# The Principle of Fundamental Oneness

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> Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Promilla Kapur, The Principle of Fundamental Oneness, Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2000, bahai-library.com.
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> 
> CHAPTER 1
> 
> The Principle of
> Fundamental
> Oneness
> Promilla Kapur
> 
> THE CONTEXT
> Does development divide or unite humanity?
> As I look at society today, this is what I see: many worlds and many
> peoples struggling to find a place for themselves, their traditions, and
> their ways of life while their realities change around them at an ever-
> increasing pace. And I see marks of nobility in these struggles:
> generosity when people have little or nothing themselves, expressions of
> kindness toward others, and untiring dedication in working for equal-
> ity, unity of purpose, peace, and harmony with the natural environment.
> These are good people doing the best they can to manifest the good life
> that their traditions, myths, religions, and conscience tell them is pos-
> sible. They work hard to move toward solidarity and cooperation and
> resist tendencies toward separation, selfishness, and conflict.
> But it is impossible to ignore the strength of the forces pulling in
> the other direction: gender imbalances; gross inequities in the distribu-
> tion of wealth; the distortion of religion into fundamentalist postures
> 
> nb: This text would have been impossible without the support, research, and insight-
> ful contributions of Tribhuwan Kapur, Associate Professor of the Sociology of Religion at
> 
> 
> the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, India, and author of nine books.     7
> KAPUR
> 
> and actions; periodic communal violence; disregard for the principles of
> moral sexuality; crassly hedonistic consumerism (that is, the production
> and consumption of goods and items that have little relevance to the
> real quality of life but provide sensation for the sake of sensation);
> nonparticipatory development initiatives that rarely profit the beneficiary
> population; and confusion over culture, religion, and spirituality (for
> example, how one religion can relate harmoniously and noncompeti-
> tively with other religions) — all this occurring within the context of
> the ever-pervasive and increasingly ominous pollution and destruction
> of our natural resources. The problems are certainly more than I can list
> here, but it seems to me that all of them find their roots somewhere in
> the divided nature of the world.
> Given the recent emergence of many of these problems, it is hard
> 
> 
> 8   to identify holistic technological and social solutions to address them.
> Each “fix” has its own consequences, both good and bad, and it is diffi-
> cult to see at the moment of its application the ultimate impact of each
> new “solution.” Solutions, without an adequate moral or spiritual
> grounding, often become problems themselves. For example, although
> science undoubtedly has made immense and positive contributions to
> human well-being, it has also been used to build nuclear weapons; com-
> puter technology is used to facilitate communications, but it is also used
> to target “enemy” sites. And behind all these scientific applications
> gone awry, I again see the marks of a world lacking unity and cohesive-
> ness. It is this insight, I believe, that needs to be brought to an analysis
> of the prevalent paradigm of development.
> In the issues before us, three important areas interplay — modern
> science, religion and values, and development (broadly defined in eco-
> nomic, social, and psychological terms). I explore their interfaces in this
> paper from my own perspective as a practicing Hindu woman and social
> scientist. In these introductory remarks, I elucidate the details of this
> perspective. In the second section of the paper, “Hinduism: the back-
> drop,” I explain my understanding of Hinduism and Vedanta and some
> of their cardinal principles, such as dharma and “self–Self.” In the third
> section, “Self, society, and development,” I explore the approach that
> Hinduism takes, moving from an inward, personal development to an
> outward, social development. In the section entitled “Modern science
> and the Hindu religion,” I look at the striking similarities between new
> discoveries in science and very old wisdom from Hindu scriptures. In
> the penultimate section, “Devotion, knowledge, and action,” I turn to a
> historical description of religious movements and leaders in India who
> have spearheaded action for social reform and development, leading us
> finally into a discussion (in the section “Conclusion: an integrated par-
> adigm”) of what resources religion, and Hinduism in particular, can
> offer to the field of development.
> The dilemmas to which I have alluded seem to be so inherent to
> the modern lifestyle that to reverse them would be no small
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> accomplishment. It would require a great and persistent effort over an
> appreciable period. The present generation, I think, can do little more
> than lay the groundwork of an ultimately “united” world. It is exactly
> in this process that the Hindu religion, for me, offers such valuable
> resources: its syncretic and pluralistic history and its concept of an ulti-
> mate Oneness provide an alternative outlook and an important balance
> to the divisive effect of modern systems and materialist mind-sets.
> 
> A personal perspective
> At the outset, I would like to reflect on how I first encountered the prin-
> ciples of science, religion, and development (srd), how I use these in my
> personal life and work, and how I became interested in this project of
> 
> 
> the International Development Research Centre (idrc).                                         9
> I feel that it was my parents, especially my mother, who intro-
> duced me to the religious ethos and the Almighty — or Supreme Power
> — when I was a child. My mother came from an Arya Samaj family
> background and conveyed, in her own loving way, her understanding
> that the Supreme Power is One and the Creator of the whole universe.
> We are all children of that Almighty. She inculcated in me — and my
> brothers and sisters — the habit of praying to God on getting up in the
> morning and before going to sleep, to give thanks for God’s blessings,
> to ask for protection from evil, and to impart to us the good sense and
> positive attitude needed to love, respect, and take care of ourselves and
> others. Thus, I received these core religious beliefs as part of my social-
> ization in a liberal home, school, and community atmosphere.
> I continue these practices even today. I do yogic exercises and pray
> regularly on waking and again before retiring, to thank the Supreme
> Power for his blessings and to internalize the divine qualities by link-
> ing my personal soul with the Supreme Soul through meditation. I
> make efforts to put into practice some of the cardinal principles of the
> Hindu religion (sanatana dharma). For example, I have faith in an Ultimate
> Reality and in the Oneness of that power from which, and in which, all
> creation lives. I firmly believe that I am a soul (atman), as are others, and
> that the soul is basically and fundamentally divine. I am conscious of
> the potential divinity inherent in me and in everyone. On these
> grounds, I try not to distinguish or discriminate between people on the
> basis of sex, class, religion, region, or nationality, and I work to allevi-
> ate discrimination. I make every effort to live out the values of love,
> understanding, compassion, caring, sharing, nonviolence, and interfaith
> understanding.
> I am a believer in the law of karma, a principle that inspires me
> and gives me the inner strength to carry out my responsibilities and
> duties to serve humanity to the best of my ability. I work to accumulate
> good karma for a better future in this life and in the lives I believe will
> come (from my belief in the immortality of the soul and in reincarnation).
> KAPUR
> 
> My effort (karma) is to maximize the good I can do in the world and
> minimize the evil. I work and pray not only for my family’s welfare but
> also for the well-being of others and society. I endeavour to serve and
> help others — those who are troubled, poor, weak, and underprivileged
> — to help themselves. This gives me a great deal of satisfaction when
> compared with pursuits that centre on economic gain at the cost of val-
> ues and principles. I try to share my material and nonmaterial achieve-
> ments — that is, knowledge, education, and training — with others. At
> the same time, the principle of karma gives me strength to bear what-
> ever misfortunes befall me and the courage to face all my problems
> without blaming anyone else for them.
> Throughout my life, my curiosity has led me to learn more, both
> scientifically and empirically, about religion, exploring such questions
> 
> 
> 10   as Who is the Creator? and What is the purpose of life? I have read the
> scriptures of various faiths in translation. I have listened to the religious
> and spiritual discourses of knowledgeable individuals from diverse
> belief systems, including the Bahá’í Faith, the Brahma Kumaries, the
> Ramakrishan Mission, the Sri Aurobindo Society, and the Arya Samaj. I
> have even tried various kinds of meditation. This has widened my
> knowledge and appreciation of other religions and the revelations that
> they each have to offer. I have found that, in essence, the core religious
> beliefs and values are universal, and this makes me feel very close to peo-
> ple of different faiths.
> When I was a student of social science (psychology, counseling,
> sociology, and religion), I was interested in the debate on whether
> science and religion contradicted each other. I read literature on science
> and spirituality, for example, the works of Chander (1988) and Kanal
> (1991), the writings of Indian scientists such as physics professor
> D.S. Kothari (1977, 1980, 1997), and texts by spiritualists like Swami
> Vivekananda (1937, 1968); (see also Swami Bhajanananda 1976–77) and
> Swami Ranganathananda (1978, 1983, 1987), who argued that there is
> no clash between science and religion: the two are interrelated and are
> in harmony with one another.1 These readings whetted my curiosity to
> learn more about the interrelationships between these two seemingly
> unrelated discourses.
> Throughout my higher education, I was interested in observing
> and systematically studying the changes taking place in the socio-
> psycho-cultural realms and in the political-economic situations of people
> from diverse societies. I was particularly interested in such changes in
> relation to the situation of women, especially the women of India. I was
> keen to study the problems women face and to understand their chang-
> ing attitudes and feelings. I wanted to investigate how they were being
> This might be termed the “new approach,” the understanding that it is counter-
> productive to human well-being when people rely on religion or science to the exclusion
> of the other. When the two are combined, they strengthen one another and bring a holis-
> tic expression of human genius and total fulfillment (Ranganathananda 1978).
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> treated within and outside the family, both now and in ancient India
> (based on our scriptures). I asked myself what factors had contributed to
> bringing about these changes. This interest led me to do research on
> gender issues and women’s development for my doctoral and post-
> doctoral studies. Thus, I was introduced to the concept of development
> and the social sciences quite a while ago, but I have had less exposure to
> the physical sciences.
> As a social scientist, I have observed developments in science and
> technology (s&t) and how these affect people’s lives — women’s
> lifestyles and well-being in particular. I was also strongly interested in
> laying out the constitutive elements of women’s development in the
> context of sustainable development. I observed that India, after inde-
> pendence, has seen spectacular progress in s&t, increasing economic
> 
> 
> growth, industrial development, and self-sufficiency in terms of food                         11
> and clothing. I found that governments and nongovernmental organi-
> zations (ngos) were taking countless measures to improve the situation
> of women and bring about overall development. I have been trying to
> analyze why, despite the vast resources poured into these initiatives, we
> see increasing problems of communal violence (for example, between
> Hindu and Muslim groups), a rising incidence of violence generally,
> widespread corruption, rampant illiteracy, casteism, unemployment,
> abject poverty, overpopulation, malnutrition, and degradation of the
> environment. Why do we see so much socioeconomic and gender
> inequality and injustice? What is the origin of the growing emphasis on
> the values of materialism and consumerism and the want in quality in
> public leadership? Why do we see so much crime and violence, espe-
> cially against women, even in the “developed” countries of the world?
> In my studies (Kapur 1991a, 1991b, 1992, 1994a, 1994b, 1995), I
> started exploring whether part of the answer could be found in the cri-
> sis of human and spiritual values caused by a decline in attention to
> these important questions and a lack of education on these subjects.
> My efforts in this area have centred on counseling, generating
> awareness of human and spiritual values, and healing marriage, family,
> and other interpersonal relationships. As a counselor I try to help people
> to become cognizant of their strengths and potentialities and thereby
> help them solve their problems, resolve conflicts, understand themselves
> and others more fully, and manage their stress. I try to help them help
> themselves to grow in self-esteem (by helping them find their own
> positive directions), improve their strong points, and overcome their
> limitations. Accepting those in trouble as complete individuals, with all
> their talents and weaknesses, enables me to provide this support.
> While working as a counselor, trying to encourage religious and
> spiritual values, I was continually troubled by certain questions: What
> is science? What is religion — Hindu as well as other faiths? What have
> science and religion contributed to development? How have science and
> religion interacted?
> KAPUR
> 
> It was at this point that one fine morning, as a pleasant surprise, I
> learned of idrc’s project in srd. After some discussion, idrc invited me
> to participate in this research, asking me to explore the relevant issues
> as a believer in the Hindu religion. I was thrilled. Deep in my heart I
> felt that this opportunity came to me because of God’s blessings and
> will.
> I knew that this research would require intensive study and hard
> work. But I had been keen to do further research in these areas, so I was
> at once drawn toward the project. I accepted the invitation with great
> enthusiasm and began the work with the help of my research assistant,
> Tribhuwan Kapur, who has a doctorate in the sociology of religion. We
> have found it fascinating and satisfying to work on this research with
> the knowledgeable, understanding, and friendly idrc group; the distin-
> 
> 
> 12   guished research team leader, Farzam Arbab; and the other eminent
> members of the team. I hope that my practical experience with the very
> intricate motivations and problems of human life (as seen from the eyes
> of a sociologist and counselor), my experience of India, and my lifelong
> immersion in a Hindu perspective provide a useful complement to the
> expertise and knowledge of the other participants in the project.
> 
> HINDUISM: THE BACKDROP
> The individual and society become one
> It may be appropriate to clarify at the outset what is meant by the terms
> Hindu, Hindu religion, and Hinduism. According to Ranganathananda
> (1987) and Badrinath (1993), the words Hindu and Hinduism were not
> coined by the people of India to refer to themselves or their religion;
> these words are not found in any of the ancient or medieval Indian texts.
> Instead, they suggest that invading Arabs in the 8th century ad or
> ancient Persians or Iranians used these terms to designate the people
> living east of the river “Sindhu” (the modern river Indus). Because
> Persians pronounced s as h, the word Sindhu of Sanskrit became Hindu,
> and the territory became known as Hindustan (Ranganathananda
> 1987). The Greeks pronounced it as “Indos,” from which came the word
> India. Thus, the term Hinduism originally meant the religion of the
> people of Hindustan.
> In fact, Hinduism would be hard to define as any one set of beliefs.
> It has always been a syncretic religion, incorporating several indigenous
> belief systems in addition to the religions that came to India through
> war and migration. The Indian thinkers themselves called their religion
> by the significant term sanatana dharma, which can be translated as
> “Eternal Religion.” Dharma is the Sanskrit word for “religion,” and it is
> a philosophical concept focused on unity. “The aim of dharma,” as Badrinath
> (1993, p. 27) explained, is “to create and sustain individual and social
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> conditions where each individual, in his or her own being and in rela-
> tionship with others, is able to explore the potential of his or her life and
> bring it to fruition in such ways that he or she can.” He explained the
> centrality of the concept as follows:
> The one concern from which everything in Indian thought flowed
> and on which every movement of life ultimately depended, was the
> idea of dharma, order, which was not any positive order but the
> order that was inherent in all life. Derived from the Sanskrit root
> word dhr, which is “to support,” “to sustain,” dharma means that
> whereby whatever lives is sustained, upheld, supported.
> Badrinath (1993, p. 22)
> Badrinath further explained the five elements of the order, or dharma, in
> which our being is firmly grounded: nonviolence; an attitude of equal-
> 
> 
> ity; peace and tranquility; a lack of aggression and cruelty; and an                           13
> absence of envy.
> While each individual has a relation to himself, he has relationships
> with others. In the dharmic view the two are not separate. It is only
> when our relationship with ourselves is right, that our relationship
> with the other can be right: and it is not until we achieve a right
> relation with the other, that our relation with ourselves can be
> right.
> Badrinath (1993, p. 23)
> Swami Vivekananda, a monk in the Ramakrishna order and the
> most famous disciple of the Bengali mystic, Ramakrishna Paramahans,
> placed great emphasis on the merging of the scientific attitude with the
> spiritual dimension. He defined religion as “the manifestation of the
> divinity already in man” (Ranganathananda 1987, p. 218). By the word
> divinity he meant Brahman (Almighty), a concept in which divinity is
> inseparable from the individual self, or atman (soul). As he further
> stated,
> Religion is realization, not talk nor doctrine, nor theories, however
> beautiful they might be. It is being and becoming, not hearing or
> acknowledging; it is the whole soul becoming changed into what it
> believes. … All religions are so many stages. Each one of them
> represents a stage through which the human soul passes to realize
> God.
