# Discourses of Knowledge *Exported from [Holy-Writings.com](https://www.holy-writings.com/) on 2026-06-20 — 1 clipping.* --- > by Franklin Lewis > > This paper fu-st suggests that ma11y statements in the Baha'i writings are couched > i11 ti1e ter1ns ofa particular tli..vco111ás e, or i11tellect11a/ traditio11, oftl1e text S i111111eá > diate audience. As such. these statements may assume some ofthe premises ofthe > addressee, passing over them witlro11t 11ecessarlly seeld11g to challenge or affim1 > those premises in an absolute sense, ill order to make a11 argument whic/1 the > addressee can accept. Such premises may sometimes be factually tn1e, in an > empirical sense, while sometimes they may 11ot be propositionally true, but may > rather be true in a melaphoric and ~ymbolic sense. This being the case. recover- > ing the nature of the disco11rse being employed, or the intellectual context of the > statement, can help 011e evaluate whether a given statement is metmt to convey a > propositiona/jact or a rhetorical 11uth. 'Abd11'/-Bahci ojie11 adopted the particu- > lar parameters of H'estern modernist discourse about knowledge, specifically in > terms of the debate of science versus religio11. His statements aro, therefore. ger- > mane to contemporary questions aboui t1cademic. or materit1list, methodologies > and the Bahiz 'I view toward these modes of knowledge. 'Abdu '1-Bahll often > appears to give precedence to logical proofs and scientific method aver traditional > religious modes or explant1tians of reality, particularly in questions offacJ and > informatio11, though not nece.isarily where ethics and maraliJy are concen1ed. fie > wauld 1herefore seem to assert the validity of TYester11 academic, or materialist, > methodolagies. > ' ABDU 'L-BAHA > First we 1nus1 speak of logical proofs. > - ' Abdu'l-Baha (c. 1905) > > Modes of discourse By My spirit and by My favor! By My mercy and by My beauty! All > that I have revealed unto thee with the tongue of power, and have writ- > In this paper, "discourse" refers to a conversation which unfolds ten for thee with the pen of might, bath been in accordance with thy > over time, one that is governed by a particular set of premises and capacity and understanding, not with My state and the melody of My > concepts in the context of which given arguments and inquiries are voice.3 > pursued. I A discourse often implies or delimits the type(s) of > methodology that will be considered valid in investigating or "prov- Baha' u' llilh spoke to the capacity and understanding of various > ing" questions or problems. ln its broadest senses, \Ve might think of correspondents, and thus addressed himself to more than one dis- > the entire intellectual tradition of the Enlightewnent as scientific or course tradition, as defined above. For example in communicating > academic discourse. to a scientific discourse community, when with Shiites or Babis, who expected an Eschaton in which the return > questions are posed or particular data considered, most parties to the of the twelfth Imam figured prominently, Baha'u'llah frequently > discussion will proceed with certain assumptions about the primacy mentions the Qa 'im (mahdr), Husayn and ' Ali, etc. He did not begin > of empirical evidence, the positing of falsifiable hypotheses, and the from the same assumptions, however, in communicating with > need to verify data by experimentation. This does not mean that all Zoroastrians, who did not by and large revere Islamic figures and > participants in the discourse will come to the same conclusions indeed would more likely have been offended by references to them. > about matters under discussion, or that they will necessarily inter- 'Abdu'l-Bahft makes this rhetorical principle explicit in a work writ- > pret particular sets of data in the same way, or that these methods ten as a young man, in 1875: > will be the only factors informing their decisions.2 Jt does meao that > participants in the discussion will implicitly acknowledge certain lf for example a spirirually learned Muslim is conducting a debate with > premises and certain rules of evidence and argument. a Christian and he knows nothing of the glorious melodies of the > A discourse need not be of a purely scie ntific nature, hov;ever. Gospel, he will, no matter how much he imparts of the Qur'an and its > We might conceive of the Abrahamic re ligious traditions as belong- truths, be unable to convince the Christian, and his word5 will fall on > deaf ears. Shou.ld, however, the Christian observe that the Muslim is > ing to a particular discourse. Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and the > better versed in the fundamentals of Christianity than the Christian > Baha'i Faith all agree on the divine missions of Abraham and priests themselves, and understands the purport of the Scriptures even > Moses, and acknowledge the general principle of a personal God better than they, he v. beyond history who intrudes into history to "reveal" itself to would indeed have no other recourse.4 > humanldod through designated intermediaries. We might distinguish > this discourse of the Abrabamic religious traditions from the Bud- Later in life, áAbdu'J-Baha is reported lo have said, in respond- > dhist or Hindu traditions, which conceive of salvation history and of ing lo his retinue's admiration for the e ffectiveness of his talks in > the numinous in s ubstantially different \vays frorn the Abrahamic America, that they were effective because he took the exigencies of > traditions, and look to an entirely different line of e nlightened ones the time (eqtezti-ye vaqt) and the audience's perspective (mashrab- > as guides to the ultimate nature of reality. e liozzar) into consideration. This report also suggests, however, that > The manifestation (mazhar) of God, in Bab!\ 'i parlance, partici- ' Abdu ' l-Baha learned from Bahll'u'llllh that this meant not simply > pates in a human discourse by communicating transcendent truth respecting the audience by repeating the terms and assumptions of > into a human language bound by culture and history, which never- its cherished discourse, but including a quality of transcendental > theless is able to transcend time and place. As Babaáu 'llab alludes, truth: > in the Hidden Words: > 50 51 > * > Bay611 bciyad be-mashrab-e hozzar va eq1eza-ye vaqt Ms/rad, va hosn-e experience of newspapers. Baha'u'llah described them as " the mir- > 'ebcirat va e'teda/ dar adci'-e ma'tini va kalemal lazem, faqat harf ror of the world" (111er 'cit-e jahcin) and an "amazing and potent phe- > zada11 nist. Hamishe dar 'Akka Mirza Mohammad-e 'Ali baya11ati ra nornenon" (zohur-ist 'ajib va a1nr-ist bozorg), while at the same time > ke az man mi-shenid be- 'ayneha dar mavciqe '-e digar zekr migard lamenting that most things reported of himself in the newspapers > [sic] va/i moltafet nabud ke hezaran heknm va masa/eh lazem ast, na > were incorrect. He \varned journalists to be free of base or ulterior > tanha goflan. Dar ayyam-e Baghdad va So/aymaniye, Shaykh 'Abd a/- > Hosayn gofle bud ke Jamal-e Mobarak Kord-ha ra be-in vasile jam ' o motivations (az gharaz-e najs va havci) and, instead, aspire to justice > jazb kardand, ke esrelahat-e 'oraja va sufiye ra bayan mi-11em11dand ('ad/ va ensaf). Jn this context, Baha'u'llah recommends the fol - > Bichare Shaykh-e mazk11r raft va kciab-e Futuhat-i Makkiya ra payda lowing methodology or principle for journalists, which ought to > va 'ebarat-e an ra heft nem11de, dar harja zekr knrd. Did hichkas gush apply equally to historians or those in any discipline seeking to write > nemi-dahad. Khay/i ta 'ajjob knrd ke chera mardom gush nemidahandl about the historical truth: > Jamal-e Mobarak farmuda11d: "Be-Shaykh beg11 'id ma F111uha1-i > Makkiya ra 11emi-khva11im, balke tiyat-e mada11iye ra elteqa mi-konim. Dar om11r be-qadr-e maqdur tafahhos na111ayad ta haqiqat-e an agcih > Fos11s-e Shaykh rci nemi-gu 'im, bal ciz nos11s-e eliihiye hmf mi- shavad va benegarad. > zanim. "5 > They shou ld enquire into situations as much as possible and ascertain > Discourse (bayan, also exposition, explanation, argun1ent) must the facts, then set them down in writi.ng.9 > accord with the taste of the audience (hozzar, literally, "those present") > and the exigencies oftbe time. Elegance of expression and te1npcrance Baha'u'llah hi1nself also \vrote a letter to the 1lmes of London, > is required in presenting (ada') meanings and ideas (kalemat, literally describing tlle persecution of the Baha'is in Iran, in which he asks > "words"), [but] it is not merely speaking [with words]. Jn Akka, Miro\ the newspapers and cities of the world to heed the "groan of the > Mohammad-e 'Ali always repeated verbatim on 0th.e r occasions what do\vntrodden."10 > be heard from me, hut be was not aware that great wisdom (hezaran > Likewise, many of Bah.a 'u'llah's moral exhortations could eas- > hekam, literally thousands of counsels or max ims) and much consid- > eration (masaleh, lirerally the plural of welfare, benefit) are needed, ily be extended to methodological premises, such as bis injunction > not just talk. Sbaykh ' Abd al-Hosayn had said that in the days of to the true seeker (sltakhs-e mojcihed) to cleanse his bean from every > Baghdad and Sulaymaniyyih the Blessed Beauty attracted the Kurds remnant of love and hatred so that blind love \Vill not lead hirn to err, > by discoursing in the tenns of the gnostics and of Sufism. Tl1is poor nor will hatred prejudice him against the truth.11 Likewise, we must > Shaykh went and found a copy of the Futuhat-i Makkiya,6 rnemorized not blindly imitate the \Vays of our forefathers, 12 but must see with > its tenninology, and used it everywhere. He found that no one would our own eyes and hear \vith our own ears. To do