The Bahá'í according to him, is inescapable for in-
dividuals and societies. Such theories
Philosophy of are present whether they are held con-
sciously or unconsciously in the mind,
Human Nature communicated explicitly or implicitly
in a text, expressed in traditional cus-
toms and folktales, or embedded in
IAN KLUGE
religious beliefs and ceremonies. They
may be embryonic or fully developed.
At the beginning of The Blank Slate: They may be embodied in myths and
The Modern Denial of Human Nature, legends or expressed in philosophic
cognitive scientist and philosopher treatises such as Plato's Republic, Au-
Steven Pinker asserts that gustine's The City of God, and Marx's
The Communist Manifesto. However
[e]veryone has a theory of human they may be couched, these theories
nature. Everyone has to anticipate tell us what to expect from people in
the behavior of others, and that regards to such vital issues as aggres-
means we all need theories about sion, or even outright violence, help-
what makes people tick. A tacit fulness, reliability, good will, and spir-
theory of human nature—that ituality. Beyond these, philosophies of
behavior is caused by thoughts human nature consider meta-issues
and feelings—is embedded in the related to human nature such as, for
way we think about people. . . . Ri- example, the role of intrinsic nature
val theories of human nature are and extrinsic nurture, the different
entwined in different ways of life kinds of needs shared by all humans,1
and different political systems, personal and collective psychopathol-
and have been the source of much ogy,2 and the degree of universality
conflict over the course of histo- of mankind's physical and mental
ry. (1; emphasis added) constitution. Philosophies of human
nature also deal with the meaning and
For millennia, the major theories purpose of life in this world and the
of human nature have come from re- next, mankind's relationship to the su-
ligion… every society must operate pernatural or nonmaterial world, and
with a theory of human nature. the role, if any, of messengers and
(3; emphasis added) prophets. Finally, they set the basis
for morality by providing a standard
A "theory of human nature," as Pink- for deciding which behaviors we can
er conceives it, refers to the intrinsic
or "natural" ways of thinking, feeling, 1 See Abraham Maslow's Toward a
and acting that distinguish human Psychology of Being.
beings from other forms of life and, 2 See Robert B. Edgerton's Sick Societies.
8 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

expect from all humans, which can be that human nature is shaped by the
considered natural for the kind of be- environment and concludes, therefore,
ings we are, which are acceptable, and that we must overthrow all the old
which are not. social structures in order to create a
One of the most vigorously debated new kind of human being.5 Human
issues about human nature is the ex- environmentalism—the belief that it
istence of an intrinsic, predetermined is possible to shape human beings any
nature or essence. Is what we call way we like by controlling the kind of
"human nature" the product of envi- experiences people have—was an idea
ronmental influences, a set of innate promulgated most famously by B. F.
attributes and potentials, or a mixture Skinner and other behavioral psychol-
of both? The terms of this controver- ogists. Perhaps one of the most star-
sy have been most famously formulat- tling results of Locke's "blank state"
ed by John Locke, who maintains that theory is the claim that sexual identity
the human mind has no inherent ideas, is not intrinsically constrained and
attributes, capacities, tendencies, or determined by biology but is, rather,
potentials—a view that is now known a matter of preference because there
as the tabula rasa or "blank slate" the- is no particular human nature to limit
ory (2.1.2).3 According to this notion, our choices.
everything in the mind is added after Two globally influential modern
birth by worldly experience and the philosophers reinforced Locke's tabula
education provided by others. Locke's rasa doctrine and this line of thinking.
theory suggests that because human One was the atheist existentialist Jean-
beings are shaped entirely by their en- Paul Sartre, who elaborated his views
vironment, the "perfectibility of man" most famously in Being and Nothing-
is contingent on the manipulation of ness. In this work, he observes, "As we
the social environment. This idea was have seen, for human reality, to be is
taken up by others, among them Jean- to choose oneself; nothing comes from
Jacques Rousseau, who popularized the outside or from within which it can
the idea that human nature can be
improved by strictly natural, non-re- 5 In Soviet Russia, this philosophy led
ligious means.4 Marxism also holds to Lysenkoism, a belief that rejected ge-
netics and natural selection and claimed
3 Locke actually uses the term "white a plant like rye could be transformed into
paper." This idea was already present in wheat if raised in the proper environment
Aristotle (De Anima, 429b29–430a1). See and treated appropriately. In other words,
also Stoic philosophy and, in the eleventh the nature of rye was determined by its
century CE, Ibn Sina. environment and not by genetics—a be-
4 See Rousseau's A Dissertation on the lief echoed in today's denial of human na-
Origin and Foundation of the Inequality of ture and the view that environment is the
Mankind. only relevant factor in its shaping.
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 9

receive or accept" (518–19). There is powerful and widespread consequenc-
no "pre-made" human nature (or any es, as can be seen in current legislative
other nature); there are only individ- and legal battles over sexual and gen-
uals making themselves. Elsewhere, der identity and, on a larger scale, in
Sartre states, "For if, indeed, existence the history of the twentieth century.
precedes essence, one will never be able The Russian Revolution of 1917 was
to explain one's actions by reference an attempt at creating a new society
to a given and specific human nature; by remaking human nature into the
in other words, there is no determin- "New Soviet Man" (Bauer et al. 157).
ism—man is free, man is freedom... We Communist efforts were based on
are left alone, without excuse. That is two principles—that human nature is
what I mean when I say that man is almost infinitely malleable and that
condemned to be free" ("Existentialism" humans are entirely shaped by their
295; emphasis added).6 natural, social, and, above all, econom-
Michel Foucault, one of the premier ic environments. There is no innate,
postmodernists, concurred with Sar- pre-determined human nature to be
tre. He explains that he is "suspicious overcome. On 22 June 1941,7 this ma-
of the notion of liberation" because terialist and radical environmentalist
"it runs the risk of falling back on the philosophy of human nature found
idea that there exists a human nature" itself at war with its diametric op-
that somehow exists "apart" from us posite, German National Socialism,
and that we can rediscover and regain whose philosophy of human nature
(76). He rejects the existence of any combined three main principles. First,
such essence or nature: "behind things it accepted Joseph Arthur, Comte de
[there is] not a timeless essential se- Gobineau's belief that race is the de-
cret but the secret that they have no termining factor in history and that
essence" (353). Sartre, Foucault, and Aryans—white and mostly Europe-
their followers assert that any con- an—are the superior race.8 Second, it
cept of human nature is intrinsically taught that the stronger races were
tyrannical and dangerous because it in a Darwinian struggle against the
marginalizes and oppresses whoever numerically superior but weaker rac-
does not fit into the parameters of its es whom it considered ultimately un-
definition of human ontology. fit to survive or rule. The concept of
Beliefs about human nature have
7 The official launch date of "Opera-
6 Unfortunately, Sartre's view is un- tion Barbarossa," the code name for Ger-
dermined by the observation that if, unlike many's invasion of the Soviet Union.
other creatures, a human is "condemned to 8 Comte de Gobineau's widely read An
be free," then, in effect, s/he has a partic- Essay on the Inequality of the Races identifies
ular identifiable nature with at least one the Aryans as the white race of northern
unique attribute. Europe.
10 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

"survival of the fittest" was applied to eventually challenged by yet a differ-
national and international politics, so- ent theory of human nature endorsed
cieties, cultures, and, of course, races.9 by politicized radical Islam.13 The im-
Third, it believed that human nature portance of philosophies of human
was genetically determined and that nature—and of the clashes between
superior gene pools should not be them—is clearly visible in daily news
"polluted" by mixing themselves with reports.
inferior ones.10 The one principle that In sharp contrast to Locke and his
united Communism and National So- successors, many of the world's major
cialism was that the value of the indi- religions agree about the existence
vidual is determined by his or her use- of an innate, divinely created human
fulness to the state. Individuals have nature. Some of these religions sub-
no rights against the state and the scribe to the belief that human ontol-
supposed welfare of the majority. On ogy is dualistic—on the one hand, we
7 December 1941,11 a third theory of are not what we could and should be;
human nature emerged in the midst of on the other hand, we can "merge with
war—one that held that the individual the divine command, walk in its way"
has intrinsic value and, therefore, in- (Guru Nanak qtd. in Gill). In other
herent fundamental rights against the words, these religions assert that ev-
state and society in general. Although ery human has a perfectible nature, but
the liberal capitalist theory of human
nature emerged victorious,12 it was Western liberal democracy as a permanent
achievement. He did not foresee the rise of
9 See Richard Weikart's From Darwin radical political Islam as a challenge to lib-
to Hitler. It should be noted that in no way eral democratic capitalism.
can one rationally blame Darwin for the 13 Two of the foundational theorists
abuse of his findings by others. of radical Islam are Hassan al-Banna,
10 It is important to understand that a founder of the Muslim Brotherhood, and
belief in the basic genetic determination Sayyid Qutb, the latter of whom advocates
of human nature does not in itself make for, among other things, a Muslim version
anyone a National Socialist. That belief is of Vladimir Lenin's doctrine of the evo-
a necessary, but far from sufficient, condi- lutionary elite to lead the attack on the
tion for being a Nazi. West. He also calls for isolation from all
11 This is the date of the surprise non-Muslim learning and the establish-
Japanese military strike at the American ment of rigorous Sharia law. In his best
naval base at Pearl Harbor. This attack is known book, Milestones, he calls for cease-
officially considered the turning point that less violent jihad against all non-Muslims,
led to the entry of the United States into but especially against the West. Samuel P.
World War II. Huntington's The Clash of Civilizations and
12 Francis Fukuyama's The End of His- the Remaking of World Order is an in-depth
tory and the Last Man sees the victory of study of this incipient conflict.
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 11

unlike their secular counterparts, they skeletal anatomy; by the possession
believe that achieving such perfection of a larynx, enabling speech; by a fun-
requires the assistance of divine grace damentally similar physiology (e.g.,
and guidance by the Manifestations of blood types) that underlies all medical
God: "Without training and guidance studies and practice; by the human life
the soul could never progress beyond cycle; and by a brain with a particu-
the conditions of its lower nature, larly human structure. While human
which is ignorant and defective" ('Ab- nature is not limited to our physical
du'l-Bahá, Promulgation 297). More- existence, the body helps shape hu-
over, human nature has free will—the man nature vis-à-vis its potentials and
capacity to choose the way to perfec- limitations for action in the material
tion or to reject it—and must there- world.
fore take responsibility for its choices. Further evidence for the existence
These attributes of human nature of a pre-given universal human nature
entail moral and spiritual obligations comes from anthropology. Professor
rather than comfortable privileges. of Anthropology (Emeritus) Donald
It is important to note that belief E. Brown's Human Universals has be-
in the existence of an intrinsic human come one of the central texts in the
nature is not confined to religions growing field of universal human
and political ideologies. Evidence for nature.15 The work of Pinker sup-
a universal human nature, based on ports Brown's thesis. He explains the
observation of its physical aspects, "bridges between [human] biology
is found in the studies of genetics,14 and culture" with evidence from ge-
medicine, anatomy, physiology, and netics, brain science, cognitive science,
neuroscience. For example, humans and evolutionary biology (31).
are characterized by an identifiable In his book The Blank Slate, Steven
Pinker provides a list of Brown's more
14 The ability for all human ethnic than two hundred universal human
groups to intermarry and produce viable attributes (435–39), and expands on
offspring also indicates the underlying some of them—such as the universal
physical oneness of mankind. The Human ability to learn language—and ex-
Genome Project is perhaps best under- plores and critiques the intellectual
stood, not as the genetic determination of concepts underlying the rejection of a
all thought, feeling and behavior but rath- universal human nature.16 Among psy-
er as the recognition of the physical basis chologists, Abraham Maslow is per-
for Bahá'u'lláh's teaching on the "oneness haps most influential in the scientific
of mankind." Details on the National Hu-
man Genome Research Project, can be
found on its official website https://www. 15 See also Donald E. Brown, "Human
genome.gov/10001772/all-about-the-- Universals, Human Nature, Human Culture."
human-genome-project-hgp/ 16 Chapters 6 through 11.
12 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

study of human nature.17 Although it concepts and terms were originally
has undergone some relatively minor theorized by Aristotle in Physics, De
modifications, Maslow's list of a uni- Anima, and Metaphysics as a method of
versal hierarchy of needs remains a analyzing and understanding reality.18
familiar part of psychology and edu- According to 'Abdu'l-Bahá, analyz-
cational psychology courses. Evidence ing and understanding reality are the
for a universal human nature is also purposes of philosophy: "Philosophy
available in evolutionary psychology consists in comprehending, so far as
which maintains that human nature human power permits, the realities
developed by evolutionary pressures of things as they are in themselves"
to make humans what they are now. (Some Answered Questions 59:7).
For example, Robert Wright's The The fact that Bahá'u'lláh and
Moral Animal, Why We are the Way We 'Abdu'l-Bahá extensively employ these
are: The New Science of Evolutionary terms, concepts, and even arguments
Psychology examines not only the evo- confirms them as valid tools for
lutionary origins of selfishness but interpreting the Bahá'í Writings as
also of altruism, and mankind's social well as for understanding reality.
nature. This validation applies only to the
In this paper, we shall focus on the Aristotelian materials present in
philosophy of human nature as pre- the Writings and not to everything
sented in the Bahá'í Writings. To do Aristotle said; for example, his
this most effectively, we must equip views on gravity or women have no
ourselves with the philosophic con- support in the Writings. Moreover,
cepts, terminology, and arguments by introducing them into the sacred
that are pervasively and consistently texts, Bahá'u'lláh and 'Abdu'l-Bahá
used throughout the Bahá'í Writings imply that familiarity with this
to explain relevant key concepts. terminology can assist in obtaining a
fuller understanding of the Writings.
THE PHILOSOPHICAL TERMINOLOGY If these terms had no relevance in
OF THE BAHÁ'Í WRITINGS this context, their introduction would
make no sense.
Unlike the sacred texts of most other It should be noted, however, that
religions, the Bahá'í Writings contain a the use of Aristotle's terminology
large number of passages that explic- does not necessarily restrict Bahá'í
itly develop philosophical arguments
and employ a specific set of philosoph- 18 For a detailed analysis, see Ian
ical concepts and terminology. These Kluge's "The Aristotelian Substratum of
the Bahá'í Writings" in Lights of Irfan
17 See Abraham Maslow, Towards a Vol. 4, 2003, and "Bahá'u'lláh's Toolbox."
Psychology of Being and William G. Huitt, Both are available at https://www.baha-
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. iphilosophy.com/.
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 13

philosophical thinking to the third cen- they are used in the Bahá'í Writings.
tury BCE. Perhaps the best illustration "Essence" refers to the identity of
of this point is Werner Heisenberg's a thing—that which makes it the kind
use of "potential" in "the sense of of thing it is and, conversely, that
Aristotelian philosophy" in his discus- which makes it different from other
sions about quantum mechanics (Phys- kinds of things. In other words, it re-
ics and Philosophy 154). As indicated fers to kinds or classes as well as to
earlier, interest in and application of differences among members of kinds
Aristotle's versatile theory of human or classes; it does not refer to differ-
nature have undergone a serious re- ences in degree such as the distinc-
vival.19 Its ongoing usefulness can be tions between water, steam, and ice or
seen in 'Abdu'l-Bahá's logical proof of those between a tall person and a short
life after death as well as His solution one. Mankind has a particular essence
to the centuries-old mind-body prob- that makes us different in kind from
lem.20 In light of these developments, animals, a distinction that explains
it is reasonable to expect that with the why behaviors that are acceptable in
guidance of Bahá'u'lláh's Revelation, animals are not necessarily accept-
significant further developments will able or "moral" in humans. As shall
be possible. be demonstrated below, essences are
The Bahá'í Writings confirm sev- static insofar as they do not change or
en key Aristotelian concepts relevant merge into one another—one of the
to the subject of human nature: es- reasons why 'Abdu'l-Bahá rejects the
sence, potential, attribute, substance, theory that humankind has evolved
form, fourfold causality, and teleology. from ancestral apes.
These terms constitute the foundation According to the Bahá'í Writings,
on which Aristotle bases his method all things have an essence, an axiom we
for analyzing and understanding real- can discern in Bahá'u'lláh's statement
ity, and they apply to all phenomenal that "the light of divine knowledge
beings, including mankind. We shall and heavenly grace hath illumined and
examine these terms and show how inspired the essence of all created things"
and in His reference to "the inmost es-
19 See, for example, Tuomas E. Tah- sence of all things" (Kitáb-i-Íqán 29,
ko's Contemporary Aristotelian Metaphysics 30; emphasis added). In short, accord-
or Daniel D. Novotný and Lukáš Novák's ing to the authoritative Bahá'í texts,
Neo-Aristotelian Perspectives in Metaphysics. everything in creation possesses an
See also James Madden's Mind, Matter, "essence."21
and Nature and the ethical studies by G. E.
M. Anscombe, Rosalind Hursthouse, and 21 See also 'Abdu'l-Bahá's Some An-
Alasdair MacIntyre. swered Questions, 95:3, and Gleanings from
20 Both are found in chapter 66 of the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh, 15:1. For a
Some Answered Questions. complete list of essences see Kluge's "The
14 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

