# What Does Spirituality Look Like? *Exported from [Holy-Writings.com](https://www.holy-writings.com/) on 2026-06-20 — 1 clipping.* --- > Source: Bahá'í Library Online (bahai-library.com), curated by Jonah Winters. Used by permission of the curator. Original citation: Robert Sarracino, What Does Spirituality Look Like?, bahai-library.com. > ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────── > > What Does what spirituality “looks like.” In this paper, > following a brief overview of the concepts > Spirituality of spirit and spirituality in the Bahá’í writ- > ings, we examine a letter of the Universal > Look Like?1 House of Justice that gives us a picture of > what spirituality should look like today, as > the Bahá’í community pursues its work of > creating vibrant communities. We then ex- > ROBERT SARRACINO > plore the question of whether, and to what > degree, the social sciences can investigate > the phenomenon of spirituality as central > Abstract to human nature, arguing that they can pro- > The concept of spirituality defies a rigor- ductively adopt spiritual reality as a back- > ous definition, much like some fundamen- ground assumption, whose validity can > tal concepts in mathematics and physics. then be evaluated. > However, we may gain an understanding > of this vital religious concept by asking Résumé > Le concept de spiritualité échappe à une > définition rigoureuse, tout comme certains > 1 I would like to acknowledge the concepts fondamentaux en mathématiques > faculty members of the Wilmette Institute et en physique. Cependant, on peut mieux > course on Science, Religion and the Bahá’í comprendre ce concept religieux essentiel > Faith: Andres Elvira Espinosa, Bruce en se demandant à quoi « ressemble » la > Cotton, Stephen Friberg, Whitney White spiritualité. Dans cet article, après avoir > Kazemipour, Roger Neyman and Charlotte fait un bref tour d’horizon des concepts > Wenninger; as well as Todd Smith, for the d’esprit et de spiritualité dans les écrits > continual support, encouragement and in- bahá’ís, nous examinons une lettre de la > spiration which was offered during the two- Maison universelle de justice qui nous > year period when the series of papers for donne un aperçu de ce à quoi la spiritualité > this and the previous issue of The Journal devrait ressembler aujourd’hui, alors que > of Bahá’í Studies was drafted, reviewed la communauté bahá’íe poursuit son travail > and consulted upon. A special thanks is due de création de communautés dynamiques. > to Todd Smith for first setting us on this Nous nous demandons ensuite si, et > path, and for his steady and enthusiastic dans quelle mesure, les sciences sociales > support for the project throughout. Special peuvent étudier le phénomène de la > thanks is also due to Michael Sabet, the ed- spiritualité en tant qu’élément principal de > itor of the Journal, for his encouragement, la nature humaine, en soutenant qu’elles > close involvement, incisive observations, peuvent efficacement choisir la réalité > his keen sense, and remarkable editing spirituelle comme hypothèse de travail, > skills. I also thank the anonymous referees dont la validité peut ensuite être évaluée. > and editors for their careful analysis of the > arguments presented, and their input re- Resumen > garding the overall flow of the paper. To El concepto de espiritualidad desafía una > my wife, Lesley, for her continual support, rigurosa definición, muy parecida a al- > I offer my heartfelt appreciation. > 76 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > gunos conceptos fundamentales en las over the past twenty-five years.2 > matemáticas y la física. Sin embargo, po- “Spirit” and “spirituality” do not > dríamos lograr un entendimiento de este have rigorous, agreed upon definitions > vital concepto religioso preguntando a qué in religion or in philosophy. This is not > “se parece” la espiritualidad. En este artí- > inherently problematic. At the founda- > culo, después de un breve bosquejo de los > tions of mathematics and the sciences, > conceptos del espíritu y la espiritualidad en > for instance, we find a number of un- > los escritos Bahá’ís, examinamos una carta > de la Casa Universal de Justicia que nos da defined terms. In geometry, terms like > un panorama sobre a qué se debe parecer “point,” “line,” and “plane”—elements > la espiritualidad en tiempos actuales, a me- that are fundamental to this branch of > dida que la Comunidad Bahá’í prosigue su knowledge—are formally labeled as > labor de crear comunidades vibrantes. En- “undefined terms.” In physics there > seguida, exploramos la pregunta de que si isn’t such a formal labelling, but fun- > y a que grado las ciencias sociales pueden damental notions including “mass,” > investigar el fenómeno de la espiritualidad “energy,” “force,” and “momentum” > como un asunto central a la naturaleza hu- stubbornly resist definition, and have > mana, argumentando que ellas pueden pro- continuously been revisited by scien- > ductivamente adoptar la realidad espiritual > tists and philosophers of science (see, > como un supuesto, cuya validez puede en- > for example, Jammer, Sarracino).3 > tonces ser evaluada. > > 2 See, for example, The Universal > I > House of Justice letter dated 27 December > 2005 to the Conference of the Continental > The term “spirituality” permeates > Boards of Counsellors. > Bahá’í writings, discourse, and thought. 