> Bhajanananda (1976–77, p. 9)
> I think Vivekananda used the word religion in the special sense of
> spirituality. For him it meant “the realization of God” and “not just a
> means of personal salvation but a great creative force in shaping history”
> (Bhajanananda 1976–77, p. 4). I see echoes of Swami Vivekananda’s
> teaching in the work of Western social scientists like Pitirim Sorokin, a
> sociologist, who also emphasized that spiritual training is essential to
> the integration and growth of individuals, society, and culture, which in
> turn form an indivisible trinity (Sorokin 1958).
> KAPUR
> 
> Swami Muktinathananda, a scientist, resided in Canada for many
> years, but ultimately he renounced the world and became a monk with
> the Ramakrishna Mission. In answer to a question about the nature of
> the Hindu religion, he responded that it asks the following fundamen-
> tal questions:
> (i) Who am I? (ii) What is this world? (iii) Who is God? (iv) What
> is my relation to this world and God? The Hindu concept for a
> human being is that a person is trichotomous: there is a body, a
> mind, and the self or atman. The aim of every being is to know who
> exactly he or she is: is it the body, or the mind, or the self. In fact,
> the Hindu religion begins with this question of knowing myself
> and my relation to God and my World.
> 
> 
> 14                          Muktinathananda (personal communication, 19982)
> 
> The notion of the self in Hinduism, classical and modern, differs
> from that in social science. Whereas social science tends to equate the
> self with the ego, or the total personality that is presented to society in
> interaction, in Hinduism the self is equated with the soul (or atman)
> within each living being. Yet, Self also stands for the Supreme Reality
> (or Brahman). The self is seen as a small particle of the Self, and the real-
> ization of the oneness of the self with the Self (or the soul with the
> Supreme Reality) is the goal of human life. Thus, the movement of
> Creation is a play between self and Self.3
> Through reincarnation, the self is engaged in virtually endless
> transmigrations (samsara) in order to come to a realization of the oneness
> of the self with the Self. The doctrine of samsara or transmigration holds
> that atman is immortal but deluded with all kinds of desires. According
> to its karma (deeds, totality of action and interaction), the atman incar-
> nates in diverse bodies until it is completely purified and finally merges
> with Brahman and attains moksha (or spiritual liberation). As the
> Bhagavad Gita puts it, “Just as a man casts off worn out cloths and puts
> on others which are new, so the embodied [self] casts off worn out bodies
> and enters others which are new” (Sastry 1977, p. 49). The karma
> accumulated by a particular atman in previous lifetimes determines the
> situation into which a person is reborn.
> Another complementary guide to action found in Hinduism is
> embedded in the varnaashram scheme, a socioreligious framework that
> Swami Muktinathananda, Ramakrishna Math, Belur, Calcutta, India, personal
> communication, 1998.
> The Bhagavad Gita, the most popular Hindu scripture, states the following: “They
> say that the senses are superior; superior to the senses is mind; superior to mind is reason;
> one who is even superior to reason is He [the Self] … . Then knowing Him who is supe-
> rior to reason, subduing the self by the Self, slay thou, O mighty armed, the enemy in the
> form of desire, hard to conquer” (Sastry 1977, p. 117).
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> divides human life into four distinct stages, each with concomitant
> privileges and duties:
> 
> 
 Bharmacharya — studenthood and celibacy;
> 
 Grihastya — responsible householdership;
> 
 Vanaprastha— renunciation of all societal attachments; and
> 
on spiritual
> Sanyasa — contemplation of Ultimate Reality (that is, taking
> pursuits on a full-time basis) and retirement from all
> social links.
> This pattern of life, however, is ideal; it is typical that the last stage,
> which requires separation from the family at a time when a person or
> couple is most likely to require help, is very hard to achieve. In modern
> 
> India, the framework of society allows us to aspire only to the first two
> stages.
> Nevertheless, many aged people do turn to a form of renunciation
> and contemplation by daily reading of the Ramayana, Mahabharata,
> Bhagavad Gita, and other spiritual texts. They spend money to hold or
> attend religious gatherings where there are recitations of various prayers
> and discussions on the teachings of various gurus (or spiritual masters),
> preachers, and teachers. Hindus continue, by and large, to be ritualistic
> and to spend conspicuous sums on ceremonies. We can say then that
> although Hinduism has evolved over the millennia, this evolution has
> been more in the form than in the content.
> 
> Vedanta: the essence of Hinduism
> Hindu religion is not based on a single personal founder or group of
> founders; rather, it is based on revelations of the authentic inner experi-
> ences of sages and seers deeply involved in the search for Truth. The
> Veda, Puranas, Upanishads, and Bhagavad Gita form the basic spiritual
> literature of Hinduism. The Veda is the accumulated treasury of spiri-
> tual knowledge discovered by various seers and sages — perfected
> beings — at various points in history. “The term Veda, according to
> Sankaracharya, primarily means knowledge, beginningless and endless,
> capable of leading to liberation, and verifiable by one and all”
> (Ranganathananda 1987, p. 40). That is why the Veda is the outcome
> of an inquiry into Truth, very similar in nature and process to modern
> scientific inquiry.4
> Joshi, a great scholar of the Veda, points out that by studying the Veda one finds
> that it presents “a dynamic interpretation of the world and assigns to activities in the
> world a profound meaning and significance. It enjoins upon man to act rather than to
> renounce his actions. It places before man a method of action which has been discovered
> after a long and intense search by the vedic seers,” who were themselves true scientists and
> experimenters (Joshi 1991, p. 19).
> KAPUR
> 
> The Puranas are epics, the ideas and the teachings of the Veda told
> in story and parable form. The Upanishads collect the concluding and
> philosophical portions of the vast and varied Vedic literature and con-
> tain the quintessence of the Veda. The Gita summarizes the essential
> teachings of the Upanishads dealing with metaphysical reality, the
> nature of self, and the need for knowledge of self and presents them in
> a popular manner. The Gita addresses not only Upanishadic philosophy
> but also its ethical implications; thus, it both explains the highest real-
> ity and provides guidance for everyday life. This is why it has become
> the scripture of the masses in India.
> But the essence of Hinduism is Vedanta, the philosophical and
> metaphysical part of the Hindu scriptures. Swami Vivekananda could
> see clearly that Hinduism had a core of sound spiritual principles based
> 
> 
> 16   on the Upanishads and the Gita and that these principles, when applied
> in practical life, could solve many of the nation’s problems
> (Bhajanananda 1976–77). I would agree with Vivekananda and suggest
> that India’s contemporary state of decline is not the result of religion
> but of a failure to apply the principles of Vedanta to solve the social and
> national problems (Bhajanananda 1976–77). In a lecture entitled
> “Vedanta Today,” Karan Singh, an eminent diplomat, politician, and
> scholar of Vedanta and interfaith dialogue, explained the central features
> of sanatana dharma as formulated in the five cardinal principles of
> Vedanta (Singh 1988):
> 1.   Unity of existence — Vedantic theory suggests that an all-pervading
> existence, or single force, permeates the whole universe. Every-
> thing that exists — whatever it is and wherever it exists — is illu-
> minated by the same Light that promotes the happiness and
> welfare of all beings.
> 2.   Divinity inherent in all existence (includes the potential divinity of
> human souls) — In Vedanta, human beings are children of immor-
> tality, with the capacity for spiritual realization. In explaining the
> concept of religion, Vivekananda stated this well-known article of
> Vedantic faith:
> Each soul is potentially divine. The goal is to manifest this
> divinity within, by controlling nature, external and internal.
> Do this either by work, or worship, or psychic control, or phi-
> losophy — by one or more or all of these — and be free. This
> is the whole religion. Doctrine or dogmas, or rituals, or books,
> or temples, or forms, are but secondary details.
> Ranganathananda (1987, p. 45)
> Vedanta is the realization of the divinity within oneself and in
> each one of us. The crowning idea of Vedanta is the unity of the
> divine within us and the divine beyond us. Vedanta describes
> Brahman, the Ultimate Reality, as Sat-cit-Ananda (existence,
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> knowledge, and bliss). If bliss is a constituent of the Ultimate
> Reality of the universe, it is also a constituent of the individual
> (Ranganathananda 1987, p. 23).
> To manifest one’s inherent potential for divinity, one follows
> the three paths to self-realization offered in Vedanta through
> which the individual soul finds a link with the Supreme Soul:
> bhakti yoga, or the path of devotion to the Supreme Reality or Soul;
> jnana yoga, the path of knowledge; and karma yoga, the path of
> action and work. As Gangrade (1995) pointed out, no one of these
> paths can alone suffice or permanently stand isolated from the
> other two. A person must follow jnana, karma, and bhakti together
> to completely develop his or her character and personality.
> 3.    The entire human race like one extended family (vasudhaiva
> 
> kutumbhkam — The bond of spirituality binds people belonging
> to various parts of the human race, despite all their differences.
> Ideally, all the members of an extended family care and share,
> demonstrate mutual love and respect, and take responsibility for
> and cooperate in maintaining and furthering the welfare of the
> family; these ideals can be extended to provide models of behav-
> iour for each individual toward the rest of the human race.
> 4.    Essential unity of all religions — The perception of the spiritual
> unity of all existence in Hinduism and the emphasis on spiritual
> realization as the goal of religion foster interreligious harmony
> (Ranganathananda 1987). In Hinduism, various paths lead to the
> Divine: one can worship a female or male deity, trees, plants,
> herbs, the sun, the moon, stars, fire, the incorporeal God, the
> Supreme Soul–Reality, or an idol. This pluralism is apparent in
> Swami Vivekananda’s idea of the harmony of the religions of the
> world and in that of a universal religion providing for the coexis-
> tence of all religions, each accepting the best elements in the oth-
> ers. I feel that people today very much need the pluralism of
> Vedanta and the interfaith understanding it espouses.
> 5.    The welfare, progress, development, and happiness of all — Vedanta pro-
> motes not only the fulfillment and liberation of the self but also the
> welfare and development of all beings. This is indicated by a pop-
> ular Vedic prayer that all may be happy and healthy and participate
> in and be the recipient of welfare, progress, and prosperity and that
> none may be unhealthy, unhappy, or ignorant. This prayer is recited
> in Sanskrit during various religious ceremonies; similar prayers are
> found in the Bahá’í Faith and in other religions.5
> 
> Swami Jitatmananda (1992) has brought out the five concepts, or cardinal princi-
> ples, of the Upanishads (Vedanta) very effectively in the book Modern Physics and Vedanta,
> which offers an alternative to the current, primarily materialistic, paradigm.
> KAPUR
> 
> Vedanta is both a philosophy and a religion, but it has no set
> dogma or method:
> While asserting the truth as one, and its mystic vision as the
> only means, [Vedanta] accords recognition to multiple
> approaches to this vision … . Each generation has felt free to
> interpret the basic truth in the language and cultural mores of
> his own generation … though strictly adhering and following
> the original texts. … Thus Vedanta is the science of Reality
> rather than a dogma, religious or philosophical.
> Giri (1985, pp. 34–35)
> Today, people are engaged in a tremendous search for new
> approaches and broader understandings to guide their actions. And for
> me, it is this search that makes Vedanta so relevant. Vivekananda
> 
> 
> 18   pointed out that the Vedantic principles are applicable not only in India
> but throughout the world (Bhajanananda 1976–77) and that Vedanta
> has an important part to play in the life of modern humans. It provides
> them with, among other values, a philosophy of social service so lacking
> in modern society (Bhajanananda 1976–77). Vivekananda believed, as I
> do, that religion properly understood can be applied to help solve both
> the mundane and the existential problems of humanity.
> 
> SELF, SOCIETY, AND DEVELOPMENT
> 
> Science is discovering the Truth. Religion is the manifestation of
> Truth. Spirituality is Truth itself. Morality is holding on to Truth.
> Ethics is application of Truth in social life.
> Muktinathananda (personal communication, 1998 6)
> The concept of development according to sanatana dharma is the
> “unfoldment of Truth.” It embraces the development of the self (body,
> mind, and spirit), others, and the entire universe (that is, the well-being
> of all living beings, including the environment7). Real development
> 
> Swami Muktinathananda, Ramakrishna Math, Belur, Calcutta, India, personal
> communication, 1998.
> Hinduism lays stress on the psychophysical environment as a cocoon for the growth
> of goodness and harmony. The Veda devotes a great deal of attention to agriculture, live-
> stock, rains, and harvests (Balasubramanian 1999). An entire branch of medicine —
> Ayurveda — has its base in various herbal remedies: Vrkshayurveda, classical Indian plant
> science, is highly advanced (Balasubramanian 1999). Hindus greatly venerate several plants,
> including tulsi (basil) and neem, and use them medicinally. The ashrams of the Vedic rishis
> (seers), which taught young disciples the Veda and the way of dharma, were forest retreats.
> The vivid descriptions of forest and fauna in the Ramayana and Mahabharata indicate quite
> clearly that there was then no environmental crisis of the sort witnessed in the 20th cen-
> tury. These accounts and indicators suggest that living according to the principles of dharma
> includes, and results in, an understanding and appreciation for the natural world and a
> “right” relationship with the natural environment, as well as with others in society.
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> from a Hindu perspective is the development of one and all in terms of
> both the inner and the outer environment. As Swami Muktinathananda
> said,
> According to Hinduism, real development in any area consists in
> removal of all imperfections and bringing about perfection. Thus,
> the essential elements of real development are helping in the
> removal of everything that is unreal, false or imperfect, providing
> education to remove ignorance, and helping one and all to under-
> stand the necessity and implications of development.
> Muktinathananda (personal communication, 19988)
> 
> Self and development
> 
> 
> That man attains peace, who, abandoning all desires, moves about
> without attachment, without selfishness, without vanity.
> Sastry (1977, p. 80)
> 
> He who hates no single being, who is friendly and compassionate to
> all, who is free from attachment and egoism, to whom pain and
> pleasure are equal, who is enduring, ever-content and balanced in
> mind, self controlled, and possessed of firm conviction, whose
> thought and reason are directed to Me, he who is (thus) devoted to
> Me is dear to Me.
> Sastry (1977, p. 311)
> 
> He by whom the world is not afflicted and who is not afflicted by
> the world, who is free from joy, envy, fear and sorrow, he is dear to
> Me.
> Sastry (1977, p. 312)
> 
> Those who ever contemplate the Imperishable, the Indefinable, the
> Eternal, having restrained all the senses, always equanimous, intent
> on the welfare of all beings, — they reach Myself.
> Sastry (1977, p. 304)9
> Whereas we know that the concept of the self is related to an immortal
> spark of inner consciousness, the word I or me (aham) refers to the accre-
> tions that cloud the pure perception of the immortal soul within every
> being. The purpose then of sanatana dharma is to evolve a way of deal-
> ing with society that removes the accretions of doubt, vanity, anger, and
> misery and brings the atman within every member of society ever closer
> to the realization of total fusion (moksha) with the Brahman. This fusion
> Swami Muktinathananda, Ramakrishna Math, Belur, Calcutta, India, personal com-
> munication, 1998.
> Sastry (1977) contains an English translation of Sri Sankaracharya’s original Sanskrit
> commentary on the Bhagavad Gita.
> KAPUR
> 
> is the goal of pursuing good karma in everyday life, and in India it pro-
> vides a raison d’être for human existence.
> The scriptural injunctions of the purusarthas (the doctrine of the
> four goals of life) convey the four ways to fulfill one’s inner being:
> 
> 
 Dharma — moral code of conduct, rightful action;
> 
 Artha — economic pursuits for self-sufficiency;
> 
 Kama — satisfaction of desires (physical or other); and
> 
 Moksha — total liberation, release from delusion.
> Of these, the most significant is moksha. Our discussion of this
> path of the purusarthas, however, must be couched in the basic premise
> of Hinduism that the soul within a human is immortal: “Him weapons
> 
> cut not, Him fire burns not, and Him water wets not; Him wind dries
> not. He cannot be cut, burnt, nor wetted, nor dried up. He is everlast-
> ing, all pervading, stable, firm, eternal” (Sastry 1977, pp. 49–50). Thus,
> the quest for moksha is a quest for a sort of immortality.