So it is that humans possess an es- light. The inner essence of man
sence, as demonstrated, for example, in is unknown and unfathomed but
Bahá'u'lláh's statement, "Consider the it is known and characterized by
rational faculty with which God hath its attributes. Thus everything is
endowed the essence of man" (Glean- known and characterized by its
ings 83:1). Even nature has an essence attributes and not by its essence...
as indicated by Bahá'u'lláh's references the reality of the Divinity, too,
to "the essence of all created things" and must be unknown with regards to
to "the inmost essence of all things" its essence and known only with
(Kitáb-i-Íqán 29,30) both of which respect to its attributes.
include nature. Indeed, God the Cre- ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered
ator has an essence, as indicated by Questions 59:4)
Bahá'u'lláh's allusion to His "Divine
Essence" as well as Bahá'u'lláh's de- Two points should be noted here.
scription of Himself as its "Manifes- First, the translation of "essence" as
tation" (Gleanings 13:2; 'Abdu'l-Bahá, "reality" is an important indication of
Some Answered Questions 53:3).22 how the latter term is used at times
In this connection, the Bahá'í Writ- in the Writings. Second, it is the
ings inform us that the essences of Manifestations Who provide us with
things cannot be known directly in knowledge of the divine attributes,
themselves (being essentially meta- and on the basis of this insight we can
physical) but can only be known indi- reason about God.
rectly via their attributes or qualities: Every essence—except God's—has
two kinds of attributes: essential or
the inner essence of a thing can necessary and accidental or non-nec-
never be known, only its attri- essary.23 This distinction underlies the
butes. For example, the inner doctrine of progressive revelation:
reality of the sun is unknown,
but it is understood through its the divine law has two distinct
attributes, which are heat and aspects or functions: one the es-
sential or fundamental, the other
Aristotelian Substratum of the Bahá'í the material or accidental . . . The
Writings," section 5.6. essential ordinances of religion
22 As distinct from "emanation"—the were the same during the time of
Manifestation is not a "part" of God, nor Abraham, the day of Moses and
does the Manifestation possess the same the cycle of Jesus, but the acciden-
essence as God, though He can reflect or tal or material laws were abrogated
manifest the divine qualities inherent in
that Divine Essence of the Creator. (See 23 God cannot have accidental attri-
chapter 53 of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's Some An- butes because it makes no sense to say that
swered Questions.) a divine attribute is not necessary.
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 15

and superseded according to the accidental attribute temporarily need-
exigency and requirement of each ed for living in the phenomenal world.
succeeding age. ('Abdu'l-Bahá, The death of an accidental attribute,
Promulgation 97; emphasis added) such as the body, does not imply the
death of the soul (the substance or es-
Essential attributes are necessary for a sence) any more than adult-onset hair
thing to be what it is, and they cannot loss diminishes our humanity.
be changed, whereas accidental attri- To understand 'Abdu'l-Bahá's dec-
butes are optional and/or temporary. laration, we must bear in mind that
For example, being human requires Aristotle also uses the word "sub-
a "rational soul," which, 'Abdu'l-Bahá stance" to refer to "essence." Unless
says, "distinguishes man from the ani- indicated otherwise, the latter usual-
mal" but having red hair or green eyes ly alludes to the makeup of a thing,
is "accidental" (Some Answered Ques- whereas the former usually refers to
tions, 55:5; 55:4). 'Abdu'l-Bahá uses its ontology as being independent or
this distinction between essential and dependent. However, it must be re-
accidental attributes to prove the im- membered that every substance has/is
mortality of the human soul: an essence and every essence is a sub-
stance. This meaning of "substance"
Some hold that the body is the as "essence" is noted by the translator
substance and that it subsists by of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's "Tablet on the Unity
itself, and that the spirit is the ac- of Existence," who states, "The term
cident which subsists through the 'substance' (jawhar) is roughly equiv-
substance of the body. The truth, alent to essence (mahíyya) and reality
however, is that the rational soul (haqíqa), which refer to 'that by which
is the substance through which a thing is what it is'" (note 2). Thus,
the body subsists. If the acci- when 'Abdu'l-Bahá refers to the hu-
dent—the body—is destroyed, the man spirit or "rational soul" as a sub-
substance—the spirit—remains. stance, He is describing it as both an
(Some Answered Questions 66:2) independent reality and the essence of
human beings.
The wording of the new translation With these two uses in mind,
of Some Answered Questions makes the we will find it easier to understand
Aristotelian connection clear insofar Bahá'u'lláh's statement that the spir-
as it explicitly identifies "substance" as itual aspect of the Manifestations "is
that which "subsists by itself "—that born of the substance of God Himself "
is, independently—and "accident" as (Gleanings 27:4). Here, "substance"
that which depends on the substance. emphasizes both God's absolute inde-
'Abdu'l-Bahá's argument is straight- pendence as well as His divine essence,
forward: the soul is the substance (es- from which Manifestations originate.
sence) of mankind, and the body is an This demonstrates the ontological
16 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

uniqueness of the Manifestations in of thing, and general and universal
Their relationship to God—emanat- terms have no corresponding reality.
ing from God's essence and sharing For example, there are only individual
in His absolute independence—which dogs, like Barko, Queenie, and Wag-
provides a rational basis for accepting ger, and what we call their "essence"
what the Manifestations say as God's or "class" is merely a term of conve-
Word. Furthermore, a substance is a nience to lump together apparently
separate or distinct individual that similar things. Their alleged "essenc-
"operates according to its own logos" es" and "kinds" are nothing but verbal
or final cause and for that reason is conveniences to facilitate discussion;
also a source of motion and change they do not really exist as such.
in itself and sometimes others (Edel The Bahá'í Writings reject nomi-
116). A substance exists as a "natural nalism, not only in direct statements
unit," that is, as an integrated whole about this issue but also in the argu-
(Edel 119). Each of these descriptors ments they present to explain the
is valid for God, Who is a natural unit, Faith's teachings. For example, 'Ab-
Who is distinct from creation, and du'l-Bahá refers to the "abundant
Who has His own logos. grace of God's oneness that is shed
"Substance" is also something that upon the essences of all created things,"
can possess attributes but cannot exist which make up the phenomenal world
as an attribute of anything else. For (Selections 266; emphasis added). Fur-
example, a starfish is not an attribute thermore, the Bahá'í Writings assert
or quality of something else, nor are that phenomenal reality is divided into
my pet ducks, Jack and Jill. In addition, four classes—mineral, vegetable, an-
a "substance" is objective and real; it imal, and human ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some
does not depend on human perception Answered Questions 64:1)—that these
for its existence, nor is it a mere term classes of extant realities each pos-
of convenience. Finally, the word "sub- sess distinct essential natures, and that
stance" in the Writings (and in Aris- these categories are not man-made
totle's works) may refer to matter, the constructs. This Bahá'í concept thus
material "stuff " of which the things in underscores the belief that because
the phenomenal world are composed. human beings are a unique creation,
An example of "substance" being used it follows that there may well be a
in this way is the admonishment to moral imperative or ethical necessity
"consume not the substance of others for us to behave in a way appropriate
wrongfully" (Bahá'u'lláh, Epistle 25). to our essential reality. 'Abdu'l-Bahá
Nominalist philosophers deny that also explains that essences can only be
essences are ontologically real. In known or perceived by their attributes
their view, only individual entities are or qualities, indicating, therefore, that
real, and, therefore, classes of things, essences are real because "[a] non-ex-
essences that allegedly identify a kind istent thing, it is agreed, cannot be
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 17

seen by signs" (Paris Talks 90). In ad- of a thing to change in certain ways,
dition, He teaches that mankind's dis- which is to say to reveal or actualize
tinguishing feature, the rational soul, previously hidden and often unforesee-
"encompasses all things and, as far able attributes. Potentials are unique
as human capacity permits, discovers to each kind of thing at two levels—a
their realities and becomes aware of collective level, such as "duck-kind,"
properties and effects" (Some Answered and an individual level, like that of my
Questions 55:5). If the essence—that pet ducks, Jack and Jill.
which distinguishes one kind of thing Potentials allow a pupa to change
from another—is not ontologically into a butterfly or a seed into a tree
real, it would not be able to act, as ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Ques-
noted in 'Abdu'l-Bahá's example: "In tions 51:4). Human nature is a unique
order to write a man must exist—one combination of potentialities and the
who does not exist cannot write" (Paris Bahá'í Writings discuss them exten-
Talks 92). Furthermore, His argument sively. 'Abdu'l-Bahá points out that the
about "the essential reality underlying various aspects of a tree do not come
any given phenomenon" makes it clear from nowhere: "All these virtues [of
that in Bahá'í ontology, all things have the tree] were hidden and potential in
an essence, whose attributes appear in the seed" (Promulgation 90; emphasis
the phenomenal world (Promulgation added). The leaves and branches "ex-
421; emphasis added). A final example isted potentially, albeit invisibly, in the
showing the reality of essences is the seed" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered
teaching that mankind's essence does Questions 51:4; emphasis added). In
not change during the evolutionary short, there is more to reality than
process: "the development of man was what we can immediately see or even
always human in type and biological discover empirically. This is even de-
in progression" (Promulgation 358). monstrable in science. No amount of
Elsewhere He explains that "[t]he physical analysis of hydrogen and ox-
essence of the species and the innate ygen atoms can detect their capacity
reality undergo no transformation at to form water or predict the attributes
all" (Some Answered Questions 47:10). of water itself, such as its expansion
The aforementioned concept of po- when frozen. These potentials were
tential is closely related to that of es-
sence.24 Potential refers to the capacity ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions
16:3). However, potentials exist because
24 Potentials are not physical "things"— "[a] non-existent thing, it is agreed, can-
like raisins embedded in a bun—that can be not be seen by signs" and because changes
identified by empirical scientific analysis. cannot come from nothing: "it is impos-
Instead, potentials are virtues or "intel- sible that any effect should appear from
ligible realities" that have "no outward absolute nothingness" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Paris
form or place and which are not sensible" Talks 91; Some Answered Questions 60:5).
18 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

"latent and potential in the world of na- final cause. So this chair has a creator
ture" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Promulgation 310; who is a carpenter, a matter which is
emphasis added). The same is true of wood, a form which is that of a chair,
the earth as a whole: "the terrestrial and a purpose which is to serve as a
globe was created from the beginning seat" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered
with all its elements, substances, min- Questions 80:3).25 The final cause is the
erals, parts and components but these chair's purpose, without which there
appeared only gradually" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, is no point in having a formal cause
Some Answered Questions 51:5). In other (design), a material cause from which
words, the potential to form living or- to actualize the design, and an effi-
ganisms was already in the earth itself cient cause to do the work.26 It is also
and only required the right time and important that 'Abdu'l-Bahá does not
conditions to become actualized. In limit fourfold causality to man-made
humankind as well, 'Abdu'l-Bahá says, objects; rather, He explains, it pertains
"our Creator . . . has deposited . . . certain to "the existence of. . . every thing"
latent and potential virtues. Through (Some Answered Questions 80:3). The
education and culture these virtues . . . final cause influences the operation of
will become apparent in the human re- the efficient cause by limiting the ef-
ality (Promulgation 90; emphasis add- fects it can have. Iron filings will rust
ed). Building on this concept, Shoghi when watered but will not produce
Effendi states that "man must always daisies. The final cause is implicit in
try to develop and reveal the qualities the nature of the materials—iron and
that are to be found potentially in him. water—which only lets certain effects
It is an urge to self-improvement and take place. This limiting function is
individual progress" (qtd. in Hornby the final cause in action. Because all
479; emphasis added). things have a final cause, they have a
The development of potentials in purpose, a reason for their existence.
all things including humanity points This includes humankind and the uni-
to another key Bahá'í teaching, name- verse itself: "If man did not exist, the
ly, that all parts of creation are tele- universe would be without result, for the
ological in nature and therefore have
an inner purpose and a goal for which 25 See Aristotle's Physics (2.7.198ab)
they strive. The teleological, goal-ori- and Metaphysics (5.1.1013ab).
ented, purposive impulse in all things, 26 Fourfold causality offers one way of
including the universe itself, is shown harmonizing science and religion. Science
directly in 'Abdu'l-Bahá's validation deals with material and efficient causes,
of Aristotle's concept of fourfold whereas religion deals with formal but,
causality: "For the existence of each above all, final causes. As 'Abdu'l-Bahá and
and every thing depends upon four Aristotle indicate, all four are necessary
causes: the efficient cause, the mate- for the existence of every thing, whether
rial cause, the formal cause, and the it be man-made or natural.
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 19