3 As a concrete example, Newton > “All men,” Bahá’u’lláh writes, “have famously defined mass as “quantity of > been created to carry forward an ev- matter,” a definition that, inexplicably and > er-advancing civilization” (Gleanings confusedly, is still used in some elementa- > 109:2). This civilization has both ma- ry textbooks today. As I further elaborate, > terial and spiritual elements (‘Abdu’l- > Bahá, Selections 227). In the series Eventually physicists and philoso- > of global plans laid before the Bahá’í phers of science became dissatis- > community by the Universal House fied with this metaphysical concept > of Justice, with the single aim of “the of mass, and rather than the vague > “quantity of matter,” began to think > release of the society-building power > of mass more as a coefficient in the > of the Faith in ever greater measures,” > equation of motion. Euler was the first > Bahá’ís are called upon to “learn . . . > in this movement when, in 1760, he > how to bring about spiritual and materi- defined mass as the ratio of force and > al progress” (30 December 2021). This acceleration. The concept of “force” > learning project is at the center of the itself, however, came under attack > framework for action for Bahá’í com- in the nineteenth century as being > munities that has emerged and evolved an “obscure metaphysical notion.” It > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 77 > > Despite this inability to pin down a Through these two means the Bahá’í > formal definition, there are relation- community is able not only to reach a > ships among these terms and concepts collective, albeit continuously evolv- > that can be expressed in equations. ing, understanding of what is meant by > Physicists gain a familiarity with their spirit and spirituality, but also to con- > discipline’s fundamental terms and tribute to answering a more practical > concepts by coming to understand question: “What does spirituality look > these equations and what they repre- like?” > sent with respect to the motion of dis- It is to this question that the present > crete entities and waves, and the inter- paper seeks to make a contribution. It > actions between them. proceeds in three parts. First, it grap- > Just as the presence of undefined ples with ontological questions about > terms in mathematics and physics is spirit and spirituality. There is no ambi- > not problematic, so the lack of rigorous tion to do this with great rigor; the goal > definitions for spirit and spirituality is is simply to suggest a few parameters > not problematic in the Bahá’í Faith. by which we can understand enough > There is a unity of thought within the about these concepts to ground the > Bahá’í community as to the implica- more practical question. > tions of the terms and what they refer Second, it looks to recent guidance > to. Bahá’ís come to understand what from the Universal House of Justice, > spirituality is and what it is not through specifically a paragraph from the 30 > two complementary avenues of en- December 2021 letter outlining the > deavor. The first avenue is detailed qualities and characteristics of “the en- > study of the writings and guidance of kindled souls being raised up through > the Faith. The second avenue consists the processes” (¶ 4) of the current > of efforts to translate those writings and series of Bahá’í plans for Jammer, > guidance, and the principles and in- Sarracino the advancement of com- > junctions contained therein, into action munities, as a source for outlining > in personal and community life, and in what the spirituality the Bahá’í com- > the functioning of Bahá’í institutions. munity attempts to act out looks like. > Relying on guidance from the central > was Ernst Mach who developed the institution of the Bahá’í Faith is par- > working definition from which twen- ticularly useful for our question, be- > tieth century attempts to define mass cause the Universal House of Justice’s > have developed, and which is used, letters are not only the agreed upon > more or less, in textbooks today. . . . focal point of guidance for the global > Ernst Mach formulated mass in terms Bahá’í community, but are also craft- > of mass-ratio, that is, the “negative ed in reflection of what that Body sees > inverse ratio of mutually induced ac- emerging from the actual experience > celerations” of two interacting bodies. of Bahá’ís—individuals, communities, > This itself, however, has problems and institutions—worldwide. > (Sarracino 10–13). > 78 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > Third, the paper turns to how the irrationality, referring to ghosts, spir- > question “What does spirituality look its, and other intangible entities. Some > like?” might help the social sciences even view spirituality as destructive, > come to better grips with a phenome- leading to anti-social behavior and > non—spirituality—whose ontological violence. The problem is compound- > reality they are incapable of directly as- ed by the apparent irrelevance of the > sessing, yet one that intimately shapes concept of “spirit” (and allied concepts > the motivations and actions of myriad like “soul”) to the natural sciences, > people worldwide. Since those moti- and by the ambiguous reception of the > vations and actions are proper studies concept in the social sciences, which > for the social sciences, the question of either consider it meaningless