this, and retain our > [jsten and was greatly surprised why people did not listen. The Blessed hun1anity, we must be fair and equitable in our judgment.: > Beauty said, "Tell the Shay kb that \Ve do not read Fu11ihat-i Makkiya, > but recite the verses of civilization. We don't speak fro1n the text of the Qui an a11sifii ya uli a/-albab, man la instifa lahu la insaniya lahu > Fusus oftbe Shaykb, rather we speak of the divine texts."7 > Say; Observe equity in your judgment, ye men of understanding heart' > Although obviously infom1ed of and able to participate in sev- He that is unjust in his judgment is destitute of the characteristics that > eral different discourses, Baba' u'llah \Vas visited by few Europeans distinguish man's station.13 > during his lifetime, and does not seem to have been greatly preoc- > cupied with addressing religious and philosophical matters in terms > of Western discourse.8 The Middle East did have, like the West, > > "Knowledge" in Baha'u' llah 's writings Knowledge ( 'elm) is as wings to man 's life, and a ladder for his ascent. > Its acquisition is incumbent on everyone. The knowledge of such sci- > In the \Vest, the post-Enlightenment discourse of knowledge had on ences, however, should be acquired as can profit the peoples of the > several points contradicted religious dogma. traditiona I theology, or earth, and not those which begin with words and end with words. > notions about the authorship of the Bible. Therefore, science was Grea1 indeed is lhe claim (haqq) of scientists and craftsmen (saheblin- > e 'olum va sanaye) on the peoples of the world .. . In tn1tb, knowl- > seemingly in combat with religious kno\vledgc, and Wes tern > edge is a veritable treasure for man, and a source of glory, of bounry, > thinkers tended to dichotomize the "vo domains of knowledge. ofjoy, of exaltation, of cheer and gladness unto bim. l 7 > Since the clash between science and religion did not affect the > Islamic world to the same extent it did the Western world, 14 Elsewhere, Baha'u'llab writes: > Baha' u' llnh does not speak extensively of science in apposition or > opposition to religion. He viewed the ulti1nate purpose of knowl- Strain every nerve to acquire both inner and outer perfections, for the > fruit of the human tree hath ever been and will ever be perfections both > edge to be the 1noral improvement of human ity and the physical > within and without. It is not desirable that a man be left without > advance of civilization. Baha' u' llab describes the powers of hun1an knowledge or skills, for he is then but a barren tree. Then, so much as > knowledge as ultimately proceeding from divine revelation or grace. capaciry and capability allow, ye needs must deck the tree of being > As such, the goal of acquiring knowledge s hould be to further its with fruits such as knowledge, wisdom. spiritual perception and elo- > possessors' progress toward God, not to veil him from divine truth: quent speech.I 8 > > Ya q(Jwm in11a qadd(Jrn6 al- 'ull11n Ii- 'irfani al-ma 'ltim These and other writings ofBaha'u'llab will, no doubt, be mined > for further implications about the importance and the limitations of > We have decreed, 0 people, that the highest and last end of all learn- knowledge. Furthermore, reading Baha'u' llab's statements about > ing be the recognition of Him Who is the Object of all knowledgc.15 the modes of knowing and the types of knowledge in the context of > Islamic philosophical and religious discoursel9 might give us addi- > In his later \vritings, Baha'u'llah frequently mentions the i1npor- tional insight into the bases of Baha' i epistemology. However, as > tance of acquiring knowledge and stresses the utilitarian and also mentioned earlier, Baba 'u ' llab does not usually address the problem > transcendental value of the arts and sciences. In the sixth Tariiz, for of knowledge in terms of Western discourse on the conflict of sci- > example, Baha' u' llab declares: ence and religion or the contradictions of faith and reason,20 a dis- > course which remains a crucial methodological issue in the Western > Knowledge (d6na 'f) is one of the wondrous gifts of God (ne 'mat-ha- intellectual tradition. Rather, the notion of the harmony of science > ye el6h1). It is incumbent upon everyone to acquire it. Such arts and and religion, which has come to be thought of as a central principle > material means as are now manifest have been achieved by virtue of of the Baha'i Faith, seems lo have been expounded most explicitly > His knowledge ('elm) and wisdom (heknwt) which have been revealed by 'Abdu 'I-Baba. During his travels in the West, ' Abdu ' l-BahA > in Epistles and Tablets th.rough His Most Exalted Peo- a Pen out of came into contact with many Western intellectuals and religious > whose treasury pearls of wisdom and utterance and the arts and crafts thinkers of various backgrounds. His statements on these occasions > of the world are brought to light.16 > extend and amplify his father's teachings by more directly engaging > Western discourse and methodology on the question of epistemol- > In the Third Tajalli, Baha' u' llab writes of arts, crafts and sciences ogy (or how we may know things). and the methodologies of inves- > ( 'o/um va /0111111 va sanaye 1: > tigation and inquiry. > > lf 'Abdu'l-Baha did enter into discussions from the frame of ref- So, in the renurks of 'Abdu' 1-Baha that follow, be is arguing > erence of his audience (whether Shiite, Babi, Sunni, Christian, or \vithin a particular discourse. Therefore, some of the points made > secular Western), then it is necessary to avoid facile conclusions might variously be understood either as axiomatically true, rela- > about the propositional truth of each and every premise that he tively true, or metaphorically true. His comn1ents on the types of > states. When 'Abdu'l-Baha employs a particular discourse, he may knowledge and modes of acquiring them might intend a n1etaphori- > not necessarily intend to validate it, as a "fact," or historical or phys- cal reality, rather than a factual, scientific, or propositi.onally exclu- > ical reaUty, because the logical conclusions of a given discourse do sive mode of understanding ultimate reality. Indeed, even if some of > not of necessity point to absolute truths. By analogy, a novel can these statements are tneant to contain postulates of physics, chem- > reveal emotional, spiritual, and social truths though it is entirely fic- istry, biology, history, etc., they may be simultaneously true with > tional: its truths are not therefore propositional, but metaphorical. their apparent logical contraries (much as light can be understood > Zarqilni quotes 'Abdu'l-Baha as saying that the talks he gave in the both as a wave or as photon particles). In any case, according to the > churches and gathe.rings of America were iu accordance \vith the principle of the bam1ony of science and religion \vhich these state- > receptivity of souls and the requirements of the age, at which point ments themselves expound, theological statements must be under- > a poem is cited: stood and construed in the light of scientific discoveries which n1ay > have some bearing on the same questions. Therefore, though they > The father sings la-la to lull his babe to sleep > Although his mind encompasses a world ofknowledge.2 1 > are certainly probative, I do not propose that we necessarily under- > stand the following comments of 'Abdu'l-Baha as ex.elusive and > So, when Baha' u' llab adopts a particular discourse- for exam- absolute ways, valid in every conceivable frame of reference, of > ple the discourse of Islamic philosophy be employs in bis Tablet of understanding the problem of truth and bo\v human beings know > Wisdom-we need not necessarily conclud.e that be is thereby vali- things. > dating it as propositionally, factually or absolutely true.22 Rather Consequently, l do not read the passages that follow from > than arguing that bis audience's basic premises are imprecise or 'Abdu' l-Baha's writings as the basis for a Baha' i methodology or > even false (a rhetorical strategy that might well distract listeners and epistemology that should be advocated in a. doctrinaire or dogmatic > engender resistance), Baha'u'llab \vould seem to let son1e of his fashion. Rather, 1 \vould incline to see them as parables and guides > audience's postulates, asswnptions, and even prejudices, stand. to bow Baba'is ought to think through the modem discourse on the > After all, these premises held by the audience are being used as conflict between science and religion, and more especially, the ques- > analogs and metaphors to prove other points, and are, in themselves, tion of methodology in the study of the Baba 'i Faith (or any other > of secondary importance. Similarly, tbe parables of Jesus are not object of investigation, for that n1aner). Since acadernic methodolo- > meant to provide his audience with factual details of conversations gies stiU operate largely within the discourse of the Western empir- > or situations that actually took place. Rather they are hypothetical or ical tradition and the eulighterunent confrontation between science > allegorical situations that point to spiritual truth. Like\vise, when and tradition, 'Abdu'l-Baha's framing of comments in this context > 'Abdu 'I-Baba speaks of "ether" or refers to the Native Americans as ensures that they remain directly relevant to contemporary dis- > "the savages of America,"23 we might examine th.ese statements as course. > prevailing rhetorical assumptions, incidental eletncnts of a particu- > lar discourse, ratber than as absolute propositions about physical > reality or historical truth. > > A note on sources sian. Comparison with the Persian originals of the talks reveals the > English interpretations to be