> Dharma is neither a doctrine nor a dogma. In practical terms,
> dharma is the overarching principle guiding a dutiful and responsible
> life. It relies on reason no less than on intuition (the inner feeling and
> apprehension of any situation). As one of the fundamental ideals of
> human life it aims at life’s fullest manifestation and upholds and sus-
> tains the individual and universal life principles, including spiritual and
> social values. Dharma is the urge to grow.
> Rama in the Ramayana is often cited as a mythological example of
> a man–god who followed the path of dharma, even though it led him to
> abdicate his right to the throne of his father, Dasratha, and go into exile
> for 14 years in the forest as a result of the selfish wish of one of
> Dasratha’s wives, Kaikeyi. This story demonstrates that the path of
> dharma is not always pleasurable but also involves duty, even that which
> is unpleasant. Following the path of dharma leads to the accumulation
> of good karma, which itself leads to a better rebirth in a family that pur-
> sues the path of the sanatana dharma. This is the beginning of the
> process toward the goal of moksha or liberation from samsara. The
> Bhagavad Gita (ch. iii 19) emphasizes this: “Therefore, without attach-
> ment, constantly perform the action which should be done; for,
> performing action without attachment, man reaches the Supreme”
> (Sastry 1977, p. 104).
> The fulfillment of kama, which is the principle of lawful desire
> (including sexual desire within marriage) is also part of the purusarthas.
> For Hindus, the fulfillment of desire within the limits of their under-
> standing is also part of the sanatana dharma. Thus, it is clear that people
> in society should be moral and not obsessed by the sensual to the extent
> that it damages their psychological and physical health, or the fabric of
> society, through extramarital sexuality.
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> The purusarthas also enjoin the principle of artha, or economic
> independence. This is considered to be one of the pillars of a moral life,
> as economic dependence creates a flaw in all aspects of life, including
> that of morality. Thus, in making kama and artha some of the cardinal
> points of human fulfillment, along with spiritual and social goals, the
> purusarthas encourage a sane and balanced approach to living in society;
> in the case of artha, one balances the support of oneself and one’s family
> (materialistic achievements and comfort) with the pursuit of other
> equally important aims in human life. In Hindu and Indian society,
> however, the drive for economic independence as a means to a life of
> plenty is evident everywhere — in all aspects of the media and in con-
> versation with college students, as well as with corporate executives.
> Rural people who derive much of their income from agriculture or crafts
> 
> 
> are far closer to the life of the purusarthas and might therefore be con-                    21
> sidered more exemplary of the Hindu moral system.
> The purusarthas provided a path of life that applied to both men
> and women. In Hindu society, societal, physical, and mental hygiene
> depended on living up to the purusarthas’ high standards, and these
> basic notions enjoyed wide currency in India. Yet, although the ideals
> remain the same, modern Indians are unlikely to adhere fully to the
> purusartha system as a guide to personal growth or social interaction.
> 
> Society and development
> One might ask whether the diversity of India and Hinduism has led to
> division and conflicts and whether such controversies have been in
> themselves detrimental to overall development, including economic
> progress. Has the emphasis on spiritual development, evident right
> from the era of the Veda, come at the cost of economic development,
> perhaps even itself fostering self-centredness and apathy?
> How widely are the Hindu beliefs and schemes of life accepted by
> the general population in India? This question is extremely important
> for gauging the effect of religion on economic development. The reality
> of Hinduism on the ground, both in urban centres and in villages, is
> that there is a vast proliferation of sects — the two main cults being the
> Viashnavite and the Saivite — which have their own local variations and
> imagery, chants, bhajans (hymns), and mantras (spiritually uplifting
> words, phrases, and concepts, usually derived from traditional scripture
> and musically intoned to purify the mind, elevate one’s understanding
> of the self, and realize the divine Oneness). Yet, the sects all have in
> common their belief in God, known as Bhagwan, Ishwara, or Parmatma,
> and they all claim allegiance to sanatana dharma.
> Religious messages are widely disseminated. Although a sizable
> proportion of Hindus may be illiterate in the sense of modern educa-
> tion, they certainly are well informed regarding the precepts of the
> Bhagavad Gita and the moral and ethical questions raised by the
> KAPUR
> 
> epics — the Ramayana and the Mahabharata — enacted in whole and
> in part each year throughout India. In modern India, radio, television,
> and cinema reinforce this educational process; programs frequently
> include discourses on religion or religious stories. These modes of com-
> munication serve to popularize and reinforce the values of sanatana
> dharma: the honour and dignity of women, tolerance, forgiveness,
> patience, humility, and obedience to the will of one’s parents.
> Hindu social life is life within the community. One’s immediate
> family and the wider network of kin and friends, as well as the whole
> community, participate in all life-cycle rituals (weddings, funerals, etc.),
> festivals, and special ceremonies. These ceremonial and ritualistic occa-
> sions regenerate the religious life and bring harmony to those who take
> part in them. During these ceremonies, priests recite various holy books
> 
> 
> 22   and scriptures and give discourses on many scriptures, including the
> epics and the Gita. Local customs make a unique contribution to these
> events in each region but never go against the tenor of the Veda.10
> From India’s inception, its history has been one of invasions and
> conquests, commencing with the Aryans and culminating with the
> British colonization. Many diverse ideologies have gone into making
> Hinduism what it is today. An outstanding consequence of Hinduism’s
> eclectic origins is that it has sufficient tolerance and patience to forge
> new syntheses without totally losing its direction and basic spiritual
> content. In the medieval era, for example, when the Moguls dominated
> India, Hinduism survived by incorporating some of the better aspects of
> other faiths. This is true also of India’s response to the Christian rulers
> and missionaries under British colonization.
> Hinduism’s acceptance and assimilation of such varieties and
> polarities of faiths emerged from an underlying truth, eloquently
> expressed by the Vedic seers in the phrase “Truth is one, Sages call it by
> various names” (Ekam Sat vipra bahudha vadanti). This is one of the
> greatest pronouncements in the Rig Veda and provides the foundational
> philosophy of the Hindu faith. Swami Vivekananda considered this
> statement the Magna Carta of religion (Ranganathananda 1987).
> Enlightened Hindus have a deep faith in syncretism, that is, in the
> practice of incorporating the best principles and elements of all reli-
> gions. Thus, Hinduism displays an understanding of an underlying and
> overarching unity, a hard-earned tolerance for all aspects of truth, and a
> willingness to incorporate the truths of other faiths. As such,
> Even in contemporary India, 47.5% of the population is still more or less illiter-
> ate. The main sources of people’s knowledge of Hinduism are in the oral tradition, passed
> down from parents to children; sermons delivered by itinerant preachers; discourses given
> by priests on a daily basis at the temple or at the numerous religious festivals, rituals, and
> ceremonies; the daily prayers to male or female deities in temples or at the home altar
> (which most Hindu households have, no matter how affluent or poor); and interchanges
> during pilgrimages to holy shrines at the four cardinal points of India. On these pilgrim-
> ages, people exchange and absorb religious ideas from other pilgrims, especially the
> legends and myths connected with the shrines.
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> philosophically, it is not prone to intra- or interreligious conflict. This
> is not to deny that conflicts have ensued but to suggest that they are not
> in accord with the fundamental tenets of Hinduism. Given the hetero-
> geneity of Indian society, one might ask whether these conflicts would
> have been much worse without this philosophical and spiritual under-
> pinning.
> Related to Hinduism’s syncretic tendencies is the Indian under-
> standing of the term secularism. India’s society is pluralistic, with a vari-
> ety of cultures, ethnicities, races, languages, and religions. Although
> Hinduism is the majority religion in India and a large proportion of the
> Indian population is Hindu, the milieu of Hinduism contains several
> other religions, like Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, the
> Bahá’í Faith, and Jainism. One of the major issues that occupied Gandhi
> 
> 
> and Nehru was determining what position on this multiplicity of reli-                         23
> gions would best suit an independent India. This position would have
> to define “clearly the relation between religion and politics and between
> religion and the nation-state” (Joshi 1995, p. 3). Secularism was the
> approach chosen, but a secularism with a politically convenient and dis-
> tinctly Indian interpretation. “Secularism is defined as ‘equal respect for
> all faiths’ and a call for cultivation of religious tolerance and harmony”
> (Kanal 1988, p. 1). Mahatma Gandhi summed up the secular approach
> of India as follows:
> Hindustan belongs to all those who are born and bred here and who
> have no other country to look to. Therefore it belongs to Parsis,
> Beni Israelis, to Indian Christians, Muslims and other non Hindus
> as much as to Hindus … . Religion is a personal matter, which
> should have no place in politics.
> Gandhi (1992 [1947], pp. 277–278)
> Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India (and
> Gandhi’s chosen disciple), had a similar appreciation of the question of
> secularism and felt that it was not merely a question of tolerating other
> religions — it was a question of social and political justice, of creating
> an equitable society (Joshi 1995). Thus, the preamble to the new
> Constitution of India declared the country “a sovereign secular, democ-
> ratic republic.” The state was not to interfere with people’s freedom to
> practice or believe in any faith.
> If this idea had been truly accepted, it would have laid the foun-
> dations for an integrated development, because it would have created
> the conditions for subcontinental harmony. But of all the various types
> of socialization and conditioning, the religiocentric bias yields least to
> any kind of pressure to change. It is very difficult to let go of the cen-
> tral tenet of each religion that makes believers claim, “our religion is the
> best!” I would say that this is mainly a result of paranoia and the absence
> of knowledge and understanding of one’s own religion and, more so, of
> other religions. If India is to realize its goal of interfaith harmony, then
> KAPUR
> 
> Hindus must use the syncretism of Hinduism to take the lead in this
> process.
> India’s experiment in “secularism” is now about 50 years old and
> bears many scars; it has not managed to avoid carnage and violence,
> including the great strife during the partition of India into India and
> Pakistan. On numerous occasions, communal violence has occurred
> between Hindus and Muslims. These events indicate that the ethos of
> secularism has not percolated into the psyche of the common person in
> India. The experiment, however, goes on, and perhaps with deep knowl-
> edge, understanding, appreciation, and respect for one’s own religion, as
> well as for the religions of others, India’s secularism will fully succeed.
> Outside India, interfaith understanding and interfaith movements are
> also growing in every corner of the world; these beliefs, I feel, will form
> 
> 
> 24   the basis of global unity and integrated development.
> In examining the question of Hinduism’s role in economic devel-
> opment, I take as an example an argument put forward in the early part
> of the 20th century by the sociologist Max Weber. For Weber (1958),
> the caste system and the Hindu religious beliefs of karma, samsara, and
> kismet (Urdu for fate) meant that Hindu society was otherworldly in ori-
> entation and not geared to respond to new economic challenges. Weber,
> however, did not seriously consider other factors — colonialism and
> repeated invasions — that led to the conditions he observed in India.
> Moreover, Hinduism is a lived and in many respects still oral tradition:
> it is very difficult to understand from texts. Thus, although Weber’s
> viewpoint is scholarly, it is not holistic. A number of social scientists
> have, in fact, rejected his perspective. On the basis of research among
> entrepreneurs, Singer et al. (1966) found that the “stagnant economy”
> of India could not be related to otherworldly religious values; they
> observed that the family orientation of these entrepreneurs, as opposed
> to Western-style individualism, was an asset in capitalist development
> (see also Brzezinski 1997). Singer et al. also found that Indians used
> adaptive strategies — such as compartmentalization, ritual neutraliza-
> tion of the work sphere, and vicarious ritualization — to successfully
> combine the economic and religious spheres (Singer 1972). Moreover,
> the economist Arvind Sharma (1980) suggested that the basis for a
> strong work ethic can be gleaned from Hindu scriptural tradition
> (Brzezinski 1997).
> The reason why India has seen little economic development might
> be found in the nonparticipatory policies and practices that have always
> governed its primarily agricultural economy. Farmers, especially those
> with small holdings, have been exploited by the landowners, bureau-
> crats, and rulers; for the landless, the situation is still worse. As a result,
> in most parts of India the benefits of agricultural production have
> accrued only to those who exploited both the people and the resources
> and refused to share these benefits with those who worked for them or
> with the general population. The most recent spate of economic
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> development in India began with the unification of the various pre-
> existing nation-states into a single sovereign Republic of India on
> 15 August 1947; at that time, India’s leaders confronted a host of
> historical problems but failed, for various reasons, to fully enlist the pro-
> gressive and reformist ethos of that period, including its participatory,
> indigenous methodologies. I will return to this issue when I discuss
> Gandhi’s sarvodaya (or welfare of all) model of village-based economic
> development and Nehru’s preference for the heavy-industrialization
> model.
> 
> Issues for Hinduism and development
> Westerners raise some pertinent questions when they encounter Hindu-
> 
> 
> based social action and development strategies: Does belief in reincarnation,                 25
> karma, and samsara have a deleterious effect on people’s awareness of, or
> their action on, social problems, such as poverty and the denial of
> women’s rights? Further, to what extent is “fatalism” a major influence
> in people’s daily life, and is it based on Hindu religious belief? Does the
> caste system create and reinforce inequity?
> The concepts of reincarnation, karma, and samsara are closely inter-
> related and convey the belief in the “cycle of birth and rebirth,” the
> immortality of the soul, and the idea that “as you sow, so shall you
> reap.” It would be incorrect to assess the Hindu attitude as fatalistic, for
> this would imply the existence of a large Hindu community without
> any intellection or direction. Fatalism is the attitude of people who
> believe and act as if their efforts, whether great or small, will make no
> difference to the ultimate outcome of plans or actions. This attitude
> would result in utter indifference to efforts to bring about development.
> Yet, karma (in Hindi) and bhagayavad (in Sanskrit) do not carry the neg-
> ative connotations of fatalistic passivity and laziness; rather, they carry
> the positive connotation of reconciliation after the event. This is the
> approach, in practice, of a vast section of Hindu society; these people use
> it to accept gracefully and with great courage, calmness, and strength
> the outcome of adverse economic and social situations. Karma suggests
> that such circumstances must stem from people’s own deeds, yet karma
> also imparts confidence that people have the strength and capacity to
> shape their own future in this life and in subsequent ones. I feel that this
> understanding of karma has, on balance, a positive rather than negative
> effect on poverty alleviation, women’s rights, and developmental activi-
> ties in general because it allows people to sustain their hope during
> inevitable setbacks and to believe that their endeavours will yield fruit.
> Besides, the existing socioeconomic system adequately inculcates
> norms of competition, individuality, and ceaseless striving to better the
> situation in one’s family, business, or career. This has removed all but a
> token recognition of the passive side of fate and fatalism. Even though
> Hindus refer to “fate” whenever they encounter a life event they cannot
> KAPUR
> 
> control or even understand, they exert strenuous efforts to follow their
> desires and achieve their goals. This dual approach is consistent with
> passages in the Gita that clearly refute Weber’s argument. The Gita
> preaches constant action in all that one does and deep meditation as
> part of action. One is instructed not only to strive in all spheres of life
> but also to do this in a cool and detached manner, keeping all the con-
> sequences of action in view. Hinduism is therefore not a religion that
> teaches passivity; rather, it is both outward and inward looking, with a
> logical connection between these dimensions.
> The caste system also causes great comment and consternation.
> Each caste is related to a varna, of which there are four: brahmin, kshatriya,
> vaisya, and shudra. Each of these has a role to play in society:
> 
> 
> 
 Brahmins are in charge of ritual and religious matters;
> 
 Kshatriyas are warriors and allied to the defence of society;
> 
 Vaisyas are the merchants and given to commercial pursuits;
> and
> 
> 
 Shudras serve all people belonging to the other varnas.
> Another group of people, who live outside the caste system, were
> once known as the “untouchables” and then as dalits11; contact with an
> untouchable was considered polluting by caste Hindus.