within > how these areas of human inquiry can the predominant materialist paradigm,5 > “quantify” spirituality is an important or simply too difficult to observe the > one. This paper’s thesis is that it can action or effect of in an empirically > best do so by taking the existence of testable manner. > a transcendent spiritual nature in hu- In contrast to this lack of consen- > mans as a background assumption to sus around what is meant by spirit and > produce evidence from data, and that spirituality in discourse generally, there > this evidence can be used to support is, from what I have observed, a unity > or falsify well-formulated hypotheses of understanding on this topic within > about human spiritual nature. the Bahá’í community. It is a charac- > teristically Bahá’í unity—a unity in > S S diversity, in which there is no need to > B ’ W : perfectly reconcile the inevitable range > AB O of perspectives individuals bring to > the question, since this range admits > The term “spirituality” is understood a richer collective understanding than > in a variety of ways by different indi- any one perspective could afford.6 > viduals and communities in wider so- > ciety.4 The views of those unaffiliated > 5 For a more comprehensive treat- > with any particular religion range from ment, see William B. Hurlbut, “Science, > positive—if often vague—conceptions Ethics and the Human Spirit” in The > of spirituality, to the view that spir- Oxford Handbook of Religion and Science. > itual belief is a symptom of human 6 Indeed, a Bahá’í perspective on > this, as on many metaphysical topics, be- > 4 An illustrative example of this gins with the understanding that the human > variety can be found in Sena et al.’s 2021 mind can never perfectly grasp the ontol- > study of the concepts or definitions of ogy of anything (Gleanings 26), let alone > spirituality used by researchers in the med- entities, concepts, realms, etc. that are > ical field alone, in which they find, and inherently beyond embodied human per- > attempt to categorize, some 166 different ception, or beyond the human’s own onto- > definitions. logical station. As with models of reality > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 79 > > Yet it is nonetheless a unity, in that it the power of the senses and powers of > builds on certain core propositions in thought that are absent in the plant. To > the Bahá’í writings that combine to use the terminology of modern science, > make “spirit” and “spirituality” usable these powers are emergent, appear- > concepts. ing as more complex organizations > From the outset we should distin- of matter emerge from simpler ones.7 > guish between what might be called At each stage of progression, from the > the ontology of spirit on the one hand, lower to the higher levels, the higher > and the acquisition of spiritual capac- incorporates all the inherent attributes > ities and the expression of spirituality of the lower and adds new attributes > by humans on the other hand. (Promulgation 85). The lower, by its > very nature, remains unaware of, and > O S even denies the reality of, the powers > of the higher (Selections 163:2). > S R It would seem to follow from this > conception that God—if we might > A useful starting place is ‘Abdu’l-Bahá venture to say anything about the > discussion of the unity, and hierarchy, “Unknowable Essence”—is the ulti- > of creation: mate Spirit, in that there is no perspec- > tive from which One Who stands not > [T]he truth is that the world of ex- merely at the apex of creation but ut- > istence is a single world, although terly beyond it (as its uttermost Source) > its stations are manifold in accor- does not remain “higher.” > dance with the manifold realities > of things. For instance, the world S O , > of mineral, plant, and animal ex- U R > istence is the same world. Despite > this, the animal world in relation “Spirit” is not only a description of > to the world of the vegetable is a the qualities of one entity relative to > spiritual reality and another world another, but also, according to Bahá’í > and abode. (Amr va Khalq 1:202 thought, an underlying, ontological > provisional translation, qtd. in > Phelps; emphasis added) 7 Nobel laureate Philip Anderson > describes emergence in these terms: > Spirituality is thus relative: each > higher level is a spiritual reality rela- The behavior of large and complex > tive to a lower level. The animal has aggregates of elementary particles, it > turns out, is not to be understood in > terms of a simple extrapolation of the > in science, the usefulness of whatever con- properties of a few particles. Instead, > cept we have of a transcendent reality is a at each level of complexity entirely > good indicator of its relationship to truth. new properties appear . . . (393). > 80 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > reality. Used in this sense of the term, we actually observed an instantiation > we find (for instance) that ‘Abdu’l- of the Higgs field; i.e. a Higgs particle, > Bahá in Some Answered Questions generated in an experiment at CERN. > refers to a mineral, a vegetable, an an- We can analogously conceive of a hu- > imal, and a human spirit — the human man “field” permeating all of reality > spirit or “rational soul” having two (purely by way of analogy, and with- > aspects, as will be discussed further. out suggesting that the human spirit > Beyond these, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá writes, has a physical and / or measurable > there is a “heavenly spirit” or “spirit of ontology). When the conditions are > faith,” through which the higher aspect right—when an organism appears with > of the human spirit is awakened and the requisite level of complexity—the > animated, and which itself “proceeds human field instantiates itself in an > through the breath of the Holy Spirit,” individual soul—what has been called > “the mediator between God and His “the rational soul” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, > creation,” which is associated with the Some Answered Questions 55:5). As > Manifestation of God (ch. 36).8 ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains, “if a thousand > To understand how “spirit” as a million years hence, the component > fundamental ontological reality relates elements of man are brought together, > to the mundane reality we perceive measured out in the same proportion, > through our senses, we might analogize combined in the same manner, and > to the concept of fields as understood subjected to the same interaction with > in physics. According to current mod- other beings, exactly the same man > els, at the most fundamental level mat- will come into existence” (46:7). > ter is comprised of fields—such as the > Higgs field—that permeate all space S > and time, with fundamental particles H P > being particular instantiations of fields. > Only very recently—in 2012—have To explore how the ideas of underlying > ontological spirit and spirituality as a > relative condition relate to each other, > 8 In some contexts, the Bahá’í writ- > ings distinguish clearly between the mate- > we can consider spirituality as an inher- > rial and the spiritual as distinct realms of ent, yet latent, property of the human > existence that are nevertheless unified as being. Bahá’u’lláh explains that in the > parts of one whole, with “[t]he physical human being “are potentially revealed > universe [being] . . . in perfect correspon- all the attributes and names of God to > dence with the spiritual or divine realm” a degree that no other created being > (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation 93:1). A hath excelled or surpassed” (Kitab-i- > philosophical treatment of spirit in the Íqán 101). While these attributes and > Bahá’í writings would explore the relation- names are unchanging and eternal in > ship between the various presentations of God, and thus have an unchanging on- > the concept in greater detail than is neces- tological existence, their expressions > sary here. > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 81 > > as spiritual qualities by human beings It distinguishes humans from animals, > is not automatic: for “the animal perceives sensible > things but cannot perceive concep- > Man is the supreme Talisman. tual realities” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Some > Lack of a proper education hath, Answered Questions 48:6). It is a fac- > however, deprived him of that ulty that the individual, through vo- > which he doth inherently pos- lition, can turn to the animal nature > sess. . . . Regard man as a mine and so choose to descend to that level > rich in gems of inestimable value. of being, or orient to the divine and > Education can, alone, cause it to thus acquire the attributes pertaining > reveal its treasures, and enable to that world. It is in that sense, one > mankind to benefit therefrom. can surmise, that ‘Abdu’l-Bahá refers > (Bahá’u’lláh, Tablets 161–62) to the “human spirit” as having “two > aspects”: > > The attributes of God within human But this human spirit has two as- > reality thus exist only as potential. They pects: one divine and one satan- > must be developed in order to become ic—that is, it is capable of both > manifest—through education and as a the greatest perfection and the > result of the individual’s own volition greatest deficiency. Should it ac- > (Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings ch. 77). quire virtues, it is the noblest of all > From this perspective, William S. things; and should it acquire vices, > Hatcher proposes a working definition it becomes the most vile. (Some > of spiritual growth as “the process of Answered Questions 36:5) > the full, adequate, proper and harmo- > nious development of one’s spiritual I would thus restate Hatcher’s defi- > capacities” (“Concept” 5). nition of spiritual growth to draw out > Key to this process is self-reflec- an implicit feature: spiritual growth > tion. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá writes that man’s is “the process of the full, adequate, > nature “is threefold: animal, human proper, harmonious, and self-reflective > and divine” (Promulgation 139:12). > The “human,” one may conclude The virtues of humanity are many, > from the Bahá’í writings, is that “ra- but science is the most noble of them > tional faculty with which God hath all. The distinction which man enjoys > endowed the essence of man.” This above and beyond the station of the > rational faculty is an inextricable and animal is due to this paramount vir- > distinguishing facet of the human tue. It is a bestowal of God; it is not > spirit (Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings 83:1).9 material; it is divine. (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, > Promulgation 