generally accurate, though not ahvays > As most of the passages in ' Abdu'l-Baha's writings relevant to the precise. > question of epistemology considered in this paper come from &me The notes taken in English during some of ' Abdu'l-Babi's talks > Ans1vered Questions or Promulgation of Universal Peace, some \vcrc first published in the journal Star of the West. These articles, > remarks are in order about these sources. So1ne Ansáwered Questions along \vith the notes from otber talks, were later compiled by > (Mofavaz/Jt), a record of the responses of'Abdu'l-Baha to a range of Howard MacNurt who sought 'Abdu'l-Baha's permission to publish > questions put to him by Laura Clifford Barney (later Dreyfus-Bar- them in book form. Though 'Abdu'l-Baha was aware tbat there had > ney) in Akka during the years 1904-1906, offers one of the most sys- been errors by the interpreters, he gave permission for the compila- > tematic expositions of Baha'i beliefs about the human soul. It also tion to be completed, charging Mr. MacNutt with the responsibi lity > addresses, both implicitly (by its insistent practice of logical philo- of taking care to ensure tbat the exact text of the talks be accurately > sophical argumentation) and explicitly (in theory), how we may reproduced \vithout error and deviation.27 The resulting book, The > know and discover the nature of reality, both physical and spiritual. Promulgation ofUniversal Peace, was first published in t\vo volumes, > Some Answered Questions was first published in London in 1908, appearing in 1922 and 1925, respectively. It was subsequently reissued > with •Abdu' l-Bahii listed as author and Barney as collector and in a one-volume edition in 1939, and again in 1943. A ne'v edition > translator of the Persian text. The Persian text was recorded by indi- of this book appeared in 1982. It included a new translation by Amin > viduals accustomed to \vorking as secretaries for 'Abdu'l-BahA, Banani, made directly from the Persian text of the talk delivered by > s.ince Barney did not wish to trust her personal notes. Barney gives ' Abdu'l-Baha on 23 April 1912 at Howard University. > the names of these secretaries as Myrza Hadi, Myrza Mohseinne, This particular talk at Howard University, because it is trans- > Nourideen, and Moneer.24 Their transcription of these talks \Vas read lated fron1 the transcript of the original Persian, can be considered > line-by-line by 'Abdu'l-Baha, \vho occasionally corrected a word or an accurate record of what' Abdu'l-Baha said. However, 1nost of the > a line with his reed pen, and then signed each lesson and stampe-0 it talks in Pro11111/gation of Universal Peace consist of the English > with his seal, as he did with the tablets \Vhicb be wrote or dictated notes recorded by various individuals, not of ' Abdu'l-Baha's \Vords, > himself. There are reportedly at least three copies of manuscripts of course, but of the words of an interpreter. The English text, then, > extant, all of,vhicb contain corrections by ' Abdu'l-Baha, himself.25 cannot be considered a verbatim record of ' Abdu'l-Bahii's words, > The Persian text of the work was printed during •Abdu' l-Baha's life- and as such, it is not considered Bahii' i scripture. However, accord- > time, \Vith the second edition published in Cairo by Faraj Allah Zaki ing to Zarqani,28 the Persian texts of ' Abdu'l-Baba's ralks, as > al-Kordi as Al-1111r al-abha fl Mofavauit-e 'Abd al-Baha in 1920 recorded by the Persian n1c1nbers of 'Abdu'l-Baha's entourage, > (1329 A.H.).26 &me AnSlvered Questions is therefore considered as were generally presented to ' Abdu'l-Baha for bis approval and cor- > part of the authoritative scriptures of the Baha' i Faith. rection before publication. As such, "the verbatim record in Persian > The talks that 'Abdu'l-Baha gave while in North America are of His talks \vould of course be more reliable than one in English, > recorded i.n The Promulgation of Universal Peace, a compilation of because he was not always accurately interpreted," as indicated in a > stenographic records of speeches which 'Abdu'l-Baha delivered in letter \vrirten on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, dated 24 October 1947. A > the United States and Canada. These records reflect what the note- letter from the Universal House of Justice, dated 24 June 1980, indiá > take.rs understood from sin1ultaneous English iotcrprelations made catcs that \vhcrc the "original authenticated text" of the Persian talk > by various Persians in 'Abdu'l-Baha's entourage as he spoke in Per- has not been found, the existing En,glish texts in Pron1ulgatio11 of > Universal Peace and Paris Talks would have to be "clearly distin- proofs (adalle-ye elahiye). and be bas therefore begun with logical > guished from those which form a part of Baha'i Scripture." These argumentation (adalle-ye 'aqliye), which is a self-evident mode of > English notes of talks are not, therefore, Baha' i scripture. They may discourse, one open to discussion on shared premises and capable of > nevertheless be used by tbe Baha' i community as long as these dis- acceptance or rejection by people of various beliefs on the common > tinctions are maintained and "the degree of authenticity of eve.r y ground of logic: > document" is known and understood. The original authenticated > This is a spiritual truth, but one which we cannot at tbe beginning put > Persian transcription of the talks would, by contrast, seem to qualify > forth for the benefit of the materialists. First we must speak of the log- > as Baha'i scripture. The Persian text of 'Abdu 'l-Baha's talks in > ical proofs, a.fterward the spiritual proofs.31 > Europe, America and Egypt has fortunate ly been publ.isbed, and it > contains most, though by no n1eans all, of the talks appearing in Pro- Indeed, there are passages in the talks and \Vritings of' Abdu'l-Baba > 11111/gation of Universal Peace.29 For ihis reason, we \Vill consider where he appears to privi lege the logical mode of discourse as a > the transliterated Persian text in conjunction \vith th.e English \vher- means of understanding apparent contradictions between science > ever possible. and religion: > > 'Abdu'l-Ba b a's comments on epistemology That which science and reason cannot support must be rejected as imi- > tation and not reality. Then differences of belief will disappe.ar.32 > áAbdu'l-Baha draws a distinction in some passages of Sorne The authenticated Persian original of this is even more emphatic in > Answered Questions between " logical" and "spiritual" proofs: the primacy it gives to science and reason . It might be rendered pro- > Tue p.roofs which we have adduced relative to the origin of the bu1nan visonally as follows: > species \Vere logical proofs. Now we will give the spiritual proofs, lf one of the religious questions is contrary to reason, contrary to sci- > which are essential. for, as we have proved Divinity by logical argu- ence, it is pure fancy . . . that which science does not verify, reason > ments, and have also proved logically that man exists from bis origin does not accept, is not the truth. > and foundation as man, and that his species has existed from all eter- > nity, now we ,yjJJ establish spiritual proofs that human existence-that The Persian text reads: > is the species of man--is a necessary existence, and that without man > the perfections of Divinity would not appear. But these are spiritual agar mas 'ale-i az masa "e/-e dini 111okha/ef-e 'aql bashad, mokluilef-e > proofs, not logical proofs . . _30 'elm bashad, valmr-e mahz ast... anche 'elm tasdiq 11emi-ko11ad, 'aql > qabul 11emi-konad. lraqiqat nisr33 > The reader \ViU remark that neither the logical proofs (the word used > in Persiao for " logical" being 'aqli, with a semantic range of Baha' is themselves probably do not think of the harmony of science > rational, reasonable, logica l, n1ental), nor the spiritual proofs (the and religion in such stark terms of privileging science over scripture, > word here translated as spiritual being elahi, meauiag divine, but let's consider another passage from a talk given by 'Abdu'l- > Lordly, belonging to the rea!Jn of God), is considered superior. Both Baha to the Church of the Messiah in Montreal, which, according to > are presented as valid ways of establishing truth, effective in certain the Persian text of the talk, was a Unitarian church (kelisa-ye mova- > contexts. heddin):34 > When we come to the end of this same section, however, > Baha'u'llah has declared that religion must be in accord with science > 'Abdu'l-Balla states that not everyone \viii accept the spiritual and reason. If it does not com:spond with scientific principles and the > 60 * FRANKLCN LE\VIS DISCOURSES OF KNOWLEDGE 61 > > processes of reason, it is superstition. For God bas endowed us with cannot be canied out upon deno.minational lines. If the origins of the > faculties by wh.ich we may comprehend the realities of things, con- world, for example, are to be detennined on the bas.is of scriptural > template reality itself. If religion is opposed to reason and science, accounts and theological traditions, then evangelical Christians > faith is impossible ... would have one reality, Native Americans another, liberal Christians > yet another, Buddhists yet again another, and so forth. There is no > ,Din bayad motabeq-e 'elm va 'aql bas/rad. Agar moiabeq-e 'elm va > 'aql na-biislrad, owhlim ast, zira klroda áaql be ensan dade ta edrak-e way to adjudicate bet\ve.en competing faith claims, which rest on the > lraqa 'eq-e ashy a ' ko11ad, lraqiqat be-parastad. Agar din moklralef-e authority of scriptures or traditions considered divinely inspired. > 'elm va 'aql bas/rad, momken 11isr sabab-e etminim-e qalb slravad; Rational, scientific methodology, however, creates a common > chwr sabab-e et111i11an nist, ow/ram ast ...lelrliza, bayad masa 'e/-e ground upon which the various faith communities can meet and dis- > diniye ra ba 'aql va 'elm latbiq nemud, ta qalb etminan y tibad va cuss evidence according to experimentally or logically verifiable > sabab-e son1r-e ensan slravad. standards, for all can participate in a shared discussion using these > tools.36 > ' Abdu ' l-Baha several times repeated in almost identical \vords > Obviously, Baha'is, like other people of faith, must pursue such > this idea that religion must conform to science, not the other way > around. For example, the following passage:35 means of debate in the public sphere, following shared methodolo- > gies, with people who do not accept many-or even any--of the > The fourth teaching of Bal1a'u'lllih is tbe agreement of religion and same faith postulates. To do so, they must leave the comfortable > science. God bas endowed man \vilh intelligence and reason, whereby topography of their faith-based mental landscape, and explore the > he is required to detennine the verity of questions and propositions. If common boundaries of discourse both within and outside the acad- > religious beliefs aad opinions are found contrary to the standards of > emy, among people of a variety of creeds, with a wide spectrum of > science, they are mere superstitions and imaginations; for the antitheá > sis of knowledge is ignorance, and the child of ignorance is supersti- beliefs about the ultimate nature of life and whether God is still > Lion. Unquestionably there must be agreement between true religion healthy, ailing or dead. Such "intellectual pioneering" on the part of > and science. If a question be found contrary to reason, faitb and belief people of faith. is an opportunity for consultation and ecumenical > in it are impossible, and there is no outco1ne but wavering and vaci l- association with people of different faiths and of no faith in the cru- > lation. cial public sphere where civil and secular society is created, and > which best fosters multiple approaches to the independent investi- > Ta '/im.- e chaharom -e Hazra.1-e Baha áAllah tinke din bayad mouibeq-e > gation of truth. This does not require any of the parties to jettison > 'elm btishad zir/J kl1odli 'aql be-ensti11 d/Jde 1/J haqa 'eq-e as hyti' ra > their faith or supra-rational beliefs; it merely means that they bracket > tahqiq namtiyad. Agar masa 'el-e diniye mokhti/ef-e 'aql va 'elm > these beliefs for the sake of discussion with people who do not begin > btishad, vahm ast, zini moqtibel-e 'elm. jahl ast. la bodd din bayad > motabeq-e 'aql btishad la az baniye e11sa11 elmina11 luisel sltavad. Agar from the same premises. As 'Abdu'l-Baba says, "first we must speak > n1as'a/e 'i moklrtilef-e 'aql bashad, momke11 nis t az baraye e11Sa11 of logical proofs." > etmintin /rose/ gardad. Ha111islre motazalzel ast. This rationalist mode of discourse is based on a cultu.re of > respect for the human mind. It is not completely value-free, nor does > Baha'is and the Western academy it require a purely materialist conception of the cosmos, though it > does accomodate such premises. Committed Christians of a certain > lf conflicts bct\vecn scienc,c and religion, reason and faith, are to be stripe in the United States sometimes disparagingly refer to this type > adjudicated according to rational standards, such inquiries obviously of intellectual discourse as "secular humanism." Within the Baha'i > comn1unity, there are also those who sometimes look upon intellec- among Sufis often has the meaning of esoteric knowledge or gnosis, > tuals with scepticism or fear. People who rely overmuch on the intel- though it can also more n1undanely convey the sense of"cognjtion." > lect, at the expense of the spirit, are perhaps thought to hold and Jt is actually this type of spiritual insigbt-knowledge-cognjtion (Ara- > promote a distorted vie\V of truth, or to be blind to the true prompt- bic 'irfan, Persian 'e1fa11) of God, along \Vitb worship of the Deity, > ings of the meta-rational or non-material world. There are state- that is the purpose of human life, as Baha'u 'Uah calls upon his fol- > ments in the Baba 'i writings to the effect that worldly knowledge lowers to confess in their obligatory prayers: > can act as a veil to blind its possessor to the truth- this not because > 1 testify, 0 my God, that Thou hast created me to know ( 'irfan) Thee > knowledge, or the pursuit of it, is corrosive, but because knowledge and to worship Thee > can lead to pride and hubris in those who possess it. However, both > Baha'u' llah (e.g., in Seven Valleys, p. 5; Kitab-i iqan, pp. I 92-93; ashhadu ya ilalrf bi-a1111aka kltalaq1a11i Ii- 'irfanika wa 'ibadatika > and the Javaher a/-asrar), and 'Abdu'l-Baha (in Some Answered > Questions), explain that the principle of independent investigation To achieve this k110\vledge of God or Truth (rna 'ref'atce Haqq), a > of truth requires that we be fair in our judgment, and not aUO\V our person tnust rely upon his own efforts of insight, his heart and bis > love for or prejudice against particular people, and one presumes innate character (be-basar va qa/b vafetrat-e khod). It is insufficient > ideas, tum us away from the truth. to imitate \Vhat one has been told (che ke taqlid kefayat nanamilyad). > 'Abdu 'l-Bahlt, birnself, visited universities and praised their sci- This kind of Ia10\vledge/recognition/insight of God ('irfan) is, > entific methodologies. At Stanford University on 8 October 1912, Baha'u' Uah says in his Words of Wisdom, the root of the more expe- > á Abdu' l-Baha told 1800 university students and 180 professors that riential or logical kno\vledges, or sciences ( 'u/u111).39 > "knowledge" is tbe greatest of human ach.ievements. He used the The greatest attainment in the world of humanity has ever been scien- > word 'e/111 (Arabic, 'i/m), meaning acquired knowledge, or sci- tific in nature. It is the discovery of the realities of things .. . The high- > ence.37 This word 'ilm was traditionally used for the religious sci- est praise is due to men who devote their energies to science, and the > ences, that is to say, the knowledge of hadith and their transmission, noblest centre is a centre wherein the sciences and arts are taught and > of the Qur'an and the Sunna, among other things. Jts primary object studied. Science ever tends to the illuminatioo oftbe world of human- > ity. It is the cause of eternal honor to man ...40 > was kno\ving the laws of Islam, expounded through established > principles of jurisprudence (fiqh) \vhich had been worked out and The Persian is actually much more forceful, and it uses the word > agreed upon as canonical. 38 lo the nineteenth century, however, as "ulema" (Persian 'o/a1na, derived from Arabic), a word that is typi- > scientific and tecb.nical knowledge began to permeate the Middle cally translated fro1n [slarnic texts into Western languages as > East from Europe, the word 'ib11, especially in its plural ( 'u/i/111), was "clergy" or "learned divines," but which means "the learned," peo- > often used to translate "science" or the physical "sciences." It has ple who have studied and n1astered the sciences, foremost among > now come to mean academic methods of study in general (ravesh-e which was the science of badith, the knowledge of the Qur'an, of > 'elmi=scientific n1etbod) or bodies of knowledge, as in the academic Islamic law, theology, (eventually also physics and philosophy, etc): > discipline of political science ( 'olum-e sias1) or even more generally, > A 'zam manqabat-e 'a/am-e e11sa11i 'elm a.91, zira kashf-e ltaqtiyeq-e > the humanities ( 'olum-e e11sa11i) and the natural sciences ( 'o/urn-e > ashya •a.vr... Ashrafjami 'ati ke dar 'alam tashkil mi-gardad jam 'iyat- > tabi 'i). > e 'olama ast va ashrafmarkaz dar 'alam-e ensani markaz-e "o/um va > This acquired human knowledge ( 'ilm) is distinct from 'irfan, fa111111 ast, zira áetm sabab-e rowshami 'i-ye 'almn ast, sabab-e rahat > the knowledge of spiritual recognition or insight, a word which va asayesh ast. 'elm sabab-e 'ezzat-e 'a/am-e e11sa11i ast.4 1 > 64 * f'RANKLIN lEWlS DISCOURSES OF KNOWLEDGE * 65 > On May 23, 1912, at Clark University, in Worcester, Massachusetts, and upheld theories, such as evolution, that were opposed by reli- > 'Abdu'l-Baba bad used almost identical \vords. This talk is not gious orthodoxy, ' Abdu 'l-Baha 's comments, in the context of those > included in translation in Pro1nu/gation of Universal Peace; a pro- days, suggest support for such methodologies. > visional rende.r ing therefore follows the transliterated Persian: At the Bethel Literary Society in Washington, D.C., ' Abdu'l- > Baba specifically praised the technique of "inductive reasoning and > Pas ma 'lum shod ke 'elm a ázam-e manaqeb-e 'cilam-e e11sani asr. 'Elm > 'ezzat-e abadi asr, 'elm hayat-e sarmadi ast ... > research," through the process of \Vhich man is "informed of all that > appertains to humanity." A scientific man using these principles > Zira 'elm a11var as l va shakhs-e 'a/em mesl-e qendi/-e derakhshande "studies the human body politic, understands social problems and > va IOban, Jami '-e khalq mayyet-a11d va 'olama zende . .. \veaves the \veb and texture of civilization." Indeed, science is the > "very foundation of all individual and national development. With- > t'.