention of Canada was reported on 10 May in the Opasquia Times. The article also included information about the Baha'i electoral process and historical facts about the Baha'i administration in Canada. On 19 May, the Marshall Islands Journal reported on the national convention in that country. The same journal on 23 June carried a story on the visit to Majuro of three members of the Continental Board of Counsellors in Australasia. On 12 May, the Shetland Times reported that a member of the Shetland Baha'i community would serve on the new committee appointed by the National Spiritual Assembly of the United K.ingdom to direct the affairs of the Baha'i community in Scotland. The Kyrgyzstan Chronicle's 25 to 31 August 1995 issue reported on the first national Baha'i conference and included the Baha'i Faith among its list of religious organizations and institutions. More than 25 different articles appeared in an array of New Zealand newspapers announcing or reporting on the Pacific Horizons Conference, held in Auckland in January 1996 and sponsored by the Baha'i community. At least twelve other articles were printed which followed the efforts of Baha'is who came to
New Zealand to attend the conference to share their cultures, talents, and the Baha'i message with the people of various areas ofNew Zealand. The Pioneer and the Times of India on 15 December 1995 both published articles in English on the establishment of the Chair for Baha'i Studies at Lucknow University, and articles on the subject were carried by two Hindi newspapers. Advancement of Women In Macau, an activity in support of the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, in April1995, in which children expressed their world citizenship by putting their handprints on a banner which was subsequently sent to the conference, received coverage from a number of Macau newspapers, including Huaqiao Baa, Huaao Ribao, Daizhong Baa, Aomen Wenyu, Aomen Ribao, Zheng Baa, Xiandai Aomen Ribao, and Hauao Ribao. The press in Malaysia printed several reports mentioning or highlighting Malaysian Baha'i women's involvement in the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing. In addition, there were about seven articles reporting on a post-Beijing seminar sponsored by the Baha'i community in November 1995. The Guyana Chronicle and the Stabroek News printed items on 16 August on the departure of two Guyanese Baha'is for the NGO forum at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, and then on 16 and 19 October the Guyana Chronicle reported on the post-Beijing symposium organized by the Baha'i community and opened by Prime Minister Sam Hinds. In Hawaii, the Sun Press and the Honolulu Star-Bulletin also carried items on local Baha'i women who traveled to the Beijing conference. On 6 November the Trinidad Guardian reported on the post-Beijing conference on women hosted by the Baha'i community and attended by the First Lady of Trinidad and Tobago. In Ontario, Canada, the London Free Press published an article which stated that the Baha'i Faith "recognizes that women have untapped resources to offer the world." Articles were printed in the Sunday Vanguard of Nigeria on 12 November and 17 December written by a Baha'i and commenting on the equality of women and men and the importance of proper parenting. In Swaziland, an article describing a panel discussion on the equality of men and women
to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations, organized by the UN system in that country, the National Assembly, and the Ministry of Education, was published on 12 October in the Times ofSwaziland. Action on Social Issues The Honolulu Advertiser on 14 October 1995 reported the Honolulu Baha'i community's celebration for United Nations Day, and the Sun Press issue for 28 December 1995 to 3 January 1996 announced the community forum "Healing of Our Ohana," organized by the Baha'is of Wahiawa, Hawaii. Several American newspapers noted Baha'i involvement in UN 50 activities in the United States, including the San Francisco Chronicle, the San Jose Mercury News, and the Washington Post. The New Paper of Singapore reported on 12 August 1995 on 13-year-old Baha'i Jordan Melic's presentation of A World in Our Hands to UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali as part of activities to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations. On 20 October, the Baha'is of the Solomon Islands published an article in the Solomon Star on UN 50. On 31 January 1996 the Barbados Advocate published a photograph and a brief description of members of the Barbadian Baha'i community presenting Turning Point for All Nations to that newspaper's editor. The Derry Journal in Northern Ireland ran a commentary on 14 November on Turning Point for All Nations, describing the portion dealing with the role of women as "a very worthwhile contribution to that issue." The writer then quoted and summarized that section of the document, ending by asking, "Is there much in the foregoing with which the majority of people in our culture could seriously disagree?" Liberecky Den, a Czech newspaper, printed a report on 17 August 1995 describing a program observing the Year of Tolerance, organized by the Baha'is of Liberec. More than twelve articles were published in New Zealand newspapers, reporting on Baha'i efforts to highlight issues of unity in diversity, tolerance, and racial harmony. On 26 June 1995, the Border Mail in Australia reported on the Baha'i community of Albury-W odonga' s multicultural event in honor of Refugees
Week. The Baha'i community of Altenkirchen, Germany, held a feast focusing on international understanding that spurred articles in Rhein-Zeitung on 18 May and 24/25 May 1995, as well as in Mitteilungsblatt fur den Bereich der Verbandsgemeinde Altenkirchen on 1 June 1995. An account was published on 10 December in Athens News in Greece of the Baha'i community's reception in celebration of United Nations Human Rights Day. The Baha'is of the Gambia printed statements on the United Nations and human rights in the Point on 29 May and the Gambia Daily on 19 June, respectively. The Cook Islands News for 14 July published an announcement and description of a Baha'i presentation on the theme of the prosperity of humankind. The Guyana Chronicle published articles on 10 and 19 May and the Stabroek News printed one on 19 May covering the Baha'i-sponsored symposium "Unity in Diversity in the Quest for Global Prosperity," which was attended by President Cheddi J agan. Once again on 29 March and 3 April 1996, the Stabroek News and the Guyana Chronicle, respectively, carried items about the Baha'i community of Georgetown's panel discussion on eradicating poverty. On 5 July, a piece was printed in the Gambia Daily announcing the conference on "The Prosperity of Humankind" being organized by the Baha'i community. An article was published on 3 July in the Daily Observer in Gambia, announcing the impending visit to that country from Ethiopia of Gila Michael Bahta, a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors in Africa, who spoke at the Gambia's "Post-World Summit on Social Development Conference." Another article was published by that newspaper on 11 July reporting on Mr. Bahta' s visit. The Sunday Vision in Uganda on 23 April carried an article on the response of the Ugandan Baha'i community to the United Nations World Summit for Social Development. The Baha'i community of Mauritius submitted a number of statements to Le Mauricien throughout the year, some in English and some in French, dealing with such topics as World Religion Day, religious intolerance, drug abuse, and world peace. In Kyrgyzstan, the Baha'i community published an extensive article
on world peace in the 25 to 31 October issue of the Kyrgyzstan Chronicle. The Marshall Islands Journal printed a report on 12 May 1995 on the progress achieved in the Marshall Islands School Improvement Project for the seven public elementary schools in Majuro, which is being managed by Baha'is. On 26 May, the Saipan Tribune in the Mariana Islands reported on the luncheon held by the Baha'i community during which suggestions were offered to delegates of the Third Constitutional Convention. The Solomon Star on 27 September published a photograph of the recipients of the Blums Community Service Award, which is presented by the Baha'i community of the Solomon Islands. On 11 April1996, Bray People announced a public address by a leading family and teenage counselor on "The Challenge of Family Life and Education in the Nineties," sponsored by the Baha'is of County Wicldow, Republic of Ireland. In Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, the Vincentian printed articles on 26 May and 2 June regarding a series of workshops on family development which covered such topics as violence-free families, communication in families, and the development of morality in children. Over fifteen newspapers throughout India reported on the travels of John Huddleston, a Baha'i who spoke about the status of women, the importance of religion in society, economics, and globalization, among other topics. Several newspapers also have highlighted the contributions Baha'is have been making to the discussion on communal harmony, while about seven articles were published delineating Baha'i teachings on the equality of women and men. In the issue of the Malawi News for 5 to 11 August, it was reported that a delegation of representatives of the Malawian Baha'i community called on the President of that country, who encouraged the Baha'is to assist the government with primary education and health care. In the Gambia on 4 January 1996, the Point printed a report on the visit of Abbas Bashir Elahi, a Baha'i physician from the United States who visited the mayor, a hospital, and a school of nursing and donated medical supplies
during his stay. On 7 March 1996, the Tonga Chronicle reported on the Ocean of Light International Primary School, which is administered by the Baha'i community. The news article was accompanied by a large photograph of some of the children in one of the classes. The Baha'is in Malaysia organized a blooddrive to encourage non-Muslims to donate blood during the Muslim month of fasting, in order to offset a predicted shortage. The initiative was reported in February 1996 by the Borneo Post and the Daily Express in English, as well as the See Hua Daily News, the Overseas Chinese Daily News, and the Asia Times in Chinese. The Examiner published on 27 November 1995 a large photograph of a group of Baha'i young women dressed in various national costumes as part of its coverage of the community-service-based Martha Root Project in Launceton, Australia. In June 1995, the Slovak newspaper Sme printed the Baha'i International Community's report that earth from that country was deposited into the Peace Monument in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The Straits Times in Singapore on 22 April 1995 reported on an international children's art exhibition organized by the Baha'i community in honor of Earth Day. "Animals and Me," another international children's art exhibition which was sponsored by the Extended Education Center of the Education Department and the Spiritual Assembly of Macau, was the subject of an article in the Macau newspaper Aomen Ribao on 28 January 1996. On 23 July 1995, Shimin Ribao reported on children's activities for environmental protection in Macau, organized by the Baha'i youth group. The international children's art exhibition held in Taiwan resulted in at least four articles in the China Post as well as about five articles in Chinese newspapers. An article was submitted by the Baha'i community of Y ekaterinburg, Russia, to Klyuch Zemli detailing Baha'i teachings on the environment. Sharing the Message of Baha'u'lhih On 21 September 1995, the Baha'i youth workshop in Vienna, Austria, received newspaper coverage of its open-air theater presentation of Baha'i principles. An announcement was printed in the Marshall Islands Journal of the Baha'i youth summer
school which was held in Rita from 19 to 30 June. Eight different articles were published in various newspapers in Norway about the performances of the Baha'i Youth Theater, which took to the streets to raise awareness about racism, religion, and the value of unity in diversity. On 11 June 1995, Austrian Television (ORF) broadcast a twenty-minute film about the Baha'i Faith as part of its regular religious program Orientierung. In Liberia, the Baha'is had a brief history ofBaha'u'llah's life published in the First National Poll for 25 November to 2 December. An article on the Baha'i Faith was submitted by the Baha'i community of Y ekaterinburg, Russia, to Bratstvo Ver. At least seven newspapers in Norway printed articles introducing the general public to the beliefs and principles of the Baha'i Faith. In the United States, a number of newspapers printed such articles, including the Chicago Sun- Times, the Dallas Morning Star, and the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Articles were printed on Baha'i book exhibitions in India in Janamukha on 29 September, in Agnishikha on 29 September, in Sambalashree on 2 October, and in the Sentinel on 19 October. A 21 October 1995 advertisement in the Times newspaper in Malta announced the Eleventh Malta Book Fair, mentioning the Baha'i Publishing Trusts among the participants. On 15 July 1995 and 30 March 1996, the Waikato Times in New Zealand published articles on the trips of Shane Te Ruki, a Maori Baha'i, to various Native American communities in Canada for the purpose of sharing his beliefs and his culture. Eastern European press reports have taken note of the incursion of religious groups into the various countries of the formerly Communist area. The New Reporter in Albania on 1 December 1995 cited the Baha'i Faith as one group which has grown significantly since 1989. The Baha'is of Sri Lanka maintained a steady stream of announcements of community events in newspapers, as well as the "Thought for the Day" published regularly in the cover of the Daily News, featuring quotations from the Baha'i writings. In Trinidad and Tobago, the Baha'i community also sponsored regular articles in the Trinidad Guardian, covering such topics as
unity in diversity, the purpose of creation, and world peace. Likewise, the Baha'i community of Swaziland published articles in the Yebo Weekend Observer Magazine on life after death, religion as the source of morality, family, youth, and preserving marriages. In the Pas, Manitoba, Canada, the Baha'i community submitted regular pieces to the Opasquia Times on a variety of subjects, including the destiny of native peoples as portrayed by 'Abdu'l-Baha, the World Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen, sustainable development, and the environment. Interfaith Activities On 23 March 1996, the Washington Post reported on an interreligious conference held at Howard University, including the Baha'i contributions to the event. The Dallas Morning News noted on 29 Aprill995 the participation of the Baha'is of Dallas in the National Day of Prayer. The Drogheda Independent's special supplement on the celebration of the 700-year anniversary of the ministry of the Augustinians in Drogheda, Ireland, reported the presence of a representative of the Baha'i Faith and of a Baha'i reading during the service, which was attended by President Mary Robinson. The Limerick Leader on 29 January 1996 reported the observance by the local Baha'i community of World Religion Day through the distribution to all schools in the Limerick area of an information packet on the religions of the world. Several newspapers in Singapore provided coverage of the events associated with the Baha'i-organized observance of World Religion Day in January 1996. Tamil Murasu published two articles in the Tamil language; the Chinese newspaper Lianhe Zhaobao printed two reports; and the Straits Times carried four articles in English. The Efforts of Individual Baha'is The efforts, achievements, and experiences of individual Baha'is caught the attention of media representatives in many places this year. An exhibition on the life of August Forel-a Baha'i doctor, entomologist, and social reformer-held in Bulgaria was reported in the issue of Balkanite Dnes for 14 to 20 July 1995.
IN THE EYES OF THE WORLD
An extensive, two-part profile of Robert Abbott-a Baha'i and the founder of the Chicago Defender-was printed in the 11 to 15 November and 18 to 22 November issues of the Tri-State Defender. In Munster, Germany, on 21 September 1995, Westfiilische Nachrichten reported an exhibition of the art work of Mark Tobey, citing the Baha'i Faith as the inspiration for his work. The Kauai Times in Hawaii ran a front-page story on 4 June on Leonard Herbert, a Baha'i artist, and announced an exhibition of his work. The Canadian magazine Eye on 3 August profiled two Baha'i members of the band "Project 9," featuring them on the cover and including positive references to their statements about the Baha'i Faith. The March 1996 issue of exclaim! featured a photograph on its cover of the band "Plains of Fascination," and printed a page-long article on the artistic vision and beliefs of the members, several of whom are Baha'is. In Australia, the North West Telegraph on 30 August 1995 carried an interview with Sharghieh Moshirian, a Baha'i from Iran who experienced imprisonment and torture at the hands of the government, which was trying to induce her to recant her faith. The Sunday Guardian in Trinidad on 6 August 1995 published a profile of Hamid Farabi, detailing the persecution he endured as a Baha'i in Iran and how he has succeeded in spite of it. The retirement of Wilma Ellis from her position as Administrator General o~the Baha'i International Community's Offices in New York and Geneva resulted in three newspaper articles in Bermuda: the Bermuda Sun on 26 January 1996; the Bermuda Times on 26 January; and the Royal Gazette on 27 January. Bermuda is one of the countries Dr. Ellis works with in her service as a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors in the Americas. An architect of Persian background who was born in Malaysia spoke at a forum held in Malaysia on the Baha'i House of Worship in India, for which he was the resident chief engineer. Malaysia's Daily Express ran a profile on him on 14 March 1996, while Yazhou Shibao, the Overseas Chinese Daily, and Shihua Ribao all reported on the forum. The Guardian in Tanzania on 20 and 27 January 1996 printed extensive features on Baha'i families there, including several
large photographs with each article. Some nine articles were published in Norwegian newspapers profiling Baha'is in various parts of the country, describing their beliefs and way of life, and reporting personal events. On 8 March 1996, the Solomon Star carried a photograph and short article on two Solomon Islands youth who were living in Israel, serving at the Baha'i World Centre. In Papua New Guinea four articles were published in January 1996, three in English and one in Pidgin, on the return of a Papua New Guinean Baha'i youth from her term of service at the World Centre. The Augusta Chronicle, a newspaper in Georgia, United States, printed an article with a large photograph, about a Baha'i youth's plans to postpone college for a year in order to offer a year of service to the Baha'i Faith. An obituary on Salvatore "Tony" Pelle was printed in the Honolulu Advertiser on 30 August 1995, following his passing. Various articles were written in Samoa on the passing of Suhayl Ala'i, a Baha'i of American Samoa who died while on a visit to Western Samoa. The Samoa News carried a report of his death on 18 August and ten days later reported on the post-funeral memorial service in American Samoa. The Samoa Journal and Advertiser published a photograph of the funeral, and the Samoa Observer printed a lengthy memorial on Mr. Ala'i. In addition, Mr. Ala'i's employees published a full-page appreciation in his honor in Samoa News. In the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Turks and Caicos News and the Free Press reported the 1 February 1996 death of Baha'i physician Francis Gilbert. Various newspapers in Uganda followed the unfolding story of the murder of Rodney Belcher, a well-respected Baha'i physician (see pp. 309-11 ). Additionally, the Washington Times, a U.S. newspaper, carried the story of his death on 12 March 1996.
EssAYS, STATEMENTS, PRoANFILES Wendy M. Heller explores the religious origins of the organizing principles of civil society, tracks their secularization in the modern era, and examines the prospect of an inclusive global moral order based on the enduring concept of covenant.
OVENANT AND THE OUNDATIONS OF IVIL OCIETY
ver a century ago, Baha'u'llah, Founder of the Baha'i Faith, wrote of the impending disintegration and collapse of the established order of civilization: "Soon will the present-day order be rolled up," He proclaimed, "and a new one spread out in its stead." 1 In the interval, experience has borne out the prescience of revelation; this century has seen Baha'u'llah's prophetic terms, of disequilibrium and chaos, of the shaking of foundations, become so much a part of daily life that, because of the pervasiveness of such disintegration, some have been led to mistake an abnormal state for a normal one, and to conclude that there simply are no foundations for any human endeavor, and that, in consequence, strife and conflict are the inevitable condition of existence. Yet an increasing number of scholars are now willing to shed the "obtuse secularism"2 that, as
1. Baha'u'llah, Gleanings from the Writings of Baha 'u 'llah, trans. Shoghi Effendi (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1976), p. 7. 2. Peny Miller, "From the Covenant to the Revival," in Religion in American Life, ed. James Ward Smith and A. Leland Jamison (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961), vol. 1, p. 336, n. 20.
a feature of contemporary frameworks of thought, has systematically excluded serious appraisal of the central importance of religion and spiritual reality in human life and society. Faced by the evidence of the bankruptcy of modernity, whose promises of prosperity through materialism and ideology have proven hollow, thinkers and scholars have begun to tum the light of critical scrutiny upon the far-reaching effects that the displacement of religion by secular ideology has had on civilization in the modem era. That same secularism which was once heralded as the emancipation of civilization is now increasingly identified as the root cause of its disintegration. This conclusion had been anticipated in the Baha'i writings, which affirm that social and moral deterioration is directly related to the decline of religion as a social force. "Religion," Baha'u'llah wrote, "is verily the chief instrument for the establishment of order in the world and of tranquillity amongst its peoples. The weakening of the pillars of religion hath strengthened the foolish and emboldened them and made them more arrogant. Verily I say: The greater the decline of religion, the more grievous the waywardness of the ungodly. This cannot but lead in the end to chaos and confusion." 3 Material civilization, cut loose from the moderating influence of spiritual values, He warned, "will prove as prolific a source of evil as it had been of goodness when kept within the restraints of moderation ... The day is approaching when its flame will devour the cities .... " 4 Affirming the central role of religion in the civilizing of human character, 'Abdu'l-Baha explained:
Universal benefits derive from the grace of the Divine religions, for they lead their true followers to sincerity of intent, to high purpose, to purity and spotless honor, to surpassing kindness and compassion, to the keeping of their covenants when they have covenanted, to concern for the rights of others, to liberality, to justice in every aspect of life, to hu1nanity and philanthropy, to valor and to unflagging efforts in the service
3. Baha'u'lhih, Tablets of Baha 'u 'llah revealed after the Kitab-i-Aqdas, comp. Research Department, Universal House of Justice, trans. Habib Taherzadeh, 2d ed. (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1988), pp. 63-64. 4. Baha'u'llah, Gleanings from the Writings ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 343.
COVENANT AND CNIL SOCIETY
of mankind. It is religion, to sum up, which produces all human virtues, and it is these virtues which are the bright candles of civilization. 5
In the 1930s Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, singled out as an agent of social decline the "prevailing spirit of modernism with its emphasis on a purely materialistic philosophy which, as it diffuses itself, tends to divorce religion from man's daily life," resulting in the erosion of "conceptions of duty, of solidarity, of reciprocity and loyalty" as the center of gravity shifts to the individual self. Symptoms of such a society that has lost its spiritual bearings, he wrote, include religious intolerance, racism and xenophobia, terrorism, crime, alcoholism, the weakening of the family, and the breakdown of political and economic structures, to name but a few. 6 In the Baha'i view, however, the current experience of disorder and turmoil is only one aspect of a two-fold process that is ultimately therapeutic and evolutionary, rather than solely destructive. It clears the way for a recovery and renewal of the true and enduring foundations upon which a global moral order can be constructed. Though grounded in eternal verities, this process of spiritual and social evolution is forward looking and cannot be confused with a return to a vanished and unrecoverable past. Sociologist Robert Bellah has remarked that the characteristic modem attempt to substitute "a technical-rational model of politics for a religious-moral one does not seem to me to be an advantage. Indeed it only exacerbates tendencies that I think are at the heart of our problems. If our problems are, as I believe them to be, centrally moral and even religious, then the effort to sidestep them with purely technical organizational considerations can only worsen them." Although the contemporary combination of the morality of self-interest, capitalism, and technological rationality has departed from the earlier religious and moral world view, he argues, it does not follow that the only possible alternative to modem secularism is
5. 'Abdu'l-Baha, The Secret ofDivine Civilization, trans. Marzieh Gail (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1957), p. 98. 6. Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of Baha 'u 'llah, rev. ed. (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1955), pp. 183, 187.
the "literal revival of that earlier conception." Indeed, he suggests, "only a new imaginative, religious, moral, and social context for science and technology will make it possible to weather the storms that seem to be closing in on us in the late 20th century. " 7 The Covenantal World View In the search for solutions to current social problems, attention has been drawn to the importance of social institutions such as the family and religion that represent "seedbeds of virtue": the spiritual foundations provided by religion imbue individuals with the virtues on which both civic participation and governance depend. 8 Yet the connection is even stronger. Religion provides not only the foundations but the bricks and cement of societythe shared beliefs and moral values that unite people into communities, as well as the world view and account of the meaning and purpose of life that infuses those moral values with sense. 9 These, moreover, provide the basis of all legitimation for authority, the source of legal institutions, as well as the touchstone and standard for evaluating the direction of society .10 Many of those who in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries influenced and fashioned modem Western political institutions understood the pivotal importance of religion to the coherence and maintenance of a social and political order. They were far less influenced than has often been thought, by that typically modem secular rationalism that displaces God by human reason; 11 on the contrary, the world view that informed their thinking was based on the scriptural account of human nature as having a spiritual purpose, which was summed up in the idea of the divine Covenant
7. Robert N. Bellah, The Broken Covenant: American Civil Religion in Time ofTrial (New York: Seabury, 1975), p. xiv. 8. Mary Ann Glendon and David Blankenhorn, eds., Seedbeds of Virtue: Sources of Competence, Character, and Citizenship in American Society (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1995). 9. Bellah, Broken Covenant, p. ix. 10. Ibid. 11. Ellis Sandoz, "Philosophical and Religious Dimensions of the American Founding," The Intercollegiate Review 30 (1995): 27-42; A. James Reichley, Religion in American Public Life (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1985).
COVENANT AND CNIL SOCIETY
between God and humankind. The purpose of human reason was to know the existence of God, whose handiwork was evident in creation; the summit of human freedom was to recognize and to give assent to the superior authority of revelation, thus entering into a covenant to willingly obey His commands. This covenantal account of human nature, shared by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, is reaffmned in the Baha'i Faith as an eternal truth. So it is not surprising to find that some ofBaha'u'llah's teachings about freedom and rights, for instance, bear a similarity to certain ideas of earlier ethical thinkers, for the very reason that the concepts of religious freedom and conscience are directly related to the idea of the divine Covenant. But to confuse this transhistorical continuity for simple influence would be a mistake underrating its great significance. John Locke (1632-1704), for instance, drew his vastly influential ideas on religious toleration and liberty directly from the Bible and the logical implications of the Covenant. According to Daniel J. Elazar, the long history of deliberation about the rights and obligations of parties to compacts in medieval Jewish public law anticipated the seventeenth-century political theorists precisely because "both schools flowed from a common source"-the biblical covenants. 12 David Little points out that modem doctrines of freedom of religion, including that in the UN Declaration of Human Rights, far from being reducible to the influence of Enlightenment rationalism, are "unthinkable" apart from the religious concept of conscience, a concept also asserted in the Qur' an. 13 Much has been written about the tremendous impact of seventeenth-century covenant or "federal" theology on the founding of the American colonies and subsequent developments of the U.S. constitutional era. The pivotal concept of the covenantal view is a distinctive idea of freedom, which throughout its history and in various diverse settings has retained a remarkable unity and consistency. "Covenant liberty" has been conceptualized as a
12. Daniel J. Elazar, "Covenant as the Basis of the Jewish Political Tradition," The Jewish Journal of Sociology 20 (1978): 5-37, p. 18. 13. David Little, "The Westem Tradition," in David Little et al., Human Rights and the Conflict of Cultures: Western and Islamic Perspectives on Religious Liberty (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988), p. 26.
dialectic of freedom and duty: the liberation gained was from the bonds of selfish desire; the supreme achievement of human freedom and agency was submission to the divine law. According to Bellah, the "profoundly social" nature of this "covenant liberty" was reflected in the words of the eighteenth-century New England Baptist, Isaac Backus:
The true liberty of man is, to know, obey and enjoy his Creator, and to do all the good unto, and enjoy all the happiness with and in his fellow creatures that he is capable of; in order to which the law of love was written in his heart, which carries in it's nature union and benevolence to Being in general, and to each being in particular, according to it's nature and excellency, and to it's relation and connexion with the supre1ne Being, and ourselves. Each rational soul, as he is part of the whole syste1n of rational beings, so it was and is, both his duty and his liberty to regard the good of the whole in all his actions.l 4
In the nineteenth century, through a number of factors, not least of which was the corrosive effect of secularization and its resulting atomistic individualism, the social consensus in this religious vision of social and moral order became steadily eroded. Today that original religious concept of freedom as "true liberty" that "meant freedom to do the good and was almost equivalent to virtue," a conception embedded in a context of social obligation and divine purpose, has been displaced by an ideological notion of freedom as the liberty of the isolated individual to pursue selfinterest without interference. 15 Locke on Religious Freedom In the world view within which Locke composed his doctrine of religious toleration, the primacy of freedom of the individual conscience was due to the importance of genuine belief (that is, freely given consent to divine authority) in attaining salvation, for "Faith only and sincerity, are the things that procure acceptance with God." 16 Although Locke is usually identified with the theory of
14. Quoted in Bellah, Broken Covenant, p. 20. 15. Bellah, Broken Covenant, p. xii. 16. John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration, in The Works ofJohn Locke, 10 vols. (London: 1823; reprint, Aalen: Scientia, 1963), vol. 6, p. 28.
COVENANT AND CIVIL 8 OCIETY
social contract, his views on human nature, purpose, freedom, and the good were squarely within the covenantal perspective. For Locke the testimony of revelation was, as reason itself must conclude, of an authority necessarily superior to human reason, and as such "carries with it Assurance beyond Doubt, Evidence beyond Exception"; "faith" was the assent of reason to revelation and constituted the supreme degree of assent possible by human reason. 17 The "highest perfection of intellectual nature" lay "in a careful and constant pursuit of true and solid happiness; so the care of our selves, that we mistake not imaginary for real happiness, is the necessary foundation of our liberty." That "real happiness" was spiritual, not material. The "great privilege of finite intellectual Beings" did not consist in freedom to do whatever the will chose, but rather "the great inlet, and exercise of all the liberty Men have, are capable of, or can be useful to them, and that whereon depends the turn of their actions ... [consisted] in this, that they can suspend their desires, and stop them from determining their wills to any action, till they have duly and fairly examin 'd the flood and evil of it as far forth as the weight of the thing requires." 8 Within the covenantal world view, the perfection of human freedom was, in essence, to become determined by the good. Thus, Locke wrote, "If we look upon those superiour Beings above us, who enjoy perfect Happiness, we shall have reason to judge that they are more steadily determined in their choice of Good than we; and yet we have no reason to think they are less happy, or less free, than we are." Rejecting the vulgar notion of liberty as license, he observed: "Is it worth the N arne of Freedom to be at liberty to play the Fool, and draw Shame and Misery upon a Man's self? If to break loose from the conduct of Reason, and to want that restraint of Examination and Judgment, which keeps us from chusing or doing the worse, be Liberty, true Liberty, mad Men and Fools are the only Freemen." 19 Though all men desired happiness, and thus sought the good, it was evident that not everyone thought the same thing good. But the apparent existence of a plurality of goods, he argued, would
17. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, ed. Peter H. Nidditch (Oxford: Clarendon, 1975), 4.xvi.14. 18. Ibid., 2.xxi.51-52. 19. Ibid., 2.xxi.49, 50.
only be true "were all the Concerns of Man terminated in this Life," that is, if ultimate happiness could really be found in material pursuits and the satisfaction of desire. Were this the case, there could indeed be no way to judge between individuals' conflicting choices, or conceptions of their highest good, such as "why one followed Study and I<nowledge, and another Hawking and Hunting; why one chose Luxury and Debauchery, and another Sobriety and Riches." The good would be defined by the object one pursued. Yet Locke dismissed this conflation of desire and human good as a dangerous delusion, remarking: "'twas a right Answer of the Physician to his Patient, that had sore Eyes. If you have more Pleasure in the Taste of Wine, than in the use of your Sight, Wine is good for you; but if the Pleasure of Seeing be greater ° to you, than that of Drinking, Wine is naught." 2 For Locke, freedom of conscience was the necessary precondition for fulfilling one's duty to God and thus attaining the object of existence (the good), for "the end of all religion is to please him, and that liberty is essentially necessary to that end. "21 Locke conceptualized the theory set forth in his Letter on Toleration (1689) as an explicitly religious idea, required by the scriptural command of "charity, meelmess, and good-will in general towards all mankind, even those that are not Christians." 22 Indeed, he characterized the concept of religious toleration as the hallmark of true religion itself. While the Letter is a foundational document of modem liberalism, it is possible to see in it the extent to which Locke took seriously not only the rights of individuals but their social obligations, as well as the civil rights of communities. In proper perspective, individual rights were located within a context that took account of correlative responsibilities; rightly understood, the individual's freedom of conscience did not conflict with, and thus did not supersede, the right of society to maintain the conditions of order upon which all its individual members depend. This was true with regard to religious, as well as civil, society.
20. Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 2.xxi.54. 21. Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Works, vol. 6, p. 30. 22. Ibid., p. 5.
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The principle that defmed the scope of, and linked together, the domains of freedom and obligation was that the exercise of freedom in the act of recognizing an authority (that is, giving "consent") entailed a strong obligation of obedience. 23 Provided that membership in a religious society was by choice and "absolutely free and spontaneous," Locke argued, "it necessarily follows, that the right of making its laws can belong to none but the society itself, or at least, which is the same thing, to those whom the society by common consent has authorized thereunto." 24 What of those who, having joined, later came to disagree with some part of the doctrine, or who disobeyed the code of conduct required of members? Individual freedom of conscience remained unabridged so long as one was as free to leave as to enter a religion. As for those who disobeyed the laws, Locke recommended that "The arms by which the members of this society are to be kept within their duty, are exhortations, admonitions, and advice. If by these means the offenders will not be reclaimed, and the erroneous convinced, there remains nothing farther to be done, but that such stubborn and obstinate persons, who give no ground to hope for their reformation, should be cast out and separated from the society .... I hold," he wrote, "that no church is bound by the duty of toleration to retain any such person in her bosom, as after admonition continues obstinately to offend against the laws of the society. For these being the condition of communion, and the bond of society, if the breach of them were permitted without any animadversion, the society would immediately be thereby dissolved. "25 Excommunication, he argued, was the just and reasonable way to treat those violations of norms which, as he correctly realized, if permitted unchecked, would dissolve the unity, order, and integrity of the community. It is important to note that in arguing against the use of coercion in religious matters, Locke was arguing against the sometimes brutal, physical punishments notorious to the era ("galleys, prisons, confiscations, and death" 26 ) used by the civil authority in matters
23. Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Works, vol. 6, p. 13. 24. Ibid., p. 14. 25. Ibid., p. 16. 26. Ibid., p. 49.
concerning belief, and especially when imposed on persons of a different religion. The use of force was appropriately exercised by the civil authority in enforcing civil laws, which did not concern belief. But far from considering expulsion to be coercive, he regarded it as a simple matter of holding people accountable to their solemn promises, freely given. Nor did it have anything to do with civil rights: "Excommunication," as such, Locke argued, "neither does nor can deprive the excommunicated person of any of those civil goods that he formerly possessed." For no one had "any civil right" to partake of the privileges that accrued to membership in a voluntary religious association. 27 Religion and Civil Order To see how much the common understanding of the relationship between religion and civil order has changed, it is useful to look at what Locke says about religion and civil government in the Letter. In his argument about the separation of the "ecclesiastical" and the "civil," the distinction involved was not between a religious sphere and an irreligious one: Locke took for granted that religious principles were the foundation of the civil order. He also acknowledged the justice of theocracy in principle (by which he meant specifically a commonwealth in which civil and religious law and authority were combined). His famous contention that there could be no Christian commonwealth did not rest on any claim that theocracy itself was inherently unjust, but rather on the simple fact that no Christian commonwealth, or indeed any specific form of government, was prescribed in the Gospel; and only what was clearly warranted by the revealed scripture could be considered binding. However, where theocracy was ordained in the Holy Scripture itself, as it had been in the Law of Moses, Locke insisted, it was obligatory. 28 Locke was concerned, rather, with the just extent of the jurisdictions of civil and religious authority in a society where the
27. Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Works, vol. 6, p. 17. 28. Ibid., pp. 37-38. See also The Reasonableness of Christianity as delivered in the Scriptures, in The Works of John Locke, 10 vols. [London: 1823; reprint, Aalen: Scientia, 1963], vol. 7, pp. 13-16.