purpose of existence is the revelation of the good of the soul.27 It also affects
the divine perfections" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, education policy in such areas as cur-
Some Answered Questions 50:4; empha- riculum development because ques-
sis added). In other words, the uni- tions of spiritual education cannot be
verse is incomplete and lacks purpose circumvented or ignored. Likewise,
without humankind, which gives the recognizing the primacy of the spirit
universe a purpose, just as "the noblest in our political constitutions will affect
part of the tree, and the fundamental our personal and collective scale of
purpose of its existence, is the fruit" values and rights, which in turn affects
('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions societal decisions at every level and
50:5). turn. If, for example, large numbers
With this philosophical terminol- of people were to believe that the re-
ogy in mind, we are ready to exam- wards of this life are "the virtues and
ine human nature as explained in the perfections that adorn the human re-
Bahá'í Writings. ality" instead of material acquisitions,
then the nature of economies, govern-
HUMAN NATURE: SPIRITUAL, mental planning, and even law would
UNIVERSAL, IMMUTABLE be profoundly changed ('Abdu'l-Bahá,
Some Answered Questions 60:3).
Were it not for the fundamentally
The most fundamental Bahá'í teach-
spiritual essence of mankind, it would
ing about human nature is that "[m]
be difficult to explain why 'Abdu'l-Bahá
an is, in reality, a spiritual being, and
places such emphasis on recognizing
only when he lives in the spirit is he
immortality as an essential aspect of
truly happy. This spiritual longing and
human nature:
perception belongs to all men alike"
('Abdu'l-Bahá, Paris Talks 73; empha-
The conception of annihilation
sis added). Virtually everything else
is a factor in human degradation,
that may be said about the Bahá'í phi-
a cause of human debasement and
losophy of human nature is predicated
lowliness, a source of human fear
on the principle that human nature
and abjection. It has been condu-
is essentially spiritual. This spiritual
cive to the dispersion and weaken-
essence brings in its train a host of
ing of human thought, whereas the
profound practical consequences for
realization of existence and con-
the conduct of individual lives and the
tinuity has upraised man to sub-
management of society. For example,
limity of ideals, established the
it enlarges our perspective on what is
foundations of human progress
meant by "doing good" or "reducing
harm" because we must consider not
27 It is interesting to reflect on the
only the good of the body, but also
meaning of "harm reduction" in light of
our spiritual nature.
20 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

and stimulated the development is why anthropologists and historians
of heavenly virtues. (Promulgation have not found a culture at any stage
89; emphasis added) of development without spiritual and
religious beliefs and practices. While
Belief or disbelief in immortality af- there may be individual exceptions to
fects how we deal with social issues this innate desire for transcendence,
that involve a clash between immedi- there are no collective or societal ex-
ate, short-term solutions and solutions ceptions to it. Even militantly atheistic
that consider spiritual well-being in revolutions and regimes can be said to
this world and the next. For example, do no more than replace one kind of
while supplying free drugs to addicts religiosity with another—though they
may solve some problems, enabling— eventually and invariably fail in this
and, thereby, perpetuating—a self-de- endeavor. For example, the French
structive behavior suppresses the ac- revolutionaries realized that people
tualization of other, more important needed some form of spirituality and
human capacities in this life and also devised the militantly atheistic and
affects the next life. When we reflect humanistic cult of reason. The project
on human problems, immortality must failed at least in part because it could
be taken into consideration. not satisfy the intrinsic human incli-
Other teachings that make no nation to transcendence. The same
sense without implicitly or explicitly failure was experienced eventually by
assuming mankind's spiritual nature militantly atheistic Marxist-Leninism.
are the importance of prayer, the Presenting a list of similarities be-
revelation of God's names in human tween Marxism and Christianity, Ber-
nature ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Paris Talks 26), trand Russell notes that "Bolshevism
and—since God is not a material be- is not merely a political doctrine; it is
ing—mankind's nature having been also a religion, with elaborate dogmas
created in the image of God. Without and inspired scriptures" (8).
mankind's essentially spiritual nature, Spiritual longings—our inclination
there would be no need for religious to transcendence—also express them-
teachings to strengthen and develop selves as ersatz or substitute forms
mankind's "spiritual susceptibilities" such as the pursuit of limitless wealth,
over the course of progressive Reve- power, youth, sexuality, risk, drugs—
lation ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Promulgation 7). anything that can, if only briefly, make
Moreover, only humanity's essentially us forget the iron limits of material ex-
spiritual essence explains the "spiritu- istence.28 People find it easier to offer
al longing[s]" felt, in varying degrees,
by virtually all human beings and cul- 28 See, for example, Abdu'l-Missagh
tures ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Paris Talks 73). Ghadirian In Search of Nirvana for an
This universal need to connect with analysis of the use and abuse of drugs
some form of transcendental reality and alcohol as chemical substitutes for
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 21

"[t]hat willing suspension of disbelief that there is only one human nature
for the moment, which constitutes po- common to all people from all times
etic faith" to the supernatural in films, and places, regardless of the vast di-
novels, television series, and comic versity of individuals and cultures. In
books rather than to God (Coleridge regards to the universality of human
2). Forms of divination such as tarot nature, 'Abdu'l-Bahá also states, "For
cards, crystals, and rune stones may instance, man is distinguished from
also be described as attempts to ful- the animal by his degree, or king-
fill our inclination to transcendence. dom. This comprehensive distinction
Finally, in a more general way, the includes all the posterity of Adam
human inclination to transcendence and constitutes one great household
is also evident in the large numbers or human family, which may be con-
of individuals who describe them- sidered the fundamental or physical
selves as "spiritual" as distinct from unity of mankind" (Promulgation 190).
"religious" in an institutional sense. Elsewhere He affirms, "The foremost
In different ways, these people feel degree of comprehension in the world
that there is more to existence than of nature is that of the rational soul.
the material world and that our bodily This power and comprehension is
existence does not represent the sum shared in common by all men, whether
total of our lives. These expressions they be heedless or aware, wayward
of the spiritual aspirations may all be or faithful" (Some Answered Questions
summarized by the bon mot that when 58:3). 'Abdu'l-Bahá explicitly identi-
you push God out of the door, He fies "the rational soul"29—which, ac-
comes back in through the window. cording to Him, distinguishes humans
Because humanity's inherent spiritual from animals—as a possession of all
longings are based on our nature as humans, even if they are not conscious
spiritual beings, they are impossible to of it or deny its existence.30 Human-
suppress. They will always be present
to challenge the atheistic and material- 29 See Kluge, "Reason and the Bahá'í
istic mind-set. Writings" in Lights of 'Irfán 14, 2013, and
According to the Bahá'í Writings, "Philosophy and the Bahá'í Faith." "Rea-
human nature is not just spiritual son," "reasonable," and "rational" in the
but also universal, as evident in 'Ab- Bahá'í Writings refer to (1) inferential rea-
du'l-Bahá's statement about the essen- soning from premise to conclusion, either
tially spiritual nature being true for "all explicitly or implicitly; (2) appropriate or
men alike" (Paris Talks 72); elsewhere fitting to the subject matter being exam-
He states that "God created us all of ined; (3) in harmony with logical thinking
one race" (Paris Talks 148). And if all though arrived at by intuition and other
humans are part of one race, it follows ways of knowing.
30 Denying human rationality is, logi-
transcendental experiences. cally speaking, a lost cause since denying
22 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

ity's rational capacity not only rein- are merely accidental rather than es-
forces the universality of rationality sential attributes of human nature.
in mankind, but it also establishes the Indeed, racism is reduced to a logical
basis for world unification insofar as it category mistake, an unsophisticated
can bring people together through the confusion between what is permanent
power of reason. and meaningful and what is ephemeral
Compared to the essential oneness and insignificant. Third, it provides
of mankind, the racial, cultural, and an objective foundation for a universal
individual differences are accidental— code of ethics by considering morality
which is to say, contingent products on an objective rather than a personal
of time, place, and circumstances— and culturally subjective basis, thus
whereas human nature is permanent undermining the concepts of ethical
and universal. The existence of such and cultural relativism. The ethical
enormous diversity within humankind principles implicitly embedded in our
emphasizes the need for a universal divinely created nature are universal
human nature, without which it would and binding for all.
be impossible to establish the unifica- Another fundamental aspect of hu-
tion of mankind, where "[a]ll men man nature, according to the Bahá'í
will adhere to one religion, will have Writings, is that it is permanent; it
one common faith, will be blended into does not change over time. There may
one race, and become a single people" be changes in the potentials that are
('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions manifested at different times, but the
12:7). human essence as created by God does
The oneness and universality of not change. In other words, human na-
humanity's nature as created by God ture has unity and coherence in time,
are essential to the Bahá'í philosophy in space or location, and in circum-
of human nature for at least three stance. 'Abdu'l-Bahá affirms that "the
major reasons. First, they establish originality of the human species, and
the foundation for the eventual unifi- of the independence of the essence
cation of mankind in a federal global of man are clear and evident" (Some
commonwealth. Without such a fun- Answered Questions 47:11). This posi-
damental oneness and universality, tion is maintained even in regards to
it is difficult to envision humankind human evolution:
achieving such unity. Second, it ne-
gates the ontological basis for racism This anatomical evolution or pro-
insofar as the characteristics used to gression does not alter or affect
differentiate ethnic groups or races the statement that the development
of man was always human in type
reason requires us to employ it in order to and biological in progression. For
establish our point. The argument against the human embryo when exam-
reason is a self-refuting proposition. ined microscopically is at first a
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 23

mere germ or worm. Gradually as Revelations (Promised Day 108). If
it develops it shows certain divi- human nature were changeable, there
sions . . . But at all times . . . it was could be no "eternal verities" because
human in potentiality . . . Through- they would not be applicable. More-
out this progression there has over, if human nature were not con-
been a transference of type, a con- stant, it would be difficult to imagine
servation of species or kind. (Promul- how humanity could ever be unit-
gation 358; emphasis added) ed, because unification can only be
achieved on the basis of some durable
Elsewhere, 'Abdu'l-Bahá emphasizes common ground. There are at least
the stability of human nature or es- two other reasons for rejecting of the
sence by explaining that "when [an concept of human nature as change-
embryo] possesses, in the womb of able. One is theological: the concept
the mother, a strange form entirely of essential malleability suggests that
different from its present shape and the human spirit or essence is not a
appearance, it is the embryo of a dis- perfect creation by God. Bahá'u'lláh
tinct species and not of an animal: The explicitly contradicts such notions; He
essence of the species and the innate says, "I have perfected in every one of
reality undergo no transformation at you My creation," thus indicating that
all" (Some Answered Questions 47:10). both humans and creation as a whole
He applies this principle of immutabil- have been created perfect (Gleanings
ity to education, as well: "education can- 75:1). The second, practical reason
not alter the inner essence of a man, but it for rejecting the changeability of hu-
doth exert tremendous influence, and man nature is to protect humans from
with this power it can bring forth from themselves and their limited under-
the individual whatever perfections standing of themselves and their spir-
and capacities are deposited within itual destiny. To appreciate the need to
him" (Selections 132; emphasis added). protect human nature from man-made
In my understanding, this means that designs based on our limited knowl-
while education can improve the way edge, we need only examine the di-
the potentials of "the inner essence" sastrous attempts at such changes by
express themselves, it cannot change Communism, Fascism, and Nazism.
that essence. Of course, the immutability of
The immutability of human na- human nature does not mean that
ture is important for at least a few new, hitherto latent potentials cannot
reasons. First, the doctrine of pro- be actualized. Doing that is precisely
gressive revelation and the unification the point of progressive revelation.
of humankind require it. As Shoghi However, it is important to ensure
Effendi points out, God, through His that what we are attempting to actu-
Manifestations, "restates the eternal alize are genuine potentials and not
verities" over the course of successive ideological impositions. From a Bahá'í
24 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

perspective, that can best be done by composition and arrangement"
looking at guidance from the Manifes- ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Promulgation 181).
tations of previous Divine Dispensa- The divine origin of mankind has
tions—and in our time, at Bahá'u'lláh, at least three significant consequenc-
the Manifestation of God for this age. es. First, human beings are loved by
A study of the Bahá'í Writings would God, Who created them freely. He
leave no doubt that theories of racial did not have to create them; He could
superiority, the absolute equalization have omitted them from creation, or
of wealth, and the complete submis- He could have created them for mo-
sion of the individual to the state are tives other than love.31 Recognizing
untenable because they cannot be har- this divine love as the origin of hu-
monized with the essentially spiritual man nature has momentous positive
nature of human reality. consequences for our attitude toward
and understanding of the importance
HUMANITY'S ORIGIN, PLACE, of ourselves and others. Indeed, it
AND ROLE IN CREATION would revolutionize them altogether.
As 'Abdu'l-Bahá says, we will then
In order to understand human nature, "[l]ook upon the whole human race as
it is necessary to consider its origins, members of one family, all children of
place, and role in the cosmic order. God; and, in so doing, [we] will see no
Mankind's existence is the result of a difference between them" (Paris Talks
conscious, intentional, and willful act 171). Second, the divine origin of hu-
of God, and more than that, it is the man nature also means that its value is
result of an act motivated by divine intrinsic, that it is not subject to deval-
love. Through Bahá'u'lláh, God says, uation due to prejudices or subjective
"O son of man! I loved thy creation, preferences. Nor can it be degraded by
hence I created thee" (Hidden Words, outward circumstances. It can only be
Arabic no. 4). Human nature is the disgraced by our own actions against
object and product of intentional or our essential nature. Third, because
willful action by God, Who, motivated human nature is divinely made, we
by love for humanity, brought it into observe once again that it is not a
existence as a particular kind of being. construct dependent on personal or
Mankind is not a chance creation collective human perception, nor is it
that may or may not have come into subject to "re-design" by humans. Man
existence depending on serendipitous
chemical reactions; rather, like the rest 31 An ancient Babylonian myth, for
of the phenomenal world, it is part of example, gives the creation of man as
a plan, and as will be shown below, it motivated by the gods' drunken desire to
is a necessary part of the universe. In amuse themselves; they make clay models
other words, "it is evident that it is the of humans—including all kinds of dis-
creation of God, and is not a fortuitous torted ones—for their pleasure.
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 25

is not man-made, and neglecting this distinguishes it from all other things
fact has led to disastrous results in the and gives humankind a special posi-
twentieth century. tion on the scale of being.32 In short,
Although human nature, like all human nature is ontologically and
other phenomenal things, is created cosmically "privileged." This does not,
by God's will, it is especially favored of course, entitle humans to abuse the
or privileged by God. In the words rest of creation but rather imposes a
of 'Abdu'l-Bahá, "There is no doubt special duty to look after the world in
then, that of all created beings man the spirit of noblesse oblige.33
is the nearest to the nature of God, Contrary to contemporary scientif-
and therefore receives a greater gift of ic opinion, the Bahá'í Writings assert
the Divine Bounty" (Paris Talks 26). that there is a fundamental difference
Bahá'u'lláh states: between human nature and the nature
of other life forms and that this is a
Whatever is in the heavens and difference in kind and not in degree. A
whatever is on the earth is a direct difference in kind is one that cannot be
evidence of the revelation within reduced to a common factor. A rock and
it of the attributes and names a seagull are different in kind; each has
of God . . . To a supreme degree is essential attributes that the other does
this true of man, who, among all not and cannot have. All essential dif-
created things, hath been invested ferences are differences in kind—pine-
with the robe of such gifts, and apples versus ponies, surgeons versus
hath been singled out for the glo- sturgeons, wizards versus washboards.
ry of such distinction. For in him On the other hand, in a difference of
are potentially revealed all the degree, there is at least one essential
attributes and names of God to a attribute that makes it possible to see
degree that no other created being one thing or condition as a degree or
hath excelled or surpassed. (Glean- variation of another. For example, the
ings 90:1; emphasis added) three states of water—liquid water,
steam, and ice—are different in degree
These teachings are noteworthy be- but alike in their essential attribute
cause they contradict secular beliefs in of molecular structure. Knowledge
humanity's cosmic insignificance, its
status as a mere fortuitous event like 32 The categorization of phenomenal
all other entities in the universe—a being, according to the Bahá'í Writings,
view that suggests it has no more and goes from mineral, to plant, to animal, and
no less intrinsic value than anything finally to man.
else. To the contrary, human nature is 33 "Nobility obliges"; or, in the evan-
created with a special essence and place gelist's words, "unto whomsoever much
in the cosmic order—the capacity to is given, of him shall be much required"
reflect all the names of God—which (Luke 12:48 KJV).
26 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