{as hahir-e 'olama 'e salaf ra mo/aheze konid ke serare-ye áezzat- out the basis of investigation development is impossible." He even > esha11 az ofoq-e abodi derakhshande ast va ta abad al-abad baqi va puts it this way: > bar qa1áar. l eJ111za 11ehtiyat-e sorur ra daram ke dar in dt!rr al-/0111111 > hazer-am. Omid-am cho11a11 ast ke i11 markaz 'azim shavad va be- All blessings are divine in origin, but none can be cornpared with this > anvlir-e '0/11111 Jan1i á-e afaq ra rowsha11 ko11ad, kur ha rci bina konad . .. power of intellectual investigation and research ... All other blessings > lira 'elm 1111r ast va jahl zolmar42 are temporary, this is an everlasting possession.45 > So it is evident that knowledge is the greatest of the virtues of the Baha'u' llah confim1s the in1portance of this blessing, in the > human world. Knowledge is eternal might, knowledge is everlasting Lawh-i Hikroat, where he enjoins upon us respect for the learned > life . . . for knowledge is rays of light and the learned person is like a > (the 'u/a111a ', the possessors of 'i/111, the same \vho are denounced in > bright and shining lamp. All creatures are as dead, and the learned > ( 'olamli) alive . .. Coo.sider the fam.ous learned ones of the past and tile Kitab-i fqan as "the learned divines"): > bow the star of their might shines from the borizoo of eternity and will Beware 0 My loved ones, lest ye despise the merits of My learned ser- > remain fixed and undying from the beginning to the end of eternity. vants \vllon1 God bath graciously chosen to be the exponents of His > Therefore, I am extremely happy to be io this academy (dar a/- Name, "The Fashioner" aroidst mankind.46 > /0111111) .43 My hope is that this ceotcr '>viii. become great and illumine > all horizons with the lights of knowledge ("0/11111), give sight to the In a talk in Minneapolis not regarded as authenticated because > blind ... for knowledge is Ught and ignorance is darkness ... the original Persian notes are not extant, •Abdu' l-Baba praised the > During the course of !his same talk, 'Abdu'l-Baha praised the aca- philosophic methods practised by "the philosophers of Greece- > such as Aristotle, Socrates, Plato and others," \vho were "devoted to > demic institutions of the United States, colleges and technical uni- > versities (madares-e dar al-fonun-ha). He expressed the hope that the investigation of both natural and spiritual phenomena." > other countries would follow this example and establish schools for In divine questions we must noi depend entirely upon the heritage of > the training of children, and raise the banner of knowledge so that tradition and fom1er hun1an experience; nay, rather we must exercise > the world of humanity would be illuminated and the realities and reason, analyze aod logically examine tbe facts presented so that con- > mysteries of all beings become apparent and prejudices be dis- fidence will be inspired and faith attained. Theo and then only the real- > pelled.44 Since these same institutions \Vere champions of academic ity of things wiU be revealed to us. > methodologies (sometimes considered materialist methodologies) Today the philosophy and logic of Aristotle are lcoO\Vll throughout > the wo.rld. Because they were interested io both natural and divine phi- > losophy. furthering the development of the physical world of mankind no outward fom1 and no place and is not perceptible to the senses. For > as well as the intellecrual, they rendered praiseworthy service 10 ex.ample, the power of intellect ( 'aql) is 001sensible; none of the inner > humanity. This was the reason of the triumph and survival of their qualities of man is a sensible thing; on !he contrary they are intellec- > teachings and principles. Man should continue both these lines of tual realities (haqti 'eq-e ma 'qu/e). So love is a mental reality and not > research and investigation so that all the human virtues, outer and sensible (va hamchonin hobb niz haqiqat-e ma 'qu/e ast, mal1SUse nist); > inner, may become possible. The attainment of these virtues, both for this reality the ear does not hear, the eye does not see, the smell > rnaterial and ideal, is conditioned upon intelligent investigation of does not perceive . . . ln the same way, nature, also, in its essence is an > reality, by which investigation the sublimity of man aud bis inrellec- intellectual reality and is not sensible; the human spirit is an intellec- > tual progress is accomplished. Fonns must be set aside and renounced; tual, not sensible reality ... > reality must be sought. We must discover for ourselves where and > what reality is. ln religious beliefs nations and peoples today are in1i- This passage is taken from ' Abdu ' l-Baba's discourse titled "Out- > tators of ancestors and forefathers ... The requirement in this day is ward Forms and Symbols Must be Used to Convey Intellectual Con- > that man must independently and inipartially inves1iga1e every fonn of ceptions,"50 which argues that scripture must be understood > rcality.47 symbolically, as a metaphor for an intellectual reality that is not per- > ceptible to the senses (haqa 'eq-e ma 'q11/e ast ke surat-e khtirejiye > Faith itself, •Abdu' l-Baha is here quoted as saying, requires the > 11adtirad va makii.11 nadtirad va ghayr n1ahsuse ast). > exercise of reason and logic. > ' Abdu'l-Baha returns to this theme in another chapter of Some > Types of knowledge Answered Questions, "The Knowledge of the Divine Manifestations." > Laura Clifford Barney asks if the knowledge of the divine manifes- > In a talk to the Theosophists of Paris, •Abdu ' I-Baba spoke of knowl- tations is limited, and ' Abdu ' l-Baha 's reply should be noted here in > edge ('elm) being of two kinds- abstract (tasavvori, conceptua l or full: > suppositional) and e1npirical (talraqqoq1)-and he stressed the > importance of the latter: "Complete knowledge is the experiential Knowledge is of two kinds. One is subjective ( 'e/m-e vojudi)5 I and > the other is objective knowledge ( 'elm-e sovarilsuri)-that is to say, > realization of a thing, not the imagination of a thing."48 !n his table > an intuitive knowledge ( 'elm-e tahaqqoqi) and a knowledge derived > talks with Laura Clifford Barney, •Abdu ' I-Baba also divides knowl- from perception ( 'e/m-e lasawori). > edge into two types, though these categories differ somewhat from The knowledge of things which men universally have is gained by > that above: reOection or by evidence-that is to say, either by the power of the > mind the conception of an object is formed, or from beholding an > A subject that is essentiaJ49 for the comprehension of the questions object the form is produced in the mirror of the hean. The circle of this > that we have mentioned, and of others of which we arc about to speak, knowledge is very lirnit.ed because it depends upon effort and anain- > so that the essence of the problems may be understood, is this: !hat ment. > human knowledge is of two kinds. One is the knowledge of things per- But the second sort of knowledge, which is !he knowledge of > ceptible to the senses (ma '/un1ti1-e ma'1s11se)-tha1 is to say, things being, is intuitive ( 'elm-e \IOj11di va tahaqqoqi asl); it is like the cog- > which the eye, or ear, or smell, or taste, can pcrcci ve, which are called nizance and consciousness that man has of himself. > objcc1ivc, or sensible. So the suo, because it can be seen is said to be For example, the mind ( áaql) and the spirit of man are cognizant of > objective; and in the same way sounds are sensible because the car the conditions and states of the members and component parts of the > hears them ... body, and are aware of all the physical sensations; in the same way, > The other kind of human knowledge is intellectual (ma 'q11/tit)- they are aware of their power, of their feelings, and of their spiritual > that is to say, it is a reality of the intellec1 (haqti 'eq-e ma 'qule); it has conditions. This is the knowledge of being which man realizes and > 68 FRANKLJN LEWIS DISCOURSES OF KNOWLEDGE 69 > > perceives, for the spirit surrounds the body and is aware of its sensa- aU of them are faulty and unreliable. What then remains? How shall > tions and powers. This knowledge is not the outcome of effort and we attain the reality of knowledge? By the breath and prompting of the > study. ll is an existing thing; it is an absolute gift. 52 Holy Spirit, which is lighr and knowledge irself..56 > > Modes of knowing Evidently, then, though perception, logic, and tradition are all > flawed modes of knowledge, it is necessary sometimes to use reason > ' Abdu ' l-Baha outlines four methods of acqumng knowledge, or as the primary o r at least initial niode of discourse, because reason > modes of perception (n1izan-e edrak) in Son1e Answered Questions: is a method that does not require equal stations of spiritua.1 insight > the senses (n1izan-e hess); reason (111iza11-e 'aql); religious tradition between the interlocutors, but provides a common ground, like the > (mizan-e naql; less specifically, whatever human knowledge is physical senses, on which most observers can agree. > known through transmission, oral or written, and not through sense Here is the closest we ca.o come to certainty, by involving va.ri- > perception or logic); and the comprehension which comes through ous modes of knowledge, as 'Abdu'I Baha, according to the notes > the bounty oftbe Holy Spirit methods are fallible: the senses can be mistaken; logic and reason, while he spoke at Green Acre in Maine on 16 August 1912, explains: > presumably because they can begin with faulty premises, can lead to > But a statetnent presented to the mind accompanied by proofs which > conflicting conclusions; religious tradition, because it involves the senses can perceive to be correct, which the faculty of reason can > interpretation, which requires the use of reason, is also faulty. These accept, which is in accord with traditional authority and sanctioned by > various methods may be used separately, or in conjunction \vitb one the promptings of the heart, can be adjudged aad relied upon as per- > another; that is to say they are independent modes of investigation, fectly correct, for it has been proved and tested by