> Many Hindus believe that the varna into which one is born is due
> to fate or karma, because varna is immutable. Although the practical
> effect of this system has often been inequality — with rural, illiterate,
> and often destitute people bearing the brunt of exploitation by higher
> castes — it can be argued that this was not the intention of the varna
> system as set out in ancient Hinduism. The functional, rather than hier-
> archical, nature of the varna system is manifest in Balinese Hinduism:
> In the history of Hinduism, the doctrine of varnas appears before the
> doctrine of karma. This raises the suspicion that the doctrine of
> karma may have provided a post facto rationalization for a birth-
> oriented division of society that was already in place when the
> doctrine of karma became widespread. … It is possible though that
> Balinese Hinduism represents the original concept of varnas … .
> “In Bali varna is simply occupation. A businessman is a vaisya, a
> teacher a brahmin, an employee a sudra and so on. No inferior or
> superior stature is attached, and if one switches profession — say
> from teacher to shopkeeper — one changes caste from brahmin to
> vaisya.”
> Sharma (1993, p. 25, emphasis in the original)
> 
> In 1937 Dr Ambedkar coined this term for untouchables, but it later came to refer
> to people of all oppressed classes.
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> The exploitation of lower castes and untouchables was condemned
> by the Bhakti mystics and by numerous modern Hindu activists, such
> as Gandhi. In more concrete terms, certain provisions in the Indian
> Constitution also combat the discrimination caused by this system, and
> the Indian people are changing their attitudes and behaviour toward
> these classes. The history of the caste system in India leads me to think
> that all human systems carry the potential for abuse when material and
> status considerations are foremost in our minds and we ignore spiritual
> and human values.
> 
> MODERN SCIENCE AND THE HINDU RELIGION
> 
> 
> Scientific knowledge is built upon facts. The medical side is fairly
> well developed, though the causes and cures of certain ailments are
> yet to be discovered. But what science does know, it is more or less
> sure about, because the various factors concerned have been tested:
> theories have been tried and proven. In religion it is different. Peo-
> ple are given certain facts or truths and told to believe them. After
> a little while when their belief is not fulfilled, doubt creeps in; and
> then they go from religion to religion in trying to find proof. You
> hear about God in churches and temples; you can read about Him
> in books; but you can experience God only through Self-realisation
> attained by practicing definite scientific techniques. In India, reli-
> gion is based upon such scientific methods. By experimentation,
> India has proved the truths in religion. In the future, religion every-
> where will be a matter of experimentation; it will not be based
> solely on belief.
> Yogananda (1944, p. 35)
> 
> Science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind.
> Einstein (1950)
> Turning to the nexus between science and religion, I should state that I
> believe that as objects of study, external phenomena and the inner
> dimensions of human existence are equally significant. Thus, inasmuch
> as science is a search for truth, religion is also a search for Truth. The
> physical sciences are an inquiry into matter and the nature of the exter-
> nal world. Religion, in contrast, is an inquiry into consciousness, spiri-
> tuality, and the nature of the inner world. In the final analysis, however,
> one may find no separation between the external and internal dimen-
> sions, but a continuum between these states. Science inquires through
> experiment, and religion inquires through inner experience. In this
> sense, religion is scientific.
> One of the most noticeable trends in science and religion in India
> is that spiritual savants are recognizing the great significance of science;
> they have begun to acknowledge that contemporary humans are living
> KAPUR
> 
> in an age dominated by science. They do not see religion as opposed to
> science but as having much to learn from the methods and temper of
> science. Thus, Ranganathananda recorded the following statement of
> Yogananda:
> Pure science needs to cover a wider ground than the external phys-
> ical world constituting only the external physical environment of
> human life. Science has to study the inner world of man as well,
> besides the outer world of nature. But in the modern context, unfor-
> tunately the sciences of physical nature have far outstripped the
> sciences of man … . If the physical sciences have lifted man from
> many fears and uncertainties of his primitive past, it has landed him
> also in new fears and uncertainties arising from ignorance of his own
> inner nature. The modern man has to realise that such a study of the
> “within” of nature, as revealed in nature’s evolutionary product, that
> 
> 
> 28         is man, is also a science like the other study by the physical sciences,
> of the “without” of nature.
> Ranganathananda (1983, p. 3, emphasis in the original)
> I find this statement important because people often assume that mod-
> ern science alone has verifiable methods, experimentation, and testing.
> But, as Yogananda suggested in the epigram that began this section,
> spiritual aspirants can internally verify and replicate specific stages in
> spiritual progress as set out in Hinduism and Buddhism. We can then
> say we have a “science” of religion, which, apart from the sociological
> side of it — as represented in ceremony and ritual observances — is
> quite capable of providing a topography of the “within” of humans.
> In answer to the question of whether the Hindu religion is scien-
> tific, Swami Muktinathananda (personal communication, 199812) gave
> the following response: “If we define the scientific in this way that to be
> practical is to be scientific, then Hinduism is perfectly scientific.”
> In his lecture on religion and science, Vivekananda said, “Religion
> deals with the truth of the metaphysical world just as chemistry and
> other natural sciences deal with the truth of the physical world”
> (Ranganathananda 1987, p. 175). Vivekananda also taught that “reli-
> gion is the science which learns the transcendental in nature through
> the transcendental in man” (Jitatmananda 1992, p. 68). In Swami
> Vivekananda’s view, the physicist and the mystic reach the truth of
> unity by following different approaches. As he noted, “physics today is
> relating itself increasingly to philosophy and drawing closer to Vedanta
> philosophy” (Jitatmananda 1992, p. 70). “What the Vedic sages discov-
> ered through mystic intuition, modern scientists are confirming with
> the help of sophisticated instruments” (Jitatmananda 1992, p. 86).
> American physicist, Fritjof Capra, also supported this view:
> Thus the mystic and the physicist arrive at the same conclusions;
> one starting from the inner realm, the other from the outer world.
> Swami Muktinathananda, Ramakrishna Math, Belur, Calcutta, India, personal
> communication, 1998.
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> The harmony of their views confirms the ancient Indian wisdom
> that brahman, the ultimate reality without, is identical to Atman,
> the reality within.
> (Capra 1983, p. 338)
> Another trend in Hindu religion is the discovery of various paral-
> lels in religion and science where the two seem increasingly to be speak-
> ing the same language, that is, language that points toward the unity of
> all existing phenomena:
> Modern particle physics shows the folly of trying to search for a
> single object, a sub-atomic particle or electron as a separate inde-
> pendent reality. Such a thing does not exist. The very experience of
> the independent existence of one thing is unreal. Vedanta terms it
> 
> 
> mithya. The right vision is to perceive the whole in the so-called iso-                      29
> lated entity. This is what the Vedantist means by the statement
> “brahman alone is real.”
> Jitatmananda (1992, p. 27)
> As mentioned before, the Ultimate Reality for the ancient Indian
> seers was Brahman (or the Self), from which all atmans (or selves)
> emanate. The realization of the preexisting oneness with Brahman was
> the goal of all life, but to describe Brahman, or the Supreme Reality, was
> considered beyond the capacities of human language or even human
> conception. For example, Yajnavalkya, a Vedic seer, attempted the
> following description of Supreme Reality for his wife, Maitreyi, many
> centuries ago:
> For where there is duality as it were, there one sees the other, one smells
> the other, one tastes the other, one speaks to the other, one hears the
> other, one thinks of the other, one touches the other, one knows the
> other. But where everything has become just one’s own self, by what
> and whom should one know? By what should one know Him by
> whom all this is known? He is indestructible for He cannot be
> destroyed. He is unattached for He does not attach himself. He is
> unfettered, He does not suffer, He is not injured. Indeed by what
> would one know the knower?
> Radhakrishnan (1974, p. 286)
> A well-known mystic from medieval India, Kabir, also preached
> the merging of selfhood with the nirguna (beyond any attributes), which
> is clearly a linguistic reformulation of the “not this, not this” (neti, neti)
> of the Upanishads’ description of Brahman.13
> 
> See Pande (1989, p. 122): “Kabir’s object of devotion is qualityless (nirguna). This
> reality cannot be identified by any creator. Kabir, in fact, identifies the creator with the
> created world. In this notion of transcendent immanent unity he is reminiscent of
> Upanishadic or Kasmira Saiva monism as also of Madhyamika absolutism.”
> KAPUR
> 
> Thus, two features frequently characterize the Hindu perception of
> the nature of reality:
> 
> 
or atUltimate     Reality exists, but it cannot be adequately described,
> least it cannot be described with a great deal of precision; and
> 
> 
of theTheselfUltimate Reality can be experienced in the consciousness
> by the latter’s merging with the consciousness of the
> ultimate Self.
> Further, certain other subfeatures emerge from this characterization:
> 
> 
any The experience of an Ultimate Reality is not the monopoly of
> single religious tradition. Buddhism, for instance, speaks of
> the “void” into which everything returns and from which every-
> 
> thing emerges.
> 
> 
fact Itthisis linguistic
> not possible to quantify the “voidic experience,” and in
> awkwardness indicates the difficulty.
> Modern physics suffers from similar difficulties when it attempts to
> describe or predict the behaviour of quantum particles, which physicists
> have described as forms of energy “dancing” without any cause or pur-
> pose, a field of energy existing for and in itself.
> Hindu scientists, religionists, social scientists, and medical practi-
> tioners have noted other base-level similarities between the findings of
> modern science and the experiential discoveries of Hindu mystics; they
> have also tried to conceive of new paradigms in which the scientific and
> religious understandings converge. For example, Mukhopadhyay (a
> pathologist) developed the Akhanda (“unbreakable” or “whole”) para-
> digm that treats the entire universe as a living organism. He pointed
> out that the “evolution or involution of species is intimately related to
> evolution or involution of its environment” (Mukhopadhyay 1995). He
> felt that the question of morality is intimately related to the evolution
> of consciousness, and this is clear from the wisdom of the sage and
> savant Sri Aurobindo, whom Mukhopadhyay acknowledged as a semi-
> nal influence on his work. In the following quotation, Mukhopadhyay
> expressed, in modern language, the ancient insight of the Vedas that
> Brahman created the “multiverse,” to use Mukhopadhyay’s language, as
> a form of play, where the self would lose consciousness of Self, and the
> entire purpose of Creation would be the drama of mind, body, and
> spirit, in which the self would once again merge with the Self:
> The “self” within the brain understands its imprisonment within
> five overlapping concentric spheres. Who am I? What am I sup-
> posed to do? Where from I have come? Where shall I be doomed, if
> proper precautions are not taken before hand? It is “self”, seeking
> the “Self”, through “self”, for “Self”. If “self” is successful in this
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> mission, then inside is out and outside is in. There is inversion of
> the neuraxis.
> Mukhopadhyay (1995, p. 171)
> Mukhopadhyay’s seminal work was thus a transformation of the ancient
> religious insights of India into the modern scientific language of pathol-
> ogy and biology.
> Certain scientific discoveries — such as the theory of evolution,
> the law of conservation of matter, and the theory of relativity — bear
> striking similarities to Vedantic concepts of the universe. Sri Ramakrishna
> used the concept of the nonduality of consciousness (Advaita) to build
> his theory of the harmony of religions (Bhajanananda 1976–77), and
> Vivekananda saw nonduality as the basis for the underlying similarities
> of art, science, and religion.14 Likewise, Einstein, in his special theory of
> 
> 
> relativity, used the constancy of the velocity of light to formulate the                           31
> principle of invariance (Bhajanananda 1976–77, p. 23). The close agree-
> ment between Vedantic principles and those of the modern scientific
> discoveries, despite the difference in their expression, is noteworthy
> (Bhajanananda 1976–77). As Jitatmananda pointed out,
> The entire world of modern physics is moving toward a knowledge
> of final unity in the universe. The Vedanta, the philosophical and
> the metaphysical portions of the Vedas, affirmed this unity as the
> very basis of all existence and the ultimate goal of all knowledge.
> Jitatmananda (1992, pp. 6–7)
> Another commonality of science and religion is the idea that the
> mind, or subjective consciousness, plays a great role in creating the
> world and lays down the laws of perception. When mystics go “inward,”
> their consciousness alters and they can perceive worlds not possible if
> consciousness were not capable of altering dimensions and adapting
> itself to new perceptions. Social-science researchers have recognized this
> link between subject and object, in terms of the continuum of con-
> sciousness, and suggest that each person “creates” a particular perception
> of the world, both mental and sociophysical. Similarly, as Jitatmananda
> remarked,
> Unless we know the Knower we cannot also know that the known
> is only the projection of the Knower. This Knower is our Pure
> Consciousness, which is the only seer, the one all-pervading Exis-
> tence, the one all-inclusive knowledge. This Pure Consciousness
> projects the entire universe just as a spider projects its web. The
> external and a separate universe is, therefore, only a superimposi-
> tion, due to our desires and will, on the Pure Consciousness which
> knows everything as One.
> Jitatmananda (1991, p. 50)
> According to Vivekananda, “Art, science and religion are but three different ways
> of expressing the single truth. But in order to understand this we must have the theory of
> Advaita” (that is, nonduality of consciousness) (Bhajanananda 1976–77, p. 26).
> KAPUR
> 
> The importance of the observer has, by now, also been recognized in the
> physical sciences.
> Backed by these eminent thinkers and with these comments on the
> similarities between scientific and religious inquiry, I subscribe to, and try
> to manifest in my work, the following statement by Ranganathananda:
> There is no conflict between science and religion, between the phys-
> ical sciences and the science of spirituality. Both have the identical
> aim of discovering truth and helping man to grow physically, men-
> tally and spiritually, and achieve fulfillment. But each by itself is
> insufficient and helpless.
> 
> DEVOTION, KNOWLEDGE, AND ACTION
> 
> The origins of the Hindu social ethic
> Between the 12th and 16th centuries ad, Hinduism experienced an
> extraordinary efflorescence. This medieval spiritual renaissance indicates
> that Hinduism not only survived but prospered under the foreign rule
> of the Moguls. Some of the better known mystics of this age were
> Jnanadeva (d. 1296), Namadeva (d. 1346), Kabir (15th century), Nanak
> (1469–1539), Mira (16th century), Tulsidas (1532–1623), and Eknath
> (1533–99). Together, they are referred to as the Bhakti gurus. They
> were spiritual masters–preceptors, who imparted knowledge to their
> disciples, dispelling ignorance from their minds.
> The concept of a living spiritual master has been of extreme
> importance in Hinduism, and even today many cults and sects with liv-
> ing gurus flourish in India and in other parts of the world where
> Hinduism has spread. The guru mediates between the disciple and
> Brahman, bringing the disciple closer to Brahman through counsel,
> discourse, exercise, and example. In due course, perhaps after several
> lifetimes, the disciple is freed from the bonds of delusion and the ongo-
> ing cycle of transmigration; then the disciple can merge with Brahman.
> There were a number of commonalities among the Bhakti mystics
> and saints, several of whom, like Kabir, came from the lowest caste. The
> medieval Indian spiritual preceptors, like the Vedic seers, enjoined hard
> work in the form of service to the spiritual preceptor, community, and
> society. Devotion to Brahman by means of devotion to the guru was
> another common aspect of their teachings. Most advocated that caste
> “untouchability” was an age-old evil and that the exploitation of the
> lower castes and outcastes was a reprehensible practice that must be
> reversed. They therefore made no distinctions of caste or gender in their
> ashrams and attempted to influence society by their example. They ini-
> tiated men and women of all castes into their faith and promised them
> that they, too, could aspire to and fulfill the desire of spiritual liberation.
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> Mira stands out as a mystical luminary who was regarded as a saint, even
> as a woman living in medieval times.
> Kabir, for example,
> refused to acknowledge caste distinctions or to recognise the
> authority of the six schools of philosophy. He did not set any store
> by the four divisions of life (ashramas) prescribed for Bhramanas. He
> held that religion (dharma) without devotion (bhakti) was no reli-
> gion at all (adharma), and that asceticism, fasting, and alms giving
> had no value if not accompanied by adoration (bhajana — the
> singing of devotional songs).