20:2) > > 9 This rational capacity of the hu- It is in this sense that one can call sci- > man spirit is the source of science: ence a collective spiritual enterprise. > 82 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > development of one’s spiritual capaci- What, then, is the nature of the di- > ties.” In other words, we use the pow- vine capacities to which this process is > ers of the “human” spirit—including directed? There are myriad passages in > the rational power of self-reflection— the Bahá’í writings specifying some of > to acquire the “divine” spirit. these capacities. “The purpose of the > Spiritual growth can thus be consid- one true God in manifesting Himself,” > ered a process of growth towards being, Bahá’u’lláh writes in one instance, > to develop one’s divine capacities.10 > While the essential ontology of the is to summon all mankind to truth- > human being is spiritual, the extent fulness and sincerity, to piety and > to which that spiritual essence devel- trustworthiness, to resignation and > ops—or remains largely overridden submissiveness to the Will of God, > by the lower animal nature that, in to forbearance and kindliness, to up- > relation to the human spirit, is materi- rightness and wisdom. His object is > al—depends on this process of growth to array every man with the mantle > (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation 65).11 of a saintly character, and to adorn > him with the ornament of holy and > 10 In section of his paper I have > goodly deeds. (Gleanings 137:4) > quoted, Hatcher uses the terms “spiritual > growth” and “spirituality” interchangeably. Yet there is also a sense in which > There is a strong sense, however, in which what spirituality looks like—the way > spirituality can be considered a condition or in which we must express our spiritual > state one strives to attain, as reflected in a capacities, including both the rationali- > letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi: ty of the human spirit and the qualities > “How to attain spirituality is, indeed, a ques- of the divine spirit—will be specific to > tion to which every young man and woman our time and place. Since this is what > must sooner or later try to find a satisfactory motivates my examination of recent > answer” (qtd. in Importance of Prayer no. guidance of the Universal House of > 40). There need not be any contradiction, > Justice in particular, it merits further > of course, between viewing spirituality as a > exploration. > process or as a state. The thoughts, words, > and actions by which a person at a given > level of spiritual development can progress > to a further level are the very same thoughts, livelihood is prepared and ordained in the > words, and actions that characterize the rel- divine creative plan. . . . Therefore, con- > ative level of spirituality that this person sider how base a nature it reveals in man > thus attains. The qualities reflected in the that, notwithstanding the favors showered > guidance of the Universal House of Justice upon him by God, he should lower himself > discussed in the next section, for instance, into the animal sphere, be wholly occu- > can be considered in either light pied with material needs, attached to this > 11 “But the life of man is not so re- mortal realm, imagining that the greatest > stricted; it is divine, eternal, not mortal and happiness is to attain wealth in this world” > sensual. For him a spiritual existence and (Promulgation 65:4). > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 83 > > E T ,C collections of particles but are absent > E , S in the individual particles that com- > prise them. Fluidity and its reciprocal, > If this is indeed the time of “the com- viscosity, are examples of this emer- > ing of age of the entire human race,” gence: the individual particles of, say, > as the Bahá’í Faith asserts, it should a body of water do not have fluidity, > be no surprise that the Revelation but the body itself, composed of these > of Bahá’u’lláh not only renews, but particles, exhibits this property. > updates, our concept of spirituality Similarly, while there are aspects of > (Shoghi Effendi, World Order 163). We spirituality that can be expressed indi- > can expect spirituality, on the one hand, vidually, other facets of spirituality are > to bear similarities to understandings emergent, appearing when individuals > or concepts of the past, but also, in organize themselves and work togeth- > this age, to exhibit new characteristics. er. For instance, the individual is en- > The individual’s spirituality looks dif- dowed with the power of understand- > ferent in maturity than in adolescence ing, which is a spiritual power relative > or in childhood. As the capacity of the to the animal. When individuals orga- > individual to express spirituality in ac- nize themselves to, say, investigate in > tion grows as the individual matures, concert some phenomenon of nature, > we can expect the same to be true of this spirituality emerges as a property > humanity as a whole.13 of the group. Although the individual > Indeed, the collective dimension may engage in scientific activity, sci- > of spiritual expression can be consid- ence does not arise from the individual: > ered as another kind of “emergence.” it is an emergent phenomenon arising > In nature, certain properties of matter from individuals working in concert. > are