and ignorance, daylight at noon and human kind, namely the intellectual
daylight at dusk, muscular strength characteristic, which discovereth the
and muscular weakness illustrate dif- realities of things and comprehendeth
ferences of degree or a variation of a universal principles" ('Abdu'l-Bahá,
common element. Selections 61). Mankind achieves such
The Bahá'í Writings assert that the comprehension by means of the ab-
"human spirit" or "rational soul" is the solutely unique human activities that
feature that distinguishes human na- have no counterpart in the non-human
ture from animals and, by implication, world: "All sciences, knowledge, arts,
from plants and minerals: wonders, institutions, discoveries and
enterprises come from the exercised
The human spirit, which intelligence of the rational soul" ('Ab-
distinguishes man from the animal, du'l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions
is the rational soul, and these two 58:3).This list is easily unpacked,
terms—the human spirit and containing such activities as writing
the rational soul—designate one operas, establishing public schools,
and the same thing. This spirit, engaging in philosophical debates, cre-
which in the terminology of the ating legal systems with codified laws
philosophers is called the rational and rights, as well as inventing modes
soul, encompasses all things and, of democratic governance.
as far as human capacity permits, Not only do the Bahá'í Writings
discovers the realities and establish the uniqueness of human
becomes aware of the properties nature, but they also teach that
and effects, the characteristics humankind occupies a distinct place in
and conditions of earthly things. the structure of the physical cosmos.
('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered 'Abdu'l-Bahá says, "The splendour of
Questions 55:5) all the divine perfections is manifest
in the reality of man, and it is for this
Because the "rational soul" is the es- reason that he is the vicegerent and
sential attribute of human nature that apostle of God. If man did not exist,
no other creature has or can have, the the universe would be without result,
difference between mankind and other for the purpose of existence is the
beings is a difference in kind. This dis- revelation of the divine perfections"
tinction is shown in several ways. One (Some Answered Questions 50:4).
is that humankind includes and com- Human nature is not only made in the
prehends the lower forms of existence image of God; it is also the capstone
such as mineral, plant, and animal and, or crown of creation, without which
in addition, has reason: "In the hu- the phenomenal universe would be
man world the characteristics of the incomplete. It represents the necessary
mineral, vegetable and animal worlds degree of perfection that gives the
are found and in addition that of the universe a goal and purpose (note the
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 27

teleological thinking) just as the fruit is It is evident therefore that man
the reason for the existence of the tree is ruler over nature's sphere and
('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions province. Nature is inert, man is
50:5). In other words, human nature progressive. Nature has no con-
plays a necessary role in the existence sciousness, man is endowed with
of the universe, which is why 'Abdu'l- it. Nature is without volition and
Bahá states, "We cannot say, then, that acts perforce whereas man pos-
there was a time when man was not" sesses a mighty will. Nature is in-
(Some Answered Questions 50:6). capable of discovering mysteries
Human nature also occupies a unique or realities whereas man is espe-
place in the cosmic order in other ways: cially fitted to do so. Nature is not
in touch with the realm of God,
In man, however, there is a dis- man is attuned to its evidences.
covering power that transcendeth Nature is uninformed of God,
the world of nature and control- man is conscious of Him. Man
leth and interfereth with the laws acquires divine virtues, nature is
thereof. For instance, all minerals, denied them. Man can voluntarily
plants and animals are captives of discontinue vices, nature has no
nature . . . Man, however, though power to modify the influence of
in body the captive of nature is its instincts. Altogether it is evident
yet free in his mind and soul, and that man is more noble and superior;
hath the mastery over nature. that in him there is an ideal power
('Abdu'l-Bahá, Tablet 9) surpassing nature. He has conscious-
ness, volition, memory, intelligent
In other words, mankind's essentially power, divine attributes and virtues
spiritual nature transcends or surpass- of which nature is completely de-
es physical creation; therefore, humans prived, bereft and minus; therefore
have "mastery over nature." As noted man is higher and nobler by reason
earlier, this is not, of course, a license of the ideal and heavenly force latent
to abuse the natural world, in which and manifest in him. (Promulgation
humans are embedded for their earthly 178; emphasis added)
tenure, because the phenomenal world
is also one of God's creations. Hu- Human nature is also unique insofar as
manity's "mastery" is the basis for our it is the microcosm of the macrocos-
responsibility to take care of the phe- mic creation:
nomenal world and is not an excuse
for predatory environmental attitudes The human kingdom is replete with
and practices. the perfections of all the kingdoms be-
Elsewhere 'Abdu'l-Bahá lists the low it with the addition of powers pe-
ways in which human nature is essen- culiar to man alone. Man is, there-
tially distinct from the rest of creation: fore, superior to all the creatures
28 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

below him, the loftiest and most unto that for which thou wast created"
glorious being of creation. Man is the (Arabic no. 22). In effect, this means
microcosm; and the infinite universe, that the special status of human na-
the macrocosm. The mysteries of ture in creation imposes certain obli-
the greater world, or macrocosm, gations on us if we are to be worthy
are expressed or revealed in the of the great gifts bestowed upon it. To
lesser world, the microcosm. The do otherwise is to squander these gifts;
tree, so to speak, is the greater we are not here to rest on our divinely
world, and the seed in its relation conferred laurels but to strive for the
to the tree is the lesser world . . . self-actualization of our higher capac-
the greater world, the macro- ities and the progress of humanity as
cosm, is latent and miniatured in a whole:
the lesser world, or microcosm,
of man. This constitutes the uni- All men have been created to car-
versality or perfection of virtues ry forward an ever-advancing civ-
potential in mankind. Therefore, ilization. The Almighty beareth
it is said that man has been cre- Me witness: To act like the beasts
ated in the image and likeness of of the field is unworthy of man.
God. (Promulgation 69; emphasis Those virtues that befit his dig-
added) nity are forbearance, mercy,
compassion and loving-kindness
Human nature, in other words, sum- towards all the peoples and kin-
marizes in miniature, "latent" form dreds of the earth. (Bahá'u'lláh,
within itself the principles, the "mys- Gleanings 109:2)
teries," and the "virtues" of the entire
phenomenal world.34 This inherent Bahá'u'lláh enjoins humankind to act
nobility of human nature is not just in accordance with its divinely be-
a matter of building human self-con- stowed nature, thereby making such
fidence; it is, more importantly, a mat- behavior an ethical imperative.
ter of ethics, insofar as humans are However, human nature's origin,
expected to live up to their noble na- place, and role in the cosmic evolu-
ture as an ethical duty. In the Hidden tion also impose important limita-
Words, Bahá'u'lláh exhorts, "O son of tions on mankind's capacities. One of
spirit! Noble have I created thee, yet these—the claims by some mystics to
thou hast abased thyself. Rise then have become ontologically "one" with
God—is not supported by the Bahá'í
34 Bahá'u'lláh makes a similar claim: philosophy of human nature. Because
"For in him are potentially revealed all the mankind is a creation of God and
attributes and names of God to a degree is, therefore, dependent on Him; be-
that no other created being hath excelled cause it is different in kind from God;
or surpassed" (Gleanings 90:1). and because there is "no tie of direct
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 29

intercourse to bind the one true God heading of higher and lower natures.
with His creation, . . . no resemblance The rest of this paper will illustrate
whatever can exist between the tran- this point. The five sets of dual as-
sient and the Eternal, the contingent pects are as follows:
and the Absolute" (Bahá'u'lláh, Glean- (1) (species) essence and (species)
ings 27:4). From this it follows that all essential attributes: a horse and being
claims to be ontologically one with a mammal;
God are in error. They are misunder- (2) (species) essence and (species)
standings of the intrinsic limits of accidental attributes: a horse and its
human nature, namely, that we cannot chestnut coloring;
transcend our ontological limits. This (3) potential and actuality: a seed
principle is so strict that according to and the actual tree that grows from
the Bahá'í Writings, even God cannot it35;
discard His infinite nature and become (4) our higher spiritual and lower
finite: "Know thou of a certainty that animal nature; the rational soul and
the Unseen can in no wise incarnate the body;
His Essence and reveal it unto men" (5) "innate and acquired" capacity36:
(Gleanings 20:1). Moreover, "[f]or God human nature as created by God (first
to descend into the conditions of exis- nature) and what humans choose to do
tence would be the greatest of imper- with the divine endowments (second
fections" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered nature).37
Questions 27:4). In other words, the Regarding the fifth set of dualities,
mystical experience may be experi- 'Abdu'l-Bahá says that while our "in-
enced as an ontological union, but it is nate capacity"—or "first nature," as it
not so in reality. is sometimes called—"is purely good,"

DUALITIES IN HUMAN NATURE 35 "But the whole of the great tree is
potentially latent and hidden in the little
In my view, the Bahá'í concept of seed. When this seed is planted and culti-
human nature is distinguished by vated, the tree is revealed" ('Abdu'l-Bahá,
five sets of ontological dualities that Promulgation 69).
establish the general structure of hu- 36 'Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Ques-
man nature. All the other features of tions 57:9.
human nature have their place within 37 "'First nature' is Hegel's term for
this framework and can be related to it nature including human nature as creat-
directly or indirectly. For example, the ed by God and/or untouched by human
teachings about change, physical and activity in any way. 'Second nature' is his
spiritual evolution, progressive revela- term for nature including human nature as
tion, and even the afterlife are part of affected by mankind and society" ("Nor-
the rubric of potential and actuality. mativity and Subjectivity: First Nature—
Teachings about morality fit under the Second Nature—Mind").
30 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

our "acquired capacity" or "second na- complete and distorted understanding
ture," which is the result of choices we of mankind. Consequently, it becomes
make, explains, among other things, impossible to avoid serious errors in
"the cause of evil" (Some Answered governance, administration, leader-
Questions 57:9).38 While the "natural ship, law, economics, medicine, and
capacity" (first nature) is essentially education. In economics, for example,
spiritual, it does not exclude the body the subject of marketing highlights
as an accidental attribute that partic- this issue in that it ignores the effects
ipates in the goodness of God's cre- of consumerism on people's psycho-
ation. It is "accidental" because, while logical and spiritual well-being, both
necessary in the phenomenal realm, in their short-term relationship with
the body will eventually be left be- the material world and in the long-
hind while the spirit will continue to term with respect to their spiritual life.
evolve. Of course, the body is not in The consumerization of sexuality in
itself necessarily evil; evil comes into the modern world also illustrates how
play when, as a result of human choic- denying the reality of the spirit affects
es, the body and the material world are humanity.
misused. These dualities do not undermine
According to the Bahá'í Writings, the unity of human nature because
these dualities are ontologically real they are the very constituents of
and are not merely arbitrary verbal human nature itself. If any of these
distinctions without objective refer- dualities were missing, human nature
ence.39 Because these are ontological- would be incomplete in some essen-
ly real features of human nature, any tial way; as necessary constituents of
analysis of human nature that omits human nature, they cannot undermine
them is intrinsically incomplete and is, it. Moreover, these dualities show that
to that extent, distorted or even false. human nature is processual. It is con-
For example, ontological materialism, stituted in its unique human identity
the belief that only matter is real, can- by such processes as actualizing po-
not logically admit the existence of tentials, developing a second nature,
the soul and therefore develops an in- and struggling to control its animal
nature. Thus, these dualities and their
38 As I shall discuss later, the distinc- seeming contradictions are dialecti-
tion between these two capacities or na- cal; that is, they create a process that
tures is the basis of a Bahá'í theodicy for unifies the opposites in the process
explaining the existence of evil in this itself, thereby helping to constitute
world despite the fact that the phenomenal human nature. In addition, these dual-
world, as created by God, is perfect. ities have a functional and teleological
39 See section 2 of this paper, "The unity inasmuch as they work toward
Philosophical Terminology of the Bahá'í their common goal of sustaining hu-
Writings," for specific evidence. man nature and delineating its present
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 31

objectives as well as its final goal of and contradiction be seen as in man.
cosmic development ('Abdu'l-Bahá, (Some Answered Questions 64:6–7;
Some Answered Questions ch. 49). emphasis added)
The dialectical nature of some of
the essential dualities of human na- In other words, human nature finds
ture causes man to be in a state of itself in an ontological borderland
tension between actuality and poten- between different levels of reality,
tial: to wit, between what one is and between matter and spirit, between
what one could be; between what one the animal "captive to matter" and
is and what one should be; between our the angel free in the spiritual realms;
higher and lower nature; and between between perfection and imperfection
"innate capacities" and "acquired ca- ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Paris Talks 38). Pre-
pacities" (first and second nature). In cisely because of this ambiguous on-
addition, 'Abdu'l-Bahá clarifies anoth- tological position, Manifestations are
er aspect of this intrinsic tension; it is needed to guide humanity's physical,
due to humanity's ontological position intellectual, and moral development.
in creation: Finally, in this statement, 'Abdu'l-Bahá
re-emphasizes humanity's distinctive
Man is the ultimate degree of nature as a processual being constitut-
materiality and the beginning of ed by the previously examined duali-
spirituality; he is at the end of ties as well as its unique ontological
imperfection and the beginning position.
of perfection. He is at the further- This ongoing constitutive conflict
more degree of darkness and the underscores that human nature is te-
beginning of the light . . . He has leological. For example, in a letter
both an animal side and an angelic from the Research Department at the
side and the role of the educator Bahá'í World Centre to the Univer-
is to so train human souls that sal House of Justice, we find the fol-
the angelic side may overcome lowing: "The Bahá'í concept of human
the animal. Thus, should the di- nature is teleological; that is, there are
vine powers, which are identical certain qualities intended by God for
with perfection, overcome in man 'human nature', and qualities which do
the satanic powers, he becomes not accord with these are described as
the noblest of all creatures, but 'unnatural'" (letter dated 5 July 1993;
should the converse take place, emphasis added). In other words, man-
he becomes the vilest of all be- kind has an innate goal or purpose,
ings. That is why he is the end which is to actualize and develop those
of imperfection and the begin- potentials that are in harmony with
ning of perfection . . . In no other its "first nature" as created by God—
species in the world of existence can their "spiritual susceptibilities" ('Ab-
such difference, distinction, contrast du'l-Bahá, Promulgation 7). However,
32 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

some people develop qualities that are as revealed by Bahá'u'lláh. In other
unsuited or inappropriate to human words, the right choices are those
nature. based on the recognition that "[m]
The full importance of possessing an is, in reality, a spiritual being, and
the intrinsic goal of actualizing the only when he lives in the spirit is he
potentials bestowed by God becomes truly happy. This spiritual longing and
clearer when reflecting that this goal perception belongs to all men alike"
is a universal ethical imperative that ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Paris Talks 73). Mak-
is valid regardless of time, place, and ing ethically correct choices involves
historical circumstance. Here, too, it recognizing our own spiritual nature
is evident that bringing mankind's and spiritual longings and fitting our
animal aspects under spiritual control choices to our true identity, which is
sets an objective standard by which the only part of us that will endure
the ethical merit of behavior can be after physical death. At this point, the
assessed. Applying this standard is significance of metaphysics for eth-
essential to preventing humanity from ics and human development becomes
being misled by technological achieve- clear. If humans do not recognize
ment as a measure of civilization, be- their spiritual nature, it becomes more
cause it quickly becomes apparent that difficult and ultimately impossible to
movements like Nazism used great make correct ethical choices. The de-
technological achievements to pursue nial of spirit easily reduces choices to
the lowest moral goals: physical advantages or disadvantages.
But what if there is a conflict between
For if the spiritual qualities of short-term physical good and long-
the soul, open to the breath of the term spiritual good?
Divine Spirit, are never used, they The necessity of making the right
become atrophied, enfeebled, and choices is also another indicator that
at last incapable; whilst the soul's human nature is teleological, which
material qualities alone being is to say that we are obligated to pur-
exercised, they become terribly sue certain divinely intended choices
powerful—and the unhappy, mis- and qualities and to avoid "unnatural"
guided man becomes more sav- ones that do not reflect our spiritual
age, more unjust, more vile, more character. The guidance given by the
cruel, more malevolent than the Manifestations helps us meet these
lower animals themselves. ('Ab- standards, which are objective and
du'l-Bahá, Paris Talks 97) therefore do not depend on human
perception to be real. Unlike Sartre's
From a Bahá'í perspective, the atheist existentialism, which claims
ethically right choices are those that that all choices are "right" and "natu-
harmonize with our divinely creat- ral" as long as we live in "good faith";
ed first nature or "natural capacities" statist ethics, which are based on what
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 33