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general consensus in Christianity among the majority of citizens was obscured and overshadowed by violent dissensus between denominations. This disunity was intractable in the absence of any universally recognized source of authority to adjudicate the competing interpretations which had led to the fractionation of the body of the religion into sects. In proposing that the "civil" should be separate from the "religious," by "religious" Locke was referring primarily to the contentious sources of difference between denominations, not to the broad foundation of religious morality which was uncontested. It seems he was also trying to apply to the problem at hand a conceptual distinction, familiar to Christians, between "the 'religious' duties owed directly to God," as contained in the first four of the Ten Commandments (concerning matters of faith and worship), and the "'moral' duties owed to fellow human beings" which made up the rest of the commandments (the social or moral laws concerning actions against persons and property, and so on). 29 While laws concerning inner belief applied only to believers, the laws concerning outward behavior justly applied to every citizen, regardless of belief, as they constituted the moral basis of the civil order. But the origin of both these duties in the revealed scriptures underscores the fact that the domains of the spiritual and the temporal, the "religious" and the "civil," are ultimately not radically separate but are two aspects of one reality. 30 The relevant distinction in this case involved that of competence to judge, and thus to impose punishment: only God could judge the sincerity of one's belief; but human authorities could judge actions in society. Locke wanted to ameliorate a prevalent condition of his time-the subjection of people to civil punishments for not belonging to the state church or attending worship-by putting things in their proper order. He proposed that membership in religious associations should be voluntary and never compulsory; that different faiths should be free to practice their beliefs (provided they did not engage in sedition against the civil order), and that civil power
29. Little, "Western Tradition," p. 19; Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Works, vol. 6, pp. 39-43. 30. Cf. Little, "Western Tradition," p. 20.
should be used only to enforce the civil, public laws of morality, public security, and order, while religious institutions should hold only the members of their own community to be bound by that religion's beliefs, practices, and laws. In making these proposals, Locke was in effect articulating the religious-not secular-principles for the just governance of a religiously plural society. The theocracy of the Israelite Commonwealth, Locke pointed out, was the source of the concept of "separation" he was arguing for, and he cited this fact as the highest possible warrant of its justice. Locke also argued against the use of physical punishment or deprivation of property, whether imposed by religious or civil authorities, on anyone at all in matters of belief and worship, primarily because it was unwarranted in the Christian scriptures, and secondarily because it was ineffective anyway as coercion could never procure belief. 31 But it would distort him out of context, and collapse a crucial conceptual distinction, to read this classic argument against coercion in matters of religion as an extension of rights of conscience specifically pertaining to the civil domain, into the domain of the voluntary religious community, as if its internal life were also, like the civil sphere, a space undefined by any commitments to particular beliefs or a distinctive way of life. To do this, as Locke correctly saw, would condemn any association based on belief to dissolution. It is important to recognize that for Locke, and, for example, the framers of the U.S. Constitution, the fact that the revealed social laws of religion were the moral foundation of the civil order was never in question. In the U.S. constitutional era the "disestablishment" issue primarily concerned doing away with public tax support for churches, which amounted to extracting compulsory contributions to religious funds from nonbelievers. Yet introducing that explicitly financial "disestablishment" did not contradict the general expectation by all that government ought to operate on the basis of the moral principles of religion. 32 Thus it can be said that, in a broader sense of the term, the "establishment"-that is, institutionalization-of those religious laws
31. Cf. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Secret of Divine Civilization, p. 46. 32. Reichley, Religion in American Public Life, p. 113.
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and values with civil application was never in question, nor even mentioned, except affirmatively, because it was the indispensable foundation of the society. And it still is, for the deep structure of the Western legal system in general remains the biblical moral code and even church canon law, although the religious origins of the civil law have been largely effaced. 33 According to sociologist Mattei Dogan, in spite of a decline in religious belief "in Europe, Christian morals have been absorbed into the State. The philosophy of the Ten Commandments, the prophets and the apostles is embodied in the civil legislation of the whole of Europe. " 34 In the sense that a society's governmental structures, processes, and laws represent the institutionalization of the moral values of its people, no state can exist without an "established," that is, institutionalized, set of beliefs that defme its moral orientation. Those beliefs, implicitly, are prior to the institutional structures; without them, "institutions" are a hollow shell. And, inescapably, the moral authority of civil laws depends on an underlying belief in a legitimating conception of good that makes those laws right. The Secular Turn In the modem era, those distinctive concepts of freedom and of toleration became detached from their original religious foundations and anchored to another, secular system of thought that rejected any preexisting obligation of divine origin. The idea of the good was demoted from its universal transcendent position and relativized to the individual. This shift reflected the displacement, in modem secular philosophic liberalism, of the religious view of human nature as a creation of God, by a (sometimes tacit) materialist account of human nature as self-creating and autonomous, of ultimate good as something private and (potentially, at least) different for each individual. Individual freedom retained its prominent position, but instead of freedom to recognize the good (that is, God), it was
33. Harold J. Berman, Law and Revolution: The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), p. 198. 34. Mattei Dogan, "The Decline of Religious Beliefs in Western Europe," International Social Science Journal145 (1995): 405-17, p. 417.
construed as freedom to choose between a plurality of goods or to create one's own good, but in any case, the self, not a transcendent source of that self, was the autonomous measure of its own good. The concept of covenant, as the origin of society, was replaced by social contract, in which the people themselves, and their private interests, were seen as the authoritative source of the social bond. 35 By the twentieth century, a process that had begun with the attempt to apply religious principles to mitigate the problem of religious disunity had resulted in the eviction of the religious basis of the entire collective moral system which had been taken for granted as an indispensable foundation and the purpose of championing religious liberty at all. A key feature of the secular tum in modem moral philosophy has been the attempt to separate the right, or justice, from any substantive conception of human good, such as would be found in a religious world view-that is, an account of reality, human nature, and purpose which gives direction and meaning to human life. This conception of justice is regarded as prior to the good and as universally valid because it does not depend on, and thus give privilege to, any particular conception of the good. While it has been given various renderings, the neutral conception of justice is generally concerned with ensuring a maximum, or an equal amount of, liberty (and thus opportunity) for individuals to pursue their own self-chosen conceptions of the good life. However, the view that it is possible to do right independently of reference to the good would have been foreign to the thinking of such a religious philosopher as John Locke. According to Locke,
A good life, in which consists not the least part of religion and true piety, concerns also the civil government: and in it lies the safety both of men's souls and of the commonwealth. Moral actions belong therefore to the jurisdiction both of the outward and inward court; both of the civil and domestic governor; I mean, both of the magistrate and conscience. 36
35. Bellah, Broken Covenant, ch. 1; Miller, ''From the Covenant to the Revival," p. 335. 36. Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Works, vol. 6, p. 41.
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Likewise alien would have been the modem secular notion of an autonomous human reason able to formulate its own morality or ethics without reference to God. For Locke,
A dependent, intelligent being is under the power of and direction and dominion of him on whom he depends and must be for the ends appointed him by that superior being. If man were independent he could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure of all his actions. 37
Locke's conviction that belief in God was the essential ground for a commitment to justice is reflected in his refusal to grant atheism the status of a moral foundation equivalent to religion. For "Promises, covenants, and oaths, which are the bonds of human society, can have no hold upon an atheist. The taking away of God, though but even in thought, dissolves all. Besides also, those that by their atheism undermine and destroy all religion, can have no pretense of religion whereupon to challenge the privilege of a toleration." 38 This often misunderstood passage did not imply atheists should not have the same civil rights as other citizens; it merely refused to allow religious toleration to extend, by sophistry, to an opposite, antireligious position that, because it denied the source of legitimation for "the bonds of human society," lacked the basic commitment to authority necessary to uphold any civil order (and, of course, lacked any reason to consider religion worthy of toleration). Locke, in sum, thought that the right was intrinsically dependent on the good, that the good was necessarily the divine good, and that while the coercive enforcement of sectarian dogmas and forms of worship-quite correctly-had no place in civil government, religious principles and moral values were inseparable from it. In recent years, the idea that justice can be conceptualized in the absence of any commitment to a set of transcendent values, or with a minimal set of values, has been abundantly criticized and its
37. Quoted in John Dunn, The Political Thought of John Locke (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), frontispiece. 38. Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Works, vol. 6, p. 47.
contradictions enumerated, from a variety of perspectives, particularly with respect to its implications for community life. Modern secular liberal philosophy was never intended to constitute communities but rather to provide a theory of neutral arbitration among the various individuals and communities over which the modem state has jurisdiction. Thus it is not surprising that the principles of liberal polity, emphasizing difference and individualism, should be in tension with the concerns and needs of communities, which depend upon unity and mutuality. In the historical experience of irreconcilable religious sectarianism which gave rise to modem liberal political theory, the irreducibility of disunity arose, as Locke was keenly aware, from the fact that the points of contention involved the assertion of secondary doctrines and practices above and beyond what was clearly warranted in the scripture. But because such doctrines were not warranted-or were not clearly warranted-they could never gain consensus by a conclusive proof of their authority, and thus could only appeal to probability; hence they could always be disputed. In contrast, he observed, clearly warranted deductions caused no division. 39 Under the circumstances, without any universally recognized authority (for the same reason-absence of a clear scriptural warrant for any such institution), dissensus was inevitable and at best might be managed but never eliminated. It is thus the absence of any infallible, scripturally warranted center of interpretive authority that is the root of the historical, religious problem to which the theory that would become modem secular liberalism was originally proposed as the solution. The presumption of irreconcilable difference, and hence of disunity, is ingrained in that system of thought; and this, along with the primacy of individual liberty (which as Locke noted became a practical necessity precisely because of dissension and the need to choose between competing sects), continues to shape contemporary concepts of the liberal polity. On the resulting model, the community, as Philip Selznick observes, is not to be "based on shared identity, shared purpose, or shared understanding of the
39. Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Works, vol. 6, p. 57; cf. Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, pp. 20-21.
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common good; rather it is constituted by the principles of right ordering that govern liberty." But that emphasis on individual freedom and autonomy meets its limitations precisely where community life begins: for communities are constituted by unity and sustained by commitments to shared purposes. Regulatory rules and procedures for ensuring individual liberty cannot account for or provide, for example, "ideals of caring and social justiceincluding care for children, health, families, the environment, aesthetic values, opportunity, and the well-being of future generations."40 Such goals guided by ideals are unintelligible apart from a vision of human good, excellence, and happiness. The limiting consequences, as Selznick has noted, of conceiving the community as a mere "framework within which autonomous choices can be made" are that "The political quest for a distinctive kind of community is abandoned. We are not to seek, through politics and government, the kind of community that will best redeem the promise of fellowship or most closely approximate the potential for human growth, creativity, and responsibility." 41 As the strictly value-neutral state attempts to exclude from public institutions and governance any reference to the kinds of ultimate goals associated with a particular good way of life-and thus with religion-it precludes and indeed disqualifies itself from being able to "advance human excellence."42 For to do that requires a conception of the good, something to which the neutral state disclaims any access. As many have pointed out, modem liberal theory contains deep contradictions. It is now widely recognized that, despite disclaimers, a conception of the good and a theory of human nature-and thus a set of particular beliefs-is being implemented all the same in liberal theory, and this implies an exclusion of other beliefs:
Any conception of the hutnan good according to which, for example, it is the duty of government to educate the members of the comtnunity tnorally, so that they cotne to live out that
40. Philip Selznick, The Moral Commonwealth: Social Themy and the Promise of Community (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), p. 381. 41. Ibid., p. 382. 42. John Rawls, quoted in ibid., p. 382.
conception of the good, may up to a point be held as a private theory by individuals or groups, but any serious attempt to etnbody it in public life will be proscribed. And this qualification of course entails not only that liberal individualism does indeed have its own broad conception of the good, which it is engaged in imposing politically, legally, socially, and culturally wherever it has the power to do so, but that in so doing its toleration of rival conceptions of the good in the public arena is severely limited. 43
According to Selznick, "fundamental values-not only basic requirements of justice and citizenship but broader ideals of personal and social well-being" are inevitably employed if only tacitly; for instance, merely to have decided that human beings need liberty is already to have committed oneself to a belief about human nature. "The presuppositions of liberalism represent genuine moral choices, and their reaffirmation is a continuous act of moral choice, the more so as liberalism takes seriously the quest for social justice." As the pursuit of social justice becomes an aim and purpose in government, that endeavor embodies an ensemble of values far beyond any neutral or procedural concept of basic liberties. Thus, for example, "Education for basic skills may arguably be morally neutral, but not education for citizenship, for enlightenment, for social responsibility, for deferred gratification, for intellectual and aesthetic appreciation."44 And the same is true of a wide range of other social issues. Ever more urgently, social theorists now call for recovering a balance between the individual and society, between rights and responsibilities within a coherent framework "Our situation today," Selznick writes, "calls for a more robust idea of community, one that gives greater weight to the claims of mutuality and fellowship. Liberalism's thin theory of community weakens its capacity to speak with a clear voice where the public interest demands discipline and duty as much as (and in a given context perhaps more than) freedom and self-realization." For that same insistence on
43.Alasdair Macintyre, Whose Justice? Which Rationality? (Notre Dame: University ofNotre Dame Press, 1988), p. 336. 44. Selznick, Moral Commonwealth, pp. 383, 384.
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value neutrality and emphasis on individualism undermines the security and well-being of all when it eliminates any basis for calling upon individuals to sacrifice their individual preferences and concrete, short-term interests for the needs of a more abstract common good: "it is hard to justify sacrifice-a ban on gas-guzzling vehicles, a program of compulsory national service, a required course of study-when individual choice is held sacred. "45 The idea that civil governance requires a value-neutral ethic that strictly avoids all reference to a transcendent good is a peculiarly modem secular development, which appears to be an attempt to extend the principle of noncoercion in matters of belief into a vastly altered context. In the new context, the possibility of moral consensus upon any religious foundation has been wholly abandoned, and instead it is taken as axiomatic that the only available ethical common ground is secular, that is, nonreligious. And yet, every attempt to construct such a secular public ethic or conception of justice with universal validity discloses a tacit dependency upon what tum out to be spiritual values. 46 When we trace the concepts and principles on which justice-including the essential ideas ofhuma11- equality and obligation-order, governance, and citizenship depend, it becomes clear that any theory of these that was entirely stripped of all its borrowed religious values would be little different from the theoretical Hobbesian "state of nature": a war of all against all. Such a condition, ruled only by the
45. Selznick, Moral Commonwealth, pp. 385, 386. 46. Some contemporary theorists acknowledge, in passing, the religious origin of the ideas as a once-helpful ladder that can now be kicked away. Locke wrote of the epistemic dependence of philosophers on revelation: "He that travels the roads now, applauds his own strength and legs that have carried him so far in such a scantling of time, and ascribes all to his own vigour; little considering how much he owes to their pains, who cleared the woods, drained the bogs, built the bridges, and made the ways passable; without which he might have toiled much with little progress .... It is no diminishing to revelation, that reason gives its suffrage too to the truths revelation has discovered. But it is our mistake to think, that because reason confirms them to us, we had the first certain knowledge of them from thence; and in that clear evidence we now possess them." (Reasonableness of Christianity, Works, vol. 7, p. 145.)
unrestricted competition of self-interest, is nothing less than radical individualism. 47 Yet the consequence of unbridled individualism is ultimately the erosion of the altruistic values on which community, civil society, and, some argue, human evolution itself, depend. 48 It has been suggested that even after the modem secular tum, and the resultant weakening of the authority of religion, the social order continued to run on the "accumulated moral capital" of the past, 49 a fact that temporarily concealed the true social cost incurred by abandoning religion. As this reserve has gradually exhausted itself, we have witnessed an acceleration in the rate of social and moral deterioration, expressed in the loosening of every form of personal obligation, and have seen secular ideologies and theories go bankrupt, unable to create community, to teach moral values and virtues necessary to sustain the political order, or to stem the rising tide of conflict and violence. The progression of this disintegration has only thrown into relief the fact that "no matter how undermined, a remnant of the older morality provides much of what coherence our society still has." 50 Such recognition has led to an emerging interest in the underlying principle at the basis of that morality, the idea of covenant, as "an idea whose time [has] come back." 51 The Concept of Covenant Covenant, it has long been recognized, is not merely a theological concept but it has been termed the most powerful and
47. See also Bellah, Broken Covenant, p. 26. 48. Ronald Cohen, "Altruism and the Evolution of Civil Society," in Embracing the Other: Philosophical, Psychological, and Historical Perspectives on Altruism, ed. Pearl M. Oliner et al. (New Yorlc New York University Press, 1992), pp. 104-29. 49. James Q. Wilson, "Liberalism, Mode1nism, and the Good Life," in Seedbeds of Virtue: Sources of Competence, Character, and Citizenship in American Society, ed. Mary Ann Glendon and David Blankenhorn (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1995), p. 19. 50. Bellah, Broken Covenant, p. xiii. 51. Daniel J. Elazar, "What Happened to Covenant in the Nineteenth Centmy?" in Covenant in the Nineteenth Century: The Decline ofan American Political Tradition, ed. Daniel J. Elazar (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1994), p. 4.
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enduring form of political foundation and one of the "fundamental political concepts illuminating the origins and basis of political life." 52 Since the earliest biblical covenants uniting the Israelite tribes, the idea that human political relationships, like the relationship between God and humanity, ought to be based on "compact, association, and consent" has provided various peoples the inspiration and pattern for community organization and state building. According to Elazar, the resurgence of this world view in sixteenth-century Reformed Protestant Christianity in Europe gave rise to the federal theology on which English and American Puritans, Huguenots, and Scottish Covenanters based their political theories and constitutional principles, and which influenced the development of federal states in Switzerland and the Netherlands as well as the federation of the New England colonies into the United States of America. Moreover, he notes, "the biblical vision for the 'end of days '-the messianic era" includes an extension of this divine "grand design" for human polity to "a world confederation or league of nations, each preserving its own integrity while accepting a common divine covenant and constitutional order. This order will establish appropriate covenantal relationships for the entire world." 53 The idea of covenant refers to a constellation of concepts: the free and willing recognition of a binding duty, originating in or guaranteed by a transcendent source, to act together in a collective enterprise defmed by a purpose and according to a set of precepts or laws, with accountability in the form of blessing and benefits for fulfillment and punishment and retribution for failure. 54 The vast ramifications of this idea become apparent when we consider a few of the implications that can be traced to the idea of covenant. The element of free and willing recognition is the origin of the
52. Elazar, "Covenant as the Basis," pp. 6, 10. 53. Daniel J. Elazar, Exploring Federalism (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1987), pp. 119, 126-27, 120. 54. Cf. a different rendering of elements in Donald S. Lutz, "The Evolution of Covenant Form and Content as the Basis for Early American Political Culture," in Covenant in the Nineteenth Century: The Decline of an American Political Tradition, ed. Daniel J. Elazar (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1994), p. 35.
principle of consent, as the basis of free society and self-government. The recognition of a binding duty generates the concept of strong obligation through the recognition of authority. The location of the duty in a transcendent, divine source is the pivot of the idea of legitimation. In the summons to a collective, purposive enterprise the community is created, implying for each individual a commitment to participate and engendering a sense of identity, loyalty, and responsibility. The set of precepts that guide and direct this enterprise defme the character of the moral and political order of the community. It is here we find the content of law, rights and responsibilities, the hierarchy of values, and the virtues entailed by them. It can also be seen here that, because of its centrality to the lives and well-being of all the individuals who belong to it, that collective enterprise is itself an entity which has rights (in virtue of its responsibilities), and all those who identify themselves with this community share an obligation to give attention and care to the protection of the community as a whole. And finally, the element of retribution and proportionality is the basic principle underlying all forms of accountability and is a fundamental component of all moral codes. 55 The vehicle for ensuring the orderly practice, maintenance, and transmission of a society's values is its institutions. 56 The specification of institutional structure can be considered as a separate formal element of a covenant, 57 but the history of revealed covenants is notable for the absence of provisions for institutions or the scope of their authority. That this absence has been the prime cause of intrareligious conflict and schism highlights the profound significance and unprecedented potentiality of the institutional arrangements in the Baha'i Faith. The structures and principles of the Baha'i Administrative Order are not only clearly specified in the texts whose authority is universally recognized by Baha'is, but
55. Alison Dundes Renteln, '~A Cross-Cultural Approach to Validating International Human Rights: The Case of Retribution Tied to Proportionality," in Human Rights: Theory and Measurement, ed. David Louis Cingranelli (New Yorlc St. Martin's, 1988). 56. Selznick, Moral Commonwealth, pp. 232-33. 57. Lutz, "Evolution of Covenant Form and Content," p. 37.
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they are the subject of a special revealed covenant. The specific provisions ofBaha'u'llah's Covenant ensure the integrity as well as the flexibility and responsiveness of the system of governance, and guarantee the unity of the Baha'i Faith itself by eliminating the historical cause of schism. 58 It has been pointed out that the covenantal element specifying the precepts governing social behavior is the historical source of bills of rights, not as a "legalistic limit on the power of government, but rather as a celebration of the fundamental value commitments of a people." According to DonaldS. Lutz, the current concept of a "legalistic bill of rights ... is a direct descendent of [this] foundation element found in covenants."59 Numerous colonial Bills of Liberty exemplifying the people's "value commitments all point to the earlier covenants, and the Bible that underlies them, rather than to any Magna Carta or English common law tradition." It has also been suggested that, in addition to the tendency to federal structure, democratic participation and collective, consensus-oriented decision-making are intrinsic aspects of covenantal polity.60 In the covenantal concept of authority, the obligation to obey the law arises as a consequence of the relationship one recognizes and freely affirms between oneself and the source of those laws. Baha'u'llah begins His Most Holy Book, his Book of Laws, with a renewal of the great Covenant. "The first duty" is recognition of the authority of the Lawgiver; the second is to observe His or- . dinances. 61 Here, we can see, morality is grounded in belief as ' "conscious lmowledge" 62 and begins with a duty, not a right. Consequently, it can be seen, the right to religious freedom comes into being, as a human right, in order to be able to fulfill the duty of obedience to God. That is, it becomes a civil right as a result of being held as a religious conviction.
58. Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, pp. 143-57. 59. Lutz, "Evolution of Covenant Form and Content," pp. 42-43. 60. Elazar, "Covenant as the Basis," pp. 17, 36. 61. Baha'u'llah, The Kitab-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book (Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1992), par. 1. 62. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Baha'i World Faith: Selected Writings ofBaha 'u 'llah and 'Abdu 'l-Baha (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1976), p. 383.
THE BAHA.'f WORLD
The order of the two duties of recognition and obedience has an important implication. Obedience, in a covenant, follows only as a consequence of the genuine recognition of a source of authority higher than oneself. This is why the covenantal form of legitimation and authority can never be confused with authoritarianism because it is noncoercive by definition, beginning as it does with the free, uncoerced consent of individual reason. Thus, those who have seen coercion lurking wherever there is "transcendent authority," who feel that anyone who believes in a universal truth is bound to feel justified in forcing it on someone else, simply fail to recognize the critical point that coercion is entirely inconsistent with, and indeed, vitiates the principle of covenant. Although recognition of God is a duty, it cannot be performed at all unless it is consent willingly given, for coerced belief is no belief at all. 63 Thus, in the past when ecclesiastical institutions undertook, without warrant in their own scriptures, to make affiliation in a particular faith or sect mandatory and to use force upon those who were not believers, this was itself a contradiction of the most basic principle of the divine Covenant. 64 However, the voluntary principle means that once one has given consent, recognized the authority of the lawgiver, and become a party to the covenantal relationship, one has obligated oneself to the relationship, with all its provisions and implications. This conception of consent makes the covenantal relation very different from the social contract, and contemporary notions of contract, where individual interests are the measure of the contract itself. Selznick writes: "a social ethic is the linchpin of the covenant. ... This social ethic is something more than a natural, unconscious acceptance of social norms." It "suggests an indefeasible commitment and a continuing relationship." Moreover, as he has noted, covenant is the foundation for all other particular promises and
63. See Locke, Letter Concerning Toleration, Works, vol. 6, p. 11. 64. Although the use of force is authorized in the Qur' an, it is permitted only in defense, and never against peaceful nonbelievers. See, for example, Mohamed Talbi, "Religious Liberty: A Muslim Perspective," in Religious Liberty and Human Rights in Nations and in Religions, ed. Leonard Swidler (Philadelphia: Ecumenical Press, 1985), pp. 175-87; Little, "Western Tradition," pp. 29-30.
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contracts. 65 In a covenant, we enter into a relationship, which is not determined by purely individual interests. Entering it constitutes an affirmation that our own best interests are necessarily located within it, and that they are inextricably interrelated with those with whom we share membership in this collective enterprise. The covenant thus integrates the private and the public, the spiritual and the temporal, as through the personal covenant with God the individual enters the social covenant. Miller writes of this idea as it was once conceptualized:
The personal covenant of the soul with God is itnpaled on the same axis as the social, like a small circle within a larger. Before entering into both the personal and social covenants men have a liberty to go their own gait; afterwards they have renounced their liberty to do anything but that which has been agreed upon. The mutual consenting involved in a covenant, says Hooker, is the "sement" which solders together all societies, political or ecclesiastical; "for there is no man constrained to enter into such a condition unlesse he will: and he that will enter, must also willingly binde and ingage himself to each member of that society to protnote the good of the whole, or else a member actually he is not. " 66
The covenantal concept of social interdependence is expressed as an encompassing, global perspective in the Baha'i writings, in the central principle of the oneness of humanity. 'Abdu'l-Baha writes ofBaha'u'llah's teaching:
The Blessed Beauty saith: "Ye are all the fruits of one tree, the leaves of one branch." Thus hath He likened this world of being to a single tree, and all its peoples to the leaves thereof, and the blossoms and fruits. It is needful for the bough to blossom, and leaf and fruit to flourish, and upon the interconnection of all parts of the world-tree, dependeth the flourishing of leaf and blossom, and the sweetness of the fruit. For this reason must all human beings powerfully sustain one another and seek for everlasting life; and for this reason must the lovers of God in this contingent w-orld become the
65. Selznick, Moral Commonwealth, p. 479n (citing Pitkin). 66. Perry Miller, Errand into the Wilderness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956), p. 90.
mercies and the blessings sent forth by that clement King of the seen and unseen realms. Let them purify their sight and behold all hmnankind as leaves and blossmns and fruits of the tree of being. Let them at all times concern themselves with doing a kindly thing for one of their fellows, offering to smneone love, consideration, thoughtful help. Let them see no one as their enemy, or as wishing thetn ill, but think of all humankind as their friends; regarding the alien as an intimate, the stran~er as a companion, staying free of prejudice, drawing no lines.
This view of human interdependence is reflected in Shoghi Effendi's explanation of the Baha'i conception of society as based on the subordination of"every particularistic interest, be it personal, regional, or national, to the paramount interests of humanity, firmly convinced that in a world of interdependent peoples and nations the advantage of the part is best to be reached by the advantage of the whole, and that no abiding benefit can be conferred upon the component parts if the general interests of the entity itself are ignored or neglected. " 68 As the Universal House of Justice has explained,
This relationship, so fundamental to the maintenance of civilized life, calls for the utmost degree of understanding and cooperation between society and the individual; and because of the need to foster a climate in which the untold potentialities of the individual members of society can develop, this relationship must allow "free scope" for "individuality to assert itself' through modes of spontaneity, initiative and diversity that ensure the viability of society. 69
The implications of such a model, and such a vision, to serve as the foundation of a global social order are developed in the Baha'i International Community's statement, The Prosperity ofHumanldnd:
Human society is composed not of a mass of merely differentiated cells but of associations of individuals, each one of whom
67. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu 'l-Baha (Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1978), pp. 1-2. 68. Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 198. 69. Universal House of Justice, Individual Rights and Freedoms in the World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1989), p. 20.
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is endowed with intelligence and will; nevertheless, the tnodes of operation that characterize man's biological nature illustrate fundamental principles of existence. Chief among these is that of unity in diversity. Paradoxically, it is precisely the wholeness and complexity of the order constituting the human body--and the perfect integration into it of the body's cells--that permit the full realization of the distinctive capacities inherent in each of these component elements. No cell lives apart frotn the body, whether in contributing to its function or in deriving its share from the well-being of the whole. The physical well-being thus achieved finds its purpose in making possible the expression of human consciousness; that is to say, the purpose of biological developtnent transcends the mere existence of the body and its parts. What is true of the life of the individual has its parallels in human society. The human species is an organic whole, the leading edge of the evolutionary process. That human consciousness necessarily operates through an infinite diversity of individual minds and motivations detracts in no way from its essential unity. Indeed, it is precisely an inhering diversity that distinguishes unity from homogeneity or uniformity. What the peoples of the world are today experiencing, Baha'u'llah said, is their collective coming-of-age, and it is through this emerging maturity of the race that the principle of unity in diversity will find full expression .... . . . Because the relationship between the individual and society is a reciprocal one, the transfonnation now required must occur simultaneously within human consciousness and the structure of social institutions. 70
The principle of interdependence and the relationship of the interests of the individual and society naturally has crucial implications for the concepts of governance and of justice. Governance as Trusteeship Governance is frequently mentioned in the Baha'i writings as trusteeship, as the administering of a trust. This itself is an enduring concept, and it is worth examining why. Baha'u'llah speaks of the governors and administrators of society as "trustees" or "trusted ones" of God. He writes: "Know ye that the poor are the
70. Baha'i International Community, The Prosperity of Humanldnd, reprinted in The Baha '{World 1994-95, pp. 277-78.
trust of God in your midst. Watch that ye betray not His trust. Y e will most certainly be called upon to answer for His trust on the day when the Balance of justice shall be set." 71 The relation of trusteeship is itself a kind of covenant-an agreement concerning the exercise of power under a set of circumstances determined by a relationship with ethical obligations implying proportional recompense: reward for fulfilling the trust and punishment for breaking it. Thus we can see why the preeminent virtue of governance is trustworthiness, described by Baha'u'llah as the "greatest portal leading unto the tranquillity and security of the people," and "the supreme instrument for the prosperity of the world." 72 The salient fact in trusteeship is that power is being exercised on behalf of some person or persons who, for some reason are not in a position to do so directly-because they are absent, young, old, and so on; this principle operates also in professional ethics, where power is exercised on behalf of a vulnerable client or group. We can include as vulnerable creatures to which we stand in the relationship of trustees such entities as the environment, future generations, in fact all those who will be affected by the exercise of power. Although all persons are equal before God, as Baha'u'llah indicates it is really the most vulnerable whose interests and rights we need to be most concerned to safeguard, those who are without wealth, without social status or prestige; rather, it is those who do not have a voice to speak up whose rights need to be protected-the poor. In a covenantal order, it is not merely the governors of society who have an ethical duty to care for the best interests of their people. The sense of responsibility to the common good is a civic virtue that devolves on each member of the polity; as an ethical duty it increases in proportion to the power and influence individuals exercise whether formally or informally in various social roles, for example, as leaders of thought, scientists, authors, and scholars.
71. Baha'u'lUih, Gleanings from the Writings of Baha 'u 'llah, p. 251. This warning evokes the judgment upon Belshazzar in the "handwriting on the wall" read by the prophet Daniel: "Thou art weighed in the balances, and art found wanting" (Daniel6:27). 72.Baha'u'llah, Tablets ofBaha'u'llah, pp. 37-38.
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Anyone who governs or administers does so on the basis of this covenant of trusteeship. The content of the trust obligation thus is not reducible or subject to the desires or preferences of the individuals involved. They do not have a right to decide, for instance, to repeal a moral law because it is unpopular. And this is why mere majoritarianism (as the sum of the preferences of the many) is not a true entailment of any kind of representative government that occurs in a relationship of trusteeship, or covenant. Equity inevitably requires that some must get less than they might like to have so that others will not have to go without, and that some individuals must sacrifice their purely private interests when those conflict with the common good. Thus it is essential that there be a way to know what the common good is, in the cases where there is a conflict of preferences. And that means there must be a shared vision that characterizes that community as a moral order, defmed by an idea of what constitutes human excellence: a set of values and principles that serve as terms of reference and the standard for evaluative decision making. In this perspective, the virtue of sacrificing self-interest for the common good is not something that can be imposed by an external source (otherwise it is not "sacrifice"), but it arises out of personal commitment and the genuine consciousness of a unity of interests that is best described as love. And where love is concerned, no sacrifice entails a net loss. The virtue of trustworthiness implies strong accountability. The trustee, in this case the governors of society, will be "called upon to answer for His trust." But accountability can only have motivating force if it is real and inevitable, and not merely a chance of getting caught. Our own "best interests" are really only fused with those of "the poor," that is, an "other," by a certainty that how we act toward others determines how we will be judged, and what we will receive. Thus 'Abdu'l-Baha writes:
... a religious individual must disregard his personal desires and seek in whatever way he can wholeheartedly to serve the public interest; and it is impossible for a human being to turn aside from his own selfish advantages and sacrifice his own good for the good of the community except through true religious faith. For self-love is kneaded into the very clay of man,
and it is not possible that, without any hope of a substantial reward, he should neglect his own present material good. 73
The adoption of a spiritual perspective transforms that self-love into a reference point for understanding the needs of others and seeing their interests as linked with one's own: "0 son of man!" Baha'u'llah reveals, "If thine eyes be turned towards mercy, forsake the things that profit thee and cleave unto that which will profit mankind. And if thine eyes be turned towards justice, choose thou for thy neighbor that which thou choosest for thyseIf.,74 From a Baha'i perspective governance is really a spiritual practice, for the judgments we make are dependent on the inner orientation of the heart. In religious scriptures, the metaphor of the balance is invoked as the image of the administration of justice which is the measure of good governance. (Thus, even the familiar image of the scales of justice is an ancient religious concept.) Baha'u'llah, in His tablets, speaks of governance as spiritual accountability:
It behoveth every ruler to weigh his own being every day in the balance of equity and justice and then to judge between men and counsel them to do that which would direct their steps unto the path of wisdmn and understanding. This is the cornerstone of statestnanship and the essence thereof. From these words every enlightened tnan of wisdmn will readily perceive that which will foster such aitns as the welfare, security and protection oftnankind and the safety ofhmnan lives? 5
Using a balance, or any measuring instrument, is a two-step process: before the scale can be used to weigh anything the justice of the instrument itself must be ensured, and this is only possible by orienting it to a standard that is outside of and transcends the self. The one who would govern must first govern the self, must come under the rule of divine justice, must set aside the self s inclination to place a thumb on its side of the scale, and must
73. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Secret ofDivine Civilization, pp. 96-97. 74.Baha'u'llah, Tablets ofBaha'u'llah, p. 64. 75. Ibid., pp. 166-67.
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become a servant of the interests of the people, regarding their interests as one's own. In this respect it is worth recalling that to have "scruples" comes from the term for some of the tiniest of weights. The covenant perspective also calls forth the virtues and the vision that make governance more than mere management, that is, the sense of being entrusted with "the care of a community."76 Governance, as trusteeship, is described in ~he Baha'i writings as the care of a living organism, and institutions of governance as a channel through which the spirit that gives it life, that is, the promised blessings of the Covenant, flow. Baha'u'llah's exhortations to the rulers of His day invoke this sense of transcendent, loving obligation for the care of society as a living being: "Take ye counsel together," He wrote to Queen Victoria, "and let your concern be only for that which profiteth mankind and bettereth the condition thereof. ... Regard the world as the human body which, though created whole and perfect, has been afflicted, through divers causes, with grave ills and maladies."77 To know what profits mankind and betters its conditions requires reference to a vision of human good, just as the physician must know not only what disorder the patient suffers from, but what remedy is required for the patient to become healedsomething that depends entirely on a clear vision of what "health" is. The Spirit of Covenant What makes a covenant work is the spirit it engenders, which has been referred to as "loving-kindness" and "grace," and which Shoghi Effendi refers to as "transcending love." Elazar suggests that the spirit that characterizes covenantal relationships
really means the obligation of a partner to a covenant to go beyond the narrowly construed contractual demands of the partnership in order to make the relationship between them a truly viable one .... A covenant is, after all, a contract and the tendency in contractual systems is for people to act like lawyers, that is to
76. Selznick, Moral Commonwealth, p. 290. 77. Quoted in Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, pp. 39-40.
say, to try to construe the contract as narrowly as possible when defining their obligations and as broadly as possible when defining the obligations of the other parties.