all the standards of > though they can, and should, be brought to bear simultaneously on judgment and found to be complete. When we apply but one test, there > certain issues. Reason is the method ' Abdu' L-Baha associates with are possibi lities of m.istake. This is self-evident and manifest_S7 > the philosophers, and religious tradition with the theologians and > Perhaps the reason for this is that ' Abdu' l-Baha speaks of the > clergy. Unfortunately, none of these methods are absolutely reliable. > mind ( 'aql) and the spirit (ruh) as separate entities, which is, of > The fourth method, the outpourings of the holy spirit, is the only one > course, an established discourse of neo- Plaionic thought \Vithin the > that is true and sound (sahih ), never subject to doubt (dar an abadan > Islamic tradition. They are both present at birth, but in an imperfect > shakk va shobheh 'i 11ist). However, it appa.rently comes to us only > state, "only when 111an attains maturity do the mind and the spirit > by divine grace appear and become evident in utmost perfection. »58 > At the Hotel Ansonia in New York on 17 April 1912, when > Elsewhere, ' Abdu'l-Baha distinguishes between soul (nafs), spi- > 'Abdu '1-.Baha spoke of thjs fourth mode of knowledge it was trans- > rit (n1h) and mind ( 'aql). Spirit appears to be a quiddity, a kind of > lated as "inspiration,"55 and it was described as an ''influx of the > essence of an ontological state. There is a vegetable spirit (ruh-e > human lieart." 'Abdu'l-Baha went on to say, however, the "satanic > nabat1), an animal spirit (ruh-e hayvan1), a buma.o spirit (ruh-e > promptings which afflict mankind" are also an "influx of the heart." ensanl), a spirit of faith (r11h-e imani) and the holy spirit (ruh a/- > ' Abdu ' l-Baha then poses the question, ho\v do \Ve knov,1 when our > qodos). The vegetable and the animal spirit are subject to composi- > inspiration is divine and when it is "satanic"? tion and decomposition, a.od hence are not immortal; the hun1an > Briefly, the point is that in the human material world of phenomena spirit, on the other band, is defined by the rational soul (11afs-e > these four are the only ex.isling criteria or avenues of knowledge, and naceqe), which distinguishes it from the animal spirit. The human > > spirit and the rational soul are two names for one reality, the comprehension (qovve-ye modreke) which comprehends realities; > "rational soul" being a term used by the philosophers. It is this that and memory (qovve-ye hafeze),61 which retains that which an indi- > allows us to discover the realities of things, but unless assisted by vidual imagines, thinks, or comprehends. There is a further sense, > the spirit of faith, our rational soul cannot bee-0me apprised of "the \vhich mediates between the five outward or physical senses and > divine secrets and heavenly realities" (mottale ábe asrar-e elahiye va these inward powers of the mind. This facu.lty 'Abdu '1-.Baha calls > haqa'eq-e /ahutiye). 'Abdu'l-Baha compares this rational soul to a "the common faculty" (hess-e moshtarak).68 Of these five inward > mirror, which no matter how polished, cannot reflect light until the powers, which operate hierarchica lly, the common faculty is the > light of faith shines upon it. 59 first, transferring an impression of the physical senses to the imagi- > Yet, the power within the human spirit is the mind or intellect nation, which transfers ro thought, which is transformed into con1- > ( 'aql). This intellect is like the light shining within the lan1p of the prehension, and is preserved in the me111ory. 69 > rational soul/human spirit, or like the rays of the sun, with the These powers are not possessed in equal capacity by all. > soul/spirit being the sun.60 The rational sou.I, \vhich all humans pos- 'Abdu' l-Baba tells us that each person bas intelligence and capac- > sess alike, \Vhether they are believers or deniers, faithful or way- ity, but in differing degrees. Furthermore, the degree of education > ward, is responsible for the dise-0very of a.II the sciences, arts, affects the intell igence.70 But, as we have seen above, this power is > knowledge, institutions, and discoveries. True, this power of knowl- not dependent on spiritual attainment, belief in God, creed, or any > edge is limited and makes its discoveries only through the toil of other qualificatioD-Qther than the innate mental capacity and the > investigation, and it is subject to error. ln contrast, the universal degree of education. Of course, \Ve do not gain knowledge of the > divine intellect ( 'aql-e kolli-ye elahl) is a supernatural power (ma essence of things, but only of their qualities (chu11 n1a 'nifiyat-e > vara 'e tabi 'at), \vhicb, however, only the holy manifestations and ashya, va htil anke khalq-and va 111ahdud-and, be sefat-ast, 11ah be > the dawning places of prophecy possess. Human beings are illu- ztit).11 However, the English notes of the words spoken by 'Abdu'l- > mined by it only in small measure, as it is reflected by God's inter- Baha on 20 September, 1912, at the home of Albert Ha.II in Min- > mediaries,61 and we cannot attain to it through effort; this power to neapolis do equate the acquisition of knowledge and the > perceive spiritual realities is bestowed by the bounty of God. On the development of the intellect with the capacity to attain virtue: > otber hand, the power to make earthly discoveries is not bestowed > As human creatures fitted and qualified with this dual cndow1ncnt, \VC > on the basis of faithfulness or belief or any other spiritual quality, > 1nust endeavor through the assistance and grace of God and by the > but on the basis of the effort of mental investigation.62 And it is the > exercise of our ideal power of intellect to attain all lofty virtues, tbat > .rational sou.I/human spirit (nafs-e 11ateqeln1h.-e ensa11i) which is the we may witness tbe effulgences of the Sun of R.eality.72 > immortal part of the human being, which wilJ live on after our > deatb.63 Implications for Baha'i methodology > 'Abdu'l-Baha enumerates in Some Answered Questions the fol- > lowing "spiritual powers" (qova-ye 1na '11aviye),64 or faculties of the Baha'u'llah, in presenting his message to Zoroastrians like Ustad > intellect and rational soul, which are over and above the five senses Javan Mard or Manikji Sahibji, did not emphasize the Shiite teach- > (sight, bearing, taste, touch, smell), which we have in common with ings or the Islamic tradition \vith \vhich the Babis were engaged, for > the anima.I spirit.65 They are the power of the imagination (qovve-ye it \Vas in fact anathema to the Zoroastrians. In so doing, Baha'u' Uah > n1otakhayyele) which conceives things; the po\ver of thought did not abandon his beHef in the truth of Muhammad or Shiism, he > (qovve-ye n1otafakkere),66 which reflects on realities; the power of just bracketed those beliefs to participate in a discourse that a > * f'RANXLIN LEWIS DISCOURSES OF KNOWLEDGE > * 73 > Zoroastrian could "hear" and respect. In similar fashion, the acl of Notes > bracketing one's spiritual or suprarational beliefs to participate in > academic discourse that is believable, that can be heard, by people Frnnklin Lewis is Associate Professor of Persian Ulnguagc and Litcrnrure at > who do not share the same premises is not an inherently materialist Emory University in Atlanta. > exercise, nor does it presuppose abandoning one's faith convictions. I . I have in mind nol lhe linguistic lenn (discoum:, discouise analysis), but rather > Baha'is in academia should, of course, adopt the assumptions of lhe sense of"discourseáá as ii appears in lhcoretical discussions oflhe sociology > intellectual discourse, not only because this is the only way to of knowledge or the construction of the episteme, especially !hose infonned by > lhc arguments of Foucault. Wingcnslcin 's "language game," suggesting that a > engage in a constructive dialogue with non-Baha' i intellectuals and discussion can be true within a certain frnmework without necessarily pointing > academics, but because it preserves, employs, and hones sophisti- to external trt1ths, reOecls essentially the snme notion, as do various other con- > cated techniques which help us to better understand, not only the cepts such as Kuhn's "paradigm," etc. Not surprisingly, "discourse" has now > entered academic Persian tenninology (where it is variously rendered as guye.rh, > physical world, but the mental universe of the present and past gojitl11). While I suggest below that 'Abdu'láBab!I discusses ideas lhat are simá > If there is such a thing as a distinctively Baha'i methodology, it ilar to lhe concept of discourse as '"school of 1hought"' (i.e., Sufi discourse), nev. > cannot be based on essential differences in the modes of perception erthcless, 'Abdu'l-Baha does nor usc lhe concept or tenn "discouise"' in lhe > technical sense that ii is of\en used today. > and evaluation of infonnation. That is to say, sornewhat obviously, 2. Different fonns of discouise perfonn better or worse at answering cer1ain kinds > there is no inherently Baha'i mode of seeing, hearing, touching, of questions. Scientific method, for example, does 001 do a panicularly good job > smelling, etc. There is likewise no inherent difference among people of addressing questions such as the existence or narure of divinity, lhe meaning > of life. or bow scientific knowledge should be morally appl.ied. > of different creeds in their ability for logic or rational evaluation. 