is good for the state; or utilitarian eth- is to explain how these ontologically
ics, which are based on whatever the distinct and incompatible substances
majority decides is good, the Bahá'í can interact as constituents of a uni-
Writings teach that ultimately God, fied human organism. How can matter
not humanity, determines moral stan- interact with non-matter? There is a
dards. Ethics are not individually or long history of proposed solutions,
collectively subjective. one of which—occasionalism—ac-
cepts dualism and tries to coordinate
BODY-MIND DUALISM the two parts by means of direct di-
vine action. That is, mind and body
The relationship between the physical are connected by God's ongoing inter-
brain and the human spirit or non-ma- vention: when the mind decides to lift
terial mind is vital to a full understand- an arm, God causes the arm to rise.40
ing of the Bahá'í philosophy of human The second solution to the mind-
nature for at least three reasons. First, body problem is monism—whether
the Bahá'í Writings establish the fun- materialistic or idealistic. Both reject
damental unity of human nature by mind-body dualism altogether. Ideal-
showing that it is not constituted by istic monists assert that both body and
two apparently incompatible aspects mind are mental in nature.41 For mate-
and that it is not a form of mind-body rialists, the mind and the brain (which
materialism. Second, the Writings also is part of the body) are the same,
prioritize these two aspects of human which is why this view is sometimes
nature in a way that shows how they call "identity theory." Because it is ma-
work together and supports the teach- terialist, identity theory also denies
ings on immortality and mankind's the existence of soul and spirit. In the
essentially spiritual nature. Finally, it contemporary world, the brain-mind
is also important to understand the identity theory is dominant and is,
Bahá'í solution to the mind-body prob- therefore, the chief rival of all forms
lem because it will inevitably face criti- of brain-mind dualism and the Bahá'í
cism from mind-brain identity theory. solution. Whereas the Bahá'í Writ-
There are basically two views on ings offer a third alternative, namely
mind-body duality. The first view is that the whole mind-body problem is
dualism, which was revived by René chimerical, an illusion caused by Des-
Descartes, who claimed that human cartes' faulty analysis in identifying
nature is comprised of two substanc-
es: an extended and unconscious sub- 40 Unpromising as this theory seems
stance that forms the body (including at first glance, it remains an option be-
the brain) and a non-extended, con- cause of the serious difficulties attending
scious, and thinking substance that its chief rival, identity theory.
forms the soul or mind (Meditations no. 41 Hegel is an example in the West;
6). The challenge of Cartesian dualism Buddhism is also monist in this sense.
34 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

both the non-extended spirit and the and be human without the accidental
extended body as distinct substances body. For this reason, spirit and body
and thus as separate, independent, and are not necessarily and eternally con-
intrinsically incompatible. nected, and the spirit will eventually
'Abdu'l-Bahá points out Descartes' be able to exist without the body.
error while presenting His argument Because the human spirit, or ratio-
for the immortality of the soul: nal soul, is a substance and the body
is an attribute, there is no interaction
Some hold that the body is the problem between them any more than
substance and that it subsists by there is an interaction problem be-
itself, and that the spirit is the ac- tween a ripe tomato and its redness.
cident which subsists through the "Redness" is an attribute that ripe
substance of the body. The truth, tomatoes exhibit at certain stages of
however, is that the rational soul is their existence in the material world.
the substance through which the It might be said that the essence of
body subsists. If the accident—the the tomato expresses and manifests
body—is destroyed, the substance— itself by means of redness as it actu-
the spirit—remains. (Some Answered alizes certain potentials in the physical
Questions 66:2) world. How can there be an interac-
tion problem between a substance or
In summary, the solution to the Car- essence, its inherent potentials, and
tesian dilemma is 'Abdu'l-Bahá's the actualization of these potentials?
identification of the human spirit, or It would be like saying that there is
rational soul, as a substance and the an interaction problem between the
material body, including the brain, as seed and the tree growing from it.
"accident." As a substance, the human Such a claim is not logically tenable.
spirit exists independently and is able Bahá'í scholar John S. Hatcher makes
to possess attributes. By "exists inde- a similar point when, in regards to
pendently" I mean that every individ- things and their activities, he says,
ual rational soul is distinct from every "there is no interface problem between
other and does not depend on them things and their activities" (174). To
to exist. For example, Bucephalus the paraphrase William Butler Yeats, we
horse possesses the essential attribute cannot "separate the dancer from the
of being a mammal and the accidental dance" (113).
attributes of being black and having a 'Abdu'l-Bahá also explains the re-
star on his forehead. However, "black" lationship between human spirit and
and "starred forehead" themselves body by means of an analogy, stating
cannot be distinct substances because that "the connection of the spirit with
they cannot exist independently as the body is even as the connection of
things in their own right. In the case this lamp with a mirror" (Some An-
of humans, the rational soul can exist swered Questions 66:3). In this analogy,
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 35

the sun and the mirror have an acci- with meaning as "I smell a rat"?42 Us-
dental relationship: the mirror is in no ing a physical device—whether a com-
way necessary for the existence of the puter, an MRI, an EEG, or a physical
sun or for the sun to retain its essence brain—to decipher the meaning of
as a giver of light. Moreover, the sun a text leads only to more physical
in the mirror is an expression or man- marks on a computer screen, or elec-
ifestation of the actual sun and in that tro-chemical "blips" in the brain, or
sense is an attribute of the sun, just squiggly lines on a printout. Physical
as the body is an attribute insofar as analysis cannot reveal the meaning of
the body's actions are expressions of these "ciphers" because the meaning is
the rational soul. In other words, the not in the physical marks themselves.
relationship between the sun and its None of these marks are the meaning;
mirror image replicates the relation- one set of marks has simply been re-
ship between the human spirit and the placed by another. Repeating this pro-
body. Again, there is no interaction cess with a different machine or brain
problem because no such problem that also can only scan literal marks
can exist between a substance and its merely initiates an infinite regress and,
attribute. consequently, provides no answer. In
'Abdu'l-Bahá draws attention to two principle, therefore, meaning cannot
major difficulties in the identity theo- be comprehended by physical analysis;
ry. The first is the problem of meaning from this it follows that the compre-
and how it is communicated. He writes hension of meaning requires the in-
that music has emotional and spiritual tervention of a non-physical process
effects on man even though the "vibra- and/or entity. To solve this problem,
tions of the air [are] an accident . . . a non-physical intervenor must be im-
accounted as naught" (Some Answered plicitly or explicitly imported to make
Questions 69:4). In themselves, the identity theory viable, otherwise there
physical sound waves have no emo- would be no escape from the infinite
tions or meaning, yet somehow they regress of physical processes and no
become very meaningful to listeners one would be able to understand the
even though no amount of scientific meaning of any text.43 Therefore, it is
analysis can detect such meaning. The difficult to avoid the conclusion that
same problem is even more acute for at some point a non-physical interve-
written texts. The letters, words, and
phrases have no meaning in them- 42 Even if we decipher the mysterious
selves, and physical analysis cannot script, we are still faced with the problem
reveal any. of understanding the translation.
This raises a crucial question: How 43 In my experience, attempts to
can physical brains know the mean- claim the contrary inevitably "slip in"
ing of a text as mundane as "Gone a non-physical intervenor in order to
for lunch" or as metaphoric and laden achieve understanding.
36 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

nor—whether we call it soul, spirit, or aspects of our experiences such as
mind—must be involved in the com- being six years old, viewing Vincent
prehension of meaning. Van Gogh's "Sunflowers," or reading
Clearly, the need for such a spir- Thomas Mann's Death in Venice. They
itual intervenor constitutes a major make up the whole of our subjectively
self-contradiction in an identity the- experienced "life-world," which is
ory of brain and mind. Indeed, this why they are so incredibly important
contradiction throws the tenability of to humans. Much of human life is
the theory into doubt because it inad- driven by the quest for certain qualia
vertently resurrects Descartes' sub- or subjective experiences, as seen in
stance dualism insofar as it requires the pursuit of beauty, friendship, love,
both a physical brain and a non-ma- poetry, stories, pleasure, music, ritual,
terial intervenor. On the other hand, humor, justice, truth, spirituality, and
the Bahá'í substance-attribute solution meaning, among other things.
does not suffer from such a self-con- Why do qualia and subjective expe-
tradiction because there is no need to rience pose difficulties for brain-mind
import any non-physical intervenors identity theory? In the first place,
to understand meaning. The human like meaning, qualia are not physical
spirit or rational soul takes on that things—there is no way to gather or
role. measure someone's subjective experi-
The second major problem for ences. None of the criteria of scientific
identity theory mentioned by 'Abdu'l- evidence—physicality, measurability,
Bahá concerns issue of qualia. He objective and external observability,
says, "[C]onsider how the vibrations and falsifiability, among others—can
of the air, which are an accident among be applied to qualia and subjective ex-
accidents and which are accounted perience. Physical measuring devices
as naught, attract and exhilarate the only provide knowledge of things as
spirit of man and move him to the can be "acquired through the senses"
utmost: They cause him to laugh and ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions
to weep, and can even induce him to 16:2)—which excludes qualia and sub-
throw himself in harm's way" (Some jective experiences. Consequently, they
Answered Questions 69:4). The term are not appropriate targets of scientif-
"qualia" refers to the subjective ic study. Furthermore, because qualia
qualitative experiences of our own and subjective experiences are not
conscious states of mind. These states physical, their actions and interactions
of mind include each person's unique cannot be explained in terms of phys-
experiences of sensations (such as ical cause and effect. The non-physical
"blue," "cold," or "sad"), real and/or nature of qualia creates a conundrum
imaginative experiences, and events. for brain-mind identity theory: How
Qualia consist of the "what it is like" can a physical organ like the brain
mental states,44 that is, the qualitative accommodate a class of non-physical
44 See Thomas Nagel's "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?"
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 37

qualia and subjective experiences? suggest the existence of qualia. All
This is self-contradictory. How, for they record is electrical and biochem-
example, can there be aspects of brain ical brain activities. Given the enor-
function that cannot be measured? It mously important role played by qual-
is difficult to avoid the conclusion that ia and subject experience in mankind's
the existence of qualia and subjective existence, this disconnect suggests a
experience is incompatible with brain- serious shortcoming in purely physical
mind identity theory. explorations and explanation of brain
By contrast, the Bahá'í sub- function. If brain and mind are truly
stance-attribute solution "locates" one and the same, a disconnect of this
non-material "things" like meaning, magnitude should not occur, and the
qualia, and subjective experience "in" fact that it does suggests a flaw in iden-
the "rational soul" because they are tity theory. A materialist theory that
"intelligible realities" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, cannot avoid invoking the existence of
Some Answered Questions 16:3). But non-physical features cannot help but
just as the deliberations of the ratio- undermine itself. Furthermore, it has
nal soul are expressed or manifested no way of studying in themselves the
in the physical world through the ac- qualia and subjective experiences that
cidental attribute of the body-brain, play such a decisive role in the lives of
so are meaning, qualia, and subjective all individuals and, therefore, is not an
experiences. In other words, in the ma- adequate theory to explain the mind-
terial world, physical sounds or visual brain relationship.
marks are necessary but not sufficient
conditions for the communication of THE RATIONAL HUMAN NATURE
meaning or the explanation of subjec-
tive experiences and qualia. The essential rationality of human
fMRIs and EEG machines do not nature is one of the key features of
solve the difficulties of identity theo- Bahá'í philosophy and, in our time,
ry. While they provide real-time cor- one of the most philosophically con-
relations with qualia and subjective troversial. This teaching is opposed by
experiences, in themselves they are the entire project of postmodernism,
not subjective experiences and are not which views rationalism as a West-
what a person is experiencing; neither ern cultural invention (a charge easily
do they provide any clues as to what disproven, as we will soon observe)
is being qualitatively and subjectively and rejects all notions of privileging
experienced. The fMRI may tell us reason and logic above other methods
about which parts of the brain are of acquiring knowledge and thinking.
engaged—but these are not the qualia According to Richard Wolin, a spe-
or subjective experiences themselves. cialist in intellectual history, "in the
Indeed, no amount of analysis of lexicon of deconstruction [a post-
fMRI images and EEG printouts can modern method of textual analysis]
38 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

'reason' is identified as a fundamental aware of the properties and ef-
source of tyranny and oppression . . . fects, the characteristics and con-
[and for Foucault] a source of dom- ditions of earthly things. (Some
ination" (21). Moreover, according to Answered Questions 55:5; emphasis
such a philosophy, because reason is added)
only one method among many of ac-
quiring knowledge, it cannot really In other words, mankind not only is
give us truth, for postmodernism as- essentially spiritual,45 but more spe-
sumes that all methods of obtaining cifically, it is essentially rational; the
knowledge and thinking are equally human spirit and the rational soul
valid. Therefore, reason must not be are one and the same and constitute
privileged and humans should not fear the definitive attribute of human na-
being "tempted to seek refuge in myth, ture. Rationality is the differentia that
magic, madness, illusion, or intoxica- identifies mankind as such and makes
tion" (Wolin 21). Therefore, if privi- humans what they are. 'Abdu'l-Bahá
leging reason as a method of thinking elaborates on this subject:
and acquiring knowledge is untenable,
then neither can it be privileged in a reason, which comprehends (or
philosophy of human nature. In effect, detects) the realities of things, is
from a postmodernist perspective, a spiritual reality, not physical (or
"privileging reason" is viewed as an material). Therefore the animal is
attempt to dominate and denigrate deprived of reason, and it (reason)
other "ways of knowing." Objections is specialized to mankind. The
notwithstanding, the Bahá'í Writings animal feeleth realities which are
promulgate the concept that human perceptible to the senses, but man
nature is fundamentally rational in- perceiveth intellectual realities
sofar as the human spirit and the ra- (or things perceptible to reason).
tional soul are identical. 'Abdu'l-Bahá Consequently, it hath become
declares: evident that reason is a spiritual
faculty, not physical (or material).
The human spirit, which distin- (Tablets 208)
guishes man from the animal, is
the rational soul, and these two It is apparent that the rational soul
terms—the human spirit and the and reason are identified with one an-
rational soul—designate one and other because they are both spiritual
the same thing. This spirit, which and have the same power to transcend
in the terminology of the philos- the senses and "discover [the] real-
ophers is called the rational soul, ities" of things ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some
encompasses all things and as far
as human capacity permits, dis- 45 "Man is, in reality, a spiritual being"
covers their realities and becomes ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Paris Talks 73).
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 39