In contrast, the covenant spirit impels one to interpret "one's contractual obligations broadly rather than narrowly, the broader the better." 78 The collective, social purpose of the great Covenant between God and humanity has always been the spiritual advancement of civilization, and this is reflected in the fact that, as Elazar has remarked, "one of the greatest achievements of covenantal societies" is "the institutionalization of reform," that is, the dedication, on principle, of political institutions to the improvement of social and economic conditions of all citizens. Citing the role of covenantal thinking in the abolition of slavery, and nineteenthcentury reform movements in law and prisons, education, and mental health, he says: "a strong case can be made that the very idea of reform emerges from the covenant world view and is only possible where that world view exists." In fact, he claims, "The progress of civilization can be traced as corresponding to the periods in human history when the historical vanguard has recognized the covenant idea and sought to concretely apply it to the building of human, social, and political relationships." 79 It has been suggested that the power of covenantal unity is expressed in its ability to create a "founding synthesis": the basis of covenantal polity, not in common descent but in common consent, creates "kinships of greater dignity and sanctity" than ° mere ties of birth or ethnicity. 8 Covenants, therefore, are more than instruments that bind, but are in fact "liberating devices that call into existence new entities," that create relationships and forge bonds of mutuality between different and formerly hostile peoples. 81 It is this powerful concept which, Baha'is believe, has the potential to unite the peoples of the world in a global political and moral order. In the idea of "founding synthesis," we can see
78. Elazar, "Covenant as the Basis," p. 29. 79. Elazar, "What Happened to Covenant," pp. 14-15; Elazar, "Covenant as the Basis," p. 10. 80. Elazar, "Covenant as the Basis," pp. 27, 25. 81. Ibid., p. 7.
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the mutual relation of such Baha'i principles as the unity and equality of humankind, the oneness of religion, and the abolition of prejudice. These bring together diversified elements, change their existing beliefs about one another, and change their relationship to one another, uniting them into a new structure. 82 In contrast, the ideology of rights-based individualism has no way to account for or evoke an altruistic ethic which moves people to become more concerned with giving to others than with getting their own share, an ethic that goes beyond respect for others at a distance to loving sacrifice so that others will have more than oneself. An altruistic ethic arises from a relationship that encompasses otherness as an embrace. That call to human unity is expressed inBaha'u'llah's writings in the classic language of the eternal Covenant, as a summons to unite in a global moral community, authorized by a sacred obligation, in order to obtain the promised blessing of peace and prosperity:
0 contending peoples and kindreds of the earth! Set your faces towards unity, and let the radiance of its light shine upon you. Gather ye together, and for the sake of God resolve to root out whatever is the source of contention amongst you. Then will the effulgence of the world's great Lmninary envelop the whole earth, and its inhabitants become the citizens of one city, and the occupants of one and the satne throne .... There can be no doubt whatever that the peoples of the world, of whatever race or religion, derive their inspiration from one heavenly Source, and are the subjects of one God. The difference between the ordinances under which they abide should be attributed to the varying requirements and exigencies of the age in which they were revealed. All of thetn, except a few which are the outcome of human perversity, were ordained of God, and are a reflection of His Will and Purpose. Arise and, armed with the power of faith, shatter to pieces the gods of your vain itnaginings, the sowers of dissension amongst you. Cleave unto that which draweth you together and uniteth you. This, verily, is the tnost exalted Word which the Mother Book hath sent down and revealed unto you. To this beareth witness the Tongue of Grandeur from His habitation of glory. 83
82. Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 155. 83.Baha'u'lh1h, Gleanings from the Writings ofBaha'u'llah, p. 217.
The unity of the human race that is both made possible and mandated by the Covenant, as Shoghi Effendi has explained, "implies the establishment of a world commonwealth in which all nations, races, creeds and classes are closely and permanently united, and in which the autonomy of its state members and the personal freedom and initiative of the individuals that compose them are definitely and completely safeguarded." 84 A Universal Moral Community It has been argued here that the foundations of civil society are themselves religious, that the structures and principles of law, order, and governance are dependent upon a world view which locates the purpose of life in a transcendent spiritual destiny that is realized in the idea of the eternal Covenant, and which entails a particular conception of human freedom as sacred. Like freedom, tolerance is not a secular, but a religious idea. The dignity of all humans, from which human rights arise, is a religious concept and depends upon a definition of human nature as spiritual in essence. Rejecting the notion that "an innate sense of human dignity will prevent man from committing evil actions and insure his spiritual and material perfection," 'Abdu'l-Baha states: "if we ponder the lessons of history it will become evident that this very sense of honor and dignity is itself one of the bounties deriving from the instructions of the Prophets of God," and is instilled only by education. 85 The duty to respect each person's dignity, that is, as tolerance or "civility," is itself dependent upon "piety" as reverence for a higher authority to which one is accountable. 86 It is piety that both justifies and commands tolerance as a duty which is inextricable from righteousness. Baha'u'llah writes:
The heaven of true understanding shineth resplendent with the light of two lu1ninaries: tolerance and righteousness. 0 1ny friend! Vast oceans lie enshrined within this brief saying. Blessed are they who appreciate its value, drink deep therefrmn and grasp its 1neaning, and woe betide the heedless ....
84. Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBah a 'u 'llah, p. 203. 85. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Secret ofDivine Civilization, p. 97-98. 86. See Selznick, Moral Commonwealth, ch. 14.
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He goes on to recount: "At present the light of reconciliation is dimmed in most countries and its radiance extinguished while the fire of strife and disorder hath been kindled and is blazing fiercely," and then He delivers a warning against committing injustice and tyranny against people because of their religion, specifically in reference to the rise of anti-Semitism in Europe. Significantly, it is "two great powers who regard themselves as the founders and leaders of civilization and the framers of constitutions" who "have risen up against the followers of the faith associated with Him who conversed with God [Moses]." 87 Clearly secular civilization and even constitutions are not sufficient to guarantee basic human rights. The protection of tolerance depends upon having an order in which unity is based upon guiding principles anchored in a spiritual view. 88 These alone enable us to determine the "constructive limits of freedom" that are essential if tolerance itself is not to be exploited for purposes of domination. Only spiritual principles enable us to answer the question, "Where does freedom limit our possibilities for progress, and where do limits free us to thrive?" 89 An important feature of the divine Covenant in history has always been its power of renewal, through which guiding norms can be adapted to the requirements of the times, in light of the overall goal of the advancement of civilization. Today the critical requirement of the times is the consciousness of the oneness and wholeness of humanity. It is this concept which provides the perspective from which social discourse can be rescued from sterile
87. Baha'u'lhih, Tablets ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 170. 88. See Glenn Tinder, Tolerance: Toward a New Civility (Amherst: University ofMassachusetts Press, 1976), pp. 152-58. A vital Baha'i principle, articulated by Shoghi Effendi, is that "Unlike the nations and peoples of the earth, be they of the East or of the West, democratic or authoritarian, who either ignore, trample upon, or extirpate, the racial, religious, or political minorities within the sphere of their jurisdiction, eve1y organized community enlisted under the banner ofBaha'u'lhih should feel it to be its first and inescapable obligation to nurture, encourage, and safeguard evety minority belonging to any faith, race, class, or nation within it." (The Advent of Divine Justice [Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1990], p. 35). 89. Universal House of Justice, Individual Rights and Freedoms, p. 8.
contentious polarities, reconciling and integrating the necessary aspects of unity and diversity-equality and equity, rights and responsibilities, freedom and limits, individual and community. But the current deification of difference for its own sake, the ideology of individualism and particularism, and its consequent aggressive anti-universalism, are all forms of mistaking the illness of the age-disunity-for normalcy. The danger is that a retreat inward to particularism (with the competition and adversarial struggle that implies) only exacerbates the problem and draws us away from the solution. The narrowing of the moral community to those most like oneself is a recipe for disaster, because it vitiates those conditions that foster respect for others and creates instead exactly the conditions that justify indifference to the suffering of others, prejudice, hostility, and violent conflict. 90 To consider unity as the core truth of humankind is not to advocate a vague abstraction or a stifling notion of uniformity, but to stress the relationship of diverse parts to one another in a complex interdependent system. In contrast, when atomistic difference is viewed as the core truth, relationship is precluded; indeed, such concepts as equality, and even the very idea of universal human rights, become incoherent the more the idea of radical diversity is pressed, for such ideas as equality and human rights cannot be invoked without appealing to principles with universal validity, and without tacitly referring to a higher-order category in which the two entities being contrasted can be recognized as two kinds of one thing. The exclusion, in secular theories, of the possibility of a transcendent basis for a sense of human unity marks the limit of those theories to provide any integrating principle or framework for human community beyond criteria of shared material conditions such as location, kinship, class, and culture. Yet even some who stress the urgency of locating shared human values fmd that project confounded by the fact of diversity in the existing communities of humankind. 91 As philosopher Paul
90. See Samuel P. Oliner and Pearl M. Oliner, The Altruistic Personality: Rescuers ofJews in Nazi Europe (New York: Free Press, 1988). 91. See Sissela Bole, Common Values (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1995).
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Gomberg argues, a universal morality must be grounded in the possibility of universal community, and this is dependent upon a universal identity. Only such an identity can provide a more inclusive perspective than that of "parochial moralities" which confine the scope of obligation to the group. 92 As long as people's identities are formed with reference to small groups, that identity will determine the limits of their moral community and conception of justice. But there is no merely rational way to climb out of that impasse. Something else, beyond reason and enlightened self-interest, must create a larger sense of identity with others who are very different. The only possible source of such an identity, and consequently of global community, must be a spiritual one: only the spirit of transcending love has the power to unite people who are dissimilar in material conditions and background. Baha'u'lh1h's charter for world order offers to the human civilizing process, at this critical moment in history, the renewal of the society-building power of the great Covenant. It is the transcendent principle implicit in the divine Covenant that has always been the agency of spiritual and social development, enabling the passage to each new stage in the history of the cumulative integration of human society. The Covenant is the fulcrum on which human vision is lifted to new heights of unity, where the moral community, previously confined to those who are akin, is expanded to embrace, integrate, and unify formerly contending peoples and kindreds into a single polity. That vision is expressed in the words of Shoghi Effendi:
The Faith ofBaha'u'llah has assitnilated, by virtue of its creative, its regulative and ennobling energies, the varied races, nationalities, creeds and classes that have sought its shadow, and have pledged unswerving fealty to its cause. It has changed the hearts of its adherents, burned away their prejudices, stilled their passions, exalted their conceptions, ennobled their tnotives, coordinated their efforts, and transfonned their outlook. While preserving their patriotis1n and safeguarding their lesser loyalties, it has 1nade the1n lovers of 1nankind, and the detennined
92. Paul Gomberg, ''Universalism and Optimism," Ethics 104 (1994): 536-57.
upholders of its best and truest interests. While maintaining intact their belief in the Divine origin of their respective religions, it has enabled them to visualize the underlying purpose of these religions, to discover their tnerits, to recognize their sequence, their interdependence, their wholeness and unity, and to aclmowledge the bond that vitally links thetn to itself. This universal, this transcending love which the followers of the Baha'i Faith feel for their fellow-tnen, of whatever race, creed, class or nation, is ... both spontaneous and genuine. They whose hearts are wanned by the energizing influence of God's creative love cherish His creatures for His sake, and recognize in every human face a sign of His reflected glory. Of such tnen and women it tnay be truly said that to them "every foreign land is a fatherland, and every fatherland a foreign land." For their citizenship, it tnust be remetnbered, is in the Kingdmn ofBaha'u'llah. 93
93. Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBaha'u'llah, pp. 197-98.
Ann Boyles looks at contemporary concerns surrounding identity, values, and governance from the perspective of an evolving global society.
ORLD :ATCH
I n Apri11995, the New York Times invited its readers to send in suggestions for names characterizing the age in which we live. Common offerings were what one might expect: the Age of Anxiety, the Age ofUncertainty, the Age of Fragmentation, the Age of (Great and Failed) Expectations, the Age of Disillusion (and Dissolution), the Age of Tribalism, the Age of Fundamentalism, the Age of Deconstruction, the Age of Greed, and approximately twenty variations on the Millennia! or Messianic Age. Editors reported that the word "global" was very common in entries, as were the prefixes "dis," "re," "post," "cyber," and "fm de." The Transnational Era and the Age of Kakistocracy (government by the worst people) were other names reflecting readers' preoccupations. 1 On a more scholarly level, eminent historian Eric Hobsbawm titled his history of the twentieth century, published in 1995, Age of Extremes. The book's first major section, covering the years 1914 to 1945, is "The Age of Catastrophe," while the fmal section, covering the last two decades, is "The Landslide."
1. International Herald Tribune, 3 April1995.
Such descriptions indicate the deep scepticism and pessimism with which our age is generally regarded. They reflect, too, upon the issue of identity: how we see ourselves as individual citizens and as a society. As Hobsbawm puts it, "Since the middle of the century ... the branch of [the old civilization has begun] to crack and break.... The old maps and charts which guided human beings, singly and collectively, through life no longer represent the landscape through which we move, the sea on which we sail. ... We do not lmow where our journey is taking us, or even ought to take us."2 Hobsbawm, as an historian rather than a futurist, does not offer many specific suggestions for the direction of humanity's journey at either the individual or the collective level, but he does advance the idea that some sort of political organization beyond national boundaries will be necessary to deal effectively with a world in which global economic integration is taking place. At the same ti1ne, he recognizes that strong forces are at work against such integration. Benjamin R. Barber also treats this subject in his 1995 volume Jihad Vs. Me World, characterizing the struggle as one between an emerging globalism characterized by uniformity ("MeWorld," or rampant, unregulated Western consumerism) and its opponents ("Jihad," or "violent and dogmatic particularism"). A chief characteristic of the individual living in MeWorld is encapsulated in the following passage from Charles Durning's How Much Is Enough: The Consumer Society and the Future of Earth, a report for the W orldW atch Institute. Durning makes the observation that "the words 'consumer' and 'person' have become virtual synonyms" and that such identification has serious implications for individuals and their society. He continues, "The world economy is currently organized to furnish 1.1 billion people with a consumer life-style long on things but short on time." Such an economy, he points out, is not concerned with matters of social justice, with issues of unemployment or ofpoverty. 3
2. Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century 1914- 1991 (London: Abacus Books, Little, Brown and Co., 1995), pp. 16-17. 3. Charles Durning, How Much Is Enough: The Consumer Society and the Future ofEarth (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1992), pp. 21-22; cited in Benjamin R. Barber, Jihad Vs. Me World (New York: Times Books, Random House, 1995), p. 223.
The view of the individual primarily as a consumer is commonplace today in many parts of the world. Advertising urges us to become associated with a particular cigarette, a brand of perfume, a line of clothing, a car, or other such items. Now we can go to almost any part of the planet and consume the same kinds of fast foods found originally in America, or stay in the same hotel chains, or partake of the same soft drink, or watch many of the same television programs or movies or listen to the same music. In fact, at least on a superficial level, it seems as though one of the chief characteristics of the "global village" in which we are reputed to live is our common consumerism. Certainly this is one of Barber's central points. While the life of consumerism depicted in MeWorld is less than soul-satisfying, the forces that, in Barber's view, oppose that life are no more comforting. Narrow-minded nationalistic or ethnic interests blind their adherents to any conception of life beyond their own particular view of how it should be lived. Barber refers to Jihad's "recidivist tribalisms" and the "microwars" it promotes as "noisier and more obviously nihilistic than [the forces of] MeWorld." He sees them as creating instability in the short term, but in the long run, Barber predicts that the forces of MeWorld will prove stronger: "MeWorld's homogenization is likely to establish a macropeace that favors the triumph of commerce and its markets and to give those who control information, communication, and entertainment ultimate (if inadvertent) control over human destiny." He concludes, "Unless we can offer an alternative to the struggle between Jihad and MeWorld, the epoch on whose threshold we stand-postcommunist, postindustrial, postnational, yet sectarian, fearful, and bigoted-is likely also to be terminally postdemocratic."4 Critics have attacked Barber for his sweeping generalizations. In The New Republic, for example, Fareed Zakaria criticized Barber for a diatribe against the effects of what he called "unchecked participation by the masses," 5 pointing out that the increased
4. Barber, Jihad Vs. Me World, p. 20. 5. See "Paris Is Burning" by Fareed Zakaria in The New Republic, 22 Januaty 1996, pp. 27-30.
prosperity at the root of the struggle depicted by Barber is an important transformation in our society:
The rise of a mass consumption society produces political, economic and cultural side effects that are troubling. But surely the criticism of this world, and of the liberal capitalism which created it, must first recognize its accomplishments. The political and economic changes that have created McWorld are, on the whole, admirable ones. Giving people the ability to live longer, to 1nove where they want, own a house, to enjoy such pleasures as vacations and restaurants and shopping is good, even noble. 6
The point is no doubt well taken, but one must also consider this startling statistic: The gulf separating the rich and the poor around the world is widening, according to the United Nations Development Program, which reported in July 1996 that 1.6 billion people in 89 countries are poorer now than they were ten years ago. Further, the world's 358 billionaires have more assets than the combined incomes of countries housing 45 percent of the world's population. If such is the result of the kind of globalization described by Barber, it is worth questioning its value. Is consumerism or an excessive preoccupation with material concerns a good foundation, a conscionable basis, for any kind of global society? Consideration of such inequities has informed recent discussions concerning the defmitions and characteristics of government that are appropriate to this evolving world. Commentators have engaged in strenuous debates concerning various systems. Yet most agree that democracy-in a form giving less emphasis on consumerism and more on the responsibilities inherent in citizenship--is the answer. Barber refers to this shift as taking people "from elementary animal being (the thinness of economics) to cooperative human living (the robustness of strong democracy)." 7 He asserts that
6. Zakaria, "Paris Is Burning," p. 30. 7. Barber, Jihad Vs. Me World, p. 291.
WORLD WATCH
Strong democracy needs citizens; citizens need civil society; civil society requires a form of association not bound by identity politics; that form of association is democracy. Or: global democracy needs confederalism, a noncompulsory form of association rooted in friendship and tnutual interests; confederalism depends on member states that are well rooted in civil society, and on citizens for whom the other is not synonymous with the enemy; civil society and citizenship are products of a democratic way of life. 8
These are noble sentiments, but as Barber himself notes, civil society and citizenship are not necessarily products of a democratic way of life-or at least of the democratic way of life as it is lived in the West at present. Czech President Vaclav Havel, writing of the widely perceived shortcomings of Western-style culture and its current values, shares this view:
The tnain source of objections would seem to be what many cultural societies see as the inevitable product or byproduct of these values: moral relativism, tnaterialistn, the denial of any kind of spirituality, a proud disdain for everything suprapersonal, a profound crisis of authority and the resulting general decay, a frenzied consutneristn, a lack of solidarity, the selfish cult of tnaterial success, the absence of faith in a higher order of things or simply in eternity, and expansionist mentality that holds in contempt everything that in any way resists the dreary standardization and rationalistn of technical civilization. 9
These, then, are the "values" widely associated with democracy, rather than those of civic duty, responsible citizenship, and so on. Havel has touched upon a point to which Western commentators have recently become very sensitive. In the West, the common conception of values has been that they are something that should be relegated to the private sphere, with no place in the realm of discourse about our collective social life. Stephen L. Carter's 1993 volume, The Culture of Disbelief· How American
8. Barber, Jihad Vs. Me World, p. 291. 9. Vaclav Havel, "The Spiritual Roots of Democracy," in Lapis: The Inner Meaning of Contemporary Life (Summer 1995), p. 29.
Law and Politics Trivialize Religious Devotion, discusses the implications of such a viewpoint, covering topics as diverse as the issue of prayer in public schools and the abortion debate. Carter's book has been seminal in the discussion about the role of moral values in the public realm, and a growing number of thoughtful people are now calling for a resuscitation of values in what they see as our morally impoverished society. The growth of political movements such as the communitarians is also a reaction against the excessive emphasis in Western democracies on the rights rather than the responsibilities of citizens. One recent volume, Democracy's Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy, by Michael J. Sandel, has provoked much discussion because of its treatment of this theme. Sandel writes:
The global media and tnarkets that shape our lives beckon us to a world beyond boundaries and belonging. But the civic resources we need to master these forces, or at least to contend with them, are still to be found in the places and stories, metnories and meanings, incidents and identities, that situate us in the world and give our lives their moral particularity. The public philosophy by which we live bids us to bracket these attachtnents, to set thetn aside for political purposes, to conduct our political debates without reference to thetn. But a procedural republic that banishes tnoral and religious argutnent frotn political discourse tnakes for an itnpoverished civic life. It also fails to answer the aspiration for self-govemtnent; its itnage of citizens as free and independent selves, unencutnbered by tnoral or civic ties they have not chosen, cannot sustain the public spirit that equips us for self-rule. 10
Sandel's call for recognition that moral and religious issues do have a place in public discourse is well argued, but he does not resolve important questions such as how these issues can be satisfactorily addressed in a pluralistic society. How, for example, can a society find common ground when values may be widely different among the groups that make it up? How does the concept of "public spirit" translate from one culture to another? Thus, while Sandel and others are clear about the need for
10. Michael J. Sandel, Democracy's Discontent: America in Search ofa Public Philosophy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996), pp. 349-50.
WORLD WATCH
moral content in political discourse, they are less clear about the means of introducing and regulating it in a society where different values and faiths flourish. Sandel has been chided about just this point. In the Times Literary Supplement review of Sandel's book, Michael Rosen comments:
Sandel tells us that the republican favors those qualities of character that "promote citizenship". What precisely those qualities are, and to what lengths the State is entitled to go in requiring that individuals show them, he does not tnake entirely clear, but he does say explicitly that his vision of republican politics is not one of uniformity. While deploring liberalism for the supposedly debilitating consequences of neutrality, Sandel claims that republicanistn itself etnbodies a "higher pluralism." But how, the tnore tnundane of us will ask, is such a pluralistn supposed to work in practice? 11
While Sandel's and the communitarians' call for the reintroduction of values into the climate of governance is welcome and useful, the basic assumption that a renewed and morally strengthened Western-style democracy, with its unexamined embrace of adversarial governance, is the only model for enlightened government is open to debate. Havel, for example, cautions against the view of democracy as a "closed" system, pointing out
the limited ability of today' s detnocratic world to step beyond its own shadow, or rather the litnits of its own present spiritual and intellectual condition and direction, and thus its limited ability to address humanity in a genuinely universal way. As a consequence, democracy is seen less and less as an open systetn, which is best able to respond to people's basic needs, that is, as a set of possibilities that continually tnust be sought, redefined and brought into being. Instead, detnocracy is seen as sotnething given, finished, and cotnplete as is, sotnething that can be exported like cars or television sets, something that the more enlightened purchase and the less enlightened do not. 12
11. Michael Rosen, "Against the Unencumbered Self," in the Times Litermy Supplement, 18 October 1996, p. 14. 12. Havel, "Spiritual Roots of Democracy," p. 29.
In such a context, democracy becomes just another product in a consumer society-not an evolving system capable of great change. Sandel himself seems uncertain as to the global application of reversing "the loss of mastery and the erosion of community that lie at the heart of democracy's discontent": "The difficulty," he says, "actually involves two related challenges. One is to devise political institutions capable of governing the global economy. The other is to cultivate the civic identities necessary to sustain those institutions, to supply them with the moral authority the7 require. It is not obvious that both these challenges can be met." 1 Gertrude Himmelfarb frames the basic difficulty in these words: "If we are to revitalize civil society, must we not also re-moralize civil society, which is a far more difficult task?" 14 And Havel takes the point even further when he affirms the need for the spiritual within the democratic system and cautions against placing too much faith in the mere machinery of the system:
The separation of executive, legislative and judicial powers, the universal right to vote, the 1ule of law, freedom of expression, the inviolability of private ownership and all the other aspects of democracy as a system that ought to be the least unjust and the least capable of violence-these are merely technical instruments that enable man to live in dignity, freedom, and responsibility. But in and of themselves, they cannot guarantee hutnan dignity, freedom and responsibility. The source of these basic human potentials lies elsewhere: in tnan's relationship to that which transcends him. 15
Yet Himmelfarb and Havel stop short of speaking directly about religion in this process. Similarly, communitarian leader Amitai Etzioni, while arguing in The Spirit of Community for the promotion of individuals' responsibilities towards the nurturance of community, declines to discuss the role of religion in such an
13. Michael J. Sandel, "America's Search for a New Public Philosophy," in The Atlantic Monthly (March 1996), p.72. 14. Gertrude Himmelfarb, "The unravelled fabric-and how to knit it up: Mixed motives among the new communitarians," in the Times Literary Supplement, 17 May 1996, p. 13. 15. Havel, "Spiritual Roots of Democracy," p. 30.
endeavor. Daniel A. Bell calls this "a glaring omission in a book that aims for nothing short of a new moral crusade in what is perhaps the most religious country in the world [America]." 16 "Re-moralizing," in Himmelfarb's words, or reinforcing "man's relationship to that which transcends him," in Havel's, is properly the task of religion, but there is a general reluctance on the part of commentators, even Stephen Carter, to allow religions to take a role in the assertion of values in the public sphere. Carter wants them to maintain their independence, their status as independent critics of the political process or moral watchdogs. He writes,
.. .if the religions are able to ilnpose their own tneanings, there is no longer any distinction, and, thus, no longer ilnportant work for the triumphant religions as autonomous agencies to do. This abandonment of the role of external moral critic and alternative source of values and meaning willtnake sense when the Second Coming is at hand, but not before. Until that titne, it is vital that the religions struggle to tnaintain the tension between the meanings and understanding propounded by the state and the very different set of meanings and understandinfs that the contetnplation of the ultimate frequently suggests. 1
Certainly, introducing values into the public sphere in societies that are multicultural and multifaith seems like an impossible undertaking, which would mean a dramatic shift away from the secular underpinnings of modern Western societies; it would mean either giving precedence to one set of religious values over the others or searching for the root values inherent in all faiths. The task of legislating morality was easier in the past, when societies were more homogenous. Nationalistic or ethnic or tribal movements that promote closed societies may be, in part, an attempt to return to such times, when identity was more readily defined and standards of appropriate behavior were more easily regulated. Yet, while the likelihood of finding common ground-or even of generating the will to do so-may seem remote, another
16. Daniel A. Bell, "Together Again?", review of The Spirit of Community by Amitai Etzioni, in the Times Literary Supplement, 25 November 1994, p. 6. 17. Carter, Culture ofDisbelief, p. 273.
commentator has observed that it is impossible for us to retreat to the world of the past. Patrick Glynn, writing in the journal New Perspectives Quarterly, says,
... we are at an i1nportant transition point in Western culture, moving out of the great 1nodern era, with its deeply secular pre1nises, into a new age that will not only be "postmodern," but also, in an i1nportant sense, "postsecular." The great dividing-line between church and state, between revelation and reason, is ... being fundatnentally renegotiated. And this is occurring not just in popular culture or politics, but at the very cutting-edge of hu1nan inquiry. Indeed, so1ne of the most ilnpressive signs of change-of the gradual e1nergence of a "new paradigtn" opening the way to a 1nore explicitly spiritual view of hu1nan life and even to a 1nore universal acceptance of the existence of God-can be found in the 1nost advanced of the physical sciences, such as quantu1n 1nechanics and cosmology. This is not a backward-looking rejection of 1nodemity, but rather building upon 1node1nity's achieve1nents. 18
Glynn's assessment, that humanity must move forward to embrace an emerging paradigm of existence that incorporates spirituality in a profound and all-pervasive way, accords with the view advanced in the writings of the Baha'i Faith. At the foundation of the spiritual teachings given by Baha'u'llah is the assertion that humanity has reached a stage of maturity which demands both fresh understanding of the nature of the individual and a new pattern of community life. 'Abdu'l-Baha, the son ofBaha'u'llah and the Center of the Covenant He established with His followers, has elaborated on this theme of the maturing of humanity:
All created things have their degree or stage of 1naturity. The period of 1naturity in the life of a tree is the ti1ne of its fruit-bearing ... The ani1nal attains a stage of full growth and co1npleteness, and in the hu1nan kingdmn 1nan reaches his 1naturity when the light of his intelligence attains its greatest power and developtnent.. .. Sitnilarly there are periods and stages in the collective life of hu1nanity. At one tilne it was passing through its stage of childhood, at another its period
18. Patrick Glynn, "Prelude to a Post-Secular Society," in New Perspectives Quarterly (Spring 1995), p. 17.
of youth, but now it has entered its long-predicted phase of tnaturity, the evidences of which are everywhere apparent. .. That which was applicable to hutnan needs during the early history of the race can neither tneet nor satisfy the detnands of this day, this period of newness and consummation. Humanity has etnerged from its former state of litnitation and prelitninary training. Man must now become imbued with new virtues and powers, new tnoral standards, new capacities. New bounties, perfect bestowals, are awaiting and already descending upon him. The gifts and blessings of the period of youth, although timely and sufficient during the adolescence of tnankind, are now incapable of tneeting the requiretnents of its tnaturity. 19
Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, also addressed this theme in a message to the Baha'is in the West in 1936:
The long ages of infancy and childhood, through which the human race had to pass, have receded into the background. Hutnanity is now experiencing the cotntnotions invariably associated with the most turbulent stage of its evolution, the stage of adolescence, when the itnpetuosity of youth and its vehetnence reach their clitnax, and tnust gradually be superseded by the cahnness, the wisdotn, and the tnaturity that characterize the stage of tnanhood. Then will the hmnan race reach that stature of ripeness which will enable it to acquire all the powers and ca~acities upon which its ultitnate developtnent tnust depend. 0
The discussion of the need for spirituality to play a more central role in public as well as private life can be seen as a move towards that maturity to which 'Abdu'l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi allude. The maturing process of humanity as a collective entity also presupposes a similar process at the level of the individual. Far from conceiving of people as consumers, Baha'u'llah has described human beings as "the noblest and most perfect of all created things." 21 Our nature, the Baha'i writings assert, is essentially
19. Cited in Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of Bahri 'u 'llrih: Selected Letters (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1991), pp. 164-65. 20. Ibid., p. 202. 21. Baha'u'llah, Gleanings from the Writings ofBahri 'u 'llrih (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1983), p. 179.
THE BAHA'I WORLD
spiritual, and in this age of the maturation of the human race, we are responsible for developing the noble qualities latent within us. "Regard man as a mine rich in gems of inestimable value," Baha'u'llah states; "Education can, alone, cause it to reveal its treasures, and enable mankind to benefit therefrom," 22 and further, He says, "The potentialities inherent in the station of man, the full measure of his destiny on earth, the innate excellence of his reality, must all be manifested" in this age of the maturation of humanity. 23 In the same vein, the Universal House of Justice states,
... the Writings of the [Baha'i] Faith not only acknowledge that each individual has a God-given identity, but they also set out the means by which this identity can achieve its highest development and fulfillment. Baha'u'llah attests that through the Teachings of the Manifestation of God "every man will advance and develop until he attaineth the station at which he can manifest all the potential forces with which his inmost true self hath been endowed. " 24
From the Baha'i perspective, there exists a deep and inseparable connection between the practical and spiritual dimensions of human existence. In this paradigm, every human being has unique capacities which he or she has the responsibility to develop, a task best accomplished by following the teachings given by God through His Manifestations-in this age, Baha'u'llah, Who revealed laws and principles and established an administrative order for His followers to enable them to transform both themselves and the society in which they live. In accordance with the process of maturation, the Baha'i Faith teaches that the individual must exercise autonomy in deciding whether or not to avail himself or herself of these spiritual guidelines for life. There must be no compulsion in matters of faith; one must be entirely free to investigate truth for oneself.
22. Baha'u 'llah, Gleanings fi·om the Writings ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 260. 23. Ibid., p. 340. 24. Universal House of Justice, letter to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States, 11 September 1995.
It is the transformational force of the teachings of Baha'u'lhih that motivates members of the Baha'i community around the world. As each member of society "mines" the "gems of inestimable value" inherent in his or her soul and thus develops his or her capacities, so society is transformed, and we see evidence of "an ever-advancing civilization." Service to humankind thus becomes the purpose of both individual life and all social arrangements. "Do not busy yourselves in your own concerns," Baha'u'llah writes, "let your thoughts be fixed upon that which will rehabilitate the fortunes of mankind and sanctify the hearts and souls ofmen." 25 And further, "The progress of the world, the development of nations, the tranquillity of peoples, and the peace of all who dwell on earth are among the principles and ordinances of God." 26 The divinely ordained order established by Baha'u'llah is concerned intimately with the development of the individual soul-a concern far beyond the scope of calls for "good citizenship"- though through developing spiritual qualities Baha'is become good citizens, too. As 'Abdu'l-Baha has written,
And the honor and distinction of the individual consist in this, that he atnong all the world's multitudes should become a source of social good. Is any larger bounty conceivable than this, that an individual, looking within hitnself, should find that by the confirming grace of God he has becotne the cause of peace and well-being, of happiness and advantage to his fellow men? No, by the one true God, there is no greater bliss, no tnore complete delight. 27
Thus, interwoven with the Baha'i teachings about the nature of the individual is a model of collective life. "The earth is but one country, and mankind its citizens," Baha'u'llah says. This embryonic world civilization asserts the earth as one homeland for the entire human family, whose Founder claimed as His chief
25. Baha'u'lhih, Gleanings from the Writings ofBaha 'u 'llah, pp. 93-94. 26. Baha'u'llah, Tablets of Baha 'u 'llah Revealed after the Kitab-i-Aqdas (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Tmst, 1995), pp. 129-30. 27. 'Abdu'l-Baha, The Secret ofDivine Civilization (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Tmst, 1994), pp. 2-3.
desire "the good of the world and the happiness of the nations."28 The analogy of society to the family is found throughout the Baha'i writings. 'Abdu'l-Baha has said, for example,
Compare the nations of the world to the tnembers of a fatnily. A family is a nation in miniature. Simply enlarge the circle of the household, and you have the nation. Enlarge the circle of nations, and you have all humanity. The conditions surrounding the family surround the nation. The happenings in the family are the happenings in the life of the nation. Would it add to the progress and advancetnent of a family if dissensions should arise among its members, all fighting, pillaging each other, jealous and revengeful of injury, seeking selfish advantage? Nay, this would be the cause of the effacement of progress and advancement. So it is in the great family of nations, for nations are but an aggregate of families. Therefore, as strife and dissension destroy a family and prevent its rsrogress, so nations are destroyed and advancement hindered. 9
Further, speaking of the relationship between the rights of the individual in the family and the group, 'Abdu'l-Baha has said,
The integrity of the family bond tnust be constantly considered, and the rights of the individual members tnust not be transgressed ... All these rights and prerogatives must be conserved, yet the unity of the family tnust be sustained. The injury of one shall be considered the injury of all; the comfort of each, the comfort of all; the honor of one, the honor of all. 30
This balance of individual and collective rights is elaborated further by the Universal House of Justice, which quotes 'Abdu'l- Baha' s statement that "the moderate freedom which guarantees the welfare of the world of mankind and maintains and preserves the universal relationships is found in its fullest power and extension in the teachings ofBaha'u'llah," and then continues to discuss how this is enacted in the Baha'i administrative order:
28. Words uttered by Baha'u'llah to Cambridge University orientalist Edward Granville Browne during his interview in the Holy Land, spring 1890. 29. 'Abdu'l-Baha, The Promulgation of Universal Peace, rev. ed. (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1982), p. 157. 30. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Promulgation of Universal Peace, p. 168.