3. The Hidden fYonfs, trans. Shoghi Effendi, "wilh the assistance of some English > Socrates must be mortal if Ile is a man, and Baha'is are bound by this friends" (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, reprint 1975) pp. 19-20, Arnbic > logic as much as anyone else. Baba'is are committed to consultation #67. > 4. ' Abdu 'lá Baha, The Secret of Divine Civilirn1io11, trans. Marzieh Gail wilh Ali > as a means of arriving at the truth. This consultation should include Kuli Khan (\Vilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trus1, 1957; [3rd ed., 1975]) p. 36. My > the clash of differing opinions, including rationalist or even n1ateri- !hanks to Wi ll McCams, who read a draft of 1his paper and pointed out the relá > alist opinions, if the spark of truth is to be produced. cvance of this passage here. > 5. Mirza Mahmud-e Zarq:lni, Badayc' al-astlr (Bombay, 1914; [facsimile reprinl, > Where a distinctively Baha'i methodology might emerge, it Hotheim-Langenhain: Bah:l 'l-Vcrlag, 1982]) Vol 1, pp. 175-6. Nore that Ibis is > seems to me, is in the ethical application of knowledge and the cre- Zarqani's recollection of what 'Abdu'láBaha remembered Baha'u'lhl.b 10 have > ation of equitable access to knowledge and the benefits which ensue said decades earlier, and as such is nor aulhoritative. For specula1ion on > Ba.Máu 'llah ás use of Sufi discourse as a bridge or transition between the panicá > from it. This is properly a moral question about the means and ends ularisl Shiite discourse ofBabism and wider Sunni-based pan-Islamic concerns, > of acquiring knowledge, and the values \vhich drive a society's sec Frnnklin Lewis, "i\fo1hnavi-yi Mub acquisition of knowledge, rather than a question about the modes or ttnnslation- (cntilled ááPoetry iu Revelation.. in the table of contentSI. Bairoá; > S1udies Review, Vol. 9 ( 199912000) pp. I06-16. > kinds of knowing. It is here, perhaps, \"\•here Baba'is have the most 6. Futtih6t-i Mak/Oya (Meccan Rcvclnrions) is lhe magnum opus of the "Grenr > orig.inal contribution to make to the discourse of academic knowl- Shaykh"" of lheoretical Sufism, Muhyl al-Din fbn áArabi (d. 1240). Another of > edge-in the ethics of\vhat \Ve do with what \Ve can know, and bow his works, Fusus al-fliknm (Bezels of \Visdom), is also alluded to a few lines > funher down. > we adjudicate conflicting truth claims in consultation. 7. Trnnslation by the present writer. TI1is reported speech, whicb may or may nol > have been correctly remembered by Zarq6ni, would have stal\ls in the Buh6 'i > community as '"pilgrim's notes,'" noJ scripture. > 8. The point has, however, been made, 1ha1 in Istanbul and olher places in the Midá > die Eas1, political discouisc had been grcully influenced in lhe latter half of the > nineteenth century by European political theory. Juan Ricardo Cole in !.1oderá > 74 75 > > nity and the Mi/lenium: The Genesis of the Baha'i Faith in the Nineteenthá exclusive reference to the masculine gender. To avoid misapprehension, one > century Middle East (New York: Colwnbia University Press, 1998) argues tbat might now render the passage- 'elm be-matizele-ye jenah ast az baraye > Baha' u' llab sometimes uses political tenninology in a modern way that reOectS vojud- altematively and more in tune witb the exigencies of the current time as > awareness of European political theory. No general consensus has as yet "knowledge is as wings for creation." Likewise, in the final sentence, " knowlá > emerged on the extent to which this may be the case. edge is as a veritable treasure for man," the English predicate might also be pre- > 9. All the preceding statements on journalism come from Baba' u'lluh's tablet, positioned, as it is in the Persian (kanz-e haqiqi az baraye erosan 'e/m-e uást), tO > "Tarazilt," in Majmu 'e 'i oz alvah-e Jamal-e Aqdas-e Abha ke ba 'd az Ketab-e render something like "The true treasure fo r human beings is their knowledge." > Aqdas 111izel shode (Langenhain: Lajne-ye Nashr-e asar-e Amri be-leslln-e Farsi 18. Baha'i Education: a compilation ofextracts from the Bahti 'i Writings (London: > va 'Arabi, 137 B.E.11980) p. 21. The official English translation appears in The Baba' i Publishing Trust, 1976, [revised 1987]) p. 3. > Tablets of Baha'u '/ltlh revealed ajler the Kita/J.i Aqdas (Haifa: Baha'i World 19. There are, of course, fundamental differences between the traditional religious > Centre, 1978) pp. 39-40. scholars ( 'ulama), the gnostics ('urafa) or Sufis, and the philosophers > 10. See Abid Taherzadeh, Revelation of Baha'u'/lah, Vol. 4 (Oxford: George (nrntaka/limun, hukama) in their respective pursuit of the path of law (shari'a), > Ronald, 1987) p. 350. the path of interior spirituality (tariqa) , aodfalsafa. These various approaches > 11. Baha ' u'llah, Kitab-i iqtm, trans . Shoghi Effendi (Wilmette: Baha ' i Publishing diverge in their valorization of 'ilm (knowledge) and ma 'rife (guosis), hikma > Trust, 1931; [2nd ed. 1950]) p. 192. (wisdom), etc. Above and beyond this, however, different categories of knowl- > 12. Baha'u' llab, The Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys , trans. Marzieh Gail in edge have been adumbrated by medieval Mus.Jim thinkers, such as al-Farabi and > consultation with Ali Kuli Khan (\Vilmcttc: Baha ' i Publishing Trust, 1945, al-GhazzAli, and the tenns they have used might very well contribute to a more > [revised ed., 1975]) p. 5. precise understanding of the terminology and concepts which 'Abdu'l -Baba > 13. Baba 'u' llah. Gleanings from the fJ'ritings ofBaha '11 'lltlh. trans. Shogbi Effendi employs. One recent work of the many in English that treats this subject is > (Wilmette: Baha' i Publishing Trust, 1939; (2nd revised edition, l976]) p. 204; Osman Bakar, Classifica1ion of Knowledge i11 Islam: A S111dy i11 the Islamic > Persian/Arabic text in Mo111akhabdti az astlr-e Hazrat-e Baird AllaJ1 (Langen- Philosoplries ofScience (Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1998). > hain: Baha' i-Verlag, 1984) p. 133. 20. lt is always dangerous to make statements such as this, since 1 have read only > 14. While reason ( 'aql) is celebrated by most lslamic thinkers, its limitations in a small fraction of Baba ' u 'llah ' s voluminous writings, a great pan of which > apprehending th.e ultimate reality and attaining certitude (yaqi11) are often dis- remains as yet unpublished in the original languages. Obviously, our under- > cussed among Sufis in particular. Titis theme is repeatedly engaged, for exam- standing of the teachings of Baba ' u 'llah will become fuller as the entire corpus > ple, by Rumi in his A1asnavi (see Franklin Lewis, R11111i: Past and Prese111, East of his correspondence, tablets, and books becomes available. > and West (Oxford: Oneworld, 2000) p. 400ff. •Abdu'l-Baha suggests in his 1875 21. Zarqani, Badaye ', Vol I, p. 124. Zarqani seems to imply that the phrase "were > Secrets of Divine Civilization (Wilmette: Baha' i Publishing Trust, 1975) p. 12, in accordance with the receptivity of souls and the requirements of the age" is > that the Iranian c lergy cynically tried to convince the uneducated that modem a direct quote from 'Abdu' l-Baha. I a.lso infer that it was 'Abdu' l-Baha who > Western metbods were contrary to religion. However, this was because they cited this proverbial verse on the occasion mentioned, though it may also be that > came from heathen Europeans. not because science and technology were inher- Zarqani adduced the verse to strengthen the poinL fo any case. the theme seems > ently irreligious. to echo the Hidden Word we saw above, that God reveals truth according to > 15. Bahil'u' llah, Ki1tlb-i Aqdt«: The i\lost Holy Book (Haifo: Baha'i \Vorld Centre, human capacity to understand, not according to divine omniscience. > 1992; Arabie edition, same place and publisher. l 995) Verse I02. This passage 22. See Juan Ricardo Cole, "Problems of Chronology in Baha'u'lhih's Tablet of > was translated by Shoghi Effendi in Gleanings from tire Writing~á of Baha ' 11 ' - Wisdom," JVorld On/er, Vol. 13, p. 3 (1979), pp. 24-39, which suggests that the > lltlh. p. 199 (XCVlll). discourse of Islamic philosophy that Baha'u 'llab adopts in this tablet closely > I 6. "Tar.iz&t," in Baba ' u' llilh, Majmu 'e 'i az alvah, p. 2 1 and in Tablets ofBaird ' 11 '- follows \Yhnt medieval Islamic historians presented as historical fact~ Ho..vever. > 116/J, p. 39. tbe medieval lslamic historians were mistaken on some points of chronology > I 7. "Tajalliyat," in Bahn 'u 'llah, lvfajnw áe 'i oz alwih, p. 28 and in Tablets of and fact, at least insofar as we are able tO establish with current research. That > Baha á,, 'lldl1, pp. 51-52. Bah.a ' u' llah also quotes the passage in Epistle ta the Son Baba' u' llah repeats these postulates ("facts" or "factoids'') is due to his desire > of the fVolf. trans. Shogbi Effendi (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1941 ; to explain things within the frame of reference of Islamic philosophy for the > [revised s ixth printing, l 979]) pp. 26-27. The Persian text of the latter can be benefit of the addressee, and does not necessarily imply an absolute proposi- > found in Baha'u'llah, lowlr-e mobarak khauib be Shayk/1 Mohammad Taqi Mo}á tional assenion about the chronological facts of history. > tahed-e Esfehiml, ma 'ntf be Najafi (Langenhain: Lajne-ye Nashr-e asar-e Amri 23. 