> Pande (1989, p. 102)
> Kabir taught the worship of a Reality that cannot be described. He felt
> deeply that the guru was the only route to salvation.
> 
> 
> There was a great deal of cross-pollination among the religions of                         33
> the region during this time: Islam15 and Sufism (mystical Islam) had a
> strong influence on the Bhakti gurus. In the case of Nanak, the synthe-
> sis between Hinduism and Sufism was seminal in the creation of
> Sikhism.16 A description of the medieval renaissance would be incom-
> plete without a reference to the insights of Nanak. He was a spiritual
> teacher who came from a Hindu family, founded Sikhism, and set in
> motion a lineage of 10 spiritual masters. Nanak believed that the
> Creator is a single principle from which all things evolve. Although he
> believed that the Creator is beyond any specific description, he felt that
> God is capable of forming a pervasive personal relationship with
> humans. Nanak described God as a “pure light” that pervades every-
> thing; in this sense, everything exists in God and the world is his play
> (lila) (Pande 1989). Humans, according to Nanak, emanate from the
> light of God and are born as a result of the desires of the mind. Humans,
> by following the will (hukum) of God, can evolve in stages and realize
> spiritual salvation. In this process, nothing is achievable in the spiritual
> realm without the presence and guidance of the guru. In terms of action,
> humans must be balanced and objective and live in the world with love
> and dedication. Nanak said, “Truth is higher than everything, but the
> living of Truth is higher than everything else.” Clear Upanishadic
> strains appear in Nanak’s insights, and he, too, worked against idolatry,
> ritualism, the caste system, and exploitative relationships.
> The medieval Indian saints had a very pronounced impact on the
> evolution of Hindu ideas. Almost every reformer or mystic after Kabir
> and Nanak denounced casteism and tried to purge Hinduism of the per-
> nicious practices that had crept into it, including discrimination against
> See Pande (1989, p. 121): “A pervasive influence of Islam on the medieval Bhakti
> movement has been asserted and even Sankaracharya is said to have been influenced by
> Islamic monotheism.”
> In Sikhism, the “Holy Book” (Guru Granth Sahib) is treated as a living guru and
> given every consideration that a living master would be given. For its recitations and
> interpretation there are Sikh priests called “granthies.”
> KAPUR
> 
> women. Some of the 18th- and 19th-century reformers were outright in
> their condemnation of such discrimination; they praised the role of
> women as mothers — as representative of the Divine Principle. Others,
> like Dayanand, campaigned to abolish ghastly ritualistic customs, such
> as sati (the self-immolation of widows on the funeral pyres of their hus-
> bands) and the then-prevalent custom of child marriage, in which even
> prepubescent children were married. He was also firmly opposed to
> social restrictions against the remarriage of widows, which went so far
> as to prevent a widow from remarrying even if she was only a child when
> her husband died. This first recrudescence of devotion, knowledge, and
> action, in medieval times, paved the way for the second Hindu renais-
> sance, the effects of which are still evident. The various sects and cults
> of the 20th century owe allegiance to, and freely quote, the teachings of
> 
> 
> 34   Kabir, Nanak, Namdeva, Jnanadeva, Mira, and others.
> 
> The second Hindu renaissance
> By the 18th and 19th centuries, despite the teachings of the mystics of
> the Bhakti Renaissance, many social problems remained unresolved. In
> fact, these conditions and practices — sati, obstruction of widow remar-
> riages, caste exploitation, untouchability, and poverty — remained
> intact under both Mogul and colonial rule. Nevertheless, certain exem-
> plary movements in the fields of srd emerged and significantly
> improved the economic and social conditions of marginalized people. I
> will now turn to a brief examination of these movements, with a view
> to outlining their ethical guiding principles and how their principles
> inform their developmental activities.
> Arya Samaj movements
> Founded near the turn of the century (1875) by Swami Dayanand
> Saraswati, under the slogan “back to the Vedas,” the Arya Samaj was
> characterized by the development of an elaborate monotheistic system
> of beliefs. Swami Dayanand had an acute sense of social awareness and
> was active in the field of women’s rights, women’s education, and gen-
> der equality. The Arya Samaj started movements for India’s freedom, the
> education of girls and women, the care of orphan children and the poor,
> and the revival of religious studies and debate. Through these move-
> ments, Dayanand attempted to eradicate superstition, obsessive ritual-
> ism, and blind faith; caste, class, and sex discrimination; and the social
> evils of dowry and untouchability. He started a movement to revive the
> dignity of hard work and individual virtues. He propagated regular
> prayers and “Havens” (recitations of Vedic verses while herbs, incense,
> or cereals are burned to purify the inner and outer environment). He
> encouraged the concept of the oneness of the incorporeal God and gave
> impetus to economic development through education, vocational
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> training, creation of jobs and small-scale industry, and publications. The
> Arya Samaj has generated an enormous amount of literature on social,
> religious, scientific, and literary topics (Gupta 1998).
> Dayanand acted to change society through the classical system of
> education (gurukul) in which knowledge about dharma, as well as human
> and spiritual values, was imparted and the ideal of equality practiced. In
> Satyarth Prakash, a book that provides the fundamental principles of
> Arya Samaj, Dayanand proposed education for young boys and girls in
> a three-language formula — Sanskrit, Hindi, and a foreign language.
> He propounded continence for students and opposed child marriage.
> The Arya Samaj has founded many Dayanand Anglo Vedic (dav)
> schools, especially in the Punjab; the dav schools provide modern edu-
> cation with a traditional and Vedic tinge. The Arya Samaj runs a large
> 
> 
> number of Vyayam Shalas–Akharas (gymnasiums and sports centres) for                             35
> physical health. It was involved to some extent in the anticolonial
> movement, supporting the production and consumption of indigenous
> goods (swadeshi) and the use of Hindi as a national language, and it
> remains active in contemporary India, especially in the northern belt
> (Jordens 1978).17
> Ramakrishna Mission
> The Ramakrishna Mission was founded at the end of the 19th century and
> named after the Bengali mystic, Sri Ramakrishna Paramahans. Its founder,
> Swami Vivekananda, was one of Ramakrishna’s chief disciples. The Mission
> teaches the principles of Vedanta and also provides concrete service to com-
> munities with its schools, colleges, hospitals, and orphanages.
> Sri Ramakrishna emphasized, among other principles, “the equal
> validity of all religions, the potential divinity of man, and service to
> man as a way of worshipping God.”18 Ramakrishna was basically a devo-
> tee of Kali, the Divine Mother. As a mystic, Ramakrishna emphasized
> the spiritual side of life and the limitation of human wants. One of his
> most urgent dictums was that humans should avoid the trap of sensual-
> ity and obsession with material things. He also emphasized people’s
> need for the spiritual and cultural traditions of the past to help them
> move meaningfully into the future.
> Today, the Mission addresses the question of spirituality and
> science and is now preaching that science has begun to validate the
> Vedantic viewpoint of the oneness of the universe — nothing can exist
> outside of the Spirit. The Mission’s ideal is freedom of the self and ser-
> vice to humankind. Its aim is to practice and preach the sanatana dharma
> as embodied in the lives and teachings of Sri Ramakrishna and Swami
> Vivekananda, who undertook their spiritual quest through social action
> For more information, consult the Arya Samaj website (www.whereisgod.com),
> which, at the time of writing, was still under construction.
> See the Ramakrishna Mission website (www.sriramakrishna.org).
> KAPUR
> 
> and the gospel of love. The motto of the Mission is “renunciation, ser-
> vice, and harmony of religions”; its method is work and worship — reli-
> gious preaching and training of monastic aspirants. The preachers are all
> monks in the Mission and have specific regulations governing their
> clothing and food. The two components of the Ramakrishna Mission are
> the math (or monastic order) for contemplative activities, such as medi-
> tation and preaching the Vedanta, and the Mission per se, which has
> ashrams and institutions all over the country. The activities of these
> bodies include the following (Gambhirananda 1957):
> 
> 
 Religious teaching and discourses;
> 
eral Operation  of schools at all educational levels, including gen-
> technical education, language training, and character building
> 
> 
> 36           from an ethical–spiritual perspective;
> 
> 
 Creation of libraries;
> 
 Social work among marginalized peoples;
> 
sanitoriums
> Medical service (creation of hospitals, clinics, dispensaries, and
> and distribution of medicines to those unable to afford
> them);
> 
> 
 Projects for poverty alleviation and income generation;
> 
 Relief projects; and
> 
 Agricultural and scientific research.
> These organizations work closely with local communities on problems
> the communities have themselves deemed relevant. They infuse their
> actions with the teachings of Swami Vivekananda and Sri Ramakrishna.
> Sri Aurobindo Society
> The life, message, and teachings of Sri Aurobindo inspired the creation
> of the Sri Aurobindo Society:
> Sri Aurobindo’s teaching starts with the ancient perception of the
> seers of the Vedanta that there is a supreme reality that is absolute,
> eternal, and indeterminable. This is Brahman, the one Truth, Sole
> and Entire … . All this is a manifestation of Brahman, by Brahman,
> and in Brahman.
> Pandit (1959, pp. 3–4)
> The integral truth of Sri Aurobindo’s teachings is corroborated by the
> hymns of Veda, the Upanishads, and the Gita. The basic aim of the Sri
> Aurobindo Society is to work toward “individual perfection, social
> transformation, and human unity based on a spiritual foundation.”19
> See the Sri Aurobindo Society’s website (www.sriaurobindosociety.org.in).
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> The Society has established a number of research centres to inves-
> tigate ways to integrate spirituality into various aspects of human life,
> such as the social sciences, health, management, commerce and business,
> and applied scientific research.20 One of the developmental activities of
> the Society and the Sri Aurobindo ashram is to promote “integral edu-
> cation” to balance and integrate the four aspects of the individual: the
> physical, the vital (dynamic energy, passions, will), the mental (think-
> ing and reasoning), and the psychic and spiritual (the seat of the high-
> est truths of existence). The Sri Aurobindo Society promulgates this
> education through various means (children’s books, educational games
> and toys, teacher-training programs, and distance and digital education)
> and institutions (an institute of vocational training and mass communi-
> cation; study and youth camps; and health centres, with yoga and
> 
> 
> “nature-cure” wings). Through its Women’s Council, the Sri Aurobindo                                37
> Society also focuses on women’s development premised on the full
> development of the spirituality of the individual woman and an inher-
> ent equality based in the divine source of all humanity. Through lec-
> tures, seminars, and publications, the Sri Aurobindo Society promotes
> prenatal and parental education, equal opportunity for women to work
> and be of service to humanity, and economic independence for women.
> World Spiritual University
> Seeing illiteracy, ignorance, superstition, and blind faith and realizing
> the grave erosion of India’s moral values and national character, Prajapita
> Brahma (later known as Brahma Baba) started the World Spiritual
> University (Prajapita Brahma Kumaris Ishwariya Vishwa Vidyalaya) to
> cultivate the seeds of knowledge, wisdom, and virtuous behaviour.
> The World Spiritual University is an international organization
> with 450 000 members or students. It has more than 3 000 educational
> centres teaching Rajyoga meditation and moral and spiritual values in
> more than 60 countries. It is administered primarily by women. It is
> dedicated to education for all-round development, and it focuses on
> spiritual growth through contemplation, development of higher values,
> and service to community. Education in moral and spiritual values is
> emphasized to bring about transformation in attitudes and behaviour,
> build human character, and develop an integrated personality. Enroll-
> ment in the university is free and open to individuals who wish to
> 
> The Sri Aurobindo Institute for Applied Scientific Research focuses on innovations
> in alternative energy sources and appropriate technology to solve worker-identified prob-
> lems while consciously emphasizing deeper psychological and spiritual values. In its lit-
> erature, the institute suggests that, “while it is important to reach and work at the
> frontiers of science, it is equally important to develop a technology which will be appro-
> priate for rural and semi-urban India and other developing countries. The need is for a
> technology which will have the least side effects and touch immediately a large number
> of people directly in their lives. It will help them do their work more efficiently, faster,
> with less health hazards and at a lower cost” (sas n.d.).
> KAPUR
> 
> engage in an active change process through personal growth and
> meditation.21
> Prajapita Brahma’s vision for the world was grounded in truth,
> justice, and equality, an equality based on a foundation of harmony and
> balance between the sexes. At the time of the university’s inception,
> Prajapita Brahma, a respected 60-year-old diamond merchant, surren-
> dered all his property and assets to a trust administered by eight young
> women. Women and young girls have been chosen as administrators
> and spiritual teachers. The university is based on principles of equality
> of the sexes and teaches that “any form of discrimination and prejudice
> is destructive to a world which depends on the strategic balance of a full
> and equal partnership between women and men” (bkwso 1995b).
> The university has general consultative status with the Economic
> 
> 
> 38   and Social Council of the United Nations, has consultative status with
> the United Nations Children’s Fund, and is associated with the United
> Nations Peace University. The World Spiritual University works pri-
> marily in the areas of environmental improvement (for example, a
> project to demonstrate solar–wind–battery hybrid systems technology
> in India22), health awareness and medicine, world unity and peace, and
> the eradication of poverty. It has participated in a number of United
> Nations conferences, published position papers taking value-based
> approaches to various development problems,23 and received seven
> United Nations Peace Messenger Awards.
> Swadhyaya
> Another spiritual movement engaged in development activities is the
> Swadhyaya movement (a Sanskrit word meaning “self-study”), which
> works primarily in Gujarat and Maharashtra. Using the Bhagavad Gita
> and the traditional Indian worldview as its philosophical basis,
> Pandurang Shastri Athavale, its founder, asked people to recognize the
> self as a manifestation of divine being and thus to acknowledge the
> divinity of all individuals. The followers of this movement — the
> “swadhyayees” — consider service to God their main purpose and
> See the Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual University website (www.bkwsu.com).
> The project is summarized on a web page of the International Centre for the Appli-
> cation of Solar Energy (www.case.gov.au/complete3.htm) (case n.d.).
> For example, the World Spiritual University explored a spiritual response to
> poverty in its statement for the 1996 International Year for the Eradication of Poverty,
> which emphasized that the interconnected root causes of poverty go beyond material con-
> siderations and advised careful consideration of poverty in relationships, spiritual bank-
> ruptcy, spiritual causes of poverty, the greed factor, and conditioning and poverty
> consciousness. It recommended that solutions to poverty emphasize self-worth, simplic-
> ity, creativity, and self-reliance. It saw its role in poverty eradication as planting the seeds
> for long-term changes in attitudes, behaviours, and lifestyles through positive-thinking
> programs, developing and sharing values, inculcating abilities and responsibilities,
> promoting self-reliance–empowerment of the self and community, and encouraging
> intellectual development and inner knowledge (www.bkwsu.com/bkun/wit/wit6.html)
> (bkwso 1995a).
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> translate this purpose into initiatives to improve the socioeconomic
> conditions in swadhyayee villages. Swadhyayees, for example, tend com-
> munal farms and regard the wealth thus generated as belonging to God,
> to be distributed to those in need or to villagers to support their efforts
> to become more productive. Any individual, however, only works a few
> days a year on any one plot and does this as a form of devotion. The
> principle has also been expanded to fruit-tree planting and fishing.
> Swadhyaya is credited with teaching equal treatment of individuals,
> regardless of sex, caste, class, or faith. It has no formal hierarchy or paid
> workers. It does not attempt to convert people away from their pro-
> fessed religion; instead, Athavale recommended that the wisdom of
> swadhyaya be shared through example and by heart-to-heart or mind-to-
> mind discussion (Ekins 1992; Ramashray Roy 1993).