Within this framework of freedmn a pattern is set for institutional and individual behavior which depends for its efficacy not so much on the force of law, which adtnittedly must be respected, as on the recognition of a tnutuality of benefits, and on the spirit of cooperation maintained by the willingness, the courage, the sense of responsibility, and the initiative of individuals .... Thus there is a balance of freedmn between the institution, whether national or local, and the individuals who sustain its existence. 31
The system delineated by Baha'u'lhih, it can be seen from these passages, incorporates elements of democracy but is not limited to conceptions drawn specifically from it. The Baha'i Faith attaches great importance to the diversity of human thought and experience, but it does not encourage extreme individualism that would threaten the common good. The benefits provided to the individual in the social environment created when he or she surrenders a degree of personal freedom to an accepted system of order far outweigh any sacrifice, in the Baha'i view. Writing of the unique character of the Administrative Order of the Baha'i Faith, Shoghi Effendi clarified that while that Order is not patterned specifically after autocratic, aristocratic, or democratic forms of government, it "embodies, reconciles and assimilates within its framework such wholesome elements as are to be found in each one of them." 32 For example, the authority of the sacred texts of the Faith is upheld, as are the interpretations of 'Abdu'l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi, who followed in the line of hereditary succession from Baha'u'llah. Democratic elections, conducted by secret ballot and characterized by an absence of features such as nominations, electioneering, factionalism, and concern for power, are held either by direct or indirect vote for all governing councils that administer the affairs of the community around the world. Yet, once elected, members of the institutions are not responsible to those who elect them but have the
31. Universal House of Justice, Individual Rights and Freedoms in the World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, a letter to the followers ofBaha'u'llah in the United States of America, 29 December 1988 (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1989), p. 9. 32. Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 152.
obligation "to follow, in a prayerful attitude, the dictates and promptings of their conscience" without being swayed by "the feelings, the general opinion, and even the convictions of the mass of the faithful. " 33 Since elections are carried out in a spiritual atmosphere, the electorate expects that those it chooses will be spiritually responsible-a concept entirely foreign to secular forms of governance. Moreover, its emphasis on non-adversarial and cooperative decisionmaking, the devolution of power to the grassroots of society, and the necessity of involving the voices of women and the dispossessed, stand in sharp contrast to the machinery of prevailing democratic forms of governance. It is a model that simultaneously educates and engages, and provides powerful tools for effecting meaningful changes where unproductive habits have impeded progress. As Shoghi Effendi states,
... this divinely revealed Order, which can never be identified with any of the standard types of government referred to by Aristotle in his works, embodies and blends with the spiritual verities on which it is based the beneficent elements which are to be found in each one of them. The admitted evils inherent in each of these systems being rigidly and permanently excluded, this unique Order, however long it may endure and however extensive its ratnifications, cannot ever degenerate into any form of despotism, of oligarchy, or of demagogy which must sooner or later corrupt the machinery of all man-tnade and essentially defective political institutions. 34
In short, the order delineated by Baha'u'llah is spiritual in nature; values are not grafted onto it but inherent in it. The Baha'i Faith offers a model of a changed society, a new paradigm suited to the needs of a "postsecular" global world. In the words of Shoghi Effendi:
The Revelation of Baha'u'lhih, whose supreme tnission is none other but the achievement of this organic and spiritual
33. Shoghi Effendi, cited in The Constitution of the Universal House ofJustice (Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1972), p. 6. 34. Ibid., p. 154.
unity of the whole body of nations, should, if we be faithful to its implications, be regarded as signalizing through its advent the coming of age of the entire human race. It should be viewed ... as marking the last and highest stage in the stupendous evolution of tnan' s collective life on this planet. The emergence of a world community, the consciousness of world citizenship, the founding of a world civilization and culture ... should, by their very nature, be regarded, as far as this planetary life is concerned, as the furthermost limits in the organization of human society, though man, as an individual, will, nay must indeed as a result of such a consutnmation, continue indefinitely to progress and develop. 35
Looking to the future, Eric Hobsbawm echoes the uncertainty of many contemporary thinkers when he concludes Age of Extremes with the words, "We do not lmow where we are going," but he surely makes a profound observation when he continues, "However, one thing is plain. If humanity is to have a recognizable future, it cannot be by prolonging the past or the present. If we try to build the third millennium on that basis, we shall fail. And the price of failure, that is to say, the alternative to a changed society, is darlmess." 36 Earlier in the century, historian Arnold Toynbee, in A Study of History, drew a parallel between the general obscurity of the Christian church in the second century of its existence and the corresponding lack of awareness of the Baha'i Faith on the part of most educated Westerners midway through the twentieth century, going on to speculate about "how utterly the future might be hidden ... from the mental vision of a Western student" today. 37 Hobsbawm's remark points up the continuing relevancy ofToynbee' s observation. Yet the vision of the future held by members of the Baha'i community, however little it may be understood as yet by the majority of the planet's inhabitants, refutes the idea of encroaching darlmess; the Baha'i vision is, in contrast, one of great promise. Expression to it was given in a letter written in 1988 to the
35. Shoghi Effendi, World Order ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 163. 36. Hobsbawm, Age ofExtremes, p. 585. 37. Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, vol. 8 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), p. 117.
Baha'i community of the United States, focusing on individual rights and freedoms in the World Order ofBaha'u'llah, in which the Universal House of Justice says,
The spirit of liberty which in recent decades has swept over the planet with such tetnpestuous force is a tnanifestation of the vibrancy of the Revelation brought by Baha'u'llah. His own words confirm it. "The Ancient Beauty," He wrote in a soul-stirring commentary on His sufferings, "hath consented to be bound with chains that tnankind may be released from its bondage, and hath accepted to be made a prisoner within this tnost mighty Stronghold that the whole world may attain unto true liberty." Might it not be reasonably concluded, then, that "true liberty" is His gift of love to the human race? Consider what Baha'u'llah has done: He revealed laws and principles to guide the free; He established an Order to channel the actions of the free; He proclaimed a Covenant to guarantee the unity of the free. Thus, we hold to this ultimate perspective: Baha'u'llah catne to set hutnanity free. His Revelation is, indeed, an invitation to freedom-freedom from want, freedom from war, freedotn to unite, freedotn to progress, freedom in peace andjoy. 38
In summary, the Baha'i model of social organization or collective life incorporates the spiritual principles and the moral values which contemporary social commentators are seeking, and at the same time it provides a framework for governance that protects individual rights. Inclusive rather than exclusive, it affirms the spiritual truth at the heart of all the major religions of the world. The balance of rights and responsibilities it promotes is suited to the needs of this new age, an age destined to move towards light, not darkness.
38. Universal House of Justice, Individual Rights and Freedoms, pp. 21-22.
This statement was issued in October 1995 by the Baha'i International Community on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the United Nations.
TuRNING PoiNT FOR ALL NATIONS
Unification of the whole oftnankind is the hall-mark of the stage which human society is now approaching. Unity of family, of tribe, of city-state, and nation have been successively attempted and fully established. World unity is the goal towards which a harassed humanity is striving. Nation-building has come to an end. The anarchy inherent in state sovereignty is moving towards a climax. A world, growing to maturity, must abandon this fetish, recognize the oneness and wholeness of human relationships, and establish once for all the tnachinery that can best incarnate this fundamental principle of its life. Shoghi Effendi, 193 6
I. Overview: An Opportunity for Reflection The twentieth century, one of the most tumultuous periods in human history, has been marked by numerous upheavals, revolutions and radical departures from the past. Ranging from the collapse of the colonial system and the great nineteenth century empires to the rise and fall of broad and disastrous experiments with totalitarianism, fascism and communism, some of these
upheavals have been extremely destructive, involving the deaths of millions, the eradication of old lifestyles and traditions, and the collapse of time-honored institutions. Other movements and trends have been more obviously positive. Scientific discoveries and new social insights have spurred many progressive social, economic and cultural transformations. The way has been cleared for new definitions of human rights and affirmations of personal dignity, expanded opportunities for individual and collective achievement, and bold new avenues for the advancement of human knowledge and consciousness. These twin processes-the collapse of old institutions on the one hand and the blossoming of new ways of thinking on the other-are evidence of a single trend which has been gaining momentum during the last hundred years: the trend toward everincreasing interdependence and integration of humanity. This trend is observable in wide-ranging phenomena, from the fusion of world financial markets, which in turn reflect humanity's reliance on diverse and interdependent sources of energy, food, raw materials, technology and knowledge, to the construction of globe-girdling systems of communications and transportation. It is reflected in the scientific understanding of the earth's interconnected biosphere, which has in turn given a new urgency to the need for global coordination. It is manifest, albeit in a destructive way, in the capacities of modem weapons systems, which have gradually increased in power to the point where it is now possible for a handful of men to bring an end to human civilization itself. It is the universal consciousness of this trend-in both its constructive and destructive expressions-that lends such poignancy to the familiar photograph of the earth as a swirling sphere of blue and white against the infinite blackness of space, an image crystallizing the realisation that we are a single people, rich in diversity, living in a common homeland. This trend is reflected, too, in steady efforts by the nations of the world to forge a world political system that can secure for humanity the possibility of peace, justice and prosperity. Twice in this century humanity has attempted to bring about a new international order. Each attempt sought to address the emergent recognition of global interdependence, while nevertheless
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preserving intact a system which put the sovereignty of the state above all else. In the perspective of the century now ending, the League of Nations, a breakthrough in the concept of collective security, marked a first decisive step toward world order. The second effort, born from the cataclysm of World War II and based on a Charter drawn up principally by the victors of that conflagration, has for 50 years provided an international forum of last resort, a unique institution standing as a noble symbol for the collective interests of humanity as a whole. As an international organization, the United Nations has demonstrated humanity's capacity for united action in health, agriculture, education, environmental protection, and the welfare of children. It has affirmed our collective moral will to build a better future, evinced in the widespread adoption of international human rights Covenants. It has revealed the human race's deepseated compassion, evidenced by the devotion of financial and human resources to the assistance of people in distress. And in the all-important realms of peace-building, peace-making and peace-keeping, the United Nations has blazed a bold path toward a future without war. 1 Yet the overall goals set out in the Charter of the United N ations have proved elusive. Despite the high hopes of its founders, the establishment of the United Nations some 50 years ago did not usher in an era of peace and prosperity for all. 2 Although the United Nations has surely played a role in preventing a third world war, the last half decade has nevertheless
1. Boutros Boutros-Ghali. 1992. An Agenda for Peace: Peace-making and Peace-Keeping. Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to the Statement Adopted by the Summit Meeting of the Security Council, January 31, New Y orlc United Nations. 2. Surely the preamble to the Charter of the United Nations is among the most inspired passages in the history of human governance: "WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED "to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and "to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and
been marked by numerous local, national and regional conflicts costing millions of lives. No sooner had improved relations between the superpowers removed the ideological motivation for such conflicts, than long-smoldering ethnic and sectarian passions surfaced as a new source of conflagration. In addition, although the end of the Cold War has reduced the threat of a global, terminal war, there remain instruments and technologies-and to some extent the underlying passions-which could bring about planet-wide destruction. With respect to social issues, likewise, grave problems persist. While new levels of consensus have been reached on global programs to promote health, sustainable development and human rights, the situation on the ground in many areas has deteriorated. The alarming spread of militant racialism and religious fanaticism, the cancerous growth of materialism, the epidemic
2. (cont.) "to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and "to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, "AND FOR THESE ENDS "to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbors, and "to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and "to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institutions of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and "to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples, "HAVE RESOLVED TO COMBINE OUR EFFORTS TO ACCOM- PLISH THESE AIMS. "Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charier of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations." (United Nations. 1994. Charter of the United Nations and Statute of the International Court of Justice. United Nations Department of Public Information. DPI/511-93243-Aprill994-40M.)
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rise of crime and organized criminality, the widespread increase in mindless violence, the ever-deepening disparity between rich and poor, the continuing inequities faced by women, the intergenerational damage caused by the pervasive breakdown of family life, the immoral excesses of unbridled capitalism and the growth of political corruption-all speak to this point. At least a billion live in abject poverty and more than a third of the world's people are illiterate. 3 As the twin processes of collapse and renewal carry the world toward some sort of culmination, the 50th anniversary of the United Nations offers a timely opportunity to pause and reflect on how humanity may collectively face its future. Indeed, there has emerged of late a wide range of useful proposals for strengthening the United Nations and improving its capacity to coordinate the responses of nations to these challenges. These proposals fall roughly into three categories. One group addresses primarily bureaucratic, administrative and fmancial problems within the United Nations system. Another group comprises those that suggest reconfiguring bodies like the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council and the Bretton Woods economic institutions. Still others propose to undertake changes in the United Nations political structure, calling, for example, for an expansion of the Security Council and/or a reconsideration of the United Nations Charter itself. 4 Most of these works are constructive, some are also provocative.
3. The World Banlc, World Development Report (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 162-63. 4. There have been a number of recent proposals which discuss the need for refmms in the United Nations system within a particular issue area. For example, Our Common Future, the report of the World Commission on Enviromnent and Development (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), suggested a number of changes, such as the creation of a special UN "Board for Sustainable Development" to coordinate UN action in promoting development while protecting the environment. Likewise, the report of the Brandt Commission, Common Crisis North- South: Co-operation for World Recove1y (London: Pan Books, 1983), makes suggestions for reform in the critical areas of finance, trade and energy, as they affect North-South imbalances. The literature proposing widespread changes in the United Nations is
Among them, one of the most balanced and thoughtful is the report of the Commission on Global Governance, entitled Our Global Neighborhood, which argues for the widespread adoption of new values, as well as structural reforms in the United Nations system. 5 It is in the spirit of contributing to the ongoing discussion and consultation on this issue of paramount importance that the Baha'i International Community has been moved to share its views. Our perspective is based on three initial propositions. First, discussions about the future of the United Nations need to take place within the broad context of the evolution of the
4. (cont.) also voluminous and continues to grow, especially in anticipation of the 50th anniversary of the United Nations. The first major and serious reassessments of the United Nations began in the 1950s, in anticipation of the tenth anniversary of the Charter. In this regard the publication in 1958 of World Peace Through World Law by Grenville Clark and Louis B. Sohn, which was among the first solid proposals to suggest eliminating the veto power, must be considered a milestone. (Grenville Clark and Louis B. Sohn, World Peace Through World Law, 3d. ed. enl. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966). More recent proposals range from the Stockholm Initiative, which offers a generalist vision of what might be done to strengthen the United Nations, to Harold Stassen's recent United Nations: A Worldng Paper for Restructuring, which gives an article-by-article proposal for rewriting the UN Charter. Benjamin Ferencz's latest book, New Legal Foundations for Global Survival, offers a series of hard-headed and legal-minded suggestions for reform based on the premise that nations, peoples and individuals must be free to pursue their destinies in whatever way they may see fitproviding it does not jeopardize or destroy the fundamental human rights of others to live in peace and dignity. The Stockholm Initiative on Global Security and Governance 1991, Common Responsibility in the 1990's (Stockholm: Prime Minister's Office, Stockholm, Sweden). Harold Stassen, United Nations: A Worldng Paper for Restructuring (Minneapolis: Learner Publications Company, 1994). Benjamin Ferencz, New Legal Foundations for Global Survival (Oceana Publications, 1994). 5. The Commission on Global Governance, Our Global Neighborhood: The Report of the Commission on Global Governance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
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international order and its directions. The United Nations has coevolved with other great institutions of the late twentieth century. It is in the aggregate that these institutions will define-and themselves be shaped by-the evolution of the international order. Therefore, the mission, role, operating principles and even activities of the United Nations should be examined only in the light of how they fit within the broader objective of the international order. Second, since the body of humankind is one and indivisible, each member of the human race is born into the world as a trust of the whole. This relationship between the individual and the collective constitutes the moral foundation of most of the human rights which the instruments of the United Nations are attempting to define. It also serves to define an overriding purpose for the international order in establishing and preserving the rights of the individual. Third, the discussions about the future of the international order must involve and excite the generality of humankind. This discussion is so important that it cannot be confined to leaders-be they in government, business, the academic community, religion, or organizations of civil society. On the contrary, this conversation must engage women and men at the grass-roots level. Broad participation will make the process self-reinforcing by raising awareness of world citizenship and increase support for an expanded international order.
II. Recognizing the Historical Context: A Call to World Leaders The Baha'i International Community regards the current world confusion and the calamitous condition of human affairs as a natural phase in an organic process leading ultimately and irresistibly to the unification of the human race in a single social order whose boundaries are those of the planet. The human race, as a distinct, organic unit, has passed through evolutionary stages analogous to the stages of infancy and childhood in the lives of its individual members, and is now in the
culminating period of its turbulent adolescence approaching its long-awaited coming of age. 6 The process of global integration, already a reality in the realms of business, finance, and communications, is beginning to materialize in the political arena. Historically, this process has been accelerated by sudden and catastrophic events. It was the devastation of World Wars I and II that gave birth to the League of Nations and the United Nations, respectively. Whether future accomplishments are also to be reached after similarly unimaginable horrors or embraced through an act of consultative will, is the choice before all who inhabit the earth. Failure to take decisive action would be unconscionably irresponsible. Since sovereignty currently resides with the nation-state, the task of determining the exact architecture of the emerging international order is an obligation that rests with heads of state and with governments. We urge leaders at all levels to take a deliberate role in supporting a convocation of world leaders before the tum of this century to consider how the international order might be redefined and restructured to meet the challenges facing the
6. Many thinkers have recognized the reality of oneness and understood its implications for the development of human society, including paleontologist Richard Leakey: "We are one species, one people. Every individual on this earth is a member of 'homo sapiens sapiens,' and the geographical variations we see among peoples are simply biological nuances on the basic theme. The human capacity for culture permits its elaboration in widely different and colorful ways. The often very deep differences between those cultures should not be seen as divisions between people. Instead, cultures should be interpreted for what they really are: the ultimate declaration ofbelonging to the human species." Richard E. Leakey and Rodger Lewin, Origins: What New Discoveries Reveal about the Emergence of Our Species and Its Possible Future (New Yorlc Dutton, 1977). In general terms, the writings of Shoghi Effendi offer a thorough and extended exposition on the concept of the oneness ofhumanity. A brief summary of the concept, as Baha'is view it, can be found in The World Order of Baha 'u 'llah: Selected Letters, 2d rev. ed. (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1974; reprint, 1982), pp. 42-43.
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world. As some have suggested, this gathering might be called the World Summit on Global Governance. 7 This proposed Summit might build on the experience gained from the series of highly successful United Nations conferences in the early 1990s. These conferences, which have included the World Summit for Children in 1990, the Earth Summit in 1992, the World Conference on Human Rights in 1993, the International Conference on Population and Development in 1994, the World Summit for Social Development in 1995 and the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995, have established a new methodology for global deliberations on critical issues. A key to the success of these deliberations has been the substantive participation by organizations of civil society. Painstaking negotiations among government delegations about changes in the world's political, social and economic structures have been informed and shaped by the vigorous involvement of these organizations, which tend to reflect the needs and concerns of people at the grass roots. It is also significant that in each case, the gathering of world leaders, in the presence of civil society and the global media, gave the stamp of legitimacy and consensus to the processes of the conference. In preparing for the proposed Summit, world leaders would be wise to heed these lessons, to reach out to as wide a circle as possible and to secure the goodwill and support of the world's peoples. Some fear that international political institutions inevitably evolve toward excessive centralization and constitute an unwarranted layer of bureaucracy. It needs to be explicitly and forcefully stated that any new structures for global governance must, as a matter of both principle and practicality, ensure that
7. We are not alone in making this proposal. The Commission on Global Governance writes in Our Global Neighborhood (p. 351): "Our recommendation is that the General Assembly should agree to hold a World Conference on Governance in 1998, with its decisions to be ratified and put into effect by 2000."
the responsibility for decision-making remains at appropriate levels. 8 Striking the right balance may not always be easy. On the one hand, genuine development and real progress can be achieved only by people themselves, acting individually and collectively, in response to the specific concerns and needs of their time and place. It can be argued that the decentralization of governance is the sine qua non of development. 9 On the other hand, the international order clearly requires a degree of global direction and coordination. Therefore, in accordance with the principles of decentralization
8. Two commonly used maxims illustrate this principle. "Small is beautiful," a maxim coined in the early '70s as an economic principle, applies equally to governance. Schumacher explains: "In the affairs of men, there always appears to be a need for at least two things simultaneously, which, on the face of it, seem to be incompatible and to exclude one another. We always need both freedom and order. We need the freedom of lots and lots of small, autonomous unities, and, at the same time, the orderliness of largescale, possibly global, unity and coordination." E. F. Schumacher, Small is Beautiful: Economics as ifPeople Mattered (New Y orlc Harper and Row, 1973), p. 65. "Think globally, act locally," a slogan promoted by environmental and community development activists, captures a perspective in which the need for overall global coordination is carefully balanced against the need for local and national autonomy. 9. "Far from aiming at the subversion ofthe existing foundations of society... [a system of world governance] seeks to broaden its basis, to remold its institutions in a manner consonant with the needs of an ever-changing world. It can conflict with no legitimate allegiances, nor can it undermine essential loyalties. Its purpose is neither to stifle the flame of a sane and intelligent patriotism in men's hearts, nor to abolish the system of national autonomy so essential if the evils of excessive centralization are to be avoided. It does not ignore, nor does it attempt to suppress, the diversity of ethnical origins, of climate, of history, of language and tradition, of thought and habit, that differentiate the peoples and nations of the world. It calls for a wider loyalty, for a larger aspiration than any that has animated the human race. It insists upon the subordination of national impulses and interests to the imperative claims of a unified world. It repudiates excessive centralization on one hand, and disclaims all attempts at uniformity on the other." Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of Baha'u'llah, pp. 41-42.
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outlined above, international institutions should be given the authority to act only on issues of international concern where states cannot act on their own or to intervene for the preservation of the rights of peoples and member states. All other matters should be relegated to national and local institutions. 10 Furthermore, in devising a specific framework for the future international order, leaders should survey a broad range of approaches to governance. Rather than being modeled after any single one of the recognized systems of government, the solution may embody, reconcile and assimilate within its framework such wholesome elements as are to be found in each one of them. For example, one of the time-tested models of governance that may accommodate the world's diversity within a unified framework is the federal system. Federalism has proved effective in decentralizing authority and decision-making in large, complex, and heterogeneous states, while maintaining a degree of overall unity and stability. Another model worth examining is the commonwealth, which at the global level would place the interest of the whole ahead of the interest of any individual nation. Extraordinary care must be taken in designing the architecture of the international order so that it does not over time degenerate into any form of despotism, of oligarchy, or of demagogy corrupting the life and machinery of the constituent political institutions. In 1955, during the first decade review of the UN charter, the Baha'i International Community offered a statement to the United
10. Writing in the 1930s, Shoghi Effendi, who then led the worldwide Baha'i community, sketched out some of the functions and responsibilities for a future world legislature. Among other things, he wrote: "a world legislature, whose members will, as trustees of the whole of mankind ... enact such laws as shall be required to regulate the life, satisfy the needs and adjust the relationships of all races and peoples." The World Order of Baha 'u 'llah, p. 203. This view is shared by such scholars as Jan Tinbergen, winner of the 1969 Nobel prize for Economics, who stated, "Mankind's problems can no longer be solved by national governments. What is needed is a World Government. Tllis can best be achieved by strengthening the United Nations system.'' United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Human Development Report 1994. Global Governance for the 21st Centwy (New Y orlc Oxford University Press), p. 88.
Nations, based on ideas articulated nearly a century before by Baha'u'llah. "The Baha'i concept of world order is defined in these terms: A world Super-State in whose favor all the nations of the world will have ceded every claim to make war, certain rights to impose taxation and all rights to maintain armaments, except for the purposes of maintaining internal order within their respective dominions. This State will have to include an International Executive adequate to enforce supreme and unchallengeable authority on every recalcitrant member of the Commonwealth; a World Parliament whose members are elected by the peoples in their respective countries and whose election is confirmed by their respective governments; a Supreme Tribunal whose judgement has a binding effect even in cases where the parties concerned have not voluntarily agreed to submit their case to its consideration." 11 While we believe this formulation of a world government is at once the ultimate safeguard and the inevitable destiny of humankind, we do recognize that it represents a long-term picture of a global society. Given the pressing nature of the current state of affairs, the world requires bold, practical and actionable strategies that go beyond inspiring visions of the future. Nevertheless, by focusing on a compelling concept, a clear and consistent direction for evolutionary change emerges from the mire of contradictory views and doctrines.
III. Defining a Role for the UN Within the Emerging International Order The United Nations was the centerpiece of the international system created by the victors of World War II and, during the long decades of ideological conflict between the East and the West, it served its original purpose as a forum for international dialogue. Over the years, its mandate has been expanded to include not only international standard-setting and promotion of social
11. Baha'i International Community. Proposals to the United Nations for Charter Revision. 23 May 1955.
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and economic development but also peacekeeping operations on several continents. Over the same period, the political reality of our world has experienced a dramatic transformation. At the time of the UN's inception, there were some 50 independent states. That number has grown to exceed 185. At the close of World War II, governments were the main actors on the global scene. Today, the growing influence of organizations of civil society and of multinational corporations has created a much more intricate political landscape. Despite the growing complexity in its mission, the United Nations system has retained more or less the same structure that was designed for a new international organization some 50 years ago. It is not surprising then that the occasion of its 50th anniversary has stimulated a new dialogue about its ability to meet the political realities of the twenty-first century. Unfortunately, in this dialogue, criticism has far outweighed praise. Most criticisms of the operations of the United Nations are based on comparisons with the operations of the leading organizations in the private sector or on inflated initial expectations. Although some specific comparisons may be useful in improving the efficiency of the United Nations, more general exercises of this kind are essentially unfair. The United Nations lacks not only the clear authority, but also the requisite resources to act effectively in most instances. Accusations of the UN's failure are in fact indictments of the member states themselves. Judged in isolation from the reality within which it operates, the United Nations will always seem inefficient and ineffective. However, if it is viewed as one element of a larger process of development in systems of international order, the bright light of analysis would shift from the UN' s shortcomings and failures to shine on its victories and accomplishments. To those with an evolutionary mindset, the early experience of the United Nations offers us a rich source of learning about its future role within the international regime. An evolutionary mindset implies the ability to envision an institution over a long time frame perceiving its inherent potential
for development, identifying the fundamental principles governing its growth, formulating high-impact strategies for short-term implementation, and even anticipating radical discontinuities along its path. Studying the United Nations from this perspective unveils significant opportunities to strengthen the current system without the wholesale restructuring of its principal institutions or the intensive re-engineering of its core processes. In fact, we submit that no proposal for UN reform can produce high impact unless its recommendations are internally consistent and direct the UN along a projected evolutionary path toward a distinctive and relevant role within the future international order. We believe the combination of recommendations described herein meets these conditions and that their adoption would represent a measured but significant step toward building a more just world order. 12 A. Resuscitating the General Assembly The foundation for any system of governance is the rule of law and the primary institution for promulgating law is the legislature. While the authority of local and national legislatures is generally respected, regional and international legislative bodies have been the subject of fear and suspicion. In addition, the United Nations General Assembly has been a target of attack for its ineffectiveness. Although some of the accusations hurled against it are unfounded, there are at least two shortcomings that hamper the ability of the General Assembly to have impact.
12. Throughout His writings, Baha'u'lh1h consistently uses the terms "order," "world order," and "new world order" to describe the ongoing and momentous series of changes in the political, social and religious life of the world. In the 1870s, He wrote: "The world's equilibrium hath been upset through the vibrating influence of this most great, this new World Order. Mankind's ordered life hath been revolutionized through the agency of this unique, this wondrous System-the like of which mortal eyes have never witnessed." The Kitab-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book, trans. Shoghi Effendi and a Committee at the Baha'i World Centre (Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1992), par. 181.
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First, the current arrangement gives undue weight to state sovereignty, resulting in a curious mix of anarchy and conservatism. In a reformed United Nations, the legislative branch and its voting structure will need to represent more accurately the people of the world as well as nation-states. 13 Second, General Assembly resolutions are not binding unless they are separately ratified as a treaty by each member state. If the current system, which places state sovereignty above all other concerns, is to give way to a system which can address the interests of a single and interdependent humanity, the resolutions of the General Assembly-within a limited domain of issues-must gradually come to possess the force of law with provisions for both enforcement and sanctions. These two shortcomings are closely linked inasmuch as the majority of the world's people, suspicious and fearful of world government, are unlikely to submit to an international institution unless it is itself more genuinely representative. 14 Nevertheless, in the short term, five practical measures are possible to strengthen the General Assembly, enhance its reputation and align it with a longer term direction. 1. Raising Minimum Requirements for Membership The minimum standards for conduct by a government towards its people have been well established in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and subsequent international covenants, collectively referred to as the International Bill of Human Rights. Without an unshakable commitment to regular and periodic elections with universal participation by secret ballot, to freedom of expression and to other such human rights, a member state stands in the way of the active and intelligent participation of the vast majority of its population in the affairs of its own communities. We propose that there should be consequences for member
13. 'Abdu'l-Baha, The Secret of Divine Civilization, 2d ed., trans. Marzieh Gail (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1957; reprint, 1970), p. 24. 14. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD), States of Disarray: The Social Effects of Globalization (London: KPC Group, 1995), pp. 106-09.
states that violate these standards. Similarly, nations seeking recognition should be denied membership until they openly espouse these standards or make recognizable efforts to move in that direction. 2. Appointing a Commission to Study Borders and Frontiers Outstanding irredentist claims continue to be a major source of conflict and war, highlighting the critical need for general agreements on national boundaries. Such treaties can only be arrived at after consideration of the arbitrary manner in which many nation-states were originally defined and of all outstanding claims of nations and ethnic groups. Rather than relegating such claims to the World Court, we believe it would be best to establish a special International Commission to research all claims affecting international boundaries and then, after careful consideration, to make recotnmendations for action. 15 The results would serve as an early warning system
15. There are many ways that such a Commission, or even the World Legislature itself, might go about detennining fair and just borders for all nations. But as daunting as the task may seem, it is an impmiant pati of the process ofbuilding a new order. Wrote 'Abdu'l-Baha: "True civilization will unfurl its banner in the midmost heati of the world whenever a ce1iain number of its distinguished and high-minded sovereigns-the shining exemplars of devotion and determination-shall, for the good and happiness of all mankind, arise, with firm resolve and clear vision, to establish the Cause of Universal Peace. They must make the Cause of Peace the object of general consultation, and seek by eve1y means in their power to establish a Union of the nations of the world. They must conclude a binding treaty and establish a covenant, the provisions of which shall be sound, inviolable and definite. They must proclaim it to all the world and obtain for it the sanction of all the human race. This supreme and noble undertaking-the real source of the peace and well-being of all the world-should be regarded as sacred by all that dwell on earth. All the forces of humanity must be mobilized to ensure the stability and permanence of this Most Great Covenant. In this all-embracing Pact the limits and frontiers of each and every nation should be clearly fixed, the principles underlying the relations of governments towards one another definitely laid down, and all international agreements and obligations asce1iained. In like manner, the size of the armaments of every government should be strictly limited, for if the preparations for war and the military forces of any nation should be
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for growing tension among civil or ethnic groups and assessment of threats in situations benefiting from early preventive diplomacy. In order to establish a genuine community of nations in the long run, it will be necessary to settle finally all disputes over borders. This research would serve that end. 3. Searching for New Financial Arrangements Primarily triggered by the unwillingness of some member states to remit their general assessments on time, compounded by the absence of authority to collect any interest accrued because of that delay, and further aggravated by the bureaucratic inefficiencies in parts of its operations, the annual budget shortfall pressures the UN into a crisis management mentality. Voluntary payments from member states will never be a reliable approach to finance an international institution. Vigorous approaches to revenue generation must be devised to enable the smooth functioning of the UN machinery. We propose the immediate appointment of an expert Task Force to begin a rigorous search for solutions. In studying alternatives, the Task Force should be mindful of several fundamental principles. First, there should be no assessments without representation. Second, in the interest of fairness and justice, assessments should be graduated. Third, 1nechanisms for encouraging voluntary contributions by individuals and communities should not be overlooked. 16
15. (cont.) allowed to increase, they will arouse the suspicion of others. The fundamental principle underlying this solemn Pact should be so fixed that if any government later violate any one of its provisions, all the governments on emih should arise to reduce it to utter submission, nay the human race as a whole should resolve, with evety power at its disposal, to destroy that government. Should this greatest of all remedies be applied to the sick body of the world, it will assuredly recover from its ills and will remain eternally safe and secure." The Secret of Divine Civilization, pp. 64-65. 16. Charitable giving in the United States in 1994 rose by 3.6 percent to $130 billion, according to Karen W. Arenson, "Charitable Giving Rose 3.6% in 1994, Philanthropy Trust Says," The New York Times, 25 May 1995, sec. A,p. 22.
THE BAHA'I WORLD
4. Making a Commitment to a Universal Auxiliary Language and a Common Script The United Nations, which currently uses six official languages, would derive substantial benefit from either choosing a single existing language or creating a new one to be used as an auxiliary language in all its fora. Such a step has long been advocated by many groups, from the Esperantists to the Baha'i International Community itself. 17 In addition to saving money and simplifying bureaucratic procedures, such a move would go far toward promoting a spirit of unity. We propose the appointment of a high-level Commission, with members from various regions and drawn from relevant fields, including linguistics, economics, the social sciences, education and the media, to begin careful study on the matter of an international auxiliary language and the adoption of a common script. We foresee that, eventually, the world cannot but adopt a single, universally agreed-upon auxiliary language and script to be taught in schools worldwide, as a supplement to the language or languages of each country. The objective would be to facilitate the transition to a global society through better communication
17. "Regarding the whole question of an International Language .... We, as Baha'is, are very anxious to see a universal auxiliary tongue adopted as soon as possible; we are not the protagonists of any one language to fill this post. If the governments of the world agree on an existing language, or a constructed, new tongue, to be used internationally, we would heartily suppmi it because we desire to see this step in the unification of the human race take place as soon as possible." Shoghi Effendi, Directives from the Guardian, comp. Getirude Garrida (New Delhi: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1973), p. 39. In making this proposal, we wish to call attention to the term "auxiliary." The Baha'i teachings value and promote cultural diversity, not uniformity. At this point in history, then, we do not envision imposing a single language worldwide. Rather, what we imagine is that peoples and nations would keep their own local and national languages-while at the same time be encouraged to learn a universal language. Certainly such a universal language should ultimately be taught, as a required subject, in all of the world's schools. But this should in no way detract from legitimate expressions of national and local linguistic and cultural diversity.
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among nations, reduction of administrative costs for businesses, governments and others involved in global enterprise, and a general fostering of more cordial relations between all members of the human family. 18 This proposal should be read narrowly. It does not in any way envision the decline of any living language or culture. 5. Investigating the Possibility of a Single International Currency The need to promote the adoption of a global currency as a vital element in the integration of the global economy is self-evident. Among other benefits, economists believe that a single currency will curb unproductive speculation and unpredictable market swings, promote a leveling of incomes and prices worldwide, and thereby result in significant savings. 19 The possibility of savings will not lead to action unless there is an overwhelming body of evidence addressing the relevant concerns and doubts of skeptics, accompanied by a credible implementation plan. We propose the appointment of a Commission consisting of the most accomplished government leaders, academics and professionals to begin immediate exploration into the economic benefits and the political costs of a single currency and to hypothesize about an effective implementation approach.
18. "The day is approaching when all the peoples of the world will have adopted one universal language and one common script," wrote Baha'u- 'llah in the late 1800s. "When this is achieved, to whatsoever city a man may journey, it shall be as if he were entering his own home." Gleanings from the Writings ofBaha 'u 'llah, trans. Shoghi Effendi (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Tmst, 1983), p. 250. 19. In a "special contribution" to the 1994 Human Development Report, James Tobin, winner of the 1981 Nobel Prize for Economics, observes that "a permanent single currency" would eliminate much if not all of the turbulence currently associated with the huge amount of currency speculation on world markets today. Observing that such a single world currency is probably a long way off, he proposes as an interim measure an "international uniform tax" on spot transactions in foreign exchange. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Human Development Rep01i 1994. A Tax on International Currency Transactions (New York: Oxford University Press), p. 70.