'Abdu' l-Baha, Some Answered Questions, collected and trans., Laura Clifford > bc-Lesan-e Farsi vu 'Arabi, 138 B .E.11982) p. 20. In view of recent concerns in Barney, revised edition (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1981), p. 190, p. 19. > various religious communities about inclusive language in scriptural texts, one The Persian text is in Moftlvazlit, (Cairo, 1920 (facsimile reprint in New Delhi: > might comment that the word "man" in the phrase "man's life" in the first sen- Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1983]) pp. 135 and p. 14 ("ether" renders mtldde-ye > tence is not literally necessary and might unfortunately be read these days as an asiriye, and "savages of America" is for barabare va motaviJhheshi11-e Amrika). > • f'RANl * 77 > > 24. Leiter dated 31 M.arcb 1958 from Laura Dreyfus Barney to Horace Holley, tics, liberalize and ncuttalizc their prejudices, and make the general religion a > cited among the Linard papers. accessed 11/30/00 at: religion of peace, reason and morality" (Thomas Jefferson. lf'rilings [Library of > http://v.ww.geocities.comlthlinardlpublicai/saq.btm. America, 1994] p. 1465). > 25. According to a letter from the An:hives Office at the Bllha'( \Vorld Centre dated 37. In the English translation of the talk, as transcribed by Bijou Sttaun, this reads > 9 Deccm~ 1987, a copy of which was sent to the Nacional Assembly of "The greatest attainment in the world of humanity bas ever been scientific in > France, there were two copies of the Persian text in the BaM'I Archives in Paris, nature" (Promulgalion of Universal Pe;,ce, p. 348). The Persian reads "a 'zam > one a copy of the secrecary's ootes of these talks IAlcen at table, with corrections manqabat-e 'alam-e enstlni 'e/,,. asf' (from Majmu'e-ye Khetabtll, p. 570). a > added by 'Abdu '1-Ba.lu\, and the other a neac copy with •Abdu '1-BahA 's further phrase which 'Abdu' 1-Baha is rcponed co have used verbatim elsewhere in bis > corrections. A third and later copy with still further amendments by 'Abdu'l- talks, as well. See, for example, Pay6m-c J.falalait, ed. A.H. lshnlq-Khavari > Bah~ was in the Baha' i World Centre Archives in Haifa. The tcxc of this leucr (New Delhi: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1986) p. 82, p. 86, and the many exam- > was accessed al w1vw.geocities.com/thlinarW:publicat.soq.htm on 11/30/00; a ples from Majmu 'e-ye KJret6b6t quoted above. > printout is in my possession. 38. Evi.-ntually four schools (madhhab) were accepted as canonically valid points > 26. I am working from a facsimile offprint published by the Notional Spiritual of view among the Sunnis. Shiites had their own schools, which have been > Assembly of the Bnba'is of India in 1983. reduced in modem times to one (Ja'fari) and recognized as canonical among > 27. Sec the translation of •Abdu '1-Baha 's letic111 provided in the introduction to most Sunnis. > 'Abdu'l-BahA, Promulgation of Universal Peace, compiled by Howard Mac- 39. Asl-1 lad/ a/_.ulrim huwa 'iifan Allah. Jolla jalti/ahu. Cited in Faze!-<: Mllzan- > Nun, revised edition (Wilmette: Baba'i Publishing Trust, 1982). darini, ed., Amr va Khalq (Tehran, 111 e.B./1954-5; reprint Langenhain: Lajne- > 28. ZarqAni. Bad6ye '. Vol. I p. 54, also p. 58. ye Nashr-c isar-c Amri bc-Lesin-<: Farsi va 'Arabi, 141 o.E.11985) Vol. I. pp. > 29. 'Abd al-Bahll., Majmu 'e-ye Khetab Lajnc-ye Melli-ye Nashr-<: asar-e Amri be zabanáha-ye Flitsi va 'Arabi, 1984). 40. 'Abdu' l-Bahi, Promulgation ofUniversal Peace, p. 348. > This is a one volume reprint of separate volumes previously published in Egypt 41 . •Abdu'l-BahA, }.fajmu 'e-ye Klret6b0t, p. S70. > ( 1340 A.1111921, 3Dd 99 e.£11942-1943) and in Tehran ( 127 B.E./1970-197l). 42. Ibid., p. 382. > 30. 'Abdu '1-Bah6, Some A11swered Questions, rev. ed.. p. 195. This is from Chap- 43. Literally, Academy of Artsffccbnical Academy. This was the name of the first > ter 50. "Spiritual Proofs of the Origin of Man.~ For cl1e original Persian, see college established in Tehran nlong European models in I 851. > A1ofavaza1. p. 138. 44. Al-hamda le 'lltih dar In eq/im 'elm ruz be ruz be taraqql ast va madares-e dar > 31. á Abdu'l-Boh6, Some Answered Questions, p. 197, Mofavazat, p. 140. al-fomm-ha besyar ta 'sis .thode a.it va dar in madilres taltimeze be nelt6yar-e > 32. á Abdu' l-Bahi1, Pro11111/gatio11 ofUniversal Peace, pp. 175-6. }a/rd mi-kt1.1ha11d va ka.ilif-e haqayeq-e '6/am-e ens6ni mi-konand. Omid-11111 > 33. 'Abdu'l-BnhA, Majmu 'e-ye khettibat, pp. 439-40 (English pagination at the chor1611 a.st ke mamalek-e sayere eqtedn be in mamlekat namtiyand vo madares- > foot of page). The provisional English cranslation preceding the transliterated e 'adide baraye tarbiyat-e ow/6dáh6-ye kit()(} bar pa darand vu 'a/am-e 'elm rti > Persian text is my own. boland hJnand la áalam-e enstlni mwshan garrlad va haqtl 'eq vo asrtir-e > 34. 'Abdu'l-Baha. Prom11/gatlon of Universal Peace, pp. 298-9 and Majmu áe-ye kti 'enar ztiher shO\•ad. In ra 'assol>6r-e j6/reliye namanad ... ('Abdu'l-Baha, > Kherab01, p. 530. Presumably, the denomination of the church can be checked Afajmu 'e-ye Klreulbi11, p. 383). > against historical records. 4S. 'Abdu'l-Bahi, Promulgarion of Universal Peace, p. SO. > 35. 'Abdu'l-Baba, Promulgation of Universal Peace, p. 181 and t.fajmu'e-ye 46. Baba'u'llllb, Tablets of8alttl'11 '//tlh, p. 150; Majmu'e-ye alwih, pp. 51-52. > KJreraoor, p. 450. Note that the Persian repeats almost verbatim in some pans 47. 'Abdu'l-Bah3, Promulgation ofUniversal Pe;,ce, p. 327. > what we saw in the previous quotation, although the English versions reflect 48. Cited in Mizandanini, ed. Amr"'' khalq, Vol I. p. 67. Provisional translation > slightly greater variations. by the present writer. > 36. As the University of Vu-ginia was about to open, objections were raised over 49. A footnote appears here in the English text of Some Answered Questions indi- > che fact that ic had no professorship of divinity. Critics said this was not merely cating, "Lit, lhe pivoL" The Persian reads ~yek mas 'ale ke khay/i madtir a.rt,- > because lhe university was prohibited by the Constitution from upholding a par- which oouJd also be ttanslated as "One matter which is pivotal ..." > ticular kind of religion, but felt lhat the university was in face against all reliá SO. Dar bayan-e tlnke ma 'qula1faqa1 bevdsele-ye tthtlr dar qamis-e maltsus b6yad > gion. In respon.~c, the u11ive111ity crustees offered each religious sect to establish bayan shavad. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Some AitTWered Questions, p. 83, Moftlvaz6t, pp. > a professorship of its own, each according to its own pnnicular tenets, on the 61-62. > grounds of chc campus, so Uiat students could use the library of the University SI. One is tempted to translate in more tochn.ical terms, but perhaps somewhnl > (i.e., the public space of discourse) while scill pursuing denominational. anachro11istically, as "ontological." > parochial studies. Thomas Jeffe1110n explained, "By bringing the sects together, 52. 'Abdu'l-Babi. Some Answered Questions, p. 157, Afofavaz/u, p. 111 -12. > and mixing them with the mass of other srudenis, we shall soften their aspcri- 53. 'Abdu'l-Bahi, Some Answered Questions, pp. 297-99, Mofavazilt, p. 207-208. > > 54 •Abdu' l-Bahli, Some Answered Q11estio1u, p. 299. Mofltvazat, p. 208. > SS. The original Persian of this talk is not in<:luded in Majmu 'eáye Kheuibtit, and > it crumo11bercforc be considered as official scripture of the Baha'i Faith. > 56. á Abdu 'I-Baba, Prom11/gallon ofUniversal Peace, pp. 21-22, no1es by Howard > MacNull. The Persian original of th.is talk is apparently not given in Majmu 'e- > ye Khetabtit. > 57. Recorded in •Abdu '1-BahA, Promulgation ofUnfrersal Peace, p. 2SS. The Per- > sian origil\31 of this talk is not given in Majmu 'e-ye KheJalxit. > 58 •Abdu '1-Baha, Some Answered Questions, p. 198, Mofirwwit, p. 14 1. > 59 •Abdu'l-BahA, Some Answered Questions, pp. 208-209. J\1ofawizat, p. 148. > (i() 'Abdu'láBahl Some Answered Questions, p. 209, Mofovaz/Jt, p. 148. > 61 'Abdu'l-BahA, Some Answered Questions, cited in Fazel-e M3zandanini, ed. > Amr •'O lthalq. Vol. I. p. 222. > 62. 'Abdu'l-Bah:\, Some Answered Questions, pp. 217-19. > 63. •Abdu'l-Bahi. Some Answen:d Questions. p. 239. Mofo..azin, p. 168. > 64. •Abdu'láBaha, Some AllSlw!red Questions, p. 210, MoFuvozirt, p. 149. > 65. 'Abdu'l-Baha. Some AllSlw!red Questions. p. 217, Moftivozitt, p. IS3. > 66. These two tcnns were used a thousand yean earlier by al-Far3bi and Avicenna > (fbn Si11ti) and bavc been rendered in English as the faculty of "compositivc > irnaginntion.. or the ..sensitive imagination" (mutakhayyala), and the "cogitative > faculty'' or "rational imagination" (m11ta(akkira), where they apply respectively > to animals (muwkhayy<1la) and hwnans (mutafakkira). See Peter Healh, Aile• > gory a11d Pltllosophy ;,, Avicenna (lbn Simi) (Philadelphia: University of Penn- > sylvunia Press. 1992) pp. 62-63 a.n d p. 82 and Bak.ar, Classification of > K11ow/cdge, pp. S1-53. > 67. 'lllis term is also used by Avicenna and ol-Fambi; see Hea.th, Allegory and Plriá > losopliy, p. 63 and Baknr, Classification of Knowledge, p. SI . > 68. Avicenna uses this tem1, too (al-hiss al-musliwrak), which be sometimes seems > to equate with "fantall)'" (bamitlsiya), and locates in the front ventricle of the > bmin. lo Avicenna's view, this faculty organizes the percept.ions of lbe Cive > senses in lhc bmin and mukes them relational and intelligible. Heath, Allegory > and Plrllosopliy, p. 62, translates the phrase as "common sense." > 69. 'Abdu' l-BabA, Some Answered Q11estions, pp. 210- 11, 1\ifofavaza1, p. 149. > 70. 'Abdu' láBahn. Some Answered Questions, pp. 212ff, Mofawrzat, p. ISOff. > 7 l. •Abdu ' I-Bah&. Some Answered Questions, pp. 220, Mofovozirt, p. I SS. > 72. 'Abdu '1-BahA, Promulgation ofUniversal Peace, from the notes taken by Ellen > T. Pursell. p. 328. Mahrnud-e Zarqani in Badaye' al-ilsar indicates that Ibis talk > took place in the evening of 19 September, after a return by motorcar from the > talk delivered in St. Paul. Such discrepancies in the dates given in the Persian > and English sources arc quite common, and no cause for great con<:em. How- > ever. no PersiOJl original for this talk appears in Majmu áe-ye Khetilbat, so the > English notes of this talk are not verified by any transcription of the original > Persian words. > > — *Discourses of Knowledge (Used by permission of the curator)*