> 
> 
> Gandhi and the Sarvodaya Order
> The developmental nexus is most pronounced in Mahatma Gandhi’s
> ideas espousing “welfare of all” (sarvodaya). This concept–movement
> represents a stream of thought developing from the beginning of the
> 20th century until Gandhi’s assassination in 1948. It propounds a
> model of sustainable development as an alternative to the capital-
> intensive, industrial paradigm of the West and to the nonparticipatory
> communist model, which also set store in expeditious economic growth.
> Gandhi preached the participation of people in decision-making and the
> decentralization of power to the many villages of India. Gandhi, in his
> struggle for a Sarvodaya Order, linked his economic agenda with a non-
> violent (ahimsa) struggle for Indian political independence (swaraj). He
> made swadeshi (indigenous production and consumption) part of his
> overall developmental philosophy.
> Gandhi was a self-confessed Hindu, who regularly read the
> Bhagavad Gita; as such, he represents a continuity in the Hindu tradi-
> tion. He injected the spirit of religion into politics and everything he
> did. In Gandhi, the voice of ancient Hinduism found an interpreter who
> envisioned the development of India from the bottom up, rather than
> from the top down as in conventional development paradigms (Khoshoo
> 1997b). In fact, his entire approach to development differed from pre-
> vailing methodologies that pay no attention to the depletion of the
> resource base, ecological imbalances, or the needs of future generations.
> Gandhi said, “The earth provides enough for every man’s needs, but not
> for every man’s greed” (Khoshoo 1997a, p. 6).
> Perhaps it was his adherence to the precepts of Hinduism that led
> Gandhi to comprehend and articulate the inextricable link between
> social transformation and self-transformation:
> This method of self-transformation [Gandhi] called “satyagraha”
> and it was characterized by an earnest desire and effort to make
> truth, non-violence and justice pervade every aspect of one’s
> personality as well as inter-personal transactions. He founded
> KAPUR
> 
> ashrams, communities where these principles could be deliberately
> practised.
> Palshikar (1998, p. 15)
> Gandhi was also aware of social marginalization and its effects; he
> fought, for example, against untouchability and for the liberation of
> women, saying
> I shall work for an India in which the poorest shall feel that it is
> their country, in whose making they have an effective voice, an
> India in which there is no high class or low class of people, and an
> India in which all communities will live in harmony. Women will
> enjoy the same rights as men. This is the India of my dreams.
> Chowdhry (1994, p. 19)
> 
> 
> 40         For Gandhi, the charkah (spinning wheel) was symbolic of a proper
> perspective on economic development — it should provide a minimum
> income and employment to the people at large (Mashruwala 1971). In
> that early era of Indian development, theories were not obsessed with
> stimulating materialistic wants. The population of India was just one-
> third of what it is now, allowing for sustainable levels of economic con-
> sumption. Gandhi could envision a good and simple life for the people
> of his country.
> The Sarvodaya Order proposes that economics be based on renew-
> able resources and that power be decentralized to independent, but
> interlinked, villages, where employment would be generated through
> agriculture and simple crafts. Kamla Chowdhry, in her Mahatma
> Gandhi: Lessons for Sustainable Development (1994, p. 19), observed that
> “Gandhi’s priorities for development were village development and
> village industries. Development to Gandhi was abolition of poverty,
> misery and fear.” Gandhi visualized a village society in India in which
> all the basic amenities would be available and people would be eco-
> nomically self-sufficient but mutually dependent. He saw cities as
> “clearinghouses” for village products. Gandhi also believed in making
> use of all human waste to produce gas or manure to replenish the Earth
> for agriculture.
> Gandhi was highly critical of Western-style industrialization,
> writing
> God forbid that India should ever take to industrialism after the
> manner of the west. The economic imperialism of a single tiny
> Island Kingdom is today keeping the world in chains … .
> Industrialism is, I am afraid, going to be a curse of mankind.
> Industrialism depends entirely on your capacity to exploit.
> Khoshoo (1995, p. 33)
> Yet, Gandhi was not against machinery per se, only against machinery
> designed for the exploitation of people.
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> Gandhi wanted to decentralize the state structure and create “fully
> participatory village ‘republics’ founded on a non-violent revolution, in
> which landlords would voluntarily transfer their property to the people”
> (Annan, cited in Starcevic 1998). Gandhi also wrote that “independence
> must begin at the bottom … . It follows, therefore, that every village
> has to be self sustained and capable of managing its affairs. The
> Government of the village will be conducted by the Panchayat (Village
> Council)” (Khoshoo 1995, p. 40).
> One could say that the special features of the sarvodaya approach
> are the following:
> 
> 
 National governance accountable to local governance;
> 
 Self-sustaining local economies;
> 
 Decentralized production system;                                                      
> 
> 
 Industry in trusteeship of, and accountable to, the community; and
> 
 Secularism as a confluence of all religions.
> The desire of Gandhi’s heart was “to wipe every tear from every
> eye” by encouraging India to follow its own path of development, tak-
> ing into account its own realities, its own people, and its own culture.
> Although Nehru agreed with Gandhi that certain objectives, like
> sufficient food, clothing, housing, and education, were the minimum
> requirements for the country and all its citizens, he wanted to attain
> these objectives “speedily.” “Speedily to Nehru meant modernization,
> industrialization, building of big dams, establishing institutional infra-
> structure for science and technology. In other words catching up with
> the West, for, according to Nehru there was no way out but to have
> them” (Chowdhry 1994, p. 19). After Gandhi’s death, therefore, India
> embarked on a development strategy very different from the one he had
> envisaged.
> Nehru’s approach to development has been the credo for more than
> five decades in India. His development strategy undoubtedly brought
> about very impressive progress in many directions, but it also led to
> many failures. Chowdhry (1994, p. 23) pointed out that these strategies
> neglected issues such as “rural poverty, primary education and illiteracy,
> unemployment, increasing inequalities and women’s drudgery.” She
> went on to explain that widening disparities in income and consumption
> were causing social and political unrest, widespread corruption, and the
> decay of the social fabric. We cannot say with certainty that Gandhi’s
> approach would have played itself out more positively and successfully,
> but we can see certain results of the Gandhian approach, such as the
> effects on the 8 600 villages adopted by the well-respected Sri Lankan
> Sarvodaya Shramadana movement. Moreover, his thinking has influenced
> some of the most important social-justice and environmental movements
> in India. Some examples of these movements are described below.
> KAPUR
> 
> The contemporary environmental movement in India
> The contemporary environmental movement in India started with the
> Chipko Andolan in April 1973. From the Chipko Andolan to the
> Narmada Bachao Andolan, environmental activists have relied heavily
> on Gandhian techniques of nonviolent protest and sarvodaya philosophy,
> as well as drawing abundantly on Gandhi’s polemic against heavy indus-
> trialization. Some of the movement’s better known figures — for
> example, Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Sunderlal Bahuguna, Baba Amte, and
> Medha Patkar — have repeatedly emphasized their debt to Gandhi
> (Guha 1993). Other influences on the Indian environmental movement
> include Marxism (in Kerala), socialism, liberation theology, and the self-
> help traditions.
> 
> 
> 42         The organizations participating in the environmental movement
> in India demonstrate an interesting amalgamation of modern scientific
> technique and traditional motivation. Take, for example, the Sankat
> Mochan Foundation. The head of this Varanasi-based institution is Pro-
> fessor Veer Bhadra Mishra, a priest of the Sankat Mochan Temple and a
> professor of hydraulic engineering at Benares University. He is con-
> vinced that science and religion have to mesh if India is to clean and
> save the river Ganges. He says, “Life is like a stream. One bank is the
> ‘Vedas’ and the other bank is the contemporary world, including its sci-
> ence and technology. If both banks are not firm the water will scatter. If
> both banks are firm the river will run its course” (Chowdhry 1998).
> Other participants in this movement also seem to display a firm
> awareness of the interconnection of spiritual, environmental, social-
> justice, and economic concerns and their solutions. Ramchandra Guha
> is a professor, sociologist, and historian; his work has focused on histor-
> ical and present-day interactions between humans and the natural envi-
> ronment. In a lecture on Gandhi and the environmental movement
> (Guha 1993), he commented on Gandhi’s approaches and those of two
> well-known followers — Kumarappa and Mira Behn — who had
> applied Gandhi’s ideas to environmental questions. Guha (1993, p. 9)
> noted that “at the level of the individual, Gandhi’s code of voluntary
> simplicity offers a sustainable alternative to modern life styles.” Guha
> also commented that Behn’s primary concern, like that of Gandhi and
> Kumarappa,24 “was with rehabilitating the village economy of India.”
> And Kumarappa himself stated that “forest management should be
> guided not by considerations of revenue but by the needs of the people”
> (Guha 1993, pp. 11–13).
> 
> See The Economy of Permanence: A Quest for a Social Order Based on Non-violence
> (Kumarappa 1984 [1948]).
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> The women’s movement
> In India, the women’s movement started in the late 19th and early 20th
> centuries. Unlike the women’s liberation movement in the West, which
> adopted a militant stance and often took an adversarial posture toward
> the opposite sex, in India the women’s movement was the creation of
> social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwarchandra Vidya Sagar,
> Keshav Chandra Sen, Dayanand Sarasvati, and Maharishi Karve —
> almost all of them men. It started as a fight against social injustice suf-
> fered by women, the dominant-male–inferior-female mind-set, and
> social customs such as sati, the ill-treatment of widows, the custom of
> demanding a dowry, and female infanticide. Lord William Bentick,
> Anne Besant, and Margaret Cousins were some of the foreigners who
> 
> 
> actively supported the first phase of the women’s movement in India.                          43
> The relevant issues were also taken up by pioneer women’s organiza-
> tions, like the All India Women’s Conference. This phase was marked
> by an overall, middle-class urban leadership.
> In the preindependence period, the drive for women’s rights was
> very much a part of the nationalist movement. Mahatma Gandhi
> brought masses of women from behind the four walls of their homes to
> take part in the struggle for freedom. He encouraged them to be part-
> ners in the endeavour to gain India’s independence. He supported
> women’s equality and recognized their potential to advance the coun-
> try’s development.
> After independence, the Indian Constitution guaranteed women’s
> equality, and India established autonomous bodies like the Social Wel-
> fare Board. It was felt that welfare-oriented programs for women would
> ensure gender equality. The emphasis in government policies was on
> women’s welfare: women were to be the passive beneficiaries of this sup-
> port. And for almost two decades, the women’s movement was inactive.
> These decades were marked by apathy toward women’s issues and a gen-
> eral attitude of acquiescence (Desai 1988).
> During the 1960s, women did not become involved in the politi-
> cal arena for women’s issues specifically, yet they participated in large
> numbers in the general struggle to improve the conditions of the rural
> poor and indigenous peoples, as well as participating in other mass
> movements, like the Chipko Andolin. This participation definitely pro-
> vided a backdrop for later struggles focused on women’s issues. The
> declaration of International Women’s Year and of the Decade of
> Women, the creation of the National Committee on the Status of
> Women in India, and the submission of its report in 1974 provided
> leverage to the women’s movement in India. These factors also
> contributed to the emergence of some autonomous organizations (for
> example, the Self-employed Women’s Association, in 1972; the Rural
> Development Society, in 1976; and the Centre for Women’s
> KAPUR
> 
> Development Studies, in 1980) and the revitalization of some main-
> stream organizations.
> With the National Committee on the Status of Women in the
> 1970s and the propagation of the government’s sixth five-year plan
> (1980–85), the focus of the movement shifted from social welfare to the
> developmental activities of women. Many women’s organizations con-
> centrated on issues in education, economic independence, and health,
> emphasizing women’s participation in all these developmental activi-
> ties. The first three World Conferences on Women addressed the themes
> of equality, development, and peace, respectively. At the Fourth World
> Conference on Women, in Beijing in 1995, the emphasis was on
> women’s rights as human rights and on the introduction of the concept
> of a “partnership” of men and women in development. The Fourth
> 
> 
> 44   World Conference on Women chalked out a Plan of Action for achiev-
> ing the goals of women’s equality, development, and peace and for
> ensuring that all participating nations would be committed to this plan.
> The focus of the women’s movement then shifted to women’s empower-
> ment and women’s equal participation in all decision-making and
> developmental activities. Yet, despite national- and international-level
> efforts to achieve the goals of women’s equality and development, these
> goals are far from being achieved.
> Women’s development and empowerment are imperative for
> nationally and globally integrated development. I feel that to make this
> a reality, we must collectively work for the transformation of the psyche
> and consciousness of men, women, and society, which would involve
> awakening the spiritual powers for the conversion of the heart and
> mind. As suggested in the book A Global Ethic (Kung and Kuschel
> 1993), all men and women need to make a commitment to a culture of
> equal human rights and obligations, a culture based on human, spiri-
> tual, and religious ethical principles and a common ethic of mutual
> understanding, peace, and Earth-friendly ways of life.
> 
> Hindu resources for an integrated development
> Religion can help development by encouraging the spirit of service
> and sacrifice; by showing ways to attain the Truth … and by
> improving the quality of life for all. The Hindu religion gives the
> exalted ideals of Atman — self — to everyone and that through the
> awakening and realisation of the self, one could achieve success and
> development in every field.
> Muktinathananda (personal communication, 199825)
> Hinduism brings a holistic approach to development, because it does
> not concentrate simply on the question of economic well-being but also
> incorporates ideals of spiritual and sociopsychological satisfaction. In
> Swami Muktinathananda, Ramakrishna Math, Belur, Calcutta, India, personal
> communication, 1998.
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> the book Bhagavad Gita and Contemporary Crisis, the great Vedic scholar
> Kireet Joshi (1996) pointed out how our modern culture looks on a
> person first and foremost as an economic agent. Even attitudes are
> conditioned by the demands and needs of the economic imperative.
> Modern culture has developed the science of material life but neglected
> the science of self-control and self-discipline and, as a result, cannot pre-
> sent remedies for the crises of violence affecting individuals, societies,
> and nations from time to time. We are gradually becoming dehuman-
> ized because we do not have the leisure to grow inwardly (Joshi 1996).
> As Joshi (1996, p. 8) further emphasized, “We need the knowl-
> edge of what is within us, beyond our economic being, beyond our
> physical, vital, mental and intellectual faculties. We need to know if
> there is a source of peace and tranquility … free from turbulence of hur-
> 
> 
> ried struggle [and competition].” The Gita, in a practical manner,                                  45
> unites knowledge, action, and the third crowning element in the soul’s
> completeness, divine love and devotion;26 the jnana, karma, and bhakti
> yogas provide interrelated paths to this self-realization. Wisdom such as
> this can solve the contemporary crisis of personal, and socioeconomic,
> and spiritual development (Joshi 1996).
> Thus, life for a Hindu is basically meant to be a spiritual journey.
> When development becomes merely a means to fight off hunger and
> disease, without encompassing the spiritual dimension, then to that
> extent it fails to provide the essential fuel of enthusiasm and hope. The
> contemporary discourse of development is geared toward the physical,
> without incorporating any idea of what lies beyond the attainment of
> plenty. The notion of sustainability has gained credence, to my mind,
> because it addresses this imbalance.
> This spiritual dimension is most evident in the fourth of life’s aims
> in Hinduism — moksha. Ultimately, all life action and development
> activities must lead to spiritual liberation, even as they create better
> economic conditions and release us from physical pain and disease.
> Development efforts must create, or at least not suppress, conditions
> that provide intellectual and spiritual satisfaction; “development”
> should not be thankless toil — in the sense of working under compul-
> sion — for one’s own material gains. Yet, despite Hinduism’s spiritual
> orientation, it is not entirely otherworldly. Hinduism acknowledges the
> need for people to appropriately enjoy the mind, spirit, body, and
> senses, in its idea of kama; and economic accomplishment, in its idea of
> artha — both kama and artha are included in life’s goals. As Danesh
> Joshi (1991, p. 20) pointed out that “in practical terms the veda prescribes that
> every action of man should be sacrifice offered by him to higher and higher forces and
> beings, to the devas and ultimately to the Supreme Being itself. … It is, in fact, in the
> Gita that we find a comprehensive and abundant exposition of the principle of sacrifice
> [not ritualistic sacrifice] and of the method of performing actions as a sacrifice to the
> Divine.” It is this approach that is needed for self-development and holistic socioeconomic
> and ecological development.