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B. Developing A Meaningful Executive Function At the international level, the single most important executive function is the enforcement of a collective security pact. 20 Collective security implies a binding covenant among nations to act in concert against threats to the collective. The effectiveness of the covenant depends on the degree to which members commit themselves to the collective good, even iftnotivated by a sense of enlightened self-interest. Within the United Nations, the enforcement role is largely carried out by the Security Council, with other functions of the executive being shared with the Secretariat. Both are hampered in fulfilling their mandated roles. The Security Council suffers from an inability to take decisive action. The Secretariat is pressured by the complex demands of the member states. In the short term, four practical measures are possible to strengthen the executive function within the United Nations. 1. Limiting the Exercise of the Veto Power The original intention of the UN Charter in conferring veto power on the five Permanent Members was to prevent the Security Council from authorizing military actions against a Permanent Member or requiring the use of its forces against its will. 21 In fact, beginning with the Cold War, the veto power has been exercised repeatedly for reasons that have to do with regional or national security. In its 1955 submission on UN reform, the Baha'i International Community argued for the gradual elimination of the concepts of "permanent membership" and "veto power" as confidence in the Security Council would build. Today, 40 years later, we reaffirm
20. The principle of collective security was put forth by Balui'u'lhih over a century ago in letters to the kings and rulers of the world: "Be united, 0 kings of the earth, for thereby will the tempest of discord be stilled amongst you, and your peoples find rest, if ye be of them that comprehend. Should anyone among you take up anns against another, rise ye all against him, for this is naught but manifest justice." Gleanings fi·om the Writings ofBah a'u '!lith, p. 254. 21. The Report of the Independent Working Group on the Future of the United Nations, The United Nations in its Second Half-Century (Yale University Press Service, 1995), p. 16.
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that position. However, we also propose that, as a transitionary step, measures be introduced to curb the exercise of the veto power to reflect the original intention of the Charter. 2. Institutionalizing Ad Hoc Military Arrangements To support the peacekeeping operations of the United Nations, and to add credibility to resolutions of the Security Council, an International Force should be created. 22 Its loyalty to the UN and its independence from national considerations must be assured. The command and control of such a fully armed Force would reside with the Secretary-General under the authority of the Security Council. Its finances, however, would be determined by the General Assembly. In constructing such a force, the Secretary-General would seek to draw competent personnel from all regions of the world. If properly implemented, this Force would also provide a sense of security that might encourage steps toward global disarmament, thereby making possible an outright ban on all weapons of mass destruction. 23 Furthermore, in line with the principle of
22. Glenview Foundation, The Stassen Draft Charter for a New United Nations to Emerge from the Original, to Serve World Peace and Progress for the Next Forty Years (Philadelphia: Glenview Foundation, 1985). Grenville Clark and Louis B. Sohn, World Peace Through World Law (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966). Keith Hindell, "Reform of the United Nations?" in The World Today: Journal of the Royal Institute of International Affairs (United Kingdom, Feb. 1992) Vol. 48, No.2. pp. 30-33. John Logue, "New World Order Means Reformed U.N.," World Federalist News, July 1992. Benjamin B. Ferencz and Ken Keyes Jr., Planethood: The Key to Your Future (Coos Bay, Oregon: Love Line Books, 1991 ). Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace: Peacemaking and Peace-Keeping. Report of the Secreta1y General Pursuant to the Statement Adopted by the Summit Meeting of the Security Council, January 31 (New York: United Nations, 1992). 23. This is not to say that steps to ban such weapons should await the full development and deployment of such a Force. We wholeheartedly support current steps to renew the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons and to firmly establish a comprehensive test ban, as well as any further efforts to eliminate nuclear, chemical and/or biological weapons. Likewise, stronger efforts must be made to restrict and control conventional weapons such as land mines, which kill indiscriminately.
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collective security, it would become gradually understood that states need only maintain armaments sufficient for their own defense and the maintenance of internal order. As an immediate step toward the establishment of this Force, the present system of ad hoc arrangements could be institutionalized to establish core regional forces for rapid deployment during a CflSlS. 3. Applying the Notion of Collective Security to Other Problems of the Global Commons Although originally conceived within the context of a threat of military aggression, the principle of collective security, some argue, may now be applied in an expansive manner to all threats which, although apparently local in nature, are actually the result of the complex breakdown of the present-day global order. These threats include but are not limited to international drug trafficking, food security, and the emergence of new global pandemics.24 We believe this issue would have to be included on the agenda of the proposed Global Summit. However, it is unlikely that expansive formulations of collective security would preclude the fundamental cause of military aggression. 4. Retaining Successfitl UN Institutions with Independent Executive Function Some of the more independent organizations within the UN family, such as the UN International Children's Emergency Fund, the International Civil Aviation Organization, the Universal Postal Union, the International Telegraph and Communications Union, the International Labour Organization, and the World Health Organization, have enjoyed conspicuous success with focused but important areas of international concern.
24. Mahbub ul Haq, 1994. Senior Advisor to UNDP Administrator. Team Leader of the Group that prepares the UNDP annual Human Development Reports which have brought, in recent years, fresh insights to development theory and practice, including a new concept on human security.
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Generally, these organizations already have their own executive function. Their independence should be retained and reinforced as part of the international executive. 25 C. A Strengthened World Court In any system of governance, a strong judicial function is necessary to moderate the powers of the other branches and to enunciate, promulgate, protect and deliver justice. The drive to create just societies has been among the fundamental forces in history 26- and without doubt no lasting world civilization can be founded unless it is firmly grounded in the principle of justice. Justice is the one power that can translate the dawning consciousness of humanity's oneness into a collective will through which the necessary structures of global community life can be confidently erected. An age that sees the people of the world increasingly gaining access to information of every kind and to a diversity of ideas will find justice asserting itself as the ruling principle of successful social organization. At the individual level, justice is that faculty of the human soul that enables each person to distinguish truth from falsehood. In the sight of God, Baha'u'lh1h avers, justice is "the best beloved of all things" since it permits each individual to see with his own eyes rather than the eyes of others, to know through his own knowledge rather than the knowledge of his neighbor or his group. At the group level, a concern for justice is the indispensable compass in collective decision-making, because it is the only means by which unity of thought and action can be achieved. Far from encouraging the punitive spirit that has often masqueraded under its name in past ages, justice is the practical expression of awareness that, in the achievement of human progress, the interests of the individual and those of society are inextricably linked. To the extent that justice becomes a guiding concern of human
25. Erskine Childers, ed. Challenges to the United Nations: Building a Safer World (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994). pp. 21-25. 26. John Huddleston, The Search for a Just Society (Oxford: George Ronald, 1989).
interaction, a consultative climate is encouraged that permits options to be examined dispassionately and appropriate courses of action selected. In such a climate the perennial tendencies toward manipulation and partisanship are far less likely to deflect the decision-making process. Such a conception of justice will be gradually reinforced by the realization that, in an interdependent world, the interests of the individual and society are inextricably intertwined. In this context, justice is a thread that must be woven into the consideration of every interaction, whether in the family, the neighborhood, or at the global level. We see in the current United Nations system the foundation for a strengthened World Court. Established in 1945 as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, the International Court of Justice is characterized by many positive elements. The current system for the selection of judges, for example, seeks to create a judicial panel which is representative of a wide range of peoples, regions, and judicial systems. 27
27. About 75 years ago 'Abdu'l-Baha offered the following suggestions for a future world comi: "the national assemblies of each countty and nationthat is to say parliaments-should elect two or three persons who are the choicest of that nation, and are well informed concerning international laws and the relations between governments and aware of the essential needs of the world ofhumanity in this day. The number of these representatives should be in proportion to the number of inhabitants of that countty. The election of these souls who are chosen by the national assembly, that is, the parliament, must be confinned by the upper house, the congress and the cabinet and also by the president or monarch so these persons may be the elected ones of all the nation and the govemment. The Supreme Tribunal will be composed of these people, and all mankind will thus have a share therein, for every one of these delegates is fully representative of his nation. When the Supreme Tribunal gives a ruling on any international question, either unanimously or by majority rule, there will no longer be any pretext for the plaintiff or ground of objection for the defendant. In case any of the govemments or nations, in the execution of the inefutable decision of the Supreme Tribunal, be negligent or dilatmy, the rest of the nations will rise up against it, because all the governments and nations of the world are the supporters of this Supreme Tribunal. Consider what a finn foundation this is! But by a limited and restricted League the purpose
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The Court's primary shortcoming is that it lacks the authority to issue legally binding decisions, except in those cases where states have chosen in advance to be bound by its decisions. Without jurisdiction, the Court is powerless to administer justice. 28 In time, the decisions of the World Court may become binding and enforceable upon all states; however, in the short term, the World Court might be strengthened through two other measures. 1. Extending the Court's Jurisdiction Currently, the Court's jurisdiction is limited to a few categories of cases, and only nations have standing to bring an action. We propose that in addition to member states, other organs of the United Nations should be given the right to bring cases before the Court. 2. Coordinating the Thematic Courts The World Court should act as an umbrella for existing and new thematic courts, that arbitrate and adjudicate international cases within specific thematic domains. Early components of a unified system can already be found in the specialized courts for arbitration of such matters as commerce and transportation, and in the proposals for such bodies as an International Criminal Court and a Chamber for Environmental Matters. Other issue areas that might need to be addressed under such a system would include courts for international terrorism and drug trafficking.
27. (cont.) will not be realized as it ought and should." Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu '1-Baha, comp. Research Department of the Universal House of Justice, trans. a Committee at the Baha'i World Centre and Marzieh Gail. (Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1978) pp. 306-07. 28. At the present time, for example, the Court's jurisdiction is limited to 1) cases which the parties refer to it jointly by special agreement, 2) matters concerning a treaty or convention in force which provides for reference to the Court, and 3) specified classes of legal disputes between States for which they have recognized the jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory. Europa World Year Book 1994. Vol. 1 (London: Europa Publications Limited, 1994), p. 22.
IV. Releasing the Power of the Individual: A Critical Challenge of the Emerging International Order The primary objective of governing institutions at all levels is the advancement of human civilization. This objective is difficult to satisfy without the inspired and intelligent participation of the generality of humankind in the life and affairs of the community. With a focus on building institutions and creating a community of nations, international bodies have historically remained distant from the minds and hearts of the world's people. Separated by several layers of government from the international arena and confused by the media's coverage of international news, the vast majority of people have not yet developed an affinity for institutions like the United Nations. Only those individuals who have had some access to the international arena through channels like organizations of civil society seem able to identify with these institutions. Paradoxically, international institutions cannot develop into an effective and mature level of government and fulfill their primary objective to advance human civilization if they do not recognize and nurture their relationship of mutual dependency with the people of the world. Such recognition would set in motion a virtuous cycle of trust and support that would accelerate the transition to a new world order. The tasks entailed in the development of a global society call for levels of capacity far beyond anything the human race has so far been able to muster. Reaching these levels will require an enormous expansion in access to knowledge on the part of every individual. International institutions will succeed in eliciting and directing the potentialities latent in the peoples of the world to the extent that their exercise of authority is moderated by their obligation to win the confidence, respect, and genuine support of those whose actions they seek to govern and to consult openly and to the fullest extent possible with all those whose interests are affected. Individuals who become confident and respectful of these institutions will, in turn, demand that their national governments increase their support, both political and economic, for the
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international order. In turn, the international institutions, with increased influence and power, will be better positioned to undertake further actions to establish a legitimate and effective world order. Along with the measures for strengthening its structure, the United Nations needs to adopt initiatives that release the latent power in all people to participate in this galvanizing process. To this end, certain themes that accelerate the advancement of the individual and society warrant special consideration. Among them, promoting economic development, protecting human rights, advancing the status of women, and emphasizing moral development are four priorities so closely tied to the advancement of civilization that they must be emphasized as part of the United Nations agenda. A. Promoting Economic Development Economic development strategies employed by the United N ations, the World Banlc and a number of governments during the last 50 years, however sincerely conceived and executed, have fallen far short of aspirations. In much of the world, the gap between the "haves" and "have-nots" has widened and is accelerating with the persistent disparity in income levels. Social problems have not subsided. In fact, crime and disease are not just on the rise; they are also becoming endemic and more difficult to combat. These failures can be traced to a number of factors. They include a misplaced focus on large-scale projects and bureaucratic over-centralization, unjust terms of international trade, a pervasive corruption that has been allowed to flourish throughout the system, the exclusion of women from the decision-making processes at all levels, a general inability to ensure that resources reach the poor, and the diversion of development resources into military hardware. A dispassionate examination of these factors betrays a common systematic and fundamental flaw in the current paradigm for economic development: material needs are often addressed without taking into account the spiritual factors and their motivating power.
Development should not become confused with the creation of an unsustainable consumer society. True prosperity encompasses spiritual as well as material well-being. Food, drink, shelter and a degree of material comfort are essential, but human beings cannot and never will find fulfillment in these necessities. Nor is contentment to be found in the somewhat more intangible material attainments such as social recognition or political power. Ultimately, not even intellectual achievement satisfies our deepest needs. It is in the hunger for something more, something beyond ourselves, that the reality of the human spirit can be properly understood. Although the spiritual side of our nature is obscured by the day-to-day struggle for material attainment, our need for the transcendent cannot long be disregarded. Thus a sustainable development paradigm must address both the spiritual aspirations of human beings and their material needs and desires. Education is the best investment in economic development. "Man is the supreme Talisman. Lack of a proper education hath, however, deprived him of that which he doth inherently possess," writes Baha'u'lhih. "Regard man as a mine rich in gems of inestimable value. Education can, alone, cause it to reveal its treasures, and enable mankind to benefit therefrom. " 29 Education implies more than a process of mastering a narrow body of
29. Gleanings from the Writings ofBaha 'u 'llah, p. 260. "The primary most urgent requirement is the promotion of education. It is inconceivable that any nation should achieve prosperity and success unless this paramount, this fundamental concern is canied forward. The principal reason for the decline and fall of peoples is ignorance. Today the mass of the people are uninformed even as to ordinary affairs, how much less do they grasp the core of the important problems and complex needs of the time." ('Abdu'l-Baha, The Secret ofDivine Civilization, p. 109) "This same difference is noticeable among animals; some have been domesticated, educated, others left wild. The proof is clear that the world of nature is imperfect, the world of education perfect. That is to say, man is rescued from the exigencies of nature by training and culture; consequently, education is necessary, obligatory. But education is of various kinds. There is a training and development of the physical body which ensures strength and growth. There is intellectual education or mental
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knowledge or learning a set of life skills. In truth, education, which should be a fundamental imperative of development, must also teach the process for knowledge acquisition, cultivate the powers of intellect and reasoning, and infuse the student vvith indispensable moral qualities. It is this comprehensive approach to education that allows people to contribute to the creation of wealth and encourage its just distribution. 30 Genuine wealth is created when work is undertaken not simply as a means of earning a livelihood but also as a way to contribute to society. We hold that meaningful work is a basic need of the human soul, as important to the proper development of the individual as nutritious food, clean water and fresh air are to the physical body. Because of the spiritually damaging nature of dependency, schemes which focus solely on redistributing material wealth are doomed to failure in the long run. Distribution of wealth must be
29. (cont.) training for which schools and colleges are founded. The third kind of education is that of the spirit. Through the breaths of the Holy Spirit man is uplifted into the world of moralities and illumined by the lights of divine bestowals. The moral world is only attained through the effulgence of the Sun of Reality and the quickening life of the divine spirit." 'Abdu'l-Baha, The Promulgation of Universal Peace: Talks Delivered by 'Abdu 'l-Baha During His Visit to the United States and Canada in 1912, comp. Howard MacNutt, 2d. ed., (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1982), pp. 329-30. 30. Governments and their partners must bear in mind that material equality is neither achievable nor desirable. Absolute equality is a chimera. At various points along the way, there will nevertheless be the necessity for the redistribution of some of the world's wealth. For, indeed, it is becoming increasingly obvious that unbridled capitalism does not provide the answer either. Some regulation and redistribution is necessary to promote material justice. In this regard, a tax on income is, in principle, one of the fairest and most equitable means. There must also be a role for the voluntary sharing of wealth-both at an individual and an institutional level. Equal opportunities for economic advancement and progress, however, must be woven into the very fabric of the new order. Ultimately, the most important regulation on any economic system is the moral regulation that begins in the hearts and minds of people.
approached in an efficient and equitable manner. In fact, it must be intimately integrated with the process of wealth creation. We propose the following recommendation to the United N ations system for promoting more effective development. 1. Launching a Determined Campaign to Implement Agenda 21 The plan of action formulated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development incorporated a wide range of views from civil society and a set of principles not unlike those articulated in this statement. Unfortunately, however, little has been done by member states to implement the measures described in the plan. If the objectives of Agenda 21 are to be addressed and satisfied, an expanded effort, different in nature but comparable in scale and commitment to the Marshall Plan for the re-development of post-war Europe, might be necessary. In this case, the Bretton Woods institutions would be called upon to mount a pronounced campaign to expedite national implementation efforts. A mandate of this nature can result only from a conference, similar to the first Bretton Woods meetings 50 years ago, dedicated to a wholesale reexamination of these institutions. The purpose of this reexamination would be to make available to the people of the world sufficient resources so that they could implement local initiatives. Moreover, the conference could also expand its agenda to address deeper issues of global economic security through the redefinition of existing institutions or the creation of new structures. 31 If successful, this new machinery could also be extended to coordinate implementation of the measures identified at the recent Social Summit. B. Protecting Fundamental Human Rights Over the five decades since the United Nations was founded, an
31. The establishment of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) is a commendable first step in the right direction and may be useful in the long run, as one of the tools that could be the basis for funding Agenda 21, if its operational scale is enlarged and its mandate redefined.
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understanding has emerged that human rights must be recognized and protected internationally if peace, social progress and economic prosperity are to be established. The foundation for international agreement on the nature of human rights is the all-important Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations in 1948 and elaborated in two international covenants-the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Social, Economic and Cultural Rights. In addition, some 75 other conventions and declarations identify and promote the rights of women and children, the right to freedom of worship, and the right to development, to name but a few. The current United Nations human rights regime has two major shortcomings: limited means for enforcement and follow-up, and too little emphasis on the responsibilities that accompany all rights. Human rights enforcement at the international level needs to be handled in a manner similar to the treatment of military aggression under a collective security regime. The violation of human rights in one state must be considered the concern of all, and enforcement mechanisms must provide for a unified response on the part of the entire international community. The question of when and how to intervene to protect human rights is more difficult to answer. Vigorous enforcement will require a high degree of global consensus on what constitutes a flagrant and willful violation. Important steps toward global consensus were taken during the process leading up to the 1993 World Conference on Human Rights, which affirmed unequivocally that human rights are universal, indivisible and interdependent, and ended the long-standing debate about the relative importance of civil and political rights as compared to social, economic and cultural rights. 32 Conference resolutions also confirmed that human rights must be applied irrespective of differences of racial background, ethnic origin, religious belief or national identity. They encompass the equality
32. World Conference on Human Rights. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action. 14-25 June 1993. Vienna, Austria.
of women and men; they include for all individuals worldwide the same rights to freedom of investigation, information and religious practice; and they embody the right of everyone to basic necessities such as food, shelter, and healthcare. 33 Beyond the need to build consensus and strengthen enforcement of human
33.A further elaboration of this concept can be found in The Prosperity of Humanldnd, a statement of the Baha'i Inte1national Community's Office of Public Information, published in February 1995: "The activity most intimately linked to the consciousness that distinguishes human nature is the individual's exploration of reality for himself or herself. The freedom to investigate the purpose of existence and to develop the endowments of human nature that make it achievable requires protection. Human beings must be free to know. That such freedom is often abused and such abuse grossly encouraged by features of contemporary society does not detract in any degree from the validity of the impulse itself. "It is this distinguishing impulse of human consciousness that provides the moral imperative for the enunciation of many of the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration and the related Covenants. Universal education, freedom of movement, access to information, and the opportunity to participate in political life are all aspects of its operation that require explicit guarantee by the international community. The same is true of freedom of thought and belief, including religious liberty, along with the right to hold opinions and express these opinions appropriately. "Since the body of humankind is one and indivisible, each member of the race is born into the world as a trust of the whole. This trusteeship constitutes the moral foundation of most of the other rights-principally economic and social-which the instruments of the United Nations are attempting similarly to define. The security of the family and the home, the ownership of property, and the right to privacy are all implied in such a trusteeship. The obligations on the part of the community extend to the provision of employment, mental and physical health care, social security, fair wages, rest and recreation, and a host of other reasonable expectations on the part of the individual members of society. "The principle of collective trusteeship creates also the right of every person to expect that those cultural conditions essential to his or her identity enjoy the protection of national and international law. Much like the role played by the gene pool in the biological life of humankind and its environment, the immense wealth of cultural diversity achieved over thousands of years is vital to the social and economic development of a human race experiencing its collective coming-of-age. It represents a heritage that must be permitted to bear its fruit in a global civilization. On the one hand, cultural expressions need to be protected from suffocation by the
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rights, it is important to establish a greater understanding that to each right is attached a corresponding responsibility. The right to be recognized as a person before the law, for example, implies the responsibility to obey the law-and to make both the laws and the legal system more just. Likewise, in the socio-economic realm, the right to marry carries with it the responsibility to support the family unit, to educate one's children and to treat all family members with respect. 34 The right to work cannot be divorced from the responsibility to perform one's duties to the best of one's ability. In the broadest sense, the notion of "universal" human rights implies a responsibility to humanity as a whole. Ultimately, while it is up to the individual to fulfill the responsibility in each such area, it is up to international institutions to protect the related human right. We propose three measures for immediate action. I. Strengthening the Machinery of the UN for Monitoring, Implementation and Follow-Up The United Nations machinery for the monitoring, implementation and follow-up of government compliance with international
33. (cont.) materialistic influences currently holding sway. On the other, cultures must be enabled to interact with one another in ever-changing patterns of civilization, free of manipulation for partisan political ends." 34. Ultimately, respect for human rights must begin in the family: "Compare the nations of the world to the members of a family. A family is a nation in miniature. Simply enlarge the circle of the household, and you have the nation. Enlarge the circle of nations, and you have all humanity. The conditions sunounding the family sunound the nation. The happenings in the family are the happenings in the life of the nation. Would it add to the progress and advancement of a family if dissensions should arise among its members, all fighting, pillaging each other, jealous and revengeful of injury, seeking selfish advantage? Nay, this would be the cause of the effacement of progress and advancement. So it is in the great family of nations, for nations are but an aggregate of families. Therefore, as strife and dissension destroy a family and prevent its progress, so nations are destroyed and advancement hindered." The Promulgation of Universal Peace, p. 157.
covenants is inadequate. The Center for Human Rights consists of a very small professional staff struggling to support efforts to monitor the compliance by countries of all treaties they have ratified. We believe the resources assigned to this Center must be dramatically increased if it is to discharge its duties properly. 2. Encouraging Universal Ratification ofInternational Conventions on Human Rights Since ratifying the international conventions on human rights creates an obligation for member states, albeit not a practically enforceable one, the Secretary-General and all bodies of the UN might consider every opportunity to encourage member states to act on this issue. In fact, a demanding timeline for universal ratification may be an inspiring goal to be set by the General Assembly. 3. Assuring Respect for the Monitoring Organs of the UN Involved in Human Rights Since the mandate of the human rights monitoring agencies is of a very serious nature, the UN needs to be particularly mindful of perceptions created by the structure and processes of these agencies and equally deliberate in acting to resolve compromising situations. We believe it would be prudent to explore during the nomination process the qualifications of member states in visible positions and to exclude from election to membership on the Commission on Human Rights and other monitoring agencies, any member states that have not yet ratified the international conventions. While these member states would still be able to fully participate in deliberations, it would protect the United Nations from a potentially embarrassing and compromising situation. We also believe that a single exception is warranted to the above rule. Member states, not under the scrutiny of the UN, that have sufficient protection for fundamental human rights within their constitutions, but which have not been able to complete the ratification process because of internal political reasons, should
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not be barred from election to visible positions. Finally, it also seems prudent for member states that have ratified the international conventions but are under scrutiny for gross human rights violations to be disqualified from election to the offices of conferences and other meetings of the Commission on Human Rights. This will prevent a widespread perception of the proceedings as a mockery. C. Advancing The Status Of Women The creation of a peaceful and sustainable world civilization will be impossible without the full participation of women in every arena of human activity. 35 While this proposition is increasingly supported, there is a marked difference between intellectual acceptance and its implementation. It is time for the institutions of the world, composed mainly of men, to use their influence to promote the systematic inclusion of women, not out of condescension or presumed self-sacrifice but as an act motivated by the belief that the contributions of women are required for society to progress. 36 Only as the contributions of women are valued will they be sought out and woven into the fabric
35. "When all mankind shall receive the same opportunity of education and the equality of men and women be realized, the foundations of war will be utterly destroyed. Without equality this will be impossible because all differences and distinction are conducive to discord and strife. Equality between men and women is conducive to the abolition of warfare for the reason that women will never be willing to sanction it. Mothers will not give their sons as sacrifices upon the battlefield after twenty years of anxiety and loving devotion in rearing them from infancy, no matter what cause they are called upon to defend. There is no doubt that when women obtain equality of rights, war will entirely cease among mankind." The Promulgation of Universal Peace, pp. 174-75. 36. "Let it be known once more that until woman and man recognize and realize equality, social and political progress here or anywhere will not be possible. For the world of humanity consists of two parts or members: one is woman; the other is man. Until these two members are equal in strength, the oneness of humanity cannot be established, and the happiness and felicity of mankind will not be a reality. God willing, this is to be so." The Promulgation of Universal Peace, p. 77.
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of society. The result will be a more peaceful, balanced, just and prosperous civilization. 37 The obvious biological differences between the sexes need not be a cause for inequality or disunity. Rather, they are an aspect of complementarity. If the role of women as mothers is properly valued, their work in nurturing and educating children will be respected and properly rewarded. It should also be aclmowledged that the child-bearing role does not diminish one's aptitude for leadership, or undermine one's intellectual, scientific or creative capacity. Indeed, it may be an enhancement. We believe progress on a few critical fronts would have the greatest impact on the advancement of women. We share the following perspectives which are foundational to the recommendations which follow. First and foremost, violence against women and girls, one of the most blatant and widespread abuses of human rights, must be eradicated. Violence has been a fact of life for many women throughout the world, regardless of race, class, or educational background. In many societies, traditional beliefs that women are inferior or a burden make them easy targets of anger and frustration. Even strong legal remedies and enforcement mechanisms will have little effect until they are supported by a transformation in the attitudes of men. Women will not be safe until a new social conscience takes hold, one which will make the mere expression of condescending attitudes towards women, let alone any form of physical violence, a cause of deep shame.
37. "The world in the past has been ruled by force, and man has dominated over woman by reason of his more forceful and aggressive qualities both of body and mind. But the balance is already shifting-force is losing its weight and mental alertness, intuition, and the spiritual qualities oflove and service, in which woman is strong, are gaining ascendancy. Hence the new age will be an age less masculine, and more permeated with the feminine ideals-or, to speak more exactly, will be an age in which the masculine and feminine elements of civilization will be more evenly balanced." 'Abdu'l-Baha, quoted in John E. Esslemont, Baha 'u '!lith and the New Era, 4th rev. ed. (Wilmette: Baha'i Books, published by Pyramid Publications for Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1976), p. 156.
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Second, the family remains the basic building block of society and behaviors observed and learned there will be projected onto interactions at all other levels of society. Therefore, the members of the institution of the family must be transformed so that the principle of equality of women and men is internalized. Further, if the bonds of love and unity cement family relationships, the impact will reach beyond its borders and affect society as a whole. Third, while the overall goal of any society must be to educate all its members, at this stage in human history the greatest need is to educate women and girls. 38 For over 20 years, studies have consistently documented that, of all possible investments, educating women and girls pays the highest overall dividends in terms of social development, the eradication of poverty and the advancement of community. 39 Fourth, the global dialogue on the role of men and women must promote recognition of the intrinsic complementarity of the two sexes. For the differences between them are a natural assertion of the necessity of women and men to work together to bring
38. This principle, that women and girls should receive priority over men and boys in access to education, has been a long-standing principle in the Baha'i teachings. Speaking in 1912, 'Abdu'l-Baha said: "In proclaiming the oneness of mankind [Baha'u'llah] taught that men and women are equal in the sight of God and that there is no distinction to be made between them. The only difference between them now is due to lack of education and training. If woman is given equal oppmiunity of education, distinction and estimate of inferiority will disappear .... Furthermore, the education of women is of greater importance than the education of men, for they are the mothers of the race, and mothers rear the children. The first teachers of children are the mothers. Therefore, they must be capably trained in order to educate both sons and daughters. There are many provisions in the words ofBaha'u'lhih in regard to this. "He promulgated the adoption of the same course of education for man and woman. Daughters and sons must follow the same curriculum of study, thereby promoting unity of the sexes." The Promulgation of Universal Peace, pp. 174-75. 39. Lawrence H. Summers, Vice President & Chief Economist for the World Bank, Investing in All the People. 1992. Also, USAID. 1989. Technical Reports in Gender and Development. Making the Case for the Gender Variable: Women and the Wealth and Well-being of Nations. Office of Women in Development.
to fruition their potentialities for advancing civilization, no less than for perpetuating the human race. Such differences are inherent in the interactive character of their common humanity. This dialogue needs to consider the historical forces which have led to the oppression of women and examine the new social, political and spiritual realities which are today transforming our civilization. As a starting point for this dialogue we offer this analogy from the Baha'i Writings: "The world of humanity has two wingsone is women and the other men. Not until both wings are equally developed can the bird fly. Should one wing remain weak, flight is impossible. " 40 In addition, we support the following three specific measures. 1. Increasing the Participation of Women in Member State Delegations We recommend that member states be encouraged to appoint an increased number of women to ambassadorial or similar diplomatic positions. 2. Encouraging Universal Rat~fication ofInternational Conventions that Protect Women's Rights and Improve their Status As with the international conventions on human rights, the Secretary-General and all bodies of the UN should consider every opportunity to encourage member states to proceed with ratification of conventions and protocols that protect women's rights and seek their advancement. 3. Planning Ahead for Implementation of the Beijing Platform of Action The Forward-Looking Strategies declaration adopted at the Nairobi conference was highly bold and imaginative, yet its implementation was rather ineffective. 41 We believe that a lesson
40. Selections fi'Oln the Writings of 'Abdu 'l-Baha, p. 302. 41. The Nairobi FoiWard-Looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women. As adopted by the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, Nairobi, Kenya, 15-26 July 1985.
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should be learned from this unfortunate experience and deliberate plans be put into place to ensure that the Platform of Action emerging from the Beijing conference does not meet a similar fate. We propose that a monitoring system be established to prepare status reports on the implementation of adopted measures and to make presentations to the General Assembly annually, highlighting the top 20 and bottom 20 member states in terms of compliance. D. Emphasizing Moral Development The process of integrating human beings into larger and larger groups, although influenced by culture and geography, has been driven largely by religion, the most powerful agent for changing human attitudes and behavior. By religion, however, we mean the essential foundation or reality of religion, not the dogmas and blind imitations which have gradually encrusted it and which are the cause of its decline and effacement. In the words of 'Abdu'l-Baha, "Material civilization is like the body. No matter how infinitely graceful, elegant and beautiful it may be, it is dead. Divine civilization is like the spirit, and the body gets its life from the spirit. ... Without the spirit the world of mankind is lifeless." 42 The concept of promoting specific morals or values may be controversial, especially in this age of humanistic relativism. Nevertheless, we firmly believe there exists a common set of values that have been obscured from recognition by those who exaggerate minor differences in religious or cultural practice for political purposes. 43 These foundation virtues, taught by all spiritual communities, constitute a basic framework for moral development.
42. Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu '1-Baha, p. 303. 43. The interfaith declaration entitled "Towards a Global Ethic," which was produced by an assembly of religious and spiritual leaders from virtually every major world religion and spiritual movement at the 1993 Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago, suggests that it is indeed possible for the world's religions to find much common ground in this regard. The declaration states: "We affirm that a common set of core values is found in
Reflection on the commonalities inherent in the great religious and moral systems of the world reveals that each one espouses unity, cooperation and harmony among people, establishes guidelines for responsible behavior and supports the development of virtues which are the foundation for trust-based and principled interactions. 44 1. Prom,oting the Development of Curriculafor Moral Education in Schools We advocate a universal campaign to promote moral development. Simply put, this campaign should encourage and assist local initiatives all over the world to incorporate a moral dimension into the education of children. It may necessitate the holding of
43. (cont.) the teachings of the religions, and that these form the basis of a global ethic ... There already exist ancient guidelines for human behavior which are found in the teachings of the religions of the world and which are the condition for a sustainable world order." 44. The Golden Rule, the teaching that we should treat others as we ourselves would wish to be treated, is an ethic variously repeated in all the great religions: Buddhism: "Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful." Udana-Varqa, 5:18. Zoroastrianism: "That nature only is good when it shall not do unto another whatever is not good for its own self." Dadistan-i Dinik, 94:5. Judaism: "What is hateful to you, do not to your fellow men. That is the entire Law, all the rest is commentary." The Talmud, Shabbat, 3la. Hinduism: "This is the sum of all true righteousness: deal with others as thou wouldst thyself be dealt by. Do nothing to thy neighbor which thou wouldst not have him do to thee after." The Mahabharata. Christianity: "As ye would that men should do to you, do ye also to them likewise." Luke 6:31. Islam: ''No one of you is a believer until he desires for his brother that which he desires for himself." Sunnah. Taoism: The good man "ought to pity the malignant tendencies of others; to regard their gains as if they were his own, and their losses in the same way." The Thai-Shang. Confucianism: "Surely it is the maxim of loving-kindness: Do not unto others that you would not have them do unto you." Analects, XV, 23 Baha'i Faith: "He should not wish for others that which he doth not wish for himself, nor promise that which he doth not fulfill." Gleanings ji-om the Writings ofBaha 'u 'llah.
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conferences, the publication of relevant materials and many other supportive activities, all of which represent a solid investment in a future generation. This campaign for moral development may begin with a few simple precepts. For example, rectitude of conduct, trustworthiness, and honesty are the foundation for stability and progress; altruism should guide all human endeavor, such that sincerity and respect for the rights of others become an integral part of every individual's actions; service to humanity is the true source of happiness, honor and meaning in life. We also believe the campaign will be successful only to the extent that the force of religion is relied upon in the effort. The doctrine of the separation of church and state should not be used as a shield to block this salutary influence. Specifically, religious communities will have to be drawn in as collaborative partners in this important initiative. As it proceeds, this campaign will accelerate a process of individual empowerment that will transform the way in which people, regardless of economic class, social standing, or ethnic, racial or religious background, interact with their society.