Answered Questions 55:5). Without a people may use humanity's reasoning
rational soul or reasoning powers, hu- capacities to strive for irrational ends.
mans would lack their essential, defin- A prima facie example is the Cold War
ing attribute, which is to say, without policy of mutual assured destruc-
reason we would not be human. tion. Reason was perverted insofar
Furthermore, the rational soul and as extremely rational and logically
the capacity of reason are universal devised technology was applied to an
among mankind: "The first condition irrational goal—mutual annihilation.
of perception in the world of nature However, such mis-developments are
is the perception of the rational soul. accidental in regards to human nature
In this perception and in this power and therefore do not negate the value
all men are sharers, whether they be ne- and the universal possession of the ra-
glectful or vigilant, believers or deniers" tional soul.
('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Ques- The rational soul and its logical
tions 58:3; emphasis added). Willingly powers are not only necessary for
or not, consciously or not, all indi- discoveries in the phenomenal world;
viduals and collectives possess these they are also essential to understand-
rational powers given by God. Pos- ing religious and spiritual truths.
sessing these powers is not a matter Bahá'u'lláh declares "religion is in
of choice. However, because humans complete harmony with science and
have free will, they may choose to reason," and 'Abdu'l-Bahá's states that
ignore, deny, or misuse their powers "[r]eligion must stand the analysis
of reason. For example, philosophers of reason" and specifically criticizes
such as Friedrich Nietzsche and his several Christian religious teachings
postmodernist supporters like Fou- as "irrational and clearly mistaken"
cault and Paul Feyerabend46 reject the because of their self-contradictory na-
validity of reason and its "privileged ture (Promulgation 232; 'Abdu'l-Bahá,
position" over other ways of knowing. Some Answered Questions 29:9). If the
Other individuals simply neglect rea- traditional understanding of the Trin-
son; they do not necessarily oppose it ity were true, 'Abdu'l-Bahá asserts,
but find it irrelevant to their dominant
interest in pleasure, wealth accumula- [t]he foundations of the religion
tion, advantage, or social success. In of God would rest upon an illog-
still others, their "innate capacities are ical proposition which no mind
completely subverted" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, could ever conceive, and how
Some Answered Questions 57:9). These could the mind be required to be-
lieve a thing which it cannot con-
46 See Feyerabend's Farewell to Reason ceive? Such a thing could not be
and Against Method for arguments against grasped by human reason—how
reason based largely on the political much less be clothed in an intel-
"needs" of society. ligible form—but would remain
40 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

sheer fancy. (Some Answered Ques- rationality of human nature is con-
tions 27:9) fined to the intellect. The Bahá'í con-
cept of human nature also recognizes
In other words, even religious in- other ways of knowing and reflecting
terpretations must be amenable to than by intellect alone. The process
reason and logic to be understood of intellectual reasoning requires
and believed. It is, for example, im- sequential steps of logical inferential
possible to believe in square circles reasoning that can be explained and
or that Napoleon won the Battle of analyzed verbally and are, therefore,
Waterloo because no logical thought discursive. In contrast, other ways of
can derive such a conclusion from the knowing—for example, intuition, spir-
evidence in hand. More specifically itual susceptibilities, and even tran-
in regard to religion, 'Abdu'l-Bahá scendent or mystical experiences—do
critiques the Christian interpretation not work in this inferential manner,
of Christ's resurrection and replaces nor can their processes of deliberation
it with a rational interpretation, of be verbally explained or analyzed. For
which He says, "it is in no way contra- this reason, they are non-discursive.
dicted by science but rather affirmed However—and this is essential—a
by both science and reason " (Some non-discursive process of deliberation
Answered Questions 23:7). Elsewhere, is not necessarily non-rational or irra-
'Abdu'l-Bahá illustrates the impor- tional, so there is no inevitable conflict
tance of applying reason to religion with the rational soul. The process
by discounting the literal interpreta- used by these other ways of knowing
tion of the story of Adam and Eve. may be described as trans-rational;
He says, "If the outward meaning of that is, it provides knowledge that un-
this account were to be attributed to assisted reason cannot acquire. How-
a wise man, all men of wisdom would ever, this knowledge is complementa-
assuredly deny it, arguing that such ry to and compatible with reason and
a scheme and arrangement could not the concept of the rational soul. Were
possibly have proceeded from such it not, such knowledge would contra-
a person" (Some Answered Questions dict belief in the unity of the human
30:4). The clear implication is that an spirit, would be incomprehensible, and
intelligent being would not tell an ir- would therefore be unfit for practical
rational story. Similarly, 'Abdu'l-Bahá applications in the phenomenal world.
provides a rational explanation for This complementarity and compat-
the central Christian doctrine of the ibility between the nature of reason
Trinity, which He regards as irrational and the other ways of knowing is ev-
in its traditional interpretation (Some ident in 'Abdu'l-Bahá's statement that
Answered Questions 27:1–10). these other ways enable human nature
It would, however, be a serious to rise above the material level: "True
mistake to conclude that the inherent distinction among mankind is through
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 41

divine bestowals and receiving the in- deprived of the perspectives opened
tuitions of the Holy Spirit. If man does by heavenly bestowals is the scientif-
not become the recipient of the heav- ic approach of interpreting the phe-
enly bestowals and spiritual bounties, he nomenal world in strictly materialistic
remains in the plane and kingdom of terms, neglecting or even denying the
the animal" (Promulgation 316; empha- relevance of the spiritual origin and
sis added). He also says: basis of material reality.
The need for spiritual augmen-
Know then that the Lord God tation—not displacement—of the
possesseth invisible realms which powers of reason is made clear by
the human intellect can never 'Abdu'l-Bahá when He says, "But the
hope to fathom nor the mind of human spirit [the rational soul], un-
man conceive. When once thou less assisted by the spirit of faith, cannot
hast cleansed the channel of thy become acquainted with the divine
spiritual sense from the pollution mysteries and the heavenly realities. It is
of this worldly life, then wilt thou like a mirror which, although clear,
breathe in the sweet scents of ho- bright and polished, is still in need of
liness that blow from the blissful light. Not until a sunbeam falls upon
bowers of that heavenly land. (Se- it can it discover the divine mysteries"
lections 185) (Some Answered Questions 55:5; empha-
sis added). One way of understanding
In other words, there are "invisible this teaching is that the divine secrets
realms" whose existence is beyond the are not just rational but also trans-ra-
intellect's comprehension and can only tional; that is, they provide knowledge
be known by non-discursive means of that unassisted reason cannot acquire.
transcendent or mystical experiences It is important to note that this pas-
once we have detached ourselves from sage does not say that reason cannot
the world. Such knowledge may also discover divine mysteries but that un-
come through the heart (of course in- assisted reason cannot. In other words,
tended in its metaphorical sense) and reason is necessary but not sufficient.
intuition, thus suggesting that some However, this knowledge is comple-
knowledge may be obtainable only mentary to and compatible with rea-
through "other ways of knowing." son and the "rational soul" because if
However, it must be emphasized that it were not, there would be a fracture
this conclusion does not mean that in human nature. The "spirit of faith"
such knowledge is necessarily and in- assists the rational soul, that is, works
herently irrational because if it were, with it but does not deny or displace
humans could not understand and it. In regard to heavenly realities, rea-
apply it in the phenomenal world. An son must be supplemented by direct
example of remaining excessively at- and non-discursive experience of the
tached to this physical plane and being truth that only the spirit of faith can
42 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

provide. Here is a mundane example Although intuitions and tran-
to which most people can relate: No scendental experiences are non-discur-
amount of rational analysis or reflec- sive ways of knowing, they are part of
tion can provide complete knowledge human nature. The fact that such ex-
and understanding of a kiss. Only the periential knowledge is non-discursive
actual experience can do that, and once does not make it non-rational; indeed,
that is obtained and the experience is as we have already noted, if it were, it
there, we will know—in non-discur- would be in disharmony with the hu-
sive terms—why reason may be nec- man spirit, which is the rational soul.
essary but is still insufficient. Speaking about logical arguments for
The same principle of needing God's existence, 'Abdu'l-Bahá avers:
certain non-discursive experiences to
make knowledge and understanding These are theoretical arguments
complete applies, albeit at a higher lev- adduced for weak souls, but if
el, to knowing these heavenly realities. the eye of inner vision be opened,
'Abdu'l-Bahá's mirror metaphor in the a hundred thousand clear proofs
quotation above teaches the same les- will be seen. Thus, when man
son. The appearance of the sun in the feels the indwelling spirit, he is in
previously darkened mirror provides no need of arguments for its ex-
the experience of light that cannot istence; but for those who are de-
be known by mere thought alone. In prived of the grace of the spirit,
it is necessary to set forth exter-
short, the trans-rational completes
nal arguments. (Some Answered
reason, which helps prepare us for
Questions 2:8; emphasis added)
the trans-rational. They are logically
correlated and both part of a coherent
Inner perception—that is, direct sight,
logical progression. Of course, the de-
intuition, and transcendental experi-
cisive role in this preparation belongs
ences—can replace the need for ab-
to the spirit of faith, which makes hu- stract argumentation and chains of
man beings into more sensitive and fit inferential discursive reasoning. If
instruments to receive these divine se- we have experienced the "indwelling
crets. In other words, some knowledge spirit," there is no need to prove a par-
may be received non-discursively by ticular truth any more than we need
direct insight if our spiritual suscep- to prove the sun. We simply open our
tibilities are sufficiently developed. As eyes. The direct experience is identi-
'Abdu'l-Bahá says, "if the inner eye be fied with feelings in this passage, once
opened and the spiritual ear attuned, again suggesting that feelings are the
and if spiritual feelings come to pre- medium of this kind of direct, non-dis-
dominate, the immortality of the spir- cursive knowledge. However, there is
it will be seen as clearly as the sun" no intrinsic conflict between the two
(Some Answered Questions 60:7). ways of knowing. In other words, the
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 43

rational soul or human spirit remains serious self-contradictions in their
a unity. philosophy of human nature. Even if
The interdependence and conse- the process of attaining knowledge is
quent complementarity of the "ratio- non-discursive the results must still
nal soul," the heart, and other ways of make sense, that is, explicable in terms
knowing are manifest in 'Abdu'l-Bahá's we can understand and be applicable to
statement that this world. If the results do not, they
will simply be irrational—something
[i]f religious belief and doctrine which the Writings clearly reject. The
is at variance with reason, it pro- self-evident conclusion is that both the
ceeds from the limited mind of discursive and non-discursive, rational
man and not from God; therefore, and trans-rational results complement
it is unworthy of belief and not each other in the quest for spiritual
deserving of attention; the heart and intellectual evolution.
finds no rest in it, and real faith is
impossible. How can man believe THE CONCEPT OF REASON
that which he knows to be op- IN THE BAHÁ'Í WRITINGS
posed to reason? Is this possible?
Can the heart accept that which rea- To deepen our understanding of the
son denies? Reason is the first faculty rational soul and human nature, it is
of man and the religion of God is necessary to examine, at least briefly,
in harmony with it. (Promulgation the Bahá'í concept of reason more
231; emphasis added) closely. To avoid a lengthy discussion,
we will consider three main aspects of
In a similar vein, He states, "among reason.
the teachings of Bahá'u'lláh is that In the first place, the Bahá'í Writ-
religion must be in conformity with ings associate reason and rationality
science and reason, so that it may in- with logic as, for example, in the fol-
fluence the hearts of men" (Selections 299. lowing statement: "In divine questions
Emphasis added.). Precisely because we must not depend entirely upon the
"reason is the first faculty of man" heritage of tradition and former hu-
that is, the prime distinguishing attri- man experience; nay, rather, we must
bute of the human soul, and because exercise reason, analyze and logically
the human spirit and the rational soul examine the facts presented so that
are one, the heart and other ways of confidence will be inspired and faith
knowing are included in mankind's ra- attained" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Promulgation
tional nature. 326). The same association is found
If human nature were subject to in His declaration that "[t]he human
a conflict between the "rational soul" spirit consists of the rational, or logical,
and other ways of knowing, the Bahá'í reasoning faculty, which apprehends
Writings as a whole would have a general ideas and things intelligible
44 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

and perceptible" (Tablets 115; empha- the universe was a free, intentional act
sis added). That is to say, this faculty that bestows the gift of existence on
is constitutionally part of the human all things. Reason can also deduce the
spirit. This association of reason and "immortality of the spirit" as without
rationality with logical thought is also it, the divinely given "spiritual long-
evident in the assertion that "[i]f re- ings" would have no object and be in
ligion were contrary to logical reason vain. Indeed, such longings would be
then it would cease to be a religion and deceptive, and that would contradict
be merely a tradition" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, the loving and merciful attributes of
Paris Talks 144). God. 'Abdu'l-Bahá summarizes the
Furthermore, the "rational soul" teachings on reason and rationality
can use logical reason to understand and logic when He asks, "If we insist
spiritual and religious issues within that such and such a subject is not to
the epistemological limits of human be reasoned out and tested according
nature. For example, reason can prove to the established logical modes of the
the existence of God, although it can- intellect, what is the use of the reason
not discover God's essential nature: which God has given man?" (Promul-
"The existence of the Divine Being gation 63; emphasis added).
hath been clearly established, on the The second attribute of reason and
basis of logical proofs, but the reality logic is the principle of non-contra-
of the Godhead is beyond the grasp of diction. This principle asserts that a
the mind" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Selections 46). statement and its negation or denial
God's existence is provable by reason, cannot both be true in the same sense,
but His "reality" or essence is not. at the same time, and under the same
However, 'Abdu'l-Bahá goes even fur- circumstances. The Writings demon-
ther, saying, "The intellectual proofs strate this principle in the insistence
of Divinity are based upon observation on the oneness of truth; a self-con-
and evidence which constitute decisive tradictory truth cannot possibly exist
argument, logically proving the reality of because it simultaneously makes two
Divinity, the effulgence of mercy, the cer- opposite claims that cancel each other
tainty of inspiration and immortality of out. For example, 'Abdu'l-Bahá de-
the spirit" (Promulgation 326; emphasis clares that "truth or reality is not mul-
added). Reason can not only prove the tiple; it is not divisible" and that "truth
existence of God; it can also discov- is one, although its manifestations may
er the divine attributes as articulated be very different" (Promulgation 106;
and exemplified by the Manifestation. Paris Talks 128; emphasis added). If
It cannot discover these attributes by contradictions appear, it is necessary
itself, but it can deduce why the divine to look deeper because superficial dif-
attributes must logically exist. For ex- ferences in the expressions of truth do
ample, because God is not compelled not necessarily imply logical contra-
by anything outside Himself, creating dictions in the underlying reasoning.
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 45