> KAPUR
> 
> (1993) stated in his examination of the psychology of spirituality, the
> living person requires this integration, because the true nature of a
> human being is in the total unity of the two distinctive expressions of
> reality — the material and the spiritual. To achieve individual self-
> transformation or self-development — and this must precede the trans-
> formation or development of others and broader society — it is essential
> that the individual work simultaneously at both levels of reality
> (Danesh 1993).
> Looking at the situation in India today, I see that uninhibited
> materialism has certainly increased among the affluent classes since
> economic globalization made its recent appearance. In addition to pro-
> moting a consumeristic paradigm of economic development, globaliza-
> tion has been lopsided: it caters to those who are already privileged,
> 
> 
> 46   making them richer. Moreover, it marginalizes the poor, the weak, and
> the underprivileged, categories that often include a disproportionate
> number of women. Although globalization “reduces” the geographic
> distance through efficient communication technologies and trade net-
> works, it concurrently increases socioeconomic distance and disparity. In
> India, it is felt that globalization adversely affects people’s human rights
> and lures them away from their culture.
> According to Hassija (1991, 1998), unless people retain the abil-
> ity to look inward, globalization will unleash bitter competition, stark
> materialism, commercialism, and the disintegration of the human and
> spiritual values of world unity, compassion, and cooperation. These
> effects of globalization would not only destabilize financial markets but
> also create disharmony in social and human relations. As such, global-
> ization in business and trade without globalization of spiritual values
> will create imbalance and tension in the world order. Hassija (1998,
> p. 2) suggested that “a happy blend of economics and spirituality —
> both based on values — is necessary.”
> Hindu beliefs and religion certainly caution against uninhibited
> consumerism and materialism. I feel that a greater emphasis on limit-
> ing human wants and on the ideology of simple living and high think-
> ing could counterbalance today’s consumerist ideology. The approach
> and concept of the Sarvodaya Order, for example — which provides an
> outline of the voluntary limitation of human wants — can certainly
> help temper unmitigated consumerism, materialism, and hedonism. I
> feel that Gandhi could become an important symbol in the fight against
> the present-day consumer ideology and the violence it nurtures.
> Gandhi’s principles also provide us with another important
> resource for integrated development: ahimsa (nonviolence), an ancient
> Hindu principle that mandates noninjury of others in thought, word,
> and deed. One of the central principles of Mahatma Gandhi in his move-
> ment against the colonial British powers was nonviolence, which he
> adopted as a personal credo and preached to the Indian people. A truly
> nonviolent person will not retaliate with violence, even in self-defence.
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> The concept of nonviolence is found throughout Indian religious tradi-
> tions, and it is especially emphasized in Buddhism and Jainism.
> Hinduism also brings to the paradigm of development the idea
> that all life in the cosmos is interrelated and interwoven — a firm spir-
> itual basis for ecological balance and protection of the environment. In
> the Isho Upanishad, for example, we read the following:
> The whole universe with its creatures belongs to the Lord (Nature).
> No creature is superior to any other, and the human being should
> not have absolute power over Nature. Let no species encroach upon
> the rights and privileges of other species. However one can enjoy
> the bounties of Nature by giving up greed.
> Khoshoo (1995, p. 13)
> Kumar (1997) remarked that at the centre of the Vedic vision is
> 
> 
> the human–nature relationship, as articulated in sacred incantations and                      47
> rituals that repeatedly remind us of the need to sustain the ecological
> balance of nature. The “Bhumisukta” of the Atharvaveda (12.1.35 is one
> of the most important sources of information on the relationship of
> humans to their environment and their duty to preserve it. In this
> hymn, the seer Atharvan presents a beautiful picture of Mother Earth as
> the basis of our sustenance and a symbol for the entire environment:
> Whatever I dig from thee, O Mother Earth
> May it have quick growth again!
> Purifier, We may not injure thy vitals or thy heart.
> Quoted in Kumar (1997, p. 6)
> The holism practiced in Hinduism has other ramifications for the
> environment. The current paradigm defines sustainable development as
> development that meets the current generation’s needs without com-
> promising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
> (wced 1987). The problem is that one nation’s sustainability very often
> comes at the cost of another’s resources. We have no “world sustainable-
> growth model” that takes into account even the poorest nation. With
> Gandhi’s sarvodaya approach, the notion of sustainability would involve
> all the nations of the world, not just the countries of the North in iso-
> lation from those of the South. In an increasingly individualistic world,
> this all-encompassing concept of sustainable development could be very
> difficult to comprehend, accept, and act on.
> But the chief influence of Hindu belief in promoting integrated
> development, I believe, would be a deep-rooted belief in God and in the
> notion that we are all children of the same father, in the Oneness of the
> universe, in the potential divinity and immortality of the soul, and in
> spiritual values. The approach of the Hindus is to insist that develop-
> ment have a conscience. This is encoded in the idea of dharma, wherein
> all action, including development interventions, must be weighed
> carefully in terms of an altruistic concern for village, region, nation, and
> all other countries on the globe; all actions must be weighed holistically.
> KAPUR
> 
> According to Hindu belief, developmental efforts must incorporate the
> spiritual welfare of the entire beneficiary population and, indeed, any-
> one who would be affected by it. Development should not come at the
> cost of exploiting the resources in other countries at cheap rates, dis-
> placing marginalized populations, and living extravagantly at the ulti-
> mate expense of others, for Hinduism conceives of the world as a global
> family. The idea of a global family is essentially a religious one, found
> in Hinduism and other traditions. The percolation of this idea into the
> psyche of development practitioners might change the insidiously
> exploitative bent of 20th-century development.27
> 
> Where today’s Hinduism and development meet:
> 
> 
> 48   the promise reappraised
> I now turn to the question of how today’s Hinduism can be incorporated
> into the idea of sustainable development. Agreeing with Einstein’s
> observation about how peace can be brought to the world, Chowdhry
> (1994, p. 33) wrote that “the problem of peace, as well as that of sus-
> tainable development and environmental concerns, will only be solved
> by employing Gandhi’s method on a large scale.” Echoes of Gandhi’s
> voice seem to be emerging even from institutions such as the World
> Bank. After visiting some 25 countries, the World Bank’s president,
> James Wolfensohn, said these visits had brought home to him that the
> “World Bank’s central mission is to weld economic assistance with spir-
> itual, ethical and moral development” (Chowdhry 1996, p. 10). Some
> recent World Bank initiatives (known as the World Faiths and Devel-
> opment Dialogue), in which the Bank met with leaders of nine world
> faiths to broaden opportunities for a base of common understanding and
> action in tackling global poverty, may raise suspicions among Bank crit-
> ics, but they suggest that the Bank is at least trying to make good on
> Wolfensohn’s insight.
> Development experts, like Kamla Chowdhry, Ashok Khosla, and
> S.K. Sharma, and religious leaders, like Swami Muktinathananda,28
> It must be admitted, however, that many religions and many religious leaders talk
> about love, compassion, and altruism; they say there should be equity, cooperation, and
> the absence of force and violence. Yet, for centuries and centuries this message, which is
> both simple and profound, does not seem to have percolated very deeply into the human
> psyche. Instead of Ram Rajya (Rule of Virtue and Truth) and the Kingdom of Heaven, we
> have seen endless wars backed by religious jingoism. It would be safe to say that love and
> compassion, though widely preached, are concepts not widely understood or practiced in
> their truest sense.
> Swami Muktinathananda observed that science can help development in the fol-
> lowing ways: (1) by providing adequate knowledge to remove ignorance and superstition;
> (2) by adding to the happiness of human beings through the removal of disease, poverty,
> and want; (3) by providing technological means to enhance lifestyles; and (4) by reducing
> destructive items and by not adding to the already existing ones (Swami Mukti-
> nathananda, Ramakrishna Math, Belur, Calcutta, India, personal communication, 1998).
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> agree that sustainable development needs technology and science to
> solve its problems. Yet, they also feel that this relationship should be
> subject, in Chowdhry’s words, to the condition that it also be accompa-
> nied by public awareness, political action, and a way to ignite the moral
> and ethical values of the Indian heritage and psyche. Chowdhry further
> suggested that we should start with a new paradigm of development,
> which she described as “a people-led development, an alternative devel-
> opment, a development which is ‘pro-poor, pro-nature and pro-women’,
> not borrowed development” (Chowdhry 1994, p. 37). She also summed
> up the elements involved in sustainable development:
> Eradication of hunger and poverty is not merely an intellectual
> exercise of science, technology or economics, but also involves an
> inner change. To alter the system, it is necessary to alter the para-
> 
> 
> digm of development, and to take cognisance of the spiritual, of the                         49
> inner voice, of the ethics and values that promote sustainable
> development.
> Chowdhry (1996, p. 11)
> Khosla, founder of the ngo called Development Alternatives, and
> Sharma, founder of the ngo called People First, observed that technol-
> ogy can change lifestyles but does not usually change the quality of
> human existence.29 The goal, they emphasized, should be to realize a
> sustainable society in which people work toward attaining a high level
> of human and spiritual development. In their opinion, this society could
> be achieved by combining Gandhian ideology (based on the Indian
> ethos and tradition of grass-roots democracy) and contemporary West-
> ern democratic experience.
> The experience of 50 years of independence in India has shown us
> that borrowed models of development do not work. The mindless imi-
> tation of Western models by developing nations has led to all kinds of
> environmental disasters (Siddhartha 1998) and social malaise. When
> formulating and implementing an indigenous paradigm of develop-
> ment based on the Gandhian model, we have to understand and take
> into account the social, cultural, ethical, and spiritual background and
> values of the people concerned. Khoshoo (1997a) stated that this model
> of development aims at building local self-reliance and self-respect in
> villagers, alleviating poverty, and striving for social justice. He wrote
> that the need for a “creative synthesis” of the Gandhian and Nehruvian
> (or Western) models is imperative because the Gandhian model leads to
> decentralized economic planning — an economy of permanence —
> whereas the Nehruvian model of industrial economy runs the danger of
> making the rich richer and the poor poorer (Khoshoo 1997a). We need
> to appropriately blend tradition and modernity, religion and science in
> 
> More information about Development Alternatives can be found at www.ecouncil.ac.cr
> /devalt/damain.htm; and about People First, at www.ecouncil.ac.cr/devalt/peoplef.htm.
> KAPUR
> 
> such a way that human-made capital does not become destructive of the
> natural capital needed for development (Khoshoo 1997a).
> These realizations are also manifesting themselves outside India as
> international development agencies like the United Nations Develop-
> ment Programme (undp) discard or revamp many of their old concepts
> of development. Chowdhry (1994) felt that their focus on participatory
> approaches in the last decade means that these organizations are moving
> more toward a Gandhian-like focus on people. She pointed to undp ’s
> use of phrases like “men, women and children must be the centre of
> attention,” development strategies are “to be woven around people and
> not people around development,” and “the durable solution to today’s
> problems of poverty, unemployment, social disintegration and environ-
> 
> 
> mental deterioration cannot be achieved through just more develop-
> ment of the past kind” (Chowdhry 1994, p. 23).
> Chowdhry’s point is well-taken. The undp’s Human Development
> Report 1993 offers some indications of this change in approach. The
> report calls for
> new models of sustainable human development [to] invest in
> human potential and to create an enabling environment for the full
> use of human capabilities. … The purpose of development is to
> widen the range of people’s choices. Income is one of those choices —
> but it is not the sum-total of human life. Human development is
> development of the people for the people by the people.
> undp (1993, p. 3, emphasis in the original)
> 
> At the end of the overview, the report notes,
> The implications of placing people at the centre of political and eco-
> nomic change are profound. They challenge traditional concepts of
> security, old models of development, ideological debates on the role
> of the market and outmoded forms of international cooperation.
> They call for nothing less than a revolution in our thinking.
> undp (1993, p. 8)
> 
> These words give me hope that international agencies are open to
> new ideas, that is, to hearing what experience has been telling them, but
> I am left to wonder how this emphasis on “people centredness” will
> manifest itself without a more explicit focus on spiritual principles. Are
> the challenges of tapping into creativity, distributing benefits justly,
> and providing equal access to opportunities (undp 1993) not, in the
> final analysis, asking what motivates people to act and (perhaps more
> important) to act compassionately? And does that question not require
> us to ask what is at the centre of ourselves?
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> CONCLUSION: AN INTEGRATED PARADIGM
> 
> The Hindu religion stands for the good of humanity — social, cul-
> tural, moral and spiritual. Development and science are related to
> Hinduism in this sense: the ideal of benefiting humanity in all ways
> possible.
> Thus it is the paradigm of development in which there is a
> synthesis of the two complementary disciplines — science and reli-
> gion — being used for the well being of self and society, that will
> produce fully integrated and developed human beings, and would
> bring about holistic development — physical, economic, social,
> environmental, moral, and spiritual.
> Muktinathananda (personal communication, 199830)
> 
> 
> Tremendous confusion surrounds the question of whether science and
> religion have a meeting point and, if so, what its precise nature is.31 The
> general perception in the Hindu world, today, apart from some of the
> intelligentsia, is that there is no connection, or at best a tenuous one.
> The relationship between science and development is well accepted, but
> the nexus between religion, economic development, and the role of
> science seems to many very vague.
> The way forward for the Hindu world as it faces the next century
> is, I believe, to integrate science and religion, broadly speaking, in all
> spheres of life; development is a process that seeks to sustain and
> improve human life and well-being and, as such, needs to understand,
> incorporate, and implement the strengths of both discourses. Religion
> provides, for example, access to the inner being — human hopes, goals,
> and motivations — the place from whence all action stems. It provides
> insight into thousands of years of experience and experiment with how
> to live a fulfilling and balanced human life. Equally important, science
> Swami Muktinathananda, Ramakrishna Math, Belur, Calcutta, India, personal
> communication, 1998.
> Among the religionists and the scientists in India, one encounters various per-
> spectives on the convergence of science and religion. An informal survey based on struc-
> tured conversations with a cross-section of employees at various levels at a New Delhi
> university indicates that many Hindus approach the question from the perspective that
> both science and religion are made by God (expressed as Bhagwan, Ishwara, Sri Krishna,
> or Ram). Nothing God made can be bad, but humankind has made use of both science
> and religion in negative ways. I found that many informants thought of science in terms
> of the help it can provide in enhancing daily life, whereas the role of religion was to incul-
> cate faith in God and encourage people to do good deeds to improve present and future
> lives and to accept one’s conditions in the present life. Some pointed out that science
> would ultimately “prove” the findings of religion, and people had a strong bias in favour
> of religion as the primary source of any lasting spiritual benefits. For many Hindus,
> science is “Godless” and “atheistic,” whereas religion has the concept of a transcendent
> Ultimate Reality. Certain knowledgeable persons among the sample insisted that the
> world could advance only if science recognized the validity of religion, rather than treat-
> ing it as an aberration or an elaborate superstition.
> KAPUR
> 
> provides both insight into the workings of the outer world and the
> means to effect change in that world.
> One way to bring about such integration at the personal, commu-
> nity, national, and international levels is to provide for a much broader
> dissemination and much better understanding of the spiritual compo-
> nent of the scriptures and holy texts so as to help make them relevant to
> today’s issues. We should gradually reduce obsessive rituals, ceremonies,
> and festivals. We should work to do away with the misuse of science and
> religion for selfish gains, along with the obsession with economic and
> political power for personal aggrandizement and ill-gotten fame. With
> the help of modern s&t and the media, the cardinal principles of Vedanta
> can, through proper understanding, practice, and dissemination, change
> the attitudes and behaviour of the masses of people and revive the human
> 
> 
> 52   and spiritual values of mutual love, respect, and sharing and caring.