V. A Turning Point for All Nations: A Call to World Leaders We have reached a turning point in the progress of nations.
Unification of the whole of mankind is the hall-1nark of the stage which human society is now approaching. Unity of family, of tribe, of city-state, and nation have been successively atte1npted and fully established. World unity is the goal towards which a harassed humanity is striving. Nation-building has come to an end. The anarchy inherent in state sovereignty is 1noving towards a climax. A world, growing to 1naturity, 1nust abandon this fetish, recognize the oneness and wholeness of hutnan relationships, and establish once for all the 1nachinery that can best incarnate this fundatnental principle of its life. 45
45. The World OrderofBaha'u'llah, p. 202.
THE BAHA'f WORLD
Over a century ago, Baha'u'llah taught that there is but one God, that there is only one human race, and that all the world's religions represent stages in the revelation of God's will and purpose for humanity. Baha'u'llah announced the arrival of the time, foretold in all of the world's scriptures, when humanity would at last witness the uniting of all peoples into a peaceful and integrated society. He said that human destiny lies not merely in the creation of a materially prosperous society, but also in the construction of a global civilization where individuals are encouraged to act as moral beings who understand their true nature and are able to progress toward a greater fulfillment that no degree of material bounty alone can provide. Baha'u'llah was also among the first to invoke the phrase "new world order" to describe the momentous changes in the political, social and religious life of the world. "The signs of impending convulsions and chaos can now be discerned, inasmuch as the prevailing Order appeareth to be lamentably defective," He wrote. "Soon will the present-day order be rolled up and a new one spread out in its stead. "46 To this end, He laid a charge on the leaders and members of society alike. "It is not for him to pride himself who loveth his own country, but rather for him who loveth the whole world. The earth is but one country and mankind its citizens."47 Above all else, leaders for the next generation must be motivated by a sincere desire to serve the entire community and must understand that leadership is a responsibility; not a path to privilege. For too long, leadership has been understood, by both leaders and followers, as the assertion of control over others. Indeed, this
46. Baha'u'lhih. The Proclamation of Baha 'u 'llah to the Kings and Leaders ofthe World (Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1967), p. 113. 47. Baha'u'llah, Tablets of Baha 'u 'llah revealed after the Kitab-i-Aqdas, comp. Research Department of the Universal House of Justice, trans. Habib Taherzadeh with the assistance of a Committee at the Baha'i World Centre (Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1978), p. 167.
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age demands a new definition of leadership and a new type of leader. 48 This is especially true in the international arena. In order to establish a sense of trust, win the confidence, and inculcate a fond affinity in the hearts of the world's people for institutions of the international order, these leaders will have to reflect on their own actions. Through an unblemished record of personal integrity, they must help restore confidence and trust in government. They must embody the characteristics of honesty, humility and sincerity of purpose in seeking the truth of a situation. They must be committed to and guided by principles, thereby acting in the best long-term interests of humanity as a whole. "Let your vision be world-embracing, rather than confined to your own selves," Baha'u'lhih wrote. "Do not busy yourselves in your own concerns; let your thoughts be fixed upon that which will rehabilitate the fortunes of mankind and sanctify the hearts and souls of men. " 49
48. The Commission on Global Governance writes: "As the world faces the need for enlightened responses to the challenges that arise on the eve of the new century, we are concerned at the lack of leadership over a wide spectrum of human affairs. At national, regional, and international levels, within communities and in international organizations, in governments and in non-governmental bodies, the world needs credible and sustained leadership. "It needs leadership that is proactive, not simply reactive, that is inspired, not simply functional, that looks to the longer term and future generations for whom the present is held in trust. It needs leaders made strong by vision, sustained by ethics, and revealed by political courage that looks beyond the next election. "This cannot be leadership confined within domestic walls. It must reach beyond country, race, religion, culture, language, life-style. It must embrace a wider human constituency, be infused with a sense of caring for others, a sense of responsibility to the global neighborhood." Our Global Neighborhood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 353. 49. Gleanings from the Writings ofBaha'u'llah, p. 7.
This statement by the Baha'i International Community was prepared for the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing, September 1995.
The Role of Religion in Promoting TH~DVANCEMENT of WOMEN
A bold and courageous plan for the advancement of both men and women, the Platform for Action of the Fourth World Conference on Women stands on solid ground. It sets out an Agenda for Equality which stresses women's rights as human rights, emphasizes shared responsibility and partnership between women and men, and calls for immediate action to create a peaceful, developed and just world, based on the principle of equality and built on the strength of women's knowledge, energy, creativity and skills. Thus the Platform for Action addresses the advancement of women from the standpoint of moral principle, as distinct from pure pragmatism. The Baha'i International Community is encouraged by and applauds this principled approach, but we feel it must go much farther. If the Platform for Action is to win the worldwide support it requires for successful implementation, the principle on which it is founded, the equality of men and women, needs to be understood as an essential aspect of an even broader principle: the oneness of humanity. Properly understood in the context of
the oneness of humanity, equality of the sexes must be embraced not only as a requirement of justice but as a prerequisite for peace and prosperity. Nothing short of a compelling vision of peace, and commitment to the values on which it must be based, will have the power to motivate the revolutionary changes in individual behavior, organizational structures, and interpersonal dynamics called for by the Platform for Action. Traditionally, religion has been one of the most powerful sources of both vision and values. Every religion, particularly in its early stages, has evoked a new vision for society, articulated values consonant with that vision, and inspired both personal and institutional transformation. At the same time, it must be acknowledged that religion has also been a source of division and social fragmentation. Indeed, the record of religions in promoting the advancement of women has been uneven. While, typically, in the early years of their existence, religions have tended to encourage the participation of women, historical evidence suggests a gradual tendency among religious institutions over time to establish practices and support attitudes that impede the development of women's potential. Because religion is such a potentially powerful force for progress, religious leaders and people of faith everywhere are urged to step forward as lovers of humanity to promote those eternal, unifying principles-or spiritual values-that can inspire in both individuals and governments the will to implement the Agenda for Equality. Foremost is the principle of the oneness of humankind. It lies at the heart of the exhortation that we should treat others as we ourselves would wish to be treated, an ethical standard upheld in some form by every religion. To establish justice, peace and order in an interdependent world, this principle must guide all interactions, including those between men and women. If the treatment of women were scrutinized in the light of this ethical standard, we would doubtless move beyond many traditional, religious and cultural practices. The personal transformation required for true equality will undoubtedly be difficult for men and women alike. Both must relinquish all attachment to guilt and blame and courageously
ADVANCEMENT OFWOMEN
assume responsibility for their own part in transforming the societies in which they live. Men must use their influence, particularly in the civil, political and religious institutions they control, to promote the systematic inclusion of women, not out of condescension or presumed self-sacrifice but out of the belief that the contributions of women are required for society to progress. Women, for their part, must become educated and step forward into all arenas of human activity, contributing their particular qualities, skills and experience to the social, economic and political equation. Women and men together will ensure the establishment of world peace and sustainable development of the planet. Religious leaders and people of faith everywhere have a special responsibility to reaffirm those eternal spiritual principles that unite and.bind together the hearts and release the capacities of every soul. Galvanized by the spirit and vision of the oneness of the human family, women and men together can, in the spirit of the Agenda for Equality, create a peaceful, just and prosperous world in which to nurture the generations to come.
Written statement for the 47th Session of the Sub-Commission on Prevention ofDiscrimination and Protection ofMinorities, Geneva, 31 July to 2 5 August 1995.
The Realization of ECONOMIC, sociAL & CuLTURAL RIGHTS
A s the twentieth century draws to a close, it is no longer possible to maintain the belief that the approach to social and economic development to which the materialistic conception of life has given rise is capable of meeting humanity's needs. Optimistic forecasts about the changes it would generate have vanished into the ever widening abyss that separates the living standards of a small and relatively diminishing minority of the world's inhabitants from the poverty experienced by the vast majority of the globe's population. 1 The Baha'i International Community believes that it is unrealistic to imagine that the vision of the next stage in the advancement of civilization can be formulated without a searching reexamination of the attitudes and assumptions that currently underlie approaches to social and economic development. At the most obvious level, such rethinking will have to address practical matters of policy, resource
1. Baha'i International Community's Office ofPublic Information, The Prosperity of Humankind, Introduction, para. 7. (See The Baha'i World 1994-95, pp. 273-96 for the full text of this statement.)
utilization, planning procedures, implementation methodologies, and organization. As it proceeds, however, fundamental issues will quicldy emerge, related to the long-term goals to be pursued, the social structures required, the implications for development of principles of social justice, and the nature and role of knowledge in effecting enduring change. Indeed, such a reexamination will be driven to seek a broad consensus of understanding about human nature itself. 2 We are being shown that, unless the development of society finds a purpose beyond the mere amelioration of material conditions, it will fail of attaining even these goals. That purpose must be sought in spiritual dimensions of life and motivation that transcend a constantly changing economic landscape and an artificially imposed division of human societies into "developed" and "developing." 3 The bedrock of a strategy that can engage the world's population in assuming responsibility for its collective destiny must be the consciousness of the oneness of humankind. 4 The human species is an organic whole, the leading edge of the evolutionary process. That human consciousness necessarily operates through an infinite diversity of individual minds and motivations detracts in no way from its essential unity. Indeed, it is precisely an inhering diversity that distinguishes unity from homogeneity or uniformity. What the peoples of the world are today experiencing, Baha'u'lhih, the Founder of the Baha'i Faith, said, is their collective coming-of-age, and it is through this emerging maturity of the race that the principle of unity in diversity will fmd full expression. 5 Justice is the one power that can translate the dawning consciousness of humanity's oneness into a collective will through which the necessary structures of global community life can be confidently erected. 6 At the group level, a concern for justice is the indispensable compass in collective decision making, because it is the only
2. Introduction, para. 4. 3. Introduction, para. 8, 11. 5-10. 4. Chapter I, para. 1, 11. 1-3. 5. Chapter I, para. 3, 11. 2-9. 6. Chapter II, para. 1, 11. 1-3.
goNOMIC, sociAL,AND CULTURAL RIGHTS
means by which unity of thought and action can be achieved. Far from encouraging the punitive spirit that has often masqueraded under its name in past ages, justice is the practical expression of awareness that, in the achievement of human progress, the interests of the individual and those of society are inextricably linked. To the extent that justice becomes a guiding concern of human interaction, a consultative climate is encouraged that permits options to be examined dispassionately and appropriate courses of action selected. In such a climate the perennial tendencies toward manipulation and partisanship are far less likely to deflect the decision-making process. 7 The implications for social and economic development are profound. Concern for justice protects the task of defming progress from the temptation to sacrifice the well-being of the generality of humankind-and even of the planet itself-to the advantages which technological breakthroughs can make available to privileged minorities. In design and planning, it ensures that limited resources are not diverted to the pursuit of projects extraneous to a community's essential social or economic priorities. Above all, only development programs that are perceived as meeting their needs and as being just and equitable in objective can hope to engage the commitment of the masses of humanity, upon whom implementation depends. 8 What Baha'u'llah is calling for is a consultative process in which the individual participants strive to transcend their respective points of view, in order to function as members of a body with its own interests and goals. In such an atmosphere, characterized by both candor and courtesy, ideas belong not to the individual to whom they occur during the discussion but to the group as a whole, to take up, discard, or revise as seems to best serve the goal pursued. Consultation succeeds to the extent that all participants support the decisions arrived at, regardless of the individual opinions with which they entered the discussion. 9 Viewed in such a light, consultation is the operating expression of justice in
7. Chapter II, para. 3. 8. Chapter II, para. 4, 11. 1-10. 9. Chapter III, para. 5, 11. 1-9.
human affairs. So vital is it to the success of collective endeavor that it must constitute a basic feature of a viable strategy of social and economic development. 10 Universal education will be an indispensable contributor to the process of capacity building, but the effort will succeed only as human affairs are so reorganized as to enable both individuals and groups in every sector of society to acquire knowledge and apply it to the shaping of human affairs. 11 Throughout recorded history, human consciousness has depended upon two basic knowledge systems through which its potentialities have progressively been expressed: science and religion. Through these two agencies, the race's experience has been organized, its environment interpreted, its latent powers explored, and its moral and intellectual life disciplined. 12 It is, therefore, in the context of raising the level of human capacity through the expansion of knowledge at all levels that the economic issues facing humankind need to be addressed. 13 Instruments of social and economic change so powerful must cease to be the patrimony of advantaged segments of society, and must be so organized as to permit people everywhere to participate in such activity on the basis of capacity. 14 Moreover, as the experience of recent decades has demonstrated, material benefits and endeavors cannot be regarded as ends in themselves. Their value consists not only in providing for humanity's basic needs in housing, food, health care, and the like, but in extending the reach of human abilities. The most important role that economic efforts must play in development lies, therefore, in equipping people and institutions with the means through which they can achieve the real purpose of development: that is, laying foundations for a new social order that can cultivate the limitless potentialities latent in human consciousness. 15
10. Chapter III, para. 6, 11. 1-4. 11. Chapter IV, para. 1, 11. 5-8. 12. Chapter IV, para. 2, 11. 1-5. 13. Chapter V, para. 1, 11. 1-3. 14. Chapter IV, para. 4, 11. 2-5. 15. Chapter V, para. 1, 11. 3-11.
goNOMIC, socJAL,AND CULTURAL RIGHTS
Only in this way can economics and the related sciences free themselves from the undertow of the materialistic preoccupations that now distract them, and fulfill their potential as tools vital to achieving human well-being in the full sense of the term. Nowhere is the need for a rigorous dialogue between the work of science and the insights of religion more apparent. 16 The problem of poverty is a case in point. Proposals aimed at addressing it are predicated on the conviction that material resources exist, or can be created by scientific and technological endeavor, which will alleviate and eventually entirely eradicate this age-old condition as a feature of human life. A major reason why such relief is not achieved is that the necessary scientific and technological advances respond to a set of priorities only tangentially related to the real interests of the generality of humanldnd. A radical reordering of these priorities will be required if the burden of poverty is fmally to be lifted from the world. Such an achievement demands a determined quest for appropriate values, a quest that will test profoundly both the spiritual and scientific resources of humankind. Religion will be severely hampered in contributing to this joint undertaking so long as it is held prisoner by sectarian doctrines which cannot distinguish between contentment and mere passivity and which teach that poverty is an inherent feature of earthly life, escape from which lies only in the world beyond. To participate effectively in the struggle to bring material well-being to humanity, the religious spirit must find-in the Source of inspiration from which it flows-new spiritual concepts and principles relevant to an age that seeks to establish unity and justice in human affairs. 17 A challenge of similar nature faces economic thinlcing as a result of the environmental crisis. The fallacies in theories based on the belief that there is no limit to nature's capacity to fulfill any demand made on it by human beings have now been coldly exposed. A culture which attaches absolute value to expansion, to acquisition, and to the satisfaction of people's wants is being compelled to recognize that such goals are not, by themselves, realistic guides to policy. Inadequate, too, are approaches to
16. Chapter V, para. 2, 11. 3-8. 17. Chapter V, para. 3.
economic issues whose decision-making tools cannot deal with the fact that most of the major challenges are global rather than particular in scope. 18 The effect of the persistent denial to women of full equality with men sharpens still further the challenge to science and religion in the economic life of humankind. To any objective observer the principle of the equality of the sexes is fundamental to all realistic thinking about the future well-being of the earth and its people. It represents a truth about human nature that has waited largely unrecognized throughout the long ages of the race's childhood and adolescence. 19 A commitment to the establishment of full equality between men and women, in all departments of life and at every level of society, will be central to the success of efforts to conceive and implement a strategy of global development.20 The task of creating a global development strategy that will accelerate humanity's coming-of-age constitutes a challenge to reshape fundamentally all the institutions of society. The protagonists to whom the challenge addresses itself are all of the inhabitants of the planet: the generality of humankind, members of governing institutions at all levels, persons serving in agencies of international coordination, scientists and social thinkers, all those endowed with artistic talents or with access to the media of communication, and leaders of nongovernmental organizations. 21 The enterprise requires a radical rethinking of most of the concepts and assumptions currently governing social and economic life. It must be wedded, as well, to a conviction that, however long the process and whatever setbacks may be encountered, the governance of human affairs can be conducted along lines that serve humanity's real needs. 22
18. Chapter V, para. 6. 19. Chapter V, para. 9, 11. 1-7. 20. Chapter V, para. 9, 11. 11-15. 21. Chapter VII, para. 1, 11. 1-8. 22. Chapter VII, para. 1, 11. 13-18.
The Baha '{International Community submitted this statement on the United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education to the UN Commission on Human Rights in March 1996.
HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION
T he Baha'i International Community wholeheartedly welcomes the proclamation of the United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education (hereafter, "the Decade"). We believe that education is indispensable to the realization of human rights. Education which instills in hearts and minds an awareness of and a sensitivity to the human rights of all persons constitutes, in our opinion, an essential tool for the promotion and implementation of international human rights standards. In particular, we welcome the emphasis of the Commission on Human Rights on the importance of a holistic educational approach. In Resolution 1995/4 7, for example, the Commission expressed its conviction that "human rights education, both formal and non-formal, should involve more than the provision of information and should constitute a comprehensive life-long process by which people at all levels of development and in all strata of society learn respect for the dignity of others and the means and methods of ensuring that respect in all societies." Moreover, the Commission echoed the inspirational words of Article 26 of the
THE BAHA'I WORLD
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which proclaims that "education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms." 1 The Plan of Action prepared by the High Commissioner for Human Rights reflects this integrated conception of education by defining human rights education as "training, dissemination and information efforts aimed at the building of a universal culture of human rights through the imparting of knowledge and skills and the molding of attitudes which are directed to:
(a) The strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms; (b) The full development of the hutnan personality and the sense of its dignity; (c) The promotion of understanding, tolerance, gender equality and friendship among all nations, indigenous peoples and racial, national, ethnic, religious and linguistic groups; (d) The enabling of all persons to participate effectively in a free society; and (e) The furtherance of the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. 2
The Baha'i International Community fully embraces these goals and objectives. Human rights education, if it is to succeed, must seek to transform individual attitudes and behavior and thereby establish, within every local and national community, a new "culture" of respect for human rights. Only such a change in the fundamental social outlook of every individual-whether a government official or an ordinary citizen-can bring about the universal observance of human rights principles in the daily lives of people. In the final analysis, the human rights of an individual are respected and protected-or violated-by other individuals, even if they are acting in an official capacity. Accordingly, it is essential to touch the hearts, and elevate the behavior, of all
1. Commission on Human Rights Resolution 1995/47 (3 March 1995). 2. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Plan ofAction for the United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education, 1995-2004, para. 2 (1995) (hereafter Plan ofAction).
HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION
human beings, if, in the words of the Plan ofAction, human rights are to be transformed "from the expression of abstract norms" to the "reality" of the "social, economic, cultural and political conditions" experienced by people in their daily lives. 3 The Baha'i teachings have long advocated both moral and intellectual education as essential to enabling human beings to realize their full potential as contributing members of socially and spiritually advancing communities. Baha'u'llah, the Prophet- Founder of the Baha'i Faith, proclaimed that "Man is the supreme Talisman. Lack of a proper education hath, however, deprived him of that which he doth inherently possess." Baha'u'llah furthermore counseled: "Regard man as a mine rich in gems of inestimable value. Education can, alone, cause it to reveal its treasures, and enable mankind to benefit therefrom."4 In the Baha'i view, the education required to enrich the human mind and spirit must seek to develop those essentially moral attributes-including truthfulness, courtesy, generosity, compassion, justice, love, and trustworthiness-whose reflection in the everyday lives of human beings can create harmonious, productive families and communities and make the enjoyment of fundamental rights a reality for all their members. Such education, moreover, must help to instill in every individual a keen, emotionally grounded awareness of the fundamental unity of humankind. As people begin to see each other as members of one human family, they will become willing to discard negative learned stereotypes and begin to see people of other ethnic groups, nationalities, classes and religious beliefs as potential friends rather than as threats or enemies. Educational programs undertaken as part of the Decade must also cultivate a greater understanding that to each right is attached a corresponding responsibility. The right to be recognized as a person before the law, for example, implies the responsibility to obey the law-and to make both the laws and the legal system more just. Likewise, in the socioeconomic realm, the right to
3. Plan ofAction, para. 6. 4. Baha'u'lhih, Gleanings from the Writings of Baha 'u 'llah (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1976), pp. 269-70.
THE BAHA'I WORLD
marry carries with it the responsibility to support the family unit, to educate one's children and to treat all family members with respect. The right to work cannot be divorced from the responsibility to perform one's duties to the best of one's ability. In the broadest sense, the notion of "universal" human rights implies a responsibility to humanity as a whole. This interplay between rights and responsibilities has, for nearly fifty years, been acknowledged in Article 29 of the Universal Declaration, and is reaffirmed in the Plan of Action itself. 5 Human rights education should accordingly focus on developing an awareness of the connection between rights and responsibilities and of the personal responsibility we each have to safeguard the rights of our fellow human beings. In Turning Point for All Nations, a statement issued on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations, the Baha'i International Community called for a universal campaign to promote moral education. 6 Because Baha'is believe that moral education is needed to bring about the "universal culture of human rights" envisioned by the Plan ofAction, and because an individual's fundamental moral framework is formed at a very young age, we strongly endorse the Plan of Action's call for beginning human rights-inspired education in early childhood. 7 We encourage governments and nongovernmental organizations, including religious organizations, to consider ways of instilling an awareness of human rights, human unity, and responsibilities towards others in educational programs for the youngest children. Indeed, because girls will become the mothers and primary educators of the next generation, we also recommend that if educational resources are limited, the girl child be accorded priority.
5. See Plan of Action, para. 21, which recommends that the general public "be the subject of far-reaching human rights information efforts designed to infonn them of their rights and responsibilities under the international human rights instruments." 6. Baha'i International Community, Turning Point for All Nations: A Statement of the Baha'i International Community on the Occasion of the 5Oth Anniversary of the United Nations (1995), p. 21. See pp. 40-41 of this volume. 7. Plan ofAction, para. 25.
HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION
Finally, the Baha'i writings affirm that religion is the chief instrument "for the establishment of order in the world and of tranquillity amongst its peoples." 8 We, therefore, believe that religious organizations have an especially important role to play in providing the type of values-centered education we have described here, and we welcome their explicit inclusion in the Plan ofAction. Baha'i communities in 173 countries are already both promoting and providing education, based on the principle of the oneness of humanity, which seeks to cultivate respect for the rights of others, a sense of responsibility for the well-being of the human family, and the moral attributes that contribute to a just, harmonious and peaceful world civilization. As a fundamental tenet of their religion, Baha'is are committed to the eradication of all forms of prejudice, including those based on race, ethnic origin, religion, sex or nationality-prejudices that fuel hatred and cause otherwise good people to deprive their fellow citizens of their rights. Baha'is are thereby working to build, in the communities in which they reside, that new culture conducive to the universal enjoyment of human rights that is a primary goal of the Decade. As the United Nations and national focal points in member states develop curricula for the Decade, the Baha'i International Community would be pleased to offer whatever insights might be useful, based on its century and a half of experience promoting respect for the rights of all people.
8. Baha'u'lhih, Tablets of Baha 'u 'llah (Haifa: World Centre Publications, 1978), pp. 63-64.
PROFILE: _A?SOCIATION forthe COHERENT DEVELOPMENT ofthe AMAZON
I n 1994, eight young people from different rural communities in the Amazon concluded their high school studies at the Djalal Eghrari Polytechnical Institute in Iranduba, Brazil. During the ceremony, many of the parents were seen crying as they watched their children graduate-an unbelievable dream in the Amazon where these youth were the only ones in their communities to have finished their secondary studies. The Dj alai Eghrari Polytechnical Institute is one of the components of the Association for the Coherent Development of the Amazon (ADCAM). ADCAM, a non-profit organization based on Baha'i principles and dedicated to the education and development of the population of the rural regions of the Amazonas state, was initiated following the call of the Universal House of Justice in 1983 for greater involvement of Baha'i communities in social and economic development. In January 1984, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Brazil sent a research team, whose members had a collective experience of more than 30 years tn the region and who were professionals in the fields of
THE BAHA'f WORLD
The Djalal Eghrari Polytechnical Institute in Iranduba, Brazil, places emphasis on agriculture and rural development.
health, education, agriculture, and rural development, to survey the possibilities of greater participation in the socioeconomic development of the Amazon. Three distinct aspects identified by this team as crucial to the progress of the region-education, health care, and the development of the rural economy-therefore became the focus of this organization. Specifically, AD CAM seeks to furnish the means by which rural populations may gain competence in the fields of education, health, and rural production; to research jointly with local populations options for self-sustained development; to offer educational and social services to the community; to build capacities for the formation and administration of grassroots organizations; to use consultation as a method of group decision making for the solution of social and economic problems; to promote consciousness of the interdependence of all the members of society, and of people and nature; and to establish a dynamic coherence between the spiritual and material aspects of life. The first major initiative of ADCAM was the establishment of the Eghrari Institute in 1984 to fulfill two distinct purposes: to assist with Baha'i activities and to provide practical and academic education for the local youth. The institute began its operations in 1988 with a 19-day rotational cycle: for 19 days about 20 male and 20 female students study in Iranduba and then return to their villages for the same period of time to apply the principles they have learned. The practical work performed by the students
ADCAM
during the 19-day period in their communities involves simple individual or group projects in which students carry out assignents, often consisting of an elementary survey of their own communities under the categories of agriculture, health, water, and social conditions. In order to expand its capacity to serve the needs of the region, the school is presently shifting from a four-year state-sponsored curriculum to address the following five lines of action: (1) formal education, through modifying the existing school to follow the System of Tutorial Apprenticeship (SAT), an integrated rural education program pioneered by FUNDAEC in Colombia 1; (2) community development, focusing on the creation of community structures based on the Baha'i teachings to maintain basic health, education, production and organization; (3) preparation of sufficient educational materials for the execution of short training courses and for the application of SAT; (4) training of human resources, which includes creating opportunities for the staff of the institute, as members of a nongovernmental organization, to develop their administrative abilities in rural education and development and in the SAT program; and (5) the establishment of an efficient administrative model for the institute, enabling it to execute its diverse programs. On 3 January 1995, the Canadian Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Environment visited the Djalal Eghrari Institute, which is partly funded by the Canadian embassy. Her scheduled 30-minute inspection of the project expanded to about two hours because of her enthusiasm and interest. She later stated that this was the best part of her tour of the Amazon.
1. FUNDAEC (Fundaci6n para la Aplicaci6n y Enseiianza de las Ciencias) is a non-profit organization seeking to counter the effects of industrialization in rural Colombia. Founded in 1974 and based in Cali, FUNDAEC uses Baha'i principles in its approach to development and sponsors anumber of rural development programs, including a microenterprise project, an agro-industrial training center, and the SAT program for rural education. For further infonnation on FUNDAEC and its projects, see One Country, the quarterly newsletter of the Baha'i Intetnational Community, vol. 7, no. 4 (January-March 1996) and vol. 8, no. 1 (April-June 1996).
The second major program of ADCAM, the Nucleus or Center for Social Welfare, located in Manaus, Amazonas, emerged from the Lar Linda Tanure orphanage. In 1985, the Baha'is were asked by a group of businessmen and the government to establish and administer a home for abandoned children. Its approach clearly reflects the Baha'i view of human nature. In the words of Ferial Farzin, the center's director, "we search for the jewel that we believe exists inside each person." By 1991, Lar Linda had expanded its sphere of operations to include educational programs for children and pre-adolescents, including moral education in addition to regular academic subjects. Courses for women from the surrounding low-income neighborhood included health, hygiene, nutrition and disease prevention.
Students outside the Lar Linda ~;;.;;::~~~ Tanure school, a component of the Association for the Coherent Development of the Amazon (AD CAM).
One outreach initiative saw the organization of a mothers' group in the neighborhood immediately adjacent to the schoolan example of how the students' parents can become a force for social change and action. Members of the group walk around together in the evenings, visiting families with problems and providing mutual support. As one member of the group said, "The Baha'i community gives us a new vision. Many, many people promise us things. But they do little accomplishment. But the Baha'is are always willing to serve, and they show us that examp1e. " The Center's success is reflected in the fact that by 1992 more than 250 abandoned children had been served by the orphanage;
ADCAM
of this number approximately 60 percent had been adopted, while another 40 percent had returned to their parents. A total of more than 140 students had taken part in an outreach program. By 1993, Lar Linda had fully evolved from an orphanage into a school, and it signed an agreement with the Baha'i-owned Masrour Association to establish the Masrour Vocational School on the property. The main purpose of the vocational school is to provide the students with some skills while making them conscious of their social responsibilities. Students can take courses in hairdressing, child and adolescent psychology, human relations, moral education, and first aid. Christina Ihhamus de Paula, a teacher at Masrour, said that if the school had not been established to serve children in the area, "most of them would be abandoned and like many other children they would live in the streets." She continued, "many of the students are from the poorest class of society and they lack care and tenderness. I feel myself that they need my love, because they often don't have it at home. Not all of them get enough to eat, so the need for the school is very important." Presently, there are more than 350 children and youth attending the Lar Linda School, and about 200 people participating in the Masrour Vocational Program. Having sustained and expanded its initiatives for more than a decade, ADCAM is achieving its goal to provide a regional system whereby the spiritual needs of the long-suffering rural population of the region can be met in conjunction with their material progress. The Association is motivating the rural population to seek alternative solutions to their present problems rather than thinking they have left them behind by seeking the overly crowded urban centers.
- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------; JNFOR~TION ESOURCES OBITUARIES
Rodney Lynn Belcher This is worship: to serve manldnd and became a Baha'i in 1957. and to minister to the needs of Together the Belchers raised two the people. Service is prayer. sons. A physician ministering to the sick, gently, tenderly, free from At the time of his passing, Dr. prejudice and believing in the Belcher was etnployed by Health solidarity of the human race, he Volunteers Overseas, an organiis giving praise. zation which is based in Wash- 'Abdu '1-Baha ington, D.C. and implements an orthopedics project in Uganda Rodney Lynn Belcher, a tnember funded by US AID. He had spent of the Ugandan Baha'i commu- tnany years in East Africa both nity, was shot and killed on 11 teaching and practicing ortho- March 1996 by vehicle hijackers pedic surgery, focusing initially in the parking lot of Mulago on victitns of war and later also Hospital in Kampala. He was 64 treating the effects of polio and years old. other diseases. Born in the United States on 2 Dr. Belcher first went to Uganda November 1931, Rodney Belcher in the early 1980s as a Fulbright married Dawn Dayton in 1953 lecturer in Makerere. He trained
tnany of Uganda's physicians in using canes or sitnple walking orthopedics, and he established sticks Dr. Belcher had assisted the tnaster of tnedicine progrmn them to obtain. Virtually the in orthopedic surgery at Mulago entire staff of the U.S. Embassy Hospital. He collaborated with and of USAID were there, as the British Red Cross to set up an well as tnany colleagues from orthopedic workshop at Mulago Mulago Hospital and Mulago Hospital which tnakes artificial University. limbs, wheelchairs, and braces for mnputees, victitns of polio, and The news tnedia picked up the others. He also established the story of Dr. Belcher's murder orthopedics progratn operating at and a number of accounts were Muhitnbili Hospital in Tanzania. published in various newspapers, He served as a Fulbright lecturer including the New Vision in and a professor at the University Uganda and the Washington Post ofNairobi's tnedical school, and and the Washington Times in the taught orthopedics at the tnedical United States. school at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. for many During the days following Dr. years. Belcher's passing, the Belcher family, and in particular Dr. The Belcher fmnily contributed Belcher's widow, Dawn, was designificantly to the Ugandan luged by letters and tnessages Baha'i comtnunity. One Baha'i of condolence frmn people of noted, "With tretnendous grace eminence in Africa, friends, indiand self-effacement, they tnade viduals Dr. Belcher had assisted, their resources of titne, tnoney, and health service organizations and the invaluable vehicle, with with which he had collaborated. Dawn as driver, available for the Many of these tnessages bore work of the Faith. Their home eloquent witness to Dr. Belcher's was open to the tnany visitors numerous acts of kindness and who relied on the Belchers for sacrifice as he strove to serve the international telephone calls, people of Uganda. The King of faxes, hot water, and food .... " Buganda, His Majesty, Ssabasajja Kabaka Ronald Muwenda The funeral took place on 12 Mutebi II stated, "It is with a March 1996, beginning with a sense of great personal loss that I tnemorial program at the Baha'i mourn the sudden departure of a Tetnple in Kampala. The service 111an who has been so dear and then moved to the burial site, useful to our nation." where the Baha'i prayer for the dead was recited. The tnoumers, United States Senator Patrick nutnbering over 2,000, filed past Leahy praised Dr. Belcher in the the casket; tnany of thetn were Senate, declaring, as published in wheelchairs, on crutches, or in the Congressional Record, "It
OBITUARIES
would be hard to conceive of a National Spiritual Assembly of more senseless, horrible crime. Uganda: Rod Belcher was a wonderfully generous human being who de- DEEPLY GRIEVED BRUTAL voted his professional life to MURDER DEDICATED OUT- improving the lives of others .... STANDING PIONEER RODNEY At his funeral, Dr. Belcher was BELCHER WHOSE INDEFATIGA- honored by the Ugandan Vice BLE SERVICES WILL ALWAYS President, the Minister of Health, BE LOVINGLY REMEMBERED. the director of the hospital, the SELFLESSLY, ENERGETI- dean of the tnedical school, CALLY AND COURAGEOUSLY, the Atnerican Atnbassador, the TOGETHER WITH HIS DISTIN- British High Comtnissioner, and GUISHED WIFE, HE LABORED tnany others. The orthopedic AMONG HIS COMPATRIOTS IN clinic that he worked so hard to THE UNITED STATES AND WITH establish was formally named EVEN GREATER DISTINCTION after him. The streets were lined SINCE 1970 IN TANZANIA, with people who knew him per- KENYA AND UGANDA, SERVING sonally or had heard of the Am- THE POPULATION THROUGH erican doctor who had done so HIS MEDICAL PROFESSION much for the Ugandan people." AND PROMOTING INTERESTS The comments of Ugandan Vice BELOVED FAITH IN THESE President, Dr. Specioza Wandira COUNTRIES. Kazibwe, who had studied surgery under Dr. Belcher when she PRAYING HOLY SHRINES FOR was a medical student, included PROGRESS HIS LUMINOUS her warm memories of how he SOUL ETERNAL KINGDOM, had encouraged her in her wish AND FOR COMFORT AND to specialize in surgery, even SOLACE HIS DEAR WIFE AND though in that time and place it MEMBERS FAMILY. was a medical speciality not as ADVISE HOLD MEMORIAL welcoming to wmnen as others. MEETING HIS HONOR IN The National Spiritual Assetnbly HOUSE OF WORSHIP. ASK of the United States wrote to TANZANIAN KENYAN NA- Mrs. Belcher, "His universal TIONAL ASSEMBLIES HOLD kindness to all levels of society SIMILAR GATHERINGS IN HIS and rectitude of conduct exem- NAME. plified his adherence to the principles of our Faith and tnade him widely respected as a 'true Suhayl Ala 'i physician.'" Upon receiving the On 14 August 1995 in Western news of Dr. Belcher's passing, Satnoa. Born 5 January 1927 into the Universal House of Justice a Baha'i family in Teheran, Iran, sent the following tnessage to the Suhayl Ala'i imtnigrated to New
Zealand in 1950 and graduated serve in that country until her with a degree in agriculture from death. Massey University. He married Lilian Wyss in 1954, joined her Gail Avery Davis in Western Samoa, and two of On 7 Novetnber 1995 in Alaska. their children were born there. In Born on 29 Septetnber 1903 in 1959, Mr. and Mrs. Ala'i moved the United States, Gail Avery to American Samoa, where their learned about the Baha'i Faith in youngest child was born. Mr. her forties and returned to school Ala' i was appointed to the first for nurse's training so that she Continental Board of Counsel- could better serve the Cause she lors in Australasia in 1968 and had embraced. In 1953 she left served on that institution until her home in Montana to pioneer 1990. He also served as a mem- to Baranof Island in Alaska, for ber of the first National Spiritual which she was natned a Knight Assetnbly of the South Pacific ofBaha'u'llah. She lived on Barand of the National Assembly of onof, in Sitka, for smne 40 years. Samoa. His consulting business, She was adopted as a Tlingit and Pacific Services, developed over tnarried Albert Davis, the head time into Pacific Products and of the Coho Clan of Tlingits for Pacific Marketing. Sitka.