emergent in that they appear in Similarly, although individuals engage > in religious activity, religion itself does > not come from the individual: religion > 12 See ‘Abdu’l-Bahá on “the dif- > arises from entire communities work- > ference between the perfect man and the > ing in concert. It is when followers of a > child” (Promulgation 53). > 13 This may partially explain why > particular Messenger of God assemble > spirituality is viewed as naïve and / or and work together that the phenome- > superstitious by many, including some non of religion appears. Religion and > scientifically minded people. Conceptions science can thus both be considered > of spirituality suited to previous stages emergent spiritual enterprises. > of humanity’s collective evolution may, We should expect, then, that all three > if they linger in the public discourse on protagonists in the civilization-build- > spirituality, obscure more relevant concep- ing process described by the Universal > tions. Science tends to replace outmoded House of Justice—the individual, the > paradigms over time; religion may need to community and the institutions—can > learn to do the same to retain, or regain, its develop and express spirituality (28 > relevance. > 84 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > December 2010). Spirituality in one of for power throughout time. In > these three protagonists will look dif- this context, the assumption that > ferent than spirituality in another and, relations among them will inev- > as each protagonist evolves over time, itably conform to the dictates of > its spirituality will be expressed in new competition, a notion that ignores > ways. The development of spirituality the extraordinary potential of the > on the level of the institutions will be human spirit, has been set aside in > reflected in a new aim: “not to control favour of the more likely premise > but to nurture and guide” (2 March that their harmonious interactions > 2013). The development of a new level can foster a civilization befitting a > of spirituality on the part of the com- mature humanity. (2 March 2013) > munity will be seen as it > Before exploring “what spirituality > takes on the challenge of sustain- looks like” today, a final general con- > ing an environment where the sideration merits mention. Implicit > powers of individuals, who wish in the educational paradigm for spir- > to exercise self-expression respon- itual development, and explicit in > sibly in accordance with the com- many places in the Bahá’í writings, > mon weal and the plans of institu- is the principle that spirituality is de- > tions, multiply in unified action. (2 veloped systematically at both the > March 2013) individual and collective level. It is > thus no surprise that the Revelation > Clearly, these expressions of spiritu- of Bahá’u’lláh, which is intended to > ality are emergent, in the sense that the “effect a fundamental transformation > individual, no matter how advanced, in the whole basis of human society, > cannot achieve them. They require which will involve the spiritualiza- > institutions and communities that are tion of mankind” (Universal House > progressing along their own paths of of Justice in Research Dept. Family > spiritual development. 74), is described by Shoghi Effendi as > Spirituality appropriate to humani- “scientific in its method” (Letter High > ty’s age of maturity will also be pro- Commissioner). > gressively expressed in the relation- Indeed, the Universal House > ships between the three protagonists: of Justice has progressively out- > lined a framework for action for the > At the heart of the learning pro- global Bahá’í community, appro- > cess is inquiry into the nature of priate to its level of development > the relationships that bind the and systematic in its approach.14 > individual, the community, and > the institutions of society—ac- 14 For a more focused discussion see > tors on the stage of history who Stephen Friberg, “Revelation as Scientific > have been locked in a struggle in its Method: Science, Diversity, > Consultation, and Learning in Action.” > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 85 > > A document prepared on behalf of the we can now turn to the central question, > Universal House of Justice explains and make it more precise: “What does > that spirituality look like today, for individ- > uals, communities and institutions?” > [w]hen efforts are carried out in > a learning mode—characterized In its pivotal message of 30 > by constant action, reflection, December 2021, the Universal House > consultation, and study—visions of Justice clearly outlines the task be- > and strategies are re-examined fore us, of “building a society that con- > time and again. . . . The learning sciously pursues [the] collective pur- > process, which is given direction pose” set out for it by Bahá’u’lláh—to > through appropriate institutional “work for the betterment of the world > arrangements, unfolds in a way and live together in concord and har- > that resembles the growth and dif- mony”—and explains that this is “the > ferentiation of a living organism. work not only of this generation but of > Haphazard change is avoided, and generations to come.” In the same mes- > continuity of action maintained. sage the Universal House of Justice > (OSED) outlines three areas of learning that are > most crucial at this time:15 > The