'Abdu'l-Bahá seeks to avoid contra- traditional interpretations based inex-
dictions, and in doing so, He sets the plicable and irrational beliefs,
example for resolving contradictions
where possible. Shoghi Effendi reaf- the foundations of the religion of
firms this theme, saying, "Truth may, God would rest upon an illogical
in covering different subjects, appear proposition which no mind could
to be contradictory, and yet it is all one ever conceive, and how could the
if you carry the thought through to mind be required to believe a thing
the end," a principle he emphasizes by which it cannot conceive? Such a
asserting that "[t]ruth is one when it thing could not be grasped by
is independently investigated, it does human reason—how much less be
not accept division" (qtd. in Hornby clothed in an intelligible form—
476; Japan 35). but would remain sheer fancy.
'Abdu'l-Bahá's approach to rational- (Some Answered Questions 27:9;
ly resolving contradictions is exempli- emphasis added)
fied in His explication of the Christian
doctrine of the Trinity, which He Another example of classical logic is
regards as irrational in its tradition- 'Abdu'l-Bahá's argument regarding
al interpretation: "The reality of the the immortality of the human soul,
Divinity… admits of no division and which is that a thing cannot be a sub-
multiplicity for division and multiplic- stance and an attribute at the same
ity are among the characteristics of time. Logical consistency, whether
created and hence contingent things... it be propositional agreement and/
For that divine reality to descend into or complementarity or neutrality, is
stations and degrees would be tanta- an essential principle in the Bahá'í
mount to deficiency, contrary to per- Writings.
fection and utterly impossible" (Some The third attribute of reason and
Answered Questions, 27: 2–3). In other logic is universality. In other words,
words, 'Abdu'l-Bahá finds the tradi- the principle of non-contradiction
tional understanding of the Trinity to is universally applied by all human
be self-contradictory and He therefore beings and, indeed, all living things.
replaces it with a non-self-contradic- My pet ducks, Jack and Jill, know that
tory explanation (Some Answered Ques- Dozer, my neighbor's big yappy dog, is
tions, 27: 6-10) showing thereby that either outside the front gate or inside
He views contradictions as problem- the front gate and cannot be both at
atical and undesirable in our thinking the same time and in the same sense,
processes, even on spiritual matters. and they make their decision to step
His insistence on logical consisten- outside for a stroll accordingly. Even
cy—which requires the elimination humans who deny the principle of
of contradictions—is evident in His non-contradiction—such as Nagarju-
declaration that were we to accept na and Hegel—still obey this principle
46 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

in their daily lives. They know that matrix of the world," which means
either they have eaten lunch or have that we have always possessed the
not eaten lunch but not both in the distinguishing attribute of man, that
same sense at the same time. Thus, is, the rational soul (Some Answered
this principle is universal—at least in Questions 49:8). Precisely because we
actual practice—and that makes it an recognize that our ancestors were
essential attribute of human nature or rational, we are able to interpret the
the rational soul. Because all humans artifacts they left behind. Because the
have at least the capacity for reason- rational soul is the common feature
ing, it can be one of the foundation joining all human beings into one
stones of the unification of mankind species, both the possession of a soul
because deliberations will be based and its rational nature are foundation
on the common ground of discursive stones of the unified global world
reasoning. order that Bahá'u'lláh came to
Bahá'u'lláh's and 'Abdu'l-Bahá's establish.
statements aligning reason with Finally, it should be noted—albe-
the essence of humankind have far- it briefly—that reason has other, yet
reaching implications, especially for related uses in the Writings, though
the goal of unifying humankind into none that contradict the ideas articu-
one global commonwealth. Because lated above. One meaning of reason
rationality is a universal characteristic is "appropriateness," that is, treating
of human nature, it applies to people one kind of thing as befits it and not
across cultures, historical epochs, and as if it were another—for example,
geographical locations. Superficial not treating a human being like an an-
appearances notwithstanding, there imal.47 The concept of reasonableness
is a core of rationality within all as appropriateness is the foundation of
cultures, although the vicissitudes of the doctrine of progressive revelation.
historical circumstances may shape, 'Abdu'l-Bahá says, "All religious laws
or even distort, the development conform to reason, and are suited to
of these cultures in various ways. the people for whom they are framed,
Its universality makes rationality a and for the age in which they are to
connecting principle that transcends be obeyed" (Paris Talks 141). The fact
differences among all cultures and is, that revelations are "suited to the peo-
therefore, a basis for positive global ple for whom they are framed" means
dialogue and the unified world order that they are appropriate—and, there-
of Bahá'u'lláh. Even our evolutionary fore, reasonable—for that particular
ancestors are included in the circle
of reason. 'Abdu'l-Bahá tells us that 47 Their essential natures are too dif-
"man remained a distinct essence— ferent because the latter has no rational
that is, the human species—from the soul. See p. 122 of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's Paris
beginning of his formation in the Talks.
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 47

time and those specific circumstances. intentionality, mankind's intrinsically
Comparing religious cycles to the life privileged place in creation, the roles
cycle of a tree, He further elaborates of the body and the rational soul, the
by stating that "[i]t is not reason- universality of free will, freedom from
able that man should hold to the old nature, the foundations of ethical free-
tree, claiming that its life forces are dom, individual and social responsi-
undiminished" (Promulgation 142). bility, and the origin of evil. Each of
Moreover, if a thought or action is these shall be examined in turn.
appropriate and reasonable, it is also The existence of individual free
just. This principle underlies the fol- will is an essential feature of the Bahá'í
lowing assertion of 'Abdu'l-Bahá: philosophy of human nature. Indeed,
"Know that justice consists in render- the work of Manifestations in guid-
ing to each his due (Some Answered ing individuals and societies toward
Questions 79:1). The third sense of their spiritual and material evolution
reason, or being reasonable, refers to would be completely futile if humans
having a purpose. Actions that have no were unable to choose to alter their
purpose are simply arbitrary and ran- ways of thinking, beliefs, and behav-
dom and therefore are not informed or iors. Indeed, without free will, ethics
shaped by reason. This is one of the per se are not possible because ethical
aspects of purpose that seems appro- behavior has at least two characteris-
priate to Shoghi Effendi's reference tics: it must be conscious and inten-
to a "rational God" (World Order 112). tional. No ethical act—whether good
Bahá'u'lláh tells us that God created us or bad—can be performed accidentally
for a purpose: "the purpose of creation or inadvertently (without knowledge
. . . is the knowledge of Him Who is or forethought). That is to say, with-
the Eternal Truth" (Kitáb-i-Aqdas n. out choice and without intention to act
23). Creation is not "accidental" or for- on this choice there is no ethical act.
tuitous but is informed by a plan and To claim otherwise would be equiva-
purpose ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered lent to asserting that a rockslide acted
Questions 47:5). It is evident that all ethically by missing a doe and a fawn.
of these meanings of the terms "rea- No one can claim to have acted moral-
son" and "reasonableness" are com- ly if, due to a sudden unconscious and
patible with the logical principle of involuntary spasm in his arm while
non-contradiction. driving, he avoided hitting a pedestri-
an who had slipped in front of his car.
FREE WILL No conscious choice and intention to
act on this choice took place; therefore,
The subject of free will brings to light it is not an ethical act. A good event
additional aspects of human nature. is not necessarily ethical: if there was
It touches on mankind's essentially no use of free will, no choice and in-
spiritual nature, consciousness and tention were involved. Nor do we say a
48 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

teething baby acts immorally by biting rejection of determinism has three
down on a finger put in its mouth. An consequences for our understanding
event may be bad or even evil, but the of human nature. First, an act of free
lack of conscious choice and intention will is uncaused, which is to say, it has
make it inappropriate to call the event no antecedent causes that determine
morally bad or evil. the rational soul's intention, choice,
Free will—and humans' existence or action. The soul is a "first cause" or
as ethical beings—are based on the "originative causality" of a choice or
human spirit, or rational soul, which act (Adler 481). This requires it to be
is not subject to the physical laws of intrinsically active or dynamic, which
cause and effect. The human spirit is is affirmed by 'Abdu'l-Bahá when He
not part of any natural causal chain states that "nothing that exists re-
that, according to materialists, deter- mains in a state of repose—that is, all
mines our ethical choices and makes things are in motion" (Some Answered
them predictable in a scientific way. Questions 63:1). In short, the human
In Free Will, materialist neurophilos- spirit is active in nature and can take
opher Sam Harris asks, "How can we the initiative and "spontaneously orig-
be 'free' as conscious agents if every- inate a series of events" (Adler 481).
thing that we consciously intend is Second, although human beings
caused by events in our brain that we have been endowed universally with
do not intend and of which we are en- free will in their first nature as created
tirely unaware?" (25). As an advocate by God, the decisions as to whether or
of mind-brain identity theory, he is not to actualize free will, and to what
left with no logical conclusion but that extent and in what way, remain with
free will as an illusory exemption from the individual. These decisions and
cause and effect is impossible and that their consequences constitute our sec-
our "feeling of freedom arises from ond nature, which results from what
our moment-to-moment ignorance of we do with God's initial gift. Although
the prior causes of our thoughts and in the external world there may be
actions" (32). In short, for Sam Harris, many obstacles to the exercise of free
free will is a delusion. will—physical, political, cultural, and
A simple but effective response to social—as we will see, the Bahá'í Writ-
Harris's conclusion would result from ings make it clear that moral choices
inquiring whether or not he freely are always available and, therefore, hu-
chose to write his book. If he did not, mankind has radical responsibility for
then perhaps he should not receive any the courses of action it pursues.
royalties. But in all seriousness, com- Third, the capacity for choice and
mon sense dictates that we do have action makes mankind intrinsically
some degree of free will, though we superior to the natural world, which
may not, in this life, ever know the full is governed by the law of cause and
extent of that freedom. Therefore, our effect. Nature leaves no room for
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 49

choice and intention. Causality nec- essential aspects of human nature. 'Ab-
essarily predetermines particular du'l-Bahá notes that nature has no will
outcomes and makes no exceptions in or volition, which means that it lacks
its operations. Innocent babies drown intentionality, the ability to choose
on beaches as much as war criminals certain outcomes over others, and the
and torturers do.48 In short, nature is capacity to act toward their attain-
amoral; ethical categories such as con- ment. The other qualities mentioned
scious choice, intention, and ethical here by 'Abdu'l-Bahá are all attributes
responsibility do not apply to it. of consciousness, without which there
From this it follows logically that can be no free will: "all other beings,
free will is the foundation of our ex- whether of the mineral, the vegetable
istence as ethical beings. 'Abdu'l-Bahá or the animal world, cannot deviate from
points out: the laws of nature, nay, all are the slaves
thereof. Man, however, though in body
All the sciences, arts and discover- the captive of nature is yet free in his mind
ies were mysteries of nature, and and soul, and hath the mastery over na-
according to natural law these ture" (Tablet 10; emphasis added).49
mysteries should remain latent, The body, which is an accidental at-
hidden; but man has proceeded to tribute of the human spirit or rational
break this law, free himself from this soul, is part of the cause-and-effect
rule and bring them forth into the process of nature and in that way is
realm of the visible. Therefore, "captive" when it comes to physical
he is the ruler and commander of conditions like sleep, sickness, and
nature. Man has intelligence; nature eventually death. However, mind and
has not. Man has volition; nature soul—that is, essential constituents
has none. Man has memory; nature of mankind—are not subject to phys-
is without it. Man has the reasoning ical causality: "Certain matters are
faculty; nature is deprived. Man has subject to the free will of man, such
the perceptive faculty; nature cannot as acting with justice and fairness, or
perceive. It is therefore proved and injustice and iniquity—in other words,
evident that man is nobler than na- the choice of good or evil actions . .
ture. (Promulgation 17; emphasis . . [H]e is free in the choice of good or
added) evil actions, and it is of his own accord

Each of the ways in which human- 49 Self-sacrificing instincts in animals
kind is superior to nature concerns are not conscious and intentional ethical
mental or spiritual gifts, which are choices. The two must not be confused or
conflated because they are not the same
48 Dr. Josef Mengele, the notorious kind of things. Therefore, such instincts
"Angel of Death" at Auschwitz, drowned cannot be seen as a "pre-figuring" or "an-
on a beach in Brazil in 1979. ticipation" of ethical activities in humans.
50 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

that he performs them" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, towards all the peoples and kindreds
Some Answered Questions 70:3; empha- of the earth" (Gleanings 109:2). For
sis added). In other words, the Bahá'í this reason, the Writings contradict
Writings maintain that all humans attempts to justify certain behaviors
possess radical freedom by virtue of as "only natural" in the animal sense.
being human and having a spiritual The proper (in the sense of appro-
essence. priate, befitting) use of free will is to
The existence of free will is not actualize individuals' higher capacities
dependent on external circumstances, and spiritual susceptibilities because
whether natural or man-made. On this the failure to meet this obligation re-
issue, the Bahá'í Writings may be said sults in deficiency in the development
to concur with Sartre, who asserts that of their second nature.
we are "condemned to be free" whether The existence of free will also leads
we want to be or not (156).50 There is no to an emphasis on individual respon-
way to escape our "fate" of being free, sibility. Humans are expected to take
although we can, of course, deceive responsibility for their actions and to
ourselves and claim that others—or refrain from seeking excuses or jus-
various external circumstances—took tifications for their intentionally bad
our freedom away. There is no denying actions. God's rejection of the disbe-
that some choices are extraordinarily liever's attempt to blame others for
difficult, but from a Bahá'í perspective his disbelief in God demonstrates the
we can rely on God's justice, mercy, importance of responsibility in the
and understanding, grounded in His Writings: "the faith of no man can be
omniscient knowledge, as a source of conditioned by anyone except himself "
hope and comfort. (Bahá'u'lláh, Gleanings 55:1). Nor may
Furthermore, the capacity of hu- humans blame God for making them
man beings to transcend nature in the way they are in terms of innate
making moral decisions leads to anoth- and inherited character. 'Abdu'l-Bahá
er fundamental aspect of Bahá'í ethics: makes that point with a Bible-based
the obligation to live in a way that is discussion about the mineral not hav-
appropriate to our nature as human ing any right to complain to God for
beings and not to fall to the animal not having been given vegetable per-
level. Bahá'u'lláh admonishes us that fections. Each state of being is perfect
"[t]o act like the beasts of the field is in its own degree and "must strive
unworthy of man. Those virtues that after the perfections of [its] own
befit his dignity are forbearance, mer- degree" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Promulgation
cy, compassion and loving-kindness 249). Being responsible for one's own
intentional actions—that is, perfecting
50 Although, from a Bahá'í standpoint, one's own degree of being—is all that
free will is not seen as a chastisement but one has the power to do.
as one of God's gifts to mankind. In addition, responsibility for
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 51

appropriate use of free will does not never have been absent from human
end at the personal level. As 'Abdu'l- nature, for "[w]e cannot say… that
Bahá informs us: "Each human there was a time when man was not"
creature has individual endowment, ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some Answered Questions
power and responsibility in the creative 50:4). Free will exists as a potential in
plan of God. Therefore, depend upon humankind regardless of their present
your own reason and judgment and level of moral and intellectual devel-
adhere to the outcome of your own opment. In short, free will is intrinsi-
investigation" (Promulgation 292). cally and, therefore, universally pres-
Having "responsibility in the ent in human nature and serves as a
creative plan of God"—which is to basis for the unification of humankind.
say, responsibility for the advancement The existence of free will in human
of humankind—requires all persons
nature brings with it the capacity to do
to make the correct ethical choices in
evil if we so desire. According to the
their own lives (Promulgation 292). In
Writings, evil—not be to be confused
other words, we must be aware that
with unconscious and unintentional
we not only create our own second
natural disasters or accidents—finds
nature with our choices but also bear
some responsibility for the spiritual its source in humanity: "Every good
progress of mankind: "All men thing is of God, and every evil thing is
have been created to carry forward from yourselves" (Bahá'u'lláh, Glean-
an ever-advancing civilization" ings 77:1). Despite our wishes to the
(Bahá'u'lláh, Gleanings 109:2). In contrary, the capacity for wrongdoing
short, our responsibilities in using must exist if free will is to be main-
free will stretch beyond ourselves. tained as a meaningful aspect of human
It is noteworthy that 'Abdu'l-Bahá nature. Free will is not free if humans
exhorts us to use our "own reason and can only do good—they would, in ef-
judgment" in regard to ethical choices. fect, become robots without any choice
In his two-volume study, The Idea at all. Free will being an inherent hu-
of Freedom, Mortimer Adler outlines man attribute, were it to be abrogated
the theory of natural freedom, which or were God to rescue mankind from
states that free will is "(i) inherent in every wicked choice—which would, in
all men, (ii) regardless of the circum- effect abolish free will—human beings
stances under which they live and (iii) would, by definition, cease to be hu-
without regard to any state of mind man. For this reason, the demand that
or character which they may or may God should prevent evil in some way
not acquire" (149). The Bahá'í Writ- is an inadvertent wish that God should
ings agree with these three conditions. abolish humanity as the unique crown
Free will is an essential component or advance guard of cosmic evolution.
of human nature, and as such, it can Consequently, this demand would
52 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