Samiheh Banani Sabri Elias On 8 May 1995 in Canada. Born On 22 October 1995 in Egypt. on 8 December 1907 in Teheran, Mr. Elias embraced the Baha'i Iran, in 1925 she married Musa Faith at the age of 14 in Egypt Bam!ni, who was later appointed after learning about it from his a Hand of the Cause, and bore brother and uncle. In the 1930s, six children. In Iran, Mrs. Banani he becatne the first Baha'i to was one of the early members of pioneer to Ethiopia, where he the National Committee for the helped fonn the first Local Spiri- Advancement of Women. At the tual Assembly of Addis Ababa instruction of Shoghi Effendi, and arrange for the translation of the Banani family transferred its Baha 'u 'llah and the New Era inresidence to Dezashoub, Iran, to Amharic. After returning to from 1943 to 1945, in order to Egypt, he settled again in Ethiteach the Baha'i Faith. They pio- opia with his wife Fahima and neered to Uganda in 1951, where two children, and in 1954 they Hand of the Cause of God Banani pioneered to French Somaliland passed away in 1971. From 1974 (now Djibouti); for this service to 1976, Mrs. Banani pioneered Mr. and Mrs. Elias were named in the Canary Islands. She then Knights of Baha'u'llah. In the moved to Canada, serving as a tnid-1960s he pioneered again, to member of the Local Assembly Libya. He eventually settled in of Toronto. She continued to Egypt, traveling to countries of
OBITUARIES
the Middle East in order to visit pioneers to Africa, moving first and encourage fellow Baha'is. to Liberia in 19 51, to Morocco in 1954, and then back to Liberia in Ruth Byford 1962. In 1953 he spent 45 days at On 10 January 1996 in Canada. the World Centre, assisting the Ruth Monk was born in Nova Guardian with the developtnent Scotia, Canada, on 12 June 1930, of Baha'i properties. He later and studied nursing and psy- served on a nutnber of national chiatric nursing. She becarne a cotntnittees and Local Spiritual Baha'i in Montreal in 1956 and Assetnblies in the United States, tnarried Glen Byford in 1957; to- and for nearly twelve years he gether they raised two children. was a metnber of the National The Eyfords served the Baha'i Spiritual Assetnbly of the Hacommunities in Iceland, India, waiian Islands. and various locations in Canada and settled finally in St. Albert, Eileen Dewar Hill Alberta, in 1970. Mrs. Byford On 23 October 1995 in Guyana. traveled extensively throughout Born in 1914, she married James Canada, teaching others about Hill in 1939, learned about the the Baha'i Faith and working to Baha'i Faith from her sister and assist and strengthen various became a Baha'i in 1956. She Baha'i communities. She served was a regular participant in the as an Auxiliary Board member activities of the Guyanese Baha'i and as chairman of the National community and served on the Assembly of Canada. She was first Regional Assembly of the also a member at different times Guianas, which fonned in 1970, of a number of Local Assemblies and on the National Assembly of and national and local cotnmit- Guyana when it came into being tees. Mrs. Byford's service to the in 1976. She took pains to share community at large, including the Baha'i Faith with others in her work as a nurse counselor her native country, and in 1983 with the Alberta Alcohol and she becatne Guyana's first inter- Drug Abuse Commission, was national pioneer by settling in recognized by the tnayor of St. Grenada for 11 years, where she Albert and a member of the Leg- was elected to the first National islative Assembly in November Assetnbly in 1984, serving as its 1995. treasurer. Mrs. Hill was elected to the Local Spiritual Assembly William R. Foster of Georgetown, Guyana, every On 18 May 1995 in Hawaii. Wil- year for sotne 25 years, and she liam Foster, born in the United also served on that of Springs/ States on 6 June 1912, became Woodlands, Grenada for about a Baha'i in the early 1930s. He nine years. In Grenada she was was the first African-American on various national committees, Baha'i to respond to the call for and she was also the librarian for
many of the years she spent in worked as a commercial artist. that country. Mrs. Hill served the After she etnbraced the Baha'i Society for the Blind from 1958 Faith in 1951, she pioneered in until1980. She had one son. Canada itself, first to Saskatoon, in Saskatchewan, and then to sev- Marion Hofman eral other communities, to help On 5 December 1995 in the Unit- form Local Spiritual Assemblies. ed Kingdotn. Born on 17 May She was designated a Knight 1910 in Visalia, California, in ofBaha'u'llah by Shoghi Effendi the United States, Marion Holley for her service in fulfilling the joined the Baha'i cotnmunity in extretnely difficult pioneering the early 1930s. She attended both goal of Anticosti Island, in 1956. Stanford University and the Uni- Mary married Ken McCulloch in versity of California, Berkeley, 1958, and together they moved and worked as a budget analyst to Baker Lake, in the Northwest for the city of San Francisco in Territories; there they shared the the 1940s. She was appointed to Baha'i Faith with the first Inuit theN ational Teaching Comtnit- Baha'i in Canada. They also estee of the United States during tablished the Baker Lake Baha'i the first Seven Year Plan, and House and arranged for Baha'i after tnarrying David Hofman in literature to be translated into 1945 she served on the National Inuktitut. In her later years, Mrs. Spiritual Assembly of the British McCulloch was involved with Isles (1945-1963), its National translating Baha'i literature into Teaching Committee (1945-50), Ulaainian. The McCullochs had and the first Auxiliary Board of one daughter. Europe, appointed in 1954. From 1963 to 1988 she served at the James Moncho Baha'i World Centre, where her On 5 September 1995 in Botswahusband was a tnetnber of the na. J atnes Moncho was born on Universal House of Justice. She 30 July 1907 in Ganyesa, South continued to work frmn the Holy Africa; in 193 8 he tnarried Stella Land for some twelve years as Motshedi. He becatne a Baha'i in tnanager of George Ronald Pub- 1955 and in 1957 he was elected lisher in the United Kingdom. to the first Local Assembly of The Hofmans had two children. Mafeking, in South Africa. That satne year the Monchos moved Mary McCulloch to Botswana and thus became the On 7 January 1996 in Canada. first Baha'is of that country. Mr. Mary Zabolotny was born on Moncho is retnetnbered for his 9 November 1918 in Winnipeg, translations of the Baha'i sacred Manitoba, Canada, to Ukrainian writings into Setswana; in 1982 itntnigrants. She studied at both he was atnong the first Baha'is to the University of Manitoba and travel to Tsabong, in the Kalathe Winnipeg School of Art and hari Desert, to share with others
OBITUARIES
the tnessage of Baha'u'llah. He serve the Baha'i Faith, and then worked as a school inspector and again to Neyshabur in 1952. In founded tnany schools in the 1953 he tnarried Bahereh Sharifi. Tsabong region. He also began They pioneered to Indonesia in feeding programs in schools in 1954, where he served for the places where hunger kept child- remaining 41 years of his life, ren from attending and in poor offering his medical skills to the and remote areas. Mr. and Mrs. Indonesian people through his Moncho had four children. position as an Indonesian civil servant within the Department of Juana Ortuno Lopez Health-forgoing an expatriate On 1 August 1995 in Spain. One work contract to take a position of the founding members of the with very little financial remu- Iberian Baha'i community, she neration. He worked in public accepted the Faith in 1947. She hospitals in all the towns and was elected the chairperson of villages in which they resided, the Local Spiritual Assembly of operating a private practice in Madrid, and then left Spain, the evenings in order to support where she had been born in 1905 his wife and their six children. in Cieza, Murcia, to pioneer in In recognition of these tnedical Cuba. There she served on a services, Dr. Soraya received a number of Local Assemblies at c01n1nendation from the governdifferent times and was elected a tnent of Indonesia. His various tnetnber of the first National professional postings took him Spiritual Assetnbly of the Greater and his fatnily to five different Antilles and then later of the first localities within the first three National Spiritual Assetnbly of years of their life in Indonesia; in Cuba. During the years after her 1957 they settled in Bojonegoro, return to Spain in 1963 she was East Java, where he lived until elected to various Local Spiritual his death. Dr. Soraya served on Assemblies over the years. Her the Local Assetnbly of Jakarta, contributions to the Faith also and his service for a period as a include a translation of the Seven tnetnber of the Auxiliary Board Valleys fr01n French into Spanish took him to nutnerous Baha'i in 1953. c01nmunities within Indonesia, as well as a great many countries Nurredin Soraya elsewhere in Asia. Dr. Soraya On 15 October 1995 in Indo- assisted with the translation of nesia. Born on 6 March 1920 in Baha'i writings into Indonesian Isfahan, Iran, Nurredin Soraya from Arabic and Persian. becatne a Baha'i in 1945. He obtained his degree as a tnedical Habib Taherzadeh doctor frotn the University of On 18 August 199 5 in Brazil. Teheran in 1949 and tnoved to Born to a Baha'i family ofYazd, Baluchistan, in 1950, in order to Iran, on 4 January 1908, Habib
Taherzadeh attained the presence Ama Dahan Talon of 'Abdu'l-Baha at the early age On 24 May 1995 in the Philipof five, upon his fatnily' s visit to pines. In 1971, Atna Dahan Talon the Holy Land in 1913. He tnar- accepted the Baha'i Faith, and ried Farrokhlegha Missaghieh in he becmne a pillar of the Baha'i 1941, and they had two children. cotnmunity within his native Frotn 1950 to 1955, Mr. Taher- Mangyan tribe. Although he had zadeh served as a tnetnber of the no fonnal education, he consistranslation cotntnittee of the tently taught the Baha'i Faith in National Assetnbly of Iran. From the Mangyan areas, served as 1953 to 1954, he and his fatnily a tnetnber of a Local Spiritual pioneered to Turkey, and then in Assetnbly and an assistant to an 1955 they were the first Iranian Auxiliary Board tnember, and Baha'is to tnove to Brazil. Frotn constantly brought inspiration to 1955 to 1957, Mr. Taherzadeh his fellow Filipino Baha'is. Mr. served as a tnetnber of the Local Talon and his wife, Hunhon, had Assembly of Rio de Janeiro, and five children. in 1957 he was elected to the first Local Spiritual Assembly Leala Tasi of Curitiba, to which he was re- On 4 August 1995 in Satnoa. elected for tnany years. In 1961, One of the highest chiefs of his he becmne a tnetnber of the first village, Leala Tasi becatne a National Spiritual Assembly of tnember of the Baha'i com- Brazil. Mr. Taherzadeh was a tnunity in 1968 and served it the noted translator, a scholar, and rest of his life. He served on the an Esperantist. He worked in the National Spiritual Assembly of Research Department of the Uni- Satnoa, as well as the Local versal House of Justice from Spiritual Assetnbly of Puleia. He 1970 to 1977, during which time was a tnarriage officer for the he translated the Tablets which island of Savaii and offered his cotnprise Selections from the land for construction of its first Writings of the Bab and Tablets Baha'i center. He and his wife, ofBaha 'u 'llah Revealed after the Ta' atni1o Leala, together raised Kitab-i-Aqdas. He also authored eight children. at the request of the Universal House of Justice a glossary and a description of a translation tnethodology based on the translations of Shoghi Effendi. He was a frequent traveler, visiting various places throughout the world to inspire and enrich the understanding of Baha'is and to share Baha'u'llah's teachings with others.
STATISTICS General Statistics
Worldwide Baha'i population More than 5 million Countries/dependent territories where 190 countries/ the Baha'i Faith is established 45 territories Continental Counsellors 81 Auxiliary Board members serving throughout the world 990
National/Regional Spiritual Assemblies 174 Local Spiritual Assemblies 17,148 Localities where Baha'is reside 121,058 Tribes, races and ethnic groups 2,112 represented in the Baha'i community Languages into which Baha'u'llah's writings have been translated 802
Baha'i Publishing Trusts 30
All statistics as ofMay 1995
Geographic distribution of Local Spiritual Assemblies by continent
knericas 4515 Europe 950
Australasia 901
Growth in the number of localities where Baha'is reside
120000
100000
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0 ~M~mmmmllllll 1954 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1C85 1990 1995
STATISTICS
Growth in the number of National and Regional Spiritual Assemblies
Social and Economic Development Baha'i development activities are initiated either by Baha'i administrative institutions or by individuals or groups of believers. Together, these activities contribute to a global process of learning about a Baha'i approach to social and economic development. They presently fall into three general categories.
Grassroots Activity Most Baha'i social and economic development effmis are attempts by Baha'is in villages and towns around the world to address the problems and challenges faced by their localities through the application of spiritual principles enshrined in the Baha'i Teachings. They may begin in the Baha'i community or as suppmi of Baha'is for the development initiatives of other organizations, but all extend their benefits to the well-being of the society as a whole. It is estimated that in 1995-96 there were some 1,350 such activities of vmying duration and levels of complexity which addressed a wide range of issues including education, the environment, agriculture, health, the advancement of women, and the elimination of prejudice.
Sustained Independent Projects A second level ofBaha'i social and economic development activities is represented by the work of about 270 ongoing projects. The vast majority are schools, including preprimary, primary, secondary, and post secondary educational institutions. They also include small hospitals, dispensaries and clinics, vocational training centers, and radio stations. Some address such specific concerns as race unity, equality between women and men, microenterprise, immunization and primaty health care, literacy, and tree-planting.
Organizations with Integrated Action Some Baha'i development efforts have achieved the stature of development organizations with relatively complex programatic structures and significant spheres of influence. These organizations, 34 in number and located in all continents of the globe, systematically train human resources and manage a number of lines of action to address problems of local communities and regions in a coordinated, interdisciplinary manner.
DIRECTORY
Asociaci6n de Estudios Baha'is- Asociaci6n de Estudios Baha'is- Chile Ecuador c/o Casilla 3731 c/o Peter Newton, secretary Santiago 1 Apartado 1142 Chile Cuenca Ecuador Asociaci6n de Estudios Baha'is- Colombia Asociaci6n de Estudios Baha'isc/o Asamblea Espiritual Nacional de Puerto Rico los Baha'is de Colombia c/o Cesar Reyes, secretary Apartado Aereo 51387 Chemistry Dept., University of Bogota 12 Puerto Rico Colombia Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00708 USA Asociaci6n de Estudios Baha'is de Espana Associa~ao de Estudos Baha'is do c/o Arash Arj omandi Rad Brasil c/Pep Ventura, 57 1 C Caixa Postal No. 11019 ES-08810 Sant Pere de Ribes 80421 Curitiba-Parana Barcelona Brazil Spain
Association d'Etudes Baha'ies Association for Baha'i Studies- Europe Francophone Japan c/o Centre Baha'i c/o Tokyo Baha'i Center 24 route de Malagnou 7-2-13 Shinjuku CH-1208 Geneva Shinjuku-ku Switzerland Tokyo 160 Japan Association for Baha'i Studies- Australia Association for Baha'i Studiesc/o Colin Dibdin, secretary Malaysia P.O. Box 319 c/o The Spiritual Assembly of Rosebery, NSW 2018 the Baha'is of Malaysia Australia 4 Lorong Titiwangsa 5 Setapak Association for Baha'i Studies- 53000 Kuala Lumpur East, Central and Southern Malaysia Africa c/o C. Rouhani, secretary Association for Baha'i Studies- P.O. Box 82549 New Zealand Mombasa c/o The National Spiritual Assembly Kenya of the Baha'is ofNew Zealand P.O. Box 21-551 Association for Baha'i Studies- Henderson, Auckland English-Speaking Europe New Zealand Fariba Hedayati, secretary c/o 27 Rutland Gate Association for Baha'i Studies- London North America SW71PD 34 Copernicus Street England Ottawa, Ontario KIN 7K4 Canada Association for Baha'i Studies- Ghana Chapter Association for Baha'i Studiesc/o The National Spiritual Assembly Russia of the Baha'is of Ghana Uralskaya St. 6-1-66 P.O. Box 7098 Moscow 107207 Accra-Nmih Russia Ghana Association for Baha'i Studies- Association for Baha'i Studies- Trinidad and Tobago India c/o The National Spiritual Assembly c/o Chetan Parikh of the Baha'is of Trinidad and 2 Akash Deep, Peston Sagar Road 3 Tobago Chembur, Bombay 400 089 P.O. Box 755 India Port of Spain Trinidad, West Indies
DIRECTORY
Association for Baha'i Studies- Baha'i Health Agency Venezuela c/o 27 Rutland Gate c/o Donald R. Witzel London Apartado 934 SW7 1PD Barquisimeto, Edo. Lara United Kingdom 3001-A Venezuela Baha'i International Community, Haifa Offices: Association for Baha'i Studies- " Office of the Secretary-General West Africa "Office of Public Information c/o Farhang Tahzib, secretary P.O. Box 155 P.O. Box 2029 31 001 Haifa Marina-Lagos Israel Nigeria Baha'i International Community, Association Medicale Baha'ie New York Offices: c/o Mirabelle Week • United Nations Office 26 me de Paris • Office for the Advancement of F-78560 Paris Women France • Office of the Environment 866 United Nations Plaza, Associazione Italiana per gli Studi Suite 120 Baha'i New York, NY 10017-1822 c/o Assemblea Spirituale Nazionale USA dei Baha'i d'Italia Via della F ontan ella 4 Baha'i International Community, I-00187 Rome Geneva Office: Italy • United Nations Office Route des Morillons 15 Bahaa Esperanto-Ligo (BEL) CH-1218 Grand-Saconnex P.O. Kesto 500133 Geneva D-60391 Frankfurt Switzerland Germany Baha'i International Community, Baha'i Association for Arts Paris Office: Dintel20 • Office of Public Information 7333 MC 45 rue Pergolese Apeldoom F-75116 Paris Netherlands France Baha'i Computer and Baha'i International Health Communications Association Agency webmaster@www.bcca.org P.O. Box 510 http://www. be ca. org Westmount, Quebec H3Z 2T6 Canada
Baha'i Justice Society Health for Humanity 6065 Lake Fonest Drive, Suite 200 467 Jackson Street Atlanta, GA 30328 Glencoe, IL 60022 USA USA
Baha'i Medical Association of Hong Kong Baha'i Professional Canada Society Box 143, RR #2 C-6, 11th Floor, Hankow Centre Dugald, Manitoba ROE OKO Middle Road, Tsim Sha Tsui Canada Kowloon Hong Kong Baha'i Office of the Environment for Taiwan International Association of 149-13 Hsin Sheng South Road Baha'i Publishers and Section 1 Distributors Taipei 10626 c/o Baha'i Publishing Tmst Taiwan 6 Mount Pleasant ROC Oakham Leicestershire Centro de Estudios Baha'is, LEIS 6HU Argentina United Kingdom Otamendi 215 1405 Buenos Aires, C.F. Landegg Academy Argentina CH-9405 Wienacht/AR Switzerland European Baha'i Business Forum c/o George Starcher, secretary Mottahedeh Development 35 avenue Jean-Jaures Services F-73000 Chambery 750 Hammond Drive, Bldg. 12, France Suite 300 Atlanta, Georgia 30328 European Baha'i Youth Council USA 27 Hampstead Hill Gardens London World Community Foundation NW3 2PJ 315 West 70th Street, United Kingdom Suite 9B New York, NY 10023 Gesellschaft fiir Baha'i-Studien, USA Executive Board c/o Heinz Hample-W affenthal Maria-Spotl-Weg 11 A-6130 Schwaz Austria
DIRECTORY
Baha'i Publishing Trusts ARGENTINA HONG KONG Editorial Baha'i Indolatino- Baha'i Publishing Trust americana C-6, 11th Floor, Hankow Centre Otamendi 215 Middle Road, Tsim Sha Tsui 1405 Buenos Aires, C.F. Kowloon Argentina Hong Kong
AUSTRALIA INDIA Baha'i Publications Australia Baha'i Publishing Trust P.O. Box285 P.O. Box 19 Mona Vale NSW 2103 New Delhi 110 001 Australia India
BELGIUM ITALY Maison d'Editions Baha'ies Casa Editrice Baha'i 205 rue du Trone Via Filippo Turati, 9 B-1050 Brussels I-00040 Ariccia (Rome) Belgium Italy
BRAZIL JAPAN Editora Baha'i do Brasil Baha'i Publishing Trust Rua Conego Eugenio Leite, 350 7-2-13 Shinjulcu 05414 - Sao Paulo - SP Shinjuku-ku Brazil Tokyo 160 Japan COTED'IVOIRE Maison d'Editions Baha'ies KENYA 08 B.P. 879 Baha'i Publishing Agency Abidjan 08 P.O. Box 47562 Cote d'Ivoire Nairobi Kenya FIJI ISLANDS Baha'i Publishing Trust KOREA P.O. Box 2007 Baha'i Publishing Trust Government Buildings C.P.O. Box 991 Suva Seoul 100-609 Fiji Islands Korea
GERMANY LEBANON* Baha'i-Verlag Eppsteiner Strasse 89 MALAYSIA* D-65719 Hofheim Germany * Address communications to Baha'i World Centre, P.O. Box 155, 31 001 Haifa, Israel.
NETHERLANDS RUSSIAN FEDERATION Stichting Baha'i Literatuur Unity Baha'i Publishing Trust Riouwstraat 27 Bolshaya Morskaya Str. 53-17 2585 GR The Hague St. Petersburg Netherlands Russia
NIGERIA SPAIN Baha'i Publishing Trust Editorial Baha'i de Espana P.O. Box 2029 Bonaventura Castellet 17 Marina-Lagos ES-08222 Terrassa Nigeria Spain
NORWAY SWEDEN Baha'i Forlag Baha'i Forlaget AB Drammensveien 110 A Box468 N-0273 Oslo S-194 04 Upplands Vasby Norway Sweden
PAKISTAN* TAIWAN Baha'i Publishing Trust PHILIPPINES #149-13 Hsin Sheng South Road Baha'i Publishing Ttust Section 1 P.O. Box 4323 Taipei 10626 1099 Manila Taiwan Philippines ROC POLAND UGANDA Baha'i Publishing Trust Baha'i Publishing Trust ul. Nowogrodzka 18A/4 P.O. Box 2662 P0-00-511 Warsaw Kampala Poland Uganda PORTUGAL UNITED KINGDOM Editora Baha'i de Pmiugal Baha'i Publishing Trust Avenida Ventura Terra, No. 1 6 Mount Pleasant 1600 Lisbon Oald1am Pmiugal Leicestershire LEIS 6HU ROMANIA United Kingdom Casa de Editura ~i Tipografia Baha'i UNITED STATES C.P. 124 O.P. 1 Baha'i Publishing Trust R0-3400 Cluj-Napoca 415 Linden Avenue Romania Wilmette, IL 60091 USA
* Address communications to Baha'i World Centre, P.O. Box 155, 31 001 Haifa, Israel.
Selected EW PUBLICATIONS
'Abdu'l-Baha in America: Agnes Parsons' Diary Edited by Richard Hollinger with a foreword by Sandra Hutchinson. Los Angeles: Kalimat Press, 1996. 167 pp. An intimate day-by-day account kept by Baha'i Agnes Parsons of 'Abdu'l- Baha's stay in Washington, D.C., and in Dublin, New Hampshire, during His journey to America in 1912.
Arising to Serve The Ruhi Institute. Riviera Beach, Florida: Palabra Publications, 1995. 80 pp. The second in a series of books written by the Ruhi Institute in Colombia to assist Baha'is to gain a progressively greater understanding of the Baha'i writings and to prepare them for sharing their Faith with others.
Baha'u'llah: The Great Announcement of the Qur'an Muhammad Mustafa. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Baha'iPublishing Trust, 1995. 115 pp. A revised and expanded version of a book originally written in 1959 to assist English-speaking readers to understand issues frequently raised by Muslims with regard to the Baha'i Faith.
Created Rich: How Spiritual Attitudes and Material Means Work Together to Achieve Prosperity Patrick Barker. Happy Camp, California: Naturegraph Publishers, 1995. 207 pp. A guide to the spiritual and practical principles of wealth acquisition written primarily for Baha'is but suitable for anyone seeking to become financially independent.
Developing Genius: Getting the Most Out of Group Decision-Making John Kolstoe, with illustrations by Trevor R.J. Finch. Oxford: George Ronald, 1995. 260 pp. The Baha'i writings and the author's years of experience in education and business serve as the basis for this guide to the principles of effective consultation. Ethel Jenner Rosenberg: The Life and Times of England's Outstanding Pioneer Worker Robert Weinberg. Oxford: George Ronald, 1995. 336 pp. Using Ethel Rosenberg's diaries and letters, minutes and notes from the meetings of the first Baha'i institutions in Britain and other original documents, the author explores the life of the first Englishwoman in her native country to accept Baha'u'llah as a Manifestation of God.
Fire and Gold: Benefitting From Life's Tests Compiled by Brian Kurzius. Oxford: George Ronald, 1995. 368 pp. This volume, which includes passages long out of print, is a compilation of quotations from the Baha'i writings on the purpose and source of the tests faced by individuals and society and how to find comfort, inner peace and spiritual upliftment in the face of them.
Foundations for a Spiritual Education National Baha'i Education Task Force. Wilmette, Illinois: Baha'i Publishing Ttust, 1995. 208 pp. This work provides a selection of extracts from the Baha'i writings on the nature, purpose, content, and process of spiritual education and offers an initial framework for carrying these principles into practice.
The God of Buddha Jamshed Fozdar. Rome: Casa Editrice Baha'i, 1996. 184 pp. Using the Buddha's own words concerning the recurring manifestation of the Supreme in the material world, the author discusses the place of Buddhism in the panorama of ever-recurring religious revelation.
The Greatness Which Might Be Theirs: Reflections on the Agenda and Platform for Action for the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women: Equality, Development and Peace Baha'i International Community Office for the Advancement ofWomen, 1995. 87 pp. A collection of essays on topics such as education, health, violence, human rights and the girl child prepared on the occasion of the Fourth World Conference on Women.
Jesus Christ in Sacred Baha'i Literature: A Compilation with Introductory Observations by Michael Sours Compiled by Michael Sours. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1995. 120 pp. A compilation ofthe writings ofBaha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha on the station of Christ and the transfonning power of His teachings.
NEW pUBLICATIONS
The Law of Love Enshrined: Selected Essays John Hatcher and William Hatcher. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996. 296 pp. In a selection of nine essays based on themes found in Balui'u'lhih's Most Holy Book, the Kitab-i-Aqdas, a professor of English literature and a mathematician offer arguments for the existence, unity and uniqueness of God and for God's role in the evolution of the human species.
Meditation Wendi Momen. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996. 144 pp. This volume briefly describes a number of techniques and practices that one might employ to develop the faculty of meditation and provides verses from the Baha'i writings upon which to focus.
Moments with Baha'u'llah: Memoirs of the Hand of the Cause of God 'fara~u'llah Samandari Translated by Mehdi Samandari and Marzieh Gail. Los Angeles: Kalim:it Press, 1995. 76 pp. Hand of the Cause of God Tara~'llah Samandari, who undertook his first pilgrimage during Baha'u'llah's lifetime and was present at the time of Baha'u'llah's ascension, recounts his many experiences in the presence of this precious Being.
The Odyssey of the Soul Artemus Lamb. Oxford: George Ronald, 1995. 96 pp. Drawing on the literature of the Baha'i Faith, the author charts the progress of the soul from its birth, through its journey in the physical world, to the world of the spirit after death, looking particularly at the nature of the soul, the value of prayer and meditation, the purpose of hardships, and immortality.
Portraits of Some Baha'i Women O.Z. Whitehead. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996. 184 pp. Portraits of seven Baha'i women-Emogene Hoagg, Claudia Coles, Anna Kunz, Amelia Collins, Kate Dwyer, Ella Bailey, and Ella Quant-whose services to the Baha'i Faith have spanned the twentieth century.
The Pupil of the Eye: African Americans in the World Order of Baha'u'llah Bonnie J. Taylor. Riviera Beach, Florida: Palabra Publications, 1995. 200 pp. Excerpts from the Baha'i scriptures relating to the important role played by people of African descent in the progress of the Baha'i Faith, the need for racial unity and the dangers of racism, the contributions of African Americans to the Baha'i Faith and the destiny of African peoples.
Sacred Moments: Daily Meditations on the Virtues Linda Kavelin Popov. Fountain Hills, Arizona, and Chicago: Virtues Communications, 1996. 440 pp. A simple tool for daily reflection and meditation which weaves together the wisdom found in the world's religions, personal anecdotes, and quotations from celebrities, philosophers, and average people.
Sexual Morality and the World Religions Geoffrey Parrinder. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1996. 290 pp. This revised and updated edition includes a chapter exploring the Baha'i views on chastity, contraception and abortion, marriage and divorce, and the status of women.
A Short History of the Baha'i Faith Peter Smith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1996. 168 pp. An introduction to the history and global development of the Baha'i Faith up to the present time.
So Great An Honor: Becoming a Baha'i National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States. Wilmette, Illinois: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1995. 81 pp. Designed primarily as a welcoming guide for new members of the Baha'i community, this book familiarizes readers with the essential truths of the Baha'i Faith, gives a glimpse ofBaha'i history, discusses the Covenants ofBaha'u'llah and 'Abdu'l-Baha, and outlines the features of the Baha'i Administrative Order.
The Style of the Kitab-i-Aqdas: Aspects of the Sublime Suheil Bushrui. Bethesda, Maryland: University Press of Maryland, 1995. 74 pp. Professor Suheil Bushrui, who holds the Baha'i Chair for World Peace at the University of Maryland, assists the non-Arabic speaking reader to understand the distinguishing characteristics of this most sacred of Baha'i texts as it appeared in its original Arabic form.
Symbol and Secret: Qur'an Commentary in Baha'u'llah's Kitab-i-iqan. Studies in the Babi and Baha'i Religions, Volume Seven Christopher Buck. Los Angeles: Kalimat Press, 1995. 326 pp. The author offers the results of his research into the revelation of the Kitab-i- Iqan and the early history of its publication, addresses criticism of the Book, and analyzes the rhetorical techniques used by Baha'u'llah.
Ultimate Visions: Reflections on the Religions We Choose Edited by Martin Forward. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1995. 288 pp. A collection of essays by leading theologians and scholars of many different faiths, including the Baha'i Faith, on which religion they choose to live by, and why.
The following list has been prepared to provide a sampling of works conveying the spiritual truths, social principles, and history of the Baha'i Faith. It is by no means exhaustive. For a more complete record of Baha'i literature, see Bibliography of English-language Works on the Babi and Baha'i Faiths, 1844-1985, compiled by William P. Collins (Oxford: George Ronald, 1990).
SELECTED WRITINGS OF BAHA 'U'LLAH
The KiUib-i-Aqdas The Most Holy Book, Baha'u'lhih's charter for a new world civilization. Written in Arabic in 1873, the volume's first authorized English translation was released in 1993.
The Kihib-i-iqan The Book of Certitude was written prior to Baha'u'llah's declaration of His mission as an explanation of progressive revelation and a proof of the station of the Bab.
The Hidden Words ofBaha'u'lhih Written in the form of a compilation of moral aphorisms, these brief verses distill the spiritual guidance of all the Divine Revelations of the past.
Tablets of Baha'u'llah revealed after the Kitab-i-Aqdas A compilation of tablets revealed between 1873 and 1892 which enunciate important principles of Baha'u'lhih's Revelation, reaffirm truths He previously proclaimed, elaborate on some of His laws, reveal further prophecies, and establish subsidiary ordinances to supplement the provisions of the Kitab-i- Aqdas.
Gleanings from the Writings ofBaha'u'llah A selection of Baha'u'lh1h's sacred writings translated and compiled by the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith to convey the spirit of Baha'u'llah's life and teachings.
WRITINGS OF THE BAB
Selections from the Writings of the Bab The first compilation of the Bab's writings to be translated into English.
SELECTED WRITINGS OF 'ABDU'L-BAHA
Paris Talks: Addresses given by 'Abdu'l-Baha in Paris in 1911-1912 Addresses given by 'Abdu'l-Baha to a wide variety of audiences in Paris in 1911-1912, explaining the basic principles ofthe Baha'i Faith.
The Secret of Divine Civilization A message addressed to the rulers and people of Persia in 1875 illuminating the causes of the fall and rise of civilization and elucidating the spiritual character of true civilization.
Selections from the Writings of 'Abdu'l-Baha A compilation of selected letters from 'Abdu'l-Baha's extensive correspondence on a wide variety of topics, including the purpose of life, the nature of love, and the development of character.
Some Answered Questions A translation of 'Abdu'l-BaM's answers to a series of questions posed to Him during interviews with Laura Clifford Barney between 1904 and 1906. The topics covered include the influence of the Prophets in the evolution of humanity, the Baha'i perspective on Christian doctrine, and the powers and conditions ofthe Manifestations of God.
BAHA:f READING LIST
SELECTED WRITINGS OF SHOGHI EFFENDI
God Passes By A detailed history of the first one hundred years of the Baha'i Faith.
The Promised Day Is Come A commentary on Baha'u'llah's letters to the kings and rulers of the world.
The World Order ofBaha'u'llah: Selected Letters An exposition on the relation between the Baha'i community and the entire process of social evolution under the dispensation ofBaha'u'llah, in the form of a series of letters from the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith to the Baha'is of the West between 1929 and 1936.
INTRODUCTORY WORKS
Baha'u'llah Baha'i Intetnational Community, Office ofPublic Information, 1991. A brief statement detailing Bahci'u'llah's life and work issued on the occasion of the centenary of His passing.
Baha'u'llah and the New Era John Esslemont. 5th rev. papered. Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1990. The first comprehensive account of the Baha'i Faith, written in 1923 and updated for subsequent editions.
The Baha'i Faith: The Emerging Global Religion WilliamS. Hatcher and J. Douglas Martin. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1985. Textbook providing an overview of Baha'i history, teachings, administrative structures, and community life.
All Things Made New John Ferraby. 2d rev. ed. London: Baha'i Publishing Ttust, 1987. A comprehensive outline of the Baha'i Faith.
Most of the books listed above have been published by various Baha'i Publishing Trusts and are available in bookshops, libraries, or from the Trusts. Please see the Directory for addresses.
GLOSSARY
'Abdu'l-Baha: (1844-1921) Son of Baha'u'llah, designated His successor and authorized interpreter ofHis writings. Named 'Abbas after His grandfather, 'Abdu'l-Baha was known to the general public as 'Abbas Effendi. Baha'u'llah gave Him such titles as "the Most Great Branch," "the Mystery of God," and "the Master." After Baha'u'llah's passing, He chose the name 'Abdu'l-Baha, meaning "Servant of Baha 'u'llah."
Administrative Order: The system of administration as conceived by Baha'u'llah, formally established by 'Abdu'l-Baha, and realized during the Guardianship of Shoghi Effendi. It consists, on the one hand, of a series of elected councils, universal, national and local, in which are invested legislative, executive, and judicial powers over the Baha'i community, and, on the other hand, of eminent and devoted Baha'is appointed for the specific purpose of propagation and protection of the Faith under the guidance of the Head of that Faith, the Universal House of Justice.
Amatu'l-Baha Rul_liyyih Khanum: Mary Sutherland Maxwell, an eminent North American Baha'i who became the wife of Shoghi
Effendi Rabb{mi, Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, in 1937, after which she became lmown as Rul;liyyih Khanum Rabbani. (Amatu'l-Baha is a title meaning "Handmaiden ofBaha'u'llah.") She served as the Guardian's secretary during his lifetime and was appointed a Hand of the Cause of God in 1952. She is the most prominent dignitary of the Baha'i community.
Arc: An arc cut into Mount Carmel in Haifa, Israel; along this pathway the international administrative buildings of the Baha'i Faith are being built.