> Above, I discussed the problems of the unequal division of wealth
> and distribution of resources. In India, however, one cannot ignore pop-
> ulation growth as one of the biggest problems standing in the way of
> socioeconomic development. Every year, the population of India grows
> at almost the same rate as the economy, thus negating whatever positive
> effect new economic growth might have on poverty, unemployment, or
> related problems. Indian demographers and economists have been work-
> ing on population control with considerable success in some states, such
> as Kerala, but with little success in others. The varnaashram system
> (described earlier) divides human life into four stages and prescribes
> celibacy before marriage, moderate sexual indulgence within marriage,
> and complete marital fidelity. I feel that reviving the varnaashram
> scheme might provide guidance and part of a solution to the population
> problem, as well as to the problem of hiv–aids. In addition, education
> for girls and women, as well as for boys and men, with the consequent
> employment potential that it creates, would be one of the key factors in
> controlling population growth.
> Along with education and awareness, what is acutely needed is
> change, through formal and informal mass media, in the attitudes of all
> members of society toward girls and women. In this way, Indian society
> can work (as so many societies need to work) to become female positive
> and egalitarian, that is, to empower women and girls and to improve
> their status.
> I strongly feel that we cannot pursue and achieve development
> without the integrated development of women, who after all constitute
> half the world’s population. We must, for this reason, increase, imple-
> ment, and realize the measures already being undertaken all over the
> world for women’s development and empowerment. For these efforts,
> we can take inspiration and guidance from the spiritual texts of other
> faiths, such as those of the Bahá’í Faith, in which one can find the fol-
> lowing: “The world of humanity has two wings — one is woman and
> the other man. Not until both wings are equally developed can the Bird
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> fly. Should one wing remain weak, flight is impossible” (bpt 1994,
> p. 11). Here again, I feel that regenerating ancient Vedic values of
> gender equality and equity would be of great help in improving the
> situation of women.32 Metaphors for an approach to equality could be
> derived from the depiction of the gods and their consorts together in
> Indian religious culture. The consorts are worshipped along with the
> gods, and, during rituals, prayers, and devotional songs, the names of
> the consorts are often used first (for example, Radha–Krishna,
> Sita–Ram, Parvati–Shankar, and Lakshmi–Narayan). The symbol of
> Ardhnareshwar — the god Shiva as half male and half female — also
> indicates that men and women should have the same status in society.
> The most important task for the Hindu community (and for the
> other great faiths) is to evolve a national syllabus for education that
> 
> 
> includes spiritual factors. In presenting Vivekananda’s ideas about edu-                            53
> cation and religion, Bhajanananda wrote that the purpose of education
> is to make humans. With that purpose, religion and spirituality sit at
> the innermost core of education and should be a core subject.
> Vivekananda strongly felt that the purpose of education is not merely to
> provide information but also to impart knowledge and wisdom, “by
> which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, the intellect is
> expanding, and by which one can stand on one’s own feet” and face the
> problems of life (Bhajanananda 1976–77, p.39). Of course, education
> should also take up internationally important issues in science, religion,
> spirituality, and development and add lessons on the nexus among
> them. Education has the twin responsibility of equipping people with
> the latest technical skills to enable them to become economically inde-
> pendent and providing them with the relevant spiritual and moral
> strengths to enable them to improve the world in which they live (for
> example, by making them aware of the thoughts and insights of spiri-
> tual masters, scientists, and philosophers).
> Education should build capacity and character, self-confidence,
> and the ability to manifest for self- and social transformation the poten-
> tial divinity that is in each of us. Educators can accomplish these goals
> by conveying to students the principles and elements of religion (along
> with its inherent human and spiritual values) through stories, parables,
> and the life stories of religious masters and divine messengers. Accom-
> panying this should be instruction in the scientific techniques of
> concentration and yogic meditation. These ideas have been in circula-
> tion for some time now, variously articulated by scholars such as Kireet
> Certain contemporary Hindu sects also provide inspiration for female equality and
> equity. Take, for instance, the Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual University, which is run
> by and caters mainly to women and provides knowledge about the Creator and creation.
> It asks questions such as, Who am I? Who is God? What is the world? It preaches spiri-
> tuality, promotes universal values of life, and teaches Rajyoga meditation for the better-
> ment of self, others, and the universe. It also preaches celibacy and purity of mind, body,
> and soul.
> KAPUR
> 
> Joshi and institutions like Aurobindo Ashram. But until these ideas
> gain currency in the formal and informal education systems, they will
> have little therapeutic effect on the psyche of humankind or do little to
> bring about the needed development. I feel it is important to go back
> and remember that source of guidance — God — and have religious
> faith, because that is what ultimately empowers people.
> After all, in the final analysis, development involves changing
> people’s psyche and behaviour, for it is people who are behind all the
> planning and execution of development paradigms and it is people who
> are intended to benefit from them. And I believe that people cannot be
> fundamentally changed unless they receive divine guidance or wisdom,
> whether through holy scriptures or through the writings of divine mes-
> sengers, such as Bahá’u’lláh, Buddha, Jesus, Krishna, Mohammad, or
> 
> 
> 54   Guru Nanak. Global unity begins with a global mind; the best way to
> think globally is to at least have a working knowledge of religions, East-
> ern and Western. Only religion and spirituality — as approaches that
> strive after the ultimate realization of truth — will provide the guid-
> ance and inspiration human beings require to rise above the instincts of
> retaliation and unmitigated self-interest and to solve their problems
> with dignity and nonviolence, recognizing contributions from all cul-
> tures, particularly indigenous ones. Obviously, this is easier said than
> done, as vested interests support the current system and many people
> wish to live for themselves, even at the cost of future generations. Thus,
> science and religion have to create a more balanced development in
> which people seriously consider the consequences of their lifestyles for
> future generations.
> I would like to conclude this piece with the words of Swami
> Jitatmananda (1997, p. 11): “Truth Unites. Newton’s laws of motion or
> Einstein’s Relativity is common to all humanity. Universal truths of all
> religions, compatible with reason, will unite humanity.” Jitatmananda
> (1997, p. 10) draws his model for a new society, based on practical
> Vedanta, from Vivekananda’s words to European scholar Jules Bios: “[It
> will be] a successful “Superior Fusion” of Brahmin’s spiritual culture
> with Kshtriya’s administrative efficiency, Vaisaya’s wealth-generating
> capacity, and Shudra’s dignified dedication to all labour, as service to
> mankind.” Jitatmananda also clarified the changes that could be made
> at an individual level:
> Acceptance of the spiritual and holistic values by today’s high-tech
> econo-socio experts like scientists, technicians, industrialists, man-
> agers or state leaders will help us to create complete human beings
> equally enriched with the higher excellence of Western science,
> technology, the Western dynamism, and organisation, along with
> Eastern spiritual vision of the infinite capacity and excellence hid-
> den within each individual. The ultimate success, and wealth, as the
> Bhagavad Gita asserts, are available through a holistic living for all.
> Jitatmananda (1997, pp. 10–11)
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
> I strongly feel that the existing development paradigm, with its
> overemphasis on economic development and scientific–technological
> achievement, should be balanced with the critically examined concepts
> and values of religion. Thus, the empowerment of marginalized peoples
> and the creation of a just society, which should be the goals of any inte-
> grated development paradigm, could be brought about through educa-
> tion and individual and societal synthesis of science and religion, the
> cardinal elements of which are universal in nature.
> 
> ANNEX 1:
> SELECTED ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF
> 
> 
> HINDUISM-INSPIRED MOVEMENTS FOR DEVELOPMENT                                                  55
> 
> The ethical guiding principles of the movements discussed in the text
> can be synthesized into some basic premises that help to elucidate the
> principles of ethical action in Hinduism:
> 1.   God is incorporeal, eternal, omnipotent, all intelligent, all compas-
> sionate, all truth, love, beauty, and bliss, the creator of the universe.
> 2.   The ancient scriptures of India — the Vedas, the Upanishads, and
> the Bhagavad Gita — are sources of the true knowledge, the high-
> est truth, and a guide to living. They should be studied, lived, and
> taught to all.
> 3.   The power of love and necessity of world unity are paramount,
> because we are all children of the same Supreme Power.
> 4.   The principles of a good life include work, worship, and selfless
> service to humanity — including physical, mental, social, moral,
> and spiritual improvement — especially for the benefit of women
> and the weaker segments of society.
> 5.   Humans should cultivate a constant remembrance of God.
> 6.   Humans should inculcate in themselves divine qualities by acquir-
> ing wisdom through spiritual–religious study, education, and
> prayer.
> 7.   Humans should work to improve and care for both their inner and
> their outer environments.
> 8.   Humans should work to bring about communal and interfaith
> harmony.
> 9.   Humans should practice nondiscrimination, refusing to discrimi-
> nate on the basis of caste, class, sex, race, creed, or religion.
> KAPUR
> 
> 10. Humans should accept the concept of the world as one family and
> live and practice in accordance with this principle.
> 11. Humans should work for the welfare and well-being of all.
> Humans should live at peace with themselves and their fellow
> beings.
> 12. Humans should work to bring aid and solace to less-privileged
> people in an altruistic spirit.
> 13. Humans should act according to the idea that an inherent divin-
> ity exists in all life and within each one of us. We are all equally
> worthy human beings. There is a fundamental unity in diversity.
> 14. Humans should not cause suffering to anyone.
> 
> 
> 15. Humans should devote themselves to truth and nonviolence in
> thoughts, words, and action.
> 16. Humans should proceed with their actions without expecting spe-
> cific fruits or benefits from them.
> 17. Humans should carry out their duties toward themselves and oth-
> ers; it is through duty that a human reaches perfection.
> 18. Humans should be guided by the principle that our present life is
> the result of our good or bad actions in the past and that our pre-
> sent conduct moulds our future lives.
> 19. Humans should know their human rights and responsibilities and
> respect those of others, treating others as they would like to be
> treated themselves.
> 20. Humans should be guided in their conduct by the principles of
> love, respect, righteousness, justice, equity, equality, and service
> toward one and all.
> 21. Humans should limit their wants and needs and thereby live a
> simple life without exaggerated materialistic desires.
> 22. Humans should work constantly and seek wealth but share it with
> those in need; riches are but the means to do good and should not
> become the goal of life.
> 23. Humans should pursue the aims of becoming good human beings
> and help others in their efforts to do the same.
> T H E P R I N C I P L E O F F U N D A M E N TA L O N E N E S S
> 
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> APPENDIX 1
> 
> Contributing
> Authors
> 
> Farzam Arbab
> Farzam Arbab’s doctorate in theoretical particle physics led him to
> Colombia to work with the University Development Program of the
> Rockefeller Foundation to strengthen the Department of Physics at the
> Universidad del Valle. While there he began to study the relationship
> between science, technology, and educational policy and their effects on
> development, which led him and a group of colleagues to form the Fun-
> dación para la Aplicación y Enseñanza de las Ciencias (Foundation for
> the Application and Teaching of Science). This organization still func-
> tions as a successful development program in Colombia and has earned
> an international reputation for its application of spiritual principles in
> education and development. In 1993, Dr Arbab was elected to the inter-
> national governing body of the Bahá’í Faith, on which he currently
> serves.
> Azizan Baharuddin
> Dr Baharuddin’s degrees in biology and the history and philosophy of
> science allowed her to pursue her interest in the relationship between
> Islam and science. Her research interests and teaching areas include the
> history and philosophy of science; science and religion; ethics, environ-
> mental ethics, and bioethics; gender studies and human development;
> and futures studies. She has written various publications on the issues of
> science and faith and ethics and the environment. Dr Baharuddin is an
> associate professor in the Department of Science and Technology Stud-
> 
> 
> ies at the University of Malaya.                                             247
> APPENDIX   1
> 
> Gregory Baum
> With degrees in mathematics, sociology, and Catholic theology,
> Dr Baum has for 40 years been a professor of theology and religious
> studies. He currently teaches religious studies at McGill University in
> Montréal, Quebec. He has written more than 20 books on ethics and
> economics, solidarity, and various approaches to social justice within the
> Christian churches. He is a member of the Karl Polanyi Institute at
> Concordia University and was a member of a research team on environ-
> mental ethics at Université du Québec à Montréal. He is also an officer
> of the Order of Canada.
> Pierre Beemans
> Pierre Beemans has degrees in education and philosophy and has worked
> in the field of international development for more than 30 years, includ-
> 
> ing living and working for extensive periods in Latin America and
> Africa. He has held both field and management positions with cuso and
> the Canadian International Development Agency and was for 3 years a
> policy adviser in the Privy Council Office of the Government of Canada.
> Since 1992, he has been Vice-President, Corporate Services Branch, of
> the International Development Research Centre.
> Sharon Harper
> Her degrees in journalism, law, and theology led Sharon Harper to seek
> a position that would allow her to explore the scriptures and practice of
> the world’s religions and their manifestations, roles, and effects in the
> public sphere. After graduating from Harvard Divinity School, she
> became the project officer for the International Development Research
> Centre’s Science, Religion, and Development project. She is a lawyer
> and legal researcher with experience in human-rights and discrimina-
> tion issues, both domestic and international; an experienced writer and
> editor; and a program manager who is knowledgeable about mediation
> and arbitration techniques, issues of gender and research for develop-
> ment, and feminist ethics and epistemologies.
> Promilla Kapur
> With degrees in psychology and sociology, Dr Kapur has worked as a
> researcher, teacher of sociology, and counselor–therapist for more than
> 30 years. She specializes in the sociology of women, family, and mar-
> riage and has done extensive empirical research on women, adolescents
> and girl children, working women, family violence, and sex workers.
> She has published extensively in these areas, with books in English,
> Hindi, and Japanese. She has been a student of Indian culture, Hinduism,
> interfaith dialogue, and integrated human development. Since 1984 she
> has been the director of the Integrated Human Development Services
> Foundation, a charitable organization providing counseling and crisis
> intervention based on the principle of whole health, which includes
> human and spiritual values. She has been honoured by the British
> CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
> 
> International Biographical Centre, the American Biographical Institute,
> and the All India Conference of Intellectuals.
> William Ryan, S.J.
> Dr Ryan entered the Jesuit Order in 1944 and was ordained into the
> priesthood in 1957. He has an ma in labour relations and a PhD in eco-
> nomics from Harvard University and has been very active in Canada and
> the United States thinking, writing, and organizing around social-
> justice, ethics, and economic issues. He was the founding director of the
> Center of Concern (Washington, dc) and has been a senior research fel-
> low at the Canadian Institute for International Peace and Security and
> held the chair in Social Faith and Justice at St Paul University in
> Ottawa. He is the director of the Jesuit Project on Ethics in Politics in
> Ottawa and was recently appointed coordinator of the Jesuit Centre for
> 
> Social Faith and Justice. Dr Ryan is the author of many articles and lec-
> tures on multinational corporations and the new international economic
> order, the poor, the relationships between faith and social justice and
> between faith and culture, and the role of religious people in socioeco-
> nomic change. He has been working with the Science, Religion, and
> Development project since its inception in 1993.
> APPENDIX 2
> 
> Acronyms and
> Abbreviations
> 
> cswr       Center for the Study of World Religions
> dav        Dayanand Anglo Vedic
> fundaec    Fundación para la Aplicación y Enseñanza de las
> Ciencias (Foundation for the Application and Teaching
> of the Sciences) [Colombia]
> idrc       International Development Research Centre
> iiit       International Institute of Islamic Thought
> imf        International Monetary Fund
> mais       Malaysian Academy of Islamic Science
> minds      Malaysian Institute for Development Studies
> ngo        nongovernmental organization
> s&t        science and technology
> sap        structural-adjustment policy
> srd        science, religion, and development
> tnc        transnational corporation
> undp       United Nations Development Programme
> 
> 
>
> — *The Principle of Fundamental Oneness (Used by permission of the curator)*