require God to remake the entire cos- gratitude—otherwise known as "us-
mic order and thus implicitly asserts ing others"—is usually recognized as
that humans could create a better mor- a sign of a seriously flawed character.
al universe than God. The importance of character is also
evident in 'Abdu'l-Bahá's praise of an
HUMAN NATURE AND CHARACTER ignorant child of good character over
an educated child of bad character be-
According to 'Abdu'l-Bahá, "Char- cause the former is of benefit to hu-
acter is the true criterion of humanity. mankind (Selections 135). The history
Anyone who possesses a good char- of the twentieth century is replete
acter, who has faith in God and is with examples of how much damage
firm, whose actions are good, whose intelligent and educated persons with
speech is good—that one is accepted bad character can do.
at the threshold of God" (Promulga- In The Secret of Divine Civilization,
tion 427; emphasis added). In other 'Abdu'l-Bahá points out another crite-
words, attributes like race, nationality, rion for recognizing good character,
social class, wealth, talent, family his- which is that it should be based on
tory and connections, as well as intelli- "reason and knowledge and true mod-
gence are not necessarily instrumental eration" (59). It is noteworthy that
in having a good character. Only the reason is counted among the attri-
struggle to understand the attributes butes of good character. Knowledge,
of God, coupled with obedience to His of course, does not necessarily mean
commands—reciprocal undertakings "book knowledge" but rather knowl-
on our part—can result in our spiri- edge of God's presence in the world.
tual ascent. Essential to the Bahá'í Reason is necessary to think wisely
view of human nature is that faith in using our knowledge of God and the
God is a requirement for good char- world. Irrationality is not compatible
acter. One reason for this is found in with good character.
Bahá'u'lláh's statement that disbelief According to 'Abdu'l-Bahá, the
in God is an act of treachery because character of each person has a three-
it demonstrates colossal ingratitude fold structure: "the innate charac-
toward the Source of creation.51 In- ter, the inherited character, and the
acquired character" (Some Answered
51 See chapter 114 of Bahá'u'lláh's Questions 57:2). Innate character seems
Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh. to refer to intelligence and other
Although this admonishment from
Bahá'u'lláh may offend some readers, it attributes is a gateway for other wrongs.
is important to reflect on the fact that This does not mean that "believers" are
ingratitude means using others, which necessarily free of these attributes, be-
implies enormous disrespect, devaluation, cause contempt for God's creation is also
and even contempt. A character with such a form of treachery.
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 53

natural capacities such as perceptive- The "inherited character" refers to
ness, sensitivity, willpower, determina- physical "constitution," which we re-
tion, conscious awareness of self and ceive from our ancestors ('Abdu'l-Bahá,
others, as well as imagination—in oth- Some Answered Questions 57:4). Like the
er words, what are generally thought innate character, the inherited char-
of as mental or intellectual capacities. acter is predetermined for us, and it,
'Abdu'l-Bahá states: too, is unchangeable, although we are
able to make the best of what we have
As to the innate character, al- been given. This aspect of our char-
though the innate nature be- acter can be studied through medical
stowed by God upon man is pure- examinations and the actuarial tables
ly good, yet that character differs by which life insurance companies can
among men according to the de- foretell (with amazing accuracy) medi-
grees they occupy: All degrees are cal events and death.
good, but some are more so than The third aspect of character is the
others. Thus every human being "acquired character which is gained
possesses intelligence and capac- through education" ('Abdu'l-Bahá,
ity, but intelligence, capacity, and Some Answered Questions 57:2). We
aptitude differ from person to must, however, remember that edu-
person. (Some Answered Questions cation is not limited to formal insti-
57:3) tutional schooling but also includes
worldly experience as well as self-ed-
These differences do not imply "a ucation. We acquire this character—
matter of good or evil—it is merely a also called "second nature"52— by
difference of degree" (Some Answered means of our willingness to learn
Questions 57:4). In these bestowals, from our experiences and the choices
there are natural differences among we make. In other words, for better
mankind but "[a]ll degrees are good" or worse, we "make" ourselves. Un-
(Some Answered Questions 57:3). No de- like the other two aspects of charac-
gree is ontologically flawed or unwor- ter, acquired character is changeable;
thy insofar as each is created by God that is, through our free choices we
(Some Answered Questions 57:9). Our can choose what aspects of them to
worthiness or unworthiness concerns actualize and manifest and to what de-
what we do with the capacities we gree. It is quite possible for a person
have been given and not the capacities with a greatly gifted innate character
themselves. Being innate, this aspect to do very little or even "subvert" or
of character is not changeable in itself, "pervert" her gifts, just as a minimally
although it is always possible to deter- gifted person can do a great deal with
mine how much of these capacities we
actualize. 52 See my earlier reference to Hegel's
classification.
54 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

what she has (Some Answered Questions learn about human nature. First, the
57:9). Writings inform us that human nature
The Writings state that even what possesses radical freedom and respon-
we perceive to be negative qualities sibility. God intends for us to be free
can be put to good use: and responsible beings, and we can
Thus, should a person show even be called to account for our belief
greed in acquiring science and or disbelief in God (Gleanings 55:1).
knowledge, or in the exercise of Passing responsibility off to others
compassion, high-mindedness, is not acceptable. This subject invites
and justice, this would be most much deeper reflection than can be
praiseworthy. And should he di- provided here.
rect his anger and wrath against Second, difficult as it may be for
bloodthirsty tyrants who are fe- some to accept, God has not bestowed
rocious beasts, this too would be intellectual and other capacities equal-
praiseworthy. But should he dis- ly upon all. There is no injustice in this
play these qualities under other fact because innate character by itself
conditions, this would be deserv- does not bestow worthiness of charac-
ing of blame. ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some ter—something that must be earned.
Answered Questions 57:10) We must not confuse equality of val-
uation with sameness of endowments.
In other words, we have the free- This is easy to illustrate. Whose life
dom to put even our potentially neg- is more worthy—the highly intelli-
ative attributes to a personally and gent and multiply-gifted criminal or
socially good use. The same is true of the person with meager endowments
someone who puts extreme ambition practicing good will toward all?
to positive use, not by becoming ava- Third, character formation is the
ricious, but by struggling to create a key to the construction of the new
more just distribution of wealth. In world order. If character is not
short, by good applications, a poten- changed—that is, if positive capacities
tial negative can be sublimated into a are not actualized and other, poten-
positive. We are born pure—with no tially negative ones are manifested in
attribute that is negative in and of it- new ways—then all attempts at a new
self. As 'Abdu'l-Bahá says, "Although order will fail. We will simply resur-
all existent beings are in their very rect the old world order in new form,
nature created in ranks or degrees, for as happened with Russia in 1917 when
capacities are various, nevertheless ev- it went from czar to commissar rule.
ery individual is born holy and pure, Character reformation is one thing ev-
and only thereafter may he become ery individual can and must perform
defiled" (Selections 190). for himself or herself.
From the Bahá'í teachings about 'Abdu'l-Bahá calls on Bahá'ís to
character, there are four things to "seek to excel the whole world in
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 55

moral character" (Selections 129). Good without positive interactions with oth-
character, not intelligence or talent, is er human beings. At the most obvious
what makes people equal in the most level, this means, that there can be "no
important way. solitaries and no hermits among the
Fourth, "[g]ood character must be Bahá'ís. Man must work with his fellows.
taught" ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Selections 136). Everyone should have some trade, or
It does not simply develop by itself. art or profession, be he rich or poor,
Teaching good character is, essential- and with this he must serve humanity.
ly, the mission of the Manifestations. This service is acceptable as the high-
After all, est form of worship" ('Abdu'l-Bahá,
'Abdu'l-Bahá in London 93; emphasis
is not the object of every Revelation to added). Similarly, Bahá'u'lláh pro-
effect a transformation in the whole claims, "O concourse of monks! Se-
character of mankind, a transfor- clude not yourselves in your churches
mation that shall manifest itself and cloisters. Come ye out of them by
both outwardly and inwardly, My leave, and busy, then, yourselves with
that shall affect both its inner life what will profit you and others" (Epistle
and external conditions? For if 49). In other words, human nature re-
the character of mankind be not quires others to complete itself. This
changed, the futility of God's has a metaphysical basis:
universal Manifestations would
be apparent. (Bahá'u'lláh, Kitáb-i- For all beings are linked togeth-
Íqán 240) er like a chain; and mutual aid,
assistance, and interaction are
The success of the Manifestations is among their intrinsic properties
built on the fact that character can and and are the cause of their forma-
must be taught. Here, too, we observe tion, development, and growth.
the importance of the universality of It is established through numer-
human nature because good character ous proofs and arguments that
must be taught according to a com- every single thing has an effect
mon basis if the world is to be unified. and influence upon every other,
Unity in diversity requires a common either independently or through a
foundation, just as different plants causal chain. ('Abdu'l-Bahá, Some
grow out of the same soil. Answered Questions 46:6)

HUMANITY'S SOCIAL NATURE 'Abdu'l-Bahá's words—so reminiscent
of Buddhism's concept of "dependent
The Bahá'í Writings make it clear that origination"—mean that all existent
human nature is intrinsically social. things, including human nature, are
We cannot actualize and manifest our interdependent, not only for their ex-
full intellectual and spiritual capacities istence, but also for their "development
56 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

and growth." A story from my youth individuals versus the rights and good
illustrates this fact. In 1968, I worked of society. The need for this balance is
as an orderly in a German Catholic recognized in the following statement
charity mental institution for "hope- by the Universal House of Justice:
less" cases. (This was before the drug "The successful exercise of authority
revolution in psychiatry.) I asked one in the Bahá'í community implies the
of the nuns I had befriended, Sister recognition of separate but mutually
Anna, what was the point of keeping reinforcing rights and responsibilities be-
such sad cases. Her answer illustrates tween the institutions and the friends
the truth of 'Abdu'l-Bahá's words. She in general, a recognition that in turn
said: "Every one of these hopeless lives welcomes the need for cooperation be-
is an opportunity for you and me to de- tween these two interactive forces of
velop our humanity (Menschlichkeit)." society" (letter dated 19 May 1994 to
In service to others, we develop and the National Spiritual Assembly of the
grow our humanity, our character, our United States). Establishing "mutually
spirituality. Without service to others, reinforcing rights and responsibilities"
our inner growth will be stunted. requires the recognition and harmoni-
The practical implications of the zation of the legitimate interests and
social aspect of human nature do not responsibilities of both individuals
become apparent until we reflect on and collectives.
putting them into practice. For ex- The importance of balancing indi-
ample, the Bahá'í teachings make it vidual and collective rights and respon-
logically inconsistent to permit any sibilities prevents us from interpreting
imbalance between the rights and re- the call to be "as one soul" as favoring
sponsibilities of the individual and collectivism in some way (Gleanings
those of the community, whether it 122:1). In my understanding, this is
be a nation, a tribe, or even a service a call for a teleological unity, not an
club like the Rotary. Individual rights ontological unity. A teleological unity
are preserved by principles such as the is a unity of purpose that harmonizes
independent investigation of truth, action but preserves diversity, whereas
consultation, and the universal partic- an ontological unity requires oneness
ipation in the electoral process of the by removing all individual distinc-
administrative order. These teachings tions, eliminating diversity in order to
counter the tendency to see individu- create both unity and uniformity. Such
als as nothing more than instruments a concept runs against one of main
of the state or some other collective. themes of the Bahá'í Writings.
Individual value is not conferred
just from the "outside." However, at CONCLUSION
the same time, the Bahá'í Writings
clearly oppose atomic individualism, As we have observed, the Bahá'í
which overemphasizes the rights of Writings have a logically coherent
The Bahá'í Philosophy of Human Nature 57

philosophy of human nature. This Second, vis-à-vis modern philoso-
philosophy is a vertically integrated phies such as atheistic existentialism,
whole with its foundations in meta- postmodernism, and most forms of
physics and ontology and its apex in secular humanism and Marxism, the
a divinely guided relationship to God. Bahá'í philosophy of human nature is
In between are texts on the structure essentialistic. In other words, it asserts
and constituent aspects of human na- that a single universal human nature
ture, its innate capacities, its position exists—and has always existed—and
and role in the universe, its destiny, that the concept of a "blank slate" does
and the inherent weaknesses to which not apply to human nature, which is
is subject. not malleable. All that can be changed
For individual Bahá'ís, this are the potentials that are actualized
philosophy of human nature provides and to what degree and in what form
assurance that their beliefs on this they are reached. The human capaci-
subject are founded on a coherent, ty for aggression can be actualized in
methodically developed, and logical various forms—as a soldier, a dedicat-
philosophy of human nature. As ed researcher, or a fireman, for exam-
'Abdu'l-Bahá informs us, such ple—and can either be reasonable or
intellectual reliability also strengthens reach immoderation. This variability
the faith of the heart (Promulgation
of expression explains why trying to
231). Furthermore, by virtue of
reshape human nature according to
having a well-developed philosophy of
our wishes has led to such disasters in
human nature, the Bahá'í Faith is open
the twentieth century and continues
to deep and far-reaching opportunities
to cause social confusion in ethics, law,
for dialogue with other religious and
psychology, anthropology, and educa-
non-religious worldviews that also
tion, among other fields.
have a philosophy of human nature.
Third—and this deserves special
Among these are Catholic Thomism;
mention—the Bahá'í philosophy of
Marxism in both its humanist and
human nature supports a belief in the
Leninist forms; and theistic and
atheistic existentialism. Moreover, unique status and intrinsic value of
precisely because of its logical humankind in creation. It asserts that
coherence and structure, the Bahá'í humans cannot be understood cor-
philosophy of human nature is able rectly by reductionist and materialist
to offer constructive evaluations and methodologies in medical, psychiatric,
suggestions to the current troubles genetic, and psychological research
afflicting societies. Finally, the and their concomitant philosophies;
logically coherent nature of the Bahá'í by worldviews that regard humans
worldview allows the Faith to defend as merely another animal or without
itself intellectually against critiques more value than any other animal;
from other systems of thought. or by ideologies that seek to return
58 The Journal of Bahá'í Studies 27.1-2 2017

human life to ancestral conditions, 'Abdu'l-Bahá as an especially produc-
when fewer uniquely human intrinsic tive way to study the Writings. Their
capacities were actualized or could be example should encourage Bahá'í phi-
actualized. losophers to follow in Their footsteps.
The reduction of man to an animal,
a machine, or a complex of chemicals
and the concomitant denial of spirit,
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