Auxiliary Boards: An institution created by Shoghi Effendi in 1954 to assist the Hands of the Cause of God. When the institution of the Continental Boards of Counsellors was established in 1968 by the Universal House of Justice, the Auxiliary Boards were placed under its direction.
Bab, the: The title, meaning "Gate," assumed by Siyyid 'Ali-Mul;lammad, the Prophet-Founder of the Babi Faith and the Forerunner of Baha'u'llah. Born 20 October 1819, the Bab proclaimed Himself to be the Promised One of Islam and announced that His mission was to alert the people to the imminent advent of "Him Whom God shall make manifest," namely, Baha'u'llah. Because of these claims, the Bab was executed by order ofNa~iri'd-Din Shah on 9 July 1850.
Baha'i Era: The period of the Baha'i calendar beginning with the Declaration of the Bab on 23 May 1844, and expected to last until the next appearance of a Manifestation (Prophet) of God after the expiration of at least one thousand years.
Baha'i International Community: A name used generally in reference to the worldwide Baha'i community and officially in that community's external relations. In the latter context, the Baha'i International Community is an association of the National Spiritual Assemblies throughout the world and functions as an international nongovernmental organization. Its offices include its Secretariat at the Baha'i World Centre, a United Nations Office in New York with a branch in Geneva, an Office of Public Information, an Office of the Environment, and an Office for the Advancement of Women.
GLOSSARY
Baha'i World Centre: The spiritual and administrative center of the Baha'i Faith, located in the twin cities of Acre and Haifa, in Israel.
Baha'u'llah: Title assumed by Mirza I:Iusayn-'AH, Founder of the Baha'i Faith. Born on 12 November 1817, He declared His mission as the Promised One of all Ages in April 1863 and passed away in Acre, Palestine, on 29 May 1892 after 40 years of imprisonment, banishment, and house arrest. Baha'u'llah's writings are considered by Baha'is to be direct revelation from God.
Consultation: A form of discussion between individuals and within groups which requires the subjugation of egotism so that all ideas can be shared and evaluated with frankness, courtesy, and openness of mind, and decisions arrived at can be wholeheartedly supported. Its guiding principles were elaborated by 'Abdu '1-Baha.
Continental Boards of Counsellors: An institution created in 1968 by the Universal House of Justice to extend into the future the work of the institution of the Hands of the Cause of God, particularly its appointed functions of protection and propagation. With the passing of Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, there was no way for additional Hands of the Cause to be appointed. The duties of the Counsellors include directing the Auxiliary Boards in their respective areas, advising and collaborating with National Spiritual Assemblies, and keeping the Universal House of Justice informed concerning the conditions of the Faith in their areas. Counsellors are appointed for terms of five years.
Convention: A gathering called at a regional, national, or international level for consultation on matters affecting the welfare of the Baha'i community and for the purpose, respectively, of electing delegates to a National Convention, electing the members of aNational Spiritual Assembly, or electing the members of the Universal House of Justice.
German Templer Colony: Group of houses with red-tiled roofs at the foot of Mount Carmel that once housed members of the Society of the Temple, founded in Germany in the mid-1800s. Templers foregathered in Haifa in 1863 to await the second coming of Christ.
Hands of the Cause of God: Individuals appointed first by Baha'u'lh1h, and others named later by Shoghi Effendi, who were charged with the specific duties of protecting and propagating the Faith. With the passing of Shoghi Effendi there is no further possibility for appointing Hands of the Cause; hence, in order to extend into the future the important functions of propagation and protection, the Universal House of Justice in 1968 created Continental Boards of Counsellors and in 1973 established the International Teaching Centre which coordinates their work.
Holy Days: Eleven days commemorating significant Baha'i anniversaries, on nine of which work is suspended.
I.Inququ'lhih: Arabic for "the Right of God." As instituted in the Kitab-i-Aqdas, payment to "the Authority in the Cause to whom all must tum" (at present, the Universal House of Justice) of 19 percent of what remains to one's personal income after one's essential expenses have been covered. Funds generated by the payment of I:Iuququ'llah are used for the promotion of the Faith and for the welfare of society.
International Teaching Centre: An institution established in 1973 by the Universal House of Justice to bring to fruition the work of the Hands of the Cause of God in the Holy Land and to provide for its extension into the future. The duties of the International Teaching Centre include coordinating, stimulating, and directing the activities of the Continental Boards of Counsellors and acting as liaison between them and the Universal House of Justice. The membership of the Teaching Centre comprises all the surviving Hands of the Cause and also nine Counsellors appointed by the Universal House of Justice. The seat of the International Teaching Centre is located at the Baha'i World Centre in Haifa, Israel.
Knight of Baha'u'lhih: Title initially given by Shoghi Effendi to those Baha'is who arose to open new territories to the Faith during the first year of the Ten Year Crusade ( 19 5 3-1963) and subsequently applied to those who first reached those remaining unopened territories at a later date.
Lesser Peace: A political peace to be established by the nations of the
GLOSSARY
world in order to bring about an end to war. Its establishment will prepare the way for the Most Great Peace, a condition of permanent peace and world unity to be founded on the spiritual principles and institutions of the World Order of Baha'u'lh1h and signalizing humanity's coming of age.
Local Spiritual Assembly: The local administrative body in the Baha'i Faith, ordained in the Kitab-i-Aqdas. The nine members are directly elected by secret ballot each year at Ri<;lvan from among the adult believers in a community.
Monument Gardens: Beautifully landscaped gardens at the heart of the Arc on Mount Carmel where befitting monuments have been erected over the graves of the daughter, wife, and youngest son of Baha'u'llah, and also the wife of 'Abdu'l-Baha.
Mount Carmel: The mountain spoken of by Isaiah as the "mountain of the Lord." Site of the Baha'i World Centre including several Baha'i holy places, the most important of which are the Shrine of the Bab and the Monument Gardens.
National Spiritual Assembly: The national administrative body in the Baha'i Faith, ordained in the Baha'i sacred writings, with authority over all activities and affairs of the Baha'i Faith throughout its area. Among its duties are to stimulate, unify, and coordinate the manifold activities of Local Spiritual Assemblies and of individual Baha'is within its jurisdiction. The members of National Spiritual Assemblies throughout the world constitute the electoral college for the Universal House of Justice. At Ri<;lvan 1995, there were 174 National or Regional Spiritual Assemblies. See also Regional Spiritual Assembly.
Nineteen Day Feast: The principal gathering in each local Baha'i community, every Baha'i month, for the threefold purpose of worship, consultation, and fellowship.
Pioneer: Any Baha'i who arises and leaves his or her home to journey to another country for the purpose of teaching the Baha'i Faith. "Homefront pioneer" is used to describe those who move to areas within their own country that have yet to be exposed to the Baha'i Faith or where the Baha'i community needs strengthening.
Regional Spiritual Assembly: An institution identical in function to the National Spiritual Assembly but including a number of countries or regions in its jurisdiction, often established as a precursor to the formation of a National Spiritual Assembly in each of the countries it encompasses.
Ri~van: Arabic for "Paradise." The twelve-day festival (from 21 April through 2 May) commemorating Baha'u'lh1h's declaration of His mission to His companions in 1863 in the Garden of Ri9van in Baghdad.
Shoghi Effendi Rabbanf: (1897-1957) The Guardian of the Baha'i Faith after the passing of 'Abdu'l-Baha in 1921, designated in His Will and Testament as His successor in interpreting the Baha'i writings and as Head of the Faith.
Shrine of Baha'u'llah: The resting place of Baha'u'llah's mortal remains, located near the city of Acre, Israel. The Shrine is the holiest spot on earth to Baha'is and a place of pilgrimage.
Shrine of the Bab: The resting place of the Bab's mortal remains, located on Mount Carmel in Haifa, Israel, a sacred site to Baha'is, and a place of pilgrimage.
Tablet: Divinely revealed scripture. In Baha'i scripture, the term is used to denote writings revealed by Baha'u'llah, the Bab, and 'Abdu'l- Baha.
Universal House of Justice: Head of the Baha'i Faith after the passing of Shoghi Effendi, supreme administrative body ordained by Baha'u'llah in the Kitab-i-Aqdas, His Book of Laws. The Universal House of Justice is elected every five years by the members of the National Spiritual Assemblies who gather at an International Convention. The House of Justice was elected for the first time in 1963 and occupied its permanent Seat on Mount Carmel in 1983.
Adapted from A Basic Baha'i Dictionary, Wendi Momen, ed. (Oxford: George Ronald, 1989).
INDEX
A Bahamas 92, 113 A Work/in OurHands79, 168,175 Bahiyyih Khanum 150 Abbott, Robert 181 Baltic States 15, 45, 48, 81, 122 'Abdu'l-Baha 6, 52, 60, 151, 155, 180, 186,207,209, Banani, Samiheh 312 210,213,218,232,235,236,237,264,268,269, Bangladesh 3, 115, 117, 166 276, 277, 278, 279 Barbados 77, 102, 175 selected writings of 332-333 Barber, Benjamin R. 224, 225, 226, 227 Advancement of Women, Offices for, national 80, 82, Barrow, Dame Nita, Governor-General of Barbados 83, 136, 148, 152 102 Ala'i, Suhayll82, 311-312 Beatrix, Queen of the Netherlands 95, 167 Alaska 52, 77, 86, 113, 157, 311 Belarus 15, 29, 43, 48, 49, 50, 80 Albania 15, 69, 98, 109,110, 131,179 Belcher, Rodney Lynn 182, 309-311 Amatu'l-Baha Rulfiyyih Kh{mum 37, 42, 46, 47, 67, Belgium 103, 105, 171 69, 70, 103, 132, 133 Belize 109, 164 American Samoa 172, 182, 311 Bellah, Robert N. 187, 188, 190, 204 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 172 Benin 112 Angola 66, 94 Bermuda 90, 92, 181 Antigua 136 Blums Community Service Award 177 Argentina 79, 82, Ill Boeykens, Lily, UN Commission on the Status of Annenia 15, 29, 43, 45,48 Women 103 arts 68, 78, 85, 89, 95, 110, Ill, 112, 121-123, 158 Bolivia 75, 79, 97, 131, 137, 148 Association baha'ie de Femmes, France 83, 152 book fairs Ill, 112 Association for the Coherent Development of the Bophuthatswana 29, 166 Amazon (ADCAM) 301-305 Bosnia 85 Association medicale baha'ie 104, 148, 152 Botswana 85, 101, 109, 110,313 Association of African Women on Research and De- Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, UN Secretary General 152, velopment 148 162, 169, 175 Associations for Baha'i Studies 118, 119, 121, 136 Brazil3, 92, 95, 98, l 06, Ill, 117, 134, 140, 169, 178, Australia 71, 77, 79, 90, 100, 109, 110, Ill, 113, 140, 301,314 165, 175, 178, 181 British Broadcasting Corporation 72, 140 Austria 105, 171, 178 Bulgaria 81, 106, 109, 180 Azerbaijan 15, 69 Burkina Faso 111, 112 Azores 173 Burundi 108 Bushmi, Suheil 164 B Bab, the 5, 7, 332 c Shrine of 40, 55, 58, 59, 60, 61 Cambodia 15, 66, 110 Baha'i Chair for World Peace, University of Mary- Cameroon 38, I 04, 112, 137, 148 land at College Park, U.S.A. l 02, 118, 164 Canada 4, 42, 46, 49, 76, 80, 85, 86, 88,89-90,92,98, Baha'i Faith 109, 112, 114, 131, 140, 143, 152, 153, 156, 173, administrative order ofS-10, 39,206,237,238 174, 179, 180, 181,311,312,313 aims of 12-16 Canary Islands 91, 107, 311 history of 4-10 Carter, Stephen L. 227, 228,231 laws and moral teachings 11 Central African Republic 81 spiritual teachings 10 Chad 81 Baha'i Health Agency of South Africa 99 Chair for Baha'i Studies, Lucknow University, India Baha'i International Community 4, 12-14,28,67,68, 118, 120, 174 75, 94, 95, 102, 142, 152, 181, 210, 246, 247, children 68, 73-76, 99, 100, Ill, 120, 169, 178 251,258,260,285,289,296,298,299 Chile 83, 97, 101, 123 activities of 125-138 China 67, 68, 70, 80, 86, 145 description of 125 Ciskei 29 Office for the Advancement ofWomen 12, 126, Claus, Prince, the Netherlands 95 135-137, 147 Clinton, Bill, President of the United States 162 Office ofPublic Information126, 130-131 Clinton, Hillary Rodham, First Lady of the United Office of the Environment 12, 126, 132, 133 States 85 United Nations Office 12, 125, 127, 129 Clinton-Davis, Lord and Lady 69, 70 Baha'i World Centre 4, 7, 37, 62, 66, 70, 76, 182,312, Club of Budapest I 03 313 Colombia 38, 117, 119, 303 prominent visitors to 29, 70-71, 130 Color Me Human Week 3 Baha'u'llah 5, 14, 38, 44, 47, 150, 165, 185, 186,207, Commission on Global Governance 78,246,249,283 209,211' 212,214,218,221,232,233,234,235, Commonwealth of Independent States 45,48 237,238,240,252,254,263,268,277,281,282, Commonwealth ofthe Northern Mariana Islands 106 283,297 community life, Baha'i 11-12, 50 selected writings of 19-25, 331-332 conferences 69, 88 Shrine of 42, 61 conflict resolution 80, 120 Bahu 'u 'lluh, the statement 73 Congo 91
consultation 80, l 06, 291 Esperantists 258 Continental Boards of Counsellors Estonia 108, 122, 167 Africa 176 Ethiopia 38, 50, 51, 76, 83,312 Americas, the 181 European Baha'i Business Forum 106 Asia48, 166 European Baha'i Youth Council 78, 134 Australasia 167,173,311 European Parliament 140 Auxiliary Boards of 32-33, 42 European Task Force for Women 81 Conference of37--42, 68 Eyford, Ruth 313 Europe 50 Continental Counsellors 29,30-31,38 F Cook Islands 83, 93, 101, 107, 113, 176 family 79, 80, 81, 83-85, 118, 134, 136, 148 Queen of101 violence 84-85, 136 Costa Rica 74, 85, 101, 105, 167, 168 Faroe Islands 110,114,121 Cote d'Ivoire 99, 112 Federated States ofMicronesia 101 covenant 185-222 Fiji 73, 113 Covenant ofBaha'u'lhih 240 Finland 38, 70, 75, 108, 110 Croatia 15, 114 Foster, WilliamR. 312 Cuba 101, 111,313 Four Year Plan 31, 33, 38, 41, 42, 65, 67 Cyprus 116, 165 Fourth International Dialogue on the Transition to a Czech Republic 77, 81, 112, 130, 175 Global Society 67, 69, 102, 131 Czechoslovakia 15 France 42, 79, 83, 92, 94, 98, 103, 104, 105, 107, 110, 122, 140, 152 D FUNDAEC303 Davis, Gail Avery 312 Furutan, 'Ali-Akbar 37, 67, 69, 70 de Poort Conference Center, the Netherlands 103 democracy 229, 230 G Denmark 67, 101, 110, Gabon82 development. See social and economic development Gambia, the 106, 176, 177 Djibouti 312 Gemayal, Amine, former President of Lebanon 103 Dominican Republic 101 Georgia 15, 29, 43,44--47, 48, 79 Germany 38, 45, 48, 49, 79, 91, 92, 98, 103, 114, E 140, 176, 181 Earth Charter Workshop, the Netherlands 94-95 Ghana 78, 112, 118 Earth Summit. See United Nations Conference on Gibraltar 108 Environment and Development girl child 153, 154, 298 East Leeward Islands 77, 84 global governance 67, 69, 75, 78, 102, 103 Eastern Bloc 66 See also Commission on Global Governance Eastern Caroline Islands 80, 101 Gonez, Arpad, President of Hungary 112 ECO APLICADA 95, the Third Latin American En- Gorbachev, Mikhail, President of Green Cross Intercounter of Environmental Educators 95 national94 economic, social, and cultural rights 289-294 Greatness Which Might Be Theil~~, The 136, 155 Ecuador 74, 97, 121 Greece 91, 95, 104, 105, 131, 148, 176 education 29, 32, 66, 80, 97, 106, 119 Greenland 3, 86, 109 children's classes 73, 117 Grenada 312 conferences 75 Grossmann, Hartmut 50 environment 95, 96, 178 Guardian of the Baha'i Faith. See Shoghi Effendi health 99 Guardianship 8 moral 73, 74, 75, 119 Guatemala 101 teacher training 49, 73, 74, 117 Guinea 92, 97 See also schools Guinea-Bissau 116 Egypt 103,312 Gushiken, Luiz, Federal Deputy, Brazil 98 El Hassan, Princess Rahma hint, of Jordan 103 Guyana97, 102,121,157,173,174,176,312 El Salvador 96 Gypsies 115 Elazar, Daniel J. 189,204,205,207,215,216 elections, Baha'i 237, 238 H Elias, Sabri 50,312 I:Iuququ'llah, law of67, 70 Elizabeth II, Queen of England 71 Haifa 2000 62 Ellis, Wilma 181 Haiti 116,117 Encyclopedia Britannica 4 Hands of the Cause of God 9, 37, 39, 52, 53, 68,311 environment 68, 78, 94-96, 97, 113, 118, 138, 178, Havel, Vaclav, President of the Czech Republic 227, 180 229, 230,231 See also Baha'i International Community, Of- Hawaii 52, 76, 90, 93, 173, 174, 175, 181, 182,312 fice of the Environment health care 72, 97, 98-101 Environment, Offices of, national 95 inmmnization 99 Equatorial Guinea 73 primary health workers 100-10 1 Eritrea 15, 29, 43, 106, 108 Health for Humanity 98, 134, 151, 152
INDEX
Henry, Paul-Marc, Ambassador-at-Large of France UN General Assembly resolution on human 103 rights in 142 Hill, Eileen Dewar 313-314 UN Special Rapporteur on Religions Intolerance Hinds, Samuel, Prime Minister of Guyana 157, 174 140, 142-143, 144 Hobsbawm, Eric 223, 224, 239 United Nations Special Representative on 140, Hofman, Marion 314 143-144 Holy Days 53, 74, 77, 108 Ireland, Republic of79, 93, 163, 172, 175, 177, 180 Honduras 101 Irfan Colloquium 120 Hong Kong 38, 42, 75, 107, 168 Israel 62, 70 Houses ofWorship 11 Italy 42, 53, 57, 69, 81, 92, 103, 105, 109, 120, 122 Australia 71 India 63, 181 Japan 119 Jagan, Cheddi, President of Guyana 176 Panama 91 Jamaica 77 Westem Samoa 71, 167 Japan 71, 77, 84, 92, 113, 122, 132 human rights 12, 80, 88, 98, 104, 107, 119, 129-130, Jordan 92 134, 138, 176,270-275 See also United Nations K Human Rights and Citizenship Special Commission, Kabua, Amata, President of the Marshall Islands 71, Brazill07 72, 103, 127-128, 163 Hungary 15, 77, 103, 105, 112, 122, 164 Kaliningrad 11 0 Kaufman, Edy l 03 Kazakhstan 15, ll7 Iceland ll4, 312 Kazibwe, Specioza Wandira, Vice President ofUgan- Iliescu, Ion, President of Romania l 02, 131 da 310 India 42, 46, 70, 74, 77, 79, 80, 82, 96, 102, 103, 110, Kenya42, 81, 100, 109,131,150,311 112, 113, 115, 117, 118, 120, 165,166,168, 172, Kiribati 71, Ill 173, 174, 177, 179,312 Kitab-i-Aqdas ll, 67, 103, 207 judgement by the Supreme Court of 30 release of Persian edition 34 indigenous peoples 66, 68, 73, 76, 85-86, 101, 108, Knights ofBaha'u'llah 48, 52, 53,312,313 113 Korea, Democratic People's Republic of92 Aborigines 90 Korea, Republic of70, 78, 116 Amoogunas 113 Kyrgyzstan 15, 173, 176 Guaymis 85 Inuits 86, 313 L Maoris87, 101,113,114 LandeggAcademy, Switzerland 102, 120 Native Americans 86, 114 landmark occasions 108-109 Tlingits311 Laos 99 Torres Strait Islanders 90 Lar Linda Tanure, Brazil 304-305 Indonesia 313,314 Laszlo, Ervin, President of the Club of Budapest 103 Institute of Personal Law and Research, Bangladesh Latvia 92, 108 117 League ofNations 243, 248 institutes 33, 68, 77, 79, 81, 93, 97, 100, llO, 116-- Leahy, Patrick, United States Senator 310 117, 118, 119 Lesser Peace 29, 64 Anis Zuntlzi School, Haiti 117 Letters of the Living 120 Baha'i Pemmnent Teaching Institute, Italy 120 Liberia66, 108,109,110,112,117,118,179,312 Baha'i Vocational Institute for Rural Women, Libya 312 India 96 literacy 66, 72, 82, 96, 97, 112 Djalal Eghrari Polyteclmical Institute, Brazil Lithuania 110, 122 301-303 Locke, John 189, 190-197, 208 Institute for Baha'i Studies, Wilmette, U.S.A. Lucknow University, India 118, 120 121 Luxembourg 80, 105 Louis G. Gregory Baha'i Institute, U.S.A. 109 Masethla Institute, Zambia 137 M Olinga Institute, India 80 Ma'atu, Prince, Tonga 84 interfaith activities 68, 78, 90, 93-94, 118 Macau 74, 95, 97, 174, 178 international auxiliary language 127, 128, 163, 258- Macedonia, former Yugoslavian Republic of 114 259 Madagascar 75, 79, 112, 164 International Baha'i Archives building 7 Mal)rami, Dhabil;m'llah 140, 144 International Teaching Centre 37, 39, 50, 66, 69 Malawi 727?5, 82, 177 International War Crimes Tribunal for former Yugo- Malaysia 79, 83, 85, 92, 110, 117, 136, 137, 148, 150, slavia 103 173,174,178,181 Inuit Circumpolar Conference 86 Malietoa Tanumafili II, King ofWestern Samoa 84 involvement in the life of society l 0 1-l 07 Malietoa, Princess To'oa Tosi 73 Iran 30, 105, 171-172, 181, 311, 313, 314 Malta 179 Balui'icommunityof14, 139-144 Mandela, Nelson, President of South Africa 72
Manifestations of God 10 Papua New Guinea 38, Il3, 115, 182 Margaret, Princess, ofEngland 162 Paraguay II3 Mariana Islands 42, 71, 73, 79, 106, 173, 177 Parliament of the World's Religions I62, 279 Marsha11Islands71, 72,78-79, I03, II5, I27, 173, peace 5, 14, 68, 78, 79, 80, 8I, 85,91-93, 103, 134, I77, I78 147, 157, 166, 167, 176, 180 Mauritius 78, II2, I64, 176 women and 136 Mbasogo, Theodora Obiang Nguema, President of Peace Corps 76, 84 Equatorial Guinea 73 Peace Monument, Brazil 92, 178 McCulloch, Mary 3I4 Peace Pavilion, Canada 92 media 76, 82, 83, 84, 85, 9I, 98, IOI, I04, 105, I08, peacekeeping 127, 128 IIO, II3, II5, I21, 123, I71-182 Perez, Shimon 62 Melic,Jordan 79, I68-I69, 175 Peru 74, 92, 97, !01, Ill Mexico 38, Il3 Philip, Prince (the Duke of Edinburgh) 69, 72 Mirza 'Ali-Muhammad. See the Bab Philippines, the 38, 42, 46, 92, 97, 104,314,315 Mirza I:Iusayn-;Ali. See Baha'u'llah Poland 15, 70,110 Moldova I5, 34, 49, 53, II4 Portugal 78, II6 Moncho, James 3I4-3I5 poverty 72, 81, I 07 Mongolia 3, I5, 75, 98, II3, II6 presidents 69, 71, 72, 73, 75, 78, 82, 93, 102, I03, Mongolian Development Center 76, 98 112,122 moral development 98, 279-281 prominentpeople84,90,91,93, 10I, I03, 104, I05, Morocco 3I2 107, 109, II9 Moscow Center for Gender Studies I 54 Promise <!(World Peace, The I4, 72, 73, II2 Mount Carmel Projects 29, 55-64, 66 prosperity98, IOI, 102, I07, II9 Arc 55 Prosperif)'<!fHumankind, The !5, 73, lOI, 102,130, Centre for the Study of the Texts 55-57 I34, I65, I76, 2IO, 272,289 extension to the Intemational Baha'i Archives Puerto Rico 72, I 57 building 56-57 Intemational Teaching Centre 57-58 R terraces 55, 58-62, 63 race unity 68, 72, 86-9I Mozambique II6 Race Unity Day 86, 88 Muluzi, Bakili, President of Malawi 72,75 Radio Baha'i 97 Myanmar 74, II7 Ecuador I21 Peru Ill N the Philippines 97 N'Dow, Wally 134 radio stations 74, II8 Namibia 72 recognition of the Baha'i Faith 68, 107-108 National Spiritual Assemblies, election of29 Reunion 42 Nepal82 Rice, Emma 52 Netherlands, the 76, 90, 94, 95, I03, 105, 106, I 52, Rigvan message (!52 B.E.) 28-30 167 Rissho Kosei-Kai 71 New Caledonia 92, II3 Robinson, Mary, President of the Republic of Irenew world order 254, 282 land 93, 180 New Zealand 77, 86, 87, 113, 114, II7, 172, 173, Rodrigues Island 112 174, I75, I79, 3II Romania 15, 38, 72, 89, 92, 102, I05, 131 NGO Forum on Women '95 147-15I Roohizadegan, Olya I7I See also United Nations Fourth World Confer- Rosello, Pedro, Governor of Puerto Rico 72 ence on Women Ruhi Institute, Colombia 119 Nicaragua 74, IOI Russia 15,48,49, I04, I05, I08, 110,113,163, I78, Niger 38, 73, II2, Il7 179 Nigeria 80, Il2, I74 Chita 74 Northem Ireland 122 Chokotka 86 Norway70, 75,105, Il5, 117,171, I79, 182 Siberia II3 Nujoma, Kovambo, First Lady of Namibia 73 Yakutia 76 Rwanda II2 Ocean of Light Project 73 s One Count1y, newsletter of the Baha'i Intemational Sahba, Fariborz 57, 59, 63 Community I26, 131 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines I73, 177 Ortufio Lopez, Juana 315 Samandari-Hakim, Christine I 07 Our Global Neighborhood 78, 128 Samoa 315 See also American Samoa and Western Samoa p San Marino, Republic of 141 Pacific Horizons International Conference 86, 87, Sandel, Michael J. 228-230 173 Sao Tome and Principe 34, 53 Pakistan 91, 97, !50 Schneider, Bertrand, Secretary-General of the Club Panama 49, 70, 74, 86, 91,97 ofRome 103
INDEX
scholarship 68, 117-121 Tasi, Leala 316 schools 66, 72, 74, 75, 89, 91, 97, 99, 100, 117 teaching conferences 48 Banani Rural Secondary School for Girls, Zam- teaching projects bia 137 Cabudare Project, Venezuela 112 Colegio Baha'i Nur, Chile 168 Enoch Olinga, Senegal112 Masrour Vocational School, Brazil305 Enoch Olinga, Uganda 112 Maxwell International Baha'i Secondary Ephraim Te Paa, New Zealand 113 School, Canada 89 Fazli, India 113 Ocean of Light International Primary School Hackney, United Kingdom 114 178 Heart of Australia Calling, Australia 113 School of the Nations, Brazil 167 Holy Mariner, New Zealand 113 See also education Light of Unity Campaign, West Africa 112 Scotland 110, 173 Maori Vision III, Canada 114 Selznick, Philip 200,201,202,206,208,215,218 Marian Jack VII, Russia, Siberia, Mongolia 113 Senegal 80, 102, 112 Muhajir, South Korea 116 Serbia 114 Neman 9449 Seventh International Baha'i Convention37 Ocean of Light, the Pacific 113 Seychelles 112 Sparks of Peace, the Caribbean 77 sharing the message ofBaha'u'lhih 15, 77, 109-116 traditional, Papua New Guinea 113, 115 conferences 52, 69, 110 Woodburn, United States 113 Shetland Islands 172, 173 Tenorio, Grace, First Lady of Saipan 71 Shoghi Effendi 7, 8, 13, 28, 58, 64, 67, 187,207,210, Thailand 74 215,218,219,221,233,237,238,239,241 Three Year Plan 34, 42, 55, 64, 65-68 selected writings of 333 Tito, Teburoro, President of Kiribati 71 Sicily 15, 29, 43, 52, 53, 70 Tobey, Mark 181 Sierra Leone 66, 108, 112 Togo 112, 117, 164, 165 Singapore 79, 94, 95, 117, 165, 168, 173, 175, 178, Tonga84, 107,110,117,119,178 180 "Towards a Global Ethic" 279 Singh, Karan, Auroville Foundation 103 Traditional Media as Change Agent 137, 148 Slovak Republic 92, 178 Transkei 29 Slovenia 15,104, 114,122 Trinidad and Tobago 77, 92, 157, 174, 179, 181 social and economic development 66, 68, 96-101, Tunisia 142 102, 131,319 Turkey42,83,92, 110,114,131,134,314 conferences 97, 98 Turkmenistan 15 Solomonislands74, 113,117,175,177,182 Turks and Caicos Islands 182 Soraya, Nurredin 315 Turning Point.for All Nations 15, 101, 104, 126, 161, Sorensen, Gillian, UN Under-Secretary General126, 162, 169, 175,298 128, 163, 164 exhibit in Geneva 164 South Africa 29, 72, 79, 99, 109, 112, 121, 162, 166, presentation to dignitaries 164-166 172,313 seminar 127-129, 163 Spain 93, 105, 107, 110, 115,313 text of statement 241-283 King and Queen of 107 Turvey, Reginald 121 Spiritual Assemblies, National Tutu, Archbishop Desmond 162 new in 1995 43-53 Tuvalu 75, 113 to be forn1ed in 1996 53 Two Year Teaching Plan 45, 49 Sri Lanka 79, 84, 94, 97, 123, 179 Ssabasajja Kabaka Ronald Muwenda Mutebi II, of u Buganda, Uganda 310 Uganda 97, 99, 112, 176, 182,309,311 St. Eustatius, Netherlands Antilles (West Leeward Is- Ukraine 15, 34, 49, 92 lands) 107 United Kingdom46, 49, 62, 69, 70, 71, 77, 79, 84, 92, St. Vincent and the Grenadines 77, 177 98, 99, 102, 110, 119, 122, 140, 163, 172, 173, Strong, Maurice, Chairman of the Earth Council 94 312,313 Summit on the Alliance between Religions and Con- United Nations 12, 28, 49, 67, 78, 79, 104, 105, 139, servation 67, 69, 131, 132-133, 138 142, 145, 241-283 Swaziland 93, 102, 164, 174, 180 Charter 243-244 Sweden75, 80, 108, 110 Conm1ission on Human Rights 129, 142, 144, Switzerland 80, 92, 102, 120 295 Conm1ission on Sustainable Development 138 T Conm1ission on the Status of Women 103, 138, Tahirih 120 153 Tadjikistan 46 Conference on Environment and Development Taherzadeh, Habib 315-316 12,249,270 Taiwan 74, 95, 178 Decade for Human Rights Education 295-299 Tajikistan 15 Fourth World Conference on Women 13, 67, 68, Talon, Ama Dahan 316 80, 86,130,131,135,136,138,145-158,174, Tanzania 94, 110, 165, 181,310 249, 285-287
General Assembly 254-259 v General Assembly resolution on human rights Vanuatu92,96, 107,113,159-160 in Iran 142 Varqa, Dr. 'Ali-Mu~ammad 37, 53, 67, 70 Habitat II 130, 134 Venezuela 74, 102, 112 Human Rights Day 104, 131, 176 Violence-Free Family, Building Block l?fa Peaceful International Conference on Population and Civilization, The 136 Development 249 Voice of America, Persian Service 69 International Day of Peace 91 von Sponeck, Hans 166 International Women's Day 80, 81, 82 International Year of Tolerance 175 w New Agenda for the Development of Africa in Walker, David 82 the 1990s 137 West Leeward Islands 108 Secretary Generall52, 162, 169, 175 WesternSamoa3, 71, 73,84, 167,182,311 report of 144 WETV80 Security Council 260-262 Winkelbach, Helmut and Olga 48, 49 Special Rapporteur on Religious Intolerance women68, 73, 79-85, 89, 96, 97, 99, 100, 106, 111, 140, 142-143, 144 112, 128, 129, 136, 137, 138, 145-158, 166, Special Representative on Iran 140, 143-144 174-175, 177,275-279,285-287 Sub-Conm1ission on the Prevention of Dis- advancement of 66, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 98, 106, crimination and Protection of Minorities 142 119, 135, 136, 152, 311 UN 50 15, 67, 68, 104, 126-129, 138, 157, conferences 49, 67, 68, 80, 81, 85, 86, 135 159-170, 175,245,298 on Continental Boards of Counsellors 38 United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) 75, See also Baha'i International Conmmnity, Of- 84, 109, 125, 129, 136, 138, 148, 153, 157, fice for the Advancement of Women 161, 262 Women for International Peace and Arbitration 152, United Nations Development Fund for Women 153 (UNIFEM) 84, 136, 137, 148, 161 Workshop Worldwatch Conference on Sustainable United Nations Development Progranm1e (UN- Development and International Co-operation DP) 80, 137, 146, 165,226 102, 131 United Nations Economic and Social Council World Citizenship:A Global Ethic.for Sustainable (ECOSOC) 125, 138, 153, 161 Development 134 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and World Citizenship Awards, Brazill67 Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 94, 102 World Conference of Children 169 United Nations Environment Programme (UN- World Conference on Religion and Peace 67, 71 EP) 132, 161 World Court 256, 263-265 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 189, World Day of Prayer for Peace 91 255, 295, 298 World Federalist Association 78 World Conference on Human Rights 12, 249, world order 221 271 World Religion Day 180 World Environment Day 92, 96 World Summit on Global Governance 249 World Health Organization 70, 161, 262 world unity 241 World Sunm1it for Children249 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) 132 World Sunm1it for Social Development 12, 15, World Women 158 28, 67, 101, 176, 180,249 WorldWatch Institute 224 Year of the Family 85 United States 3, 42, 49, 67, 70, 78, 84, 85, 86, 88-89, y 92, 94, 97, 98, 102, 103, 113, 117, 119, 120, youth 66, 68, 69, 72, 76-79, 85, 97, 115, 116, 155, 121, 134, 140, 141, 152, 153, 162, 163, 164, 178, 179 171, 172, 173, 175, 179, 182, 240, 309, 310, conferences 47, 49, 76, 78-79 312 Youth '95 House ofRepresentatives 141 Alliance for Progressive Global Change 78 Unity in Diversity Week 89 youth workshops 76-77,78,88,90, 112, 150, 178 Universal House of Justice 4, 9, 37, 38, 39, 46, 48, Yugoslavia, former 85, 103, 114 50, 55, 59, 63, 64, 69, 70, 98, 117,210,219, 234, 236, 240, 311, 313, 314 z messages of27-34, 41 Zafy,Therese, First Lady of Madagascar 75 Universidad Bolivariana, Chile 101 Zaire 77, 100 Universidad Nur, Bolivia 74 Zambia4, 100,110,112,115,122,131,137 University of Maryland at College Park, United Zimbabwe42, 109,110,117 States 67, 69, 102, 118, 164 University of Maryland, Center for International Development and Conflict Management 102, 118 Uruguay 111,121,141 USSR 15, 45,48 Uzbekistan IS, 113,114,117