systematic work of the com- > munity is a corollary of the practices  Learning how to raise up vi- > that have always been at the core of brant, outward-looking com- > the individual Bahá’í’s spiritual life, munities; > and that are reflected in other religious >  Learning how to bring about > traditions: regular prayer, fasting, and > material and spiritual progress; > immersion in the sacred writings of > the Faith amongst others. At both the  Learning how to contribute to > individual and collective level, then, it the discourses that influence > is clear that spirituality is not acquired the direction of that progress. > passively. That does not mean that it > cannot be an inner process, of course, In light of this mandate placed be- > but rather that it is acquired through fore the Bahá’í community and its > progressive refinement requiring ac- > tive, systematic engagement of one’s 15 Presumably, for the duration of > faculties. the series of Plans that will occupy the > Bahá’í community until the year 2046. > W D S Global Plans of fixed durations have been > L L ? set in place by the central institution of the > Bahá’í Faith since the time of the Guardian, > Having explored a few characteristics Shoghi Effendi, and guide the community’s > of a Bahá’í conception of spirituality, growth as well as its contribution to wider > society. > 86 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > collaborators, spirituality looks like collaborate with, and they strive to > that set of qualities and attributes that foster fellow feeling even among > will best equip humanity to engage in groups who may traditionally > these three areas of learning over the have been hostile to one another. > next quarter century. They are conscious of how the > As a document that not only clarifies forces of materialism are at work > the path before a community dedicat- around them, and their eyes are > ed to progressively enacting spiritual wide open to the many injustices > behaviour, but reflects back to that that persist in the world, yet they > community what it is already learning are equally clear sighted about > about and putting into practice, this the creative power of unity and > letter, I propose, can itself serve as a humanity’s capacity for altruism. > rich resource for answering our central They see the power that true reli- > question. gion possesses to transform hearts > In eleven sentences of paragraph and overcome distrust, and so, > four, the letter paints a portrait of with confidence in what the future > “the enkindled souls being raised up holds, they labour to cultivate the > through the processes of the Plan”: conditions in which progress can > occur. They share their beliefs > They are committed to the pros- liberally with others, remaining > perity of all, recognizing that the respectful of the freedom of con- > welfare of individuals rests in the science of every soul, and they > welfare of society at large. They never impose their own standards > are loyal citizens who eschew on anyone. And while they would > partisanship and the contest for not pretend to have discovered all > worldly power. Instead, they are the answers, they are clear about > focused on transcending differenc- what they have learned and what > es, harmonizing perspectives, and they still need to learn. Their ef- > promoting the use of consultation forts advance to the alternating > for making decisions. They em- rhythm of action and reflection; > phasize qualities and attitudes— setbacks leave them unfazed. (30 > such as trustworthiness, cooper- December 2021 ¶ 4) > ation, and forbearance—that are > building blocks of a stable social With an understanding of spiritual- > order. They champion rationality ity as both inherent—in the individu- > and science as essential for human al—and emergent—finding expression > progress. They advocate tolerance at the collective levels of the commu- > and understanding, and with the nity and the institution—we can see > inherent oneness of humanity up- in this paragraph two clear directives: > permost in their minds, they view a guide to individuals engaged in the > everyone as a potential partner to community-building process, and a > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 87 > > characterization of the qualities that reality” (Selections 72:3), spirituality > are destined to emerge on both com- involves embracing fully the rational > munity and institutional levels as the faculty and its fruits. This is clear- > work progresses. ly seen in the Universal House of > In this section, I explore five dimen- Justice’s characterization, in its letter > sions of what spirituality looks like dated 30 December 2021, of the “en- > today that emerge from this paragraph: kindled souls”: > embracing rationality, developing > clarity of vision, acquiring particular  They champion rationality and > spiritual qualities, espousing new con- science as essential for human > cepts of power, and working toward progress; > reconciliation. >  They promote the use of con- > sultation in exploring reality, > E R > developing understanding, and > in decision-making; > Spirituality today must fully embrace > rationality and all its fruits, includ-  Their efforts advance to “the al- > ing science. Throughout the Bahá’í ternating rhythm of action and > writings it is emphasized that, at all reflection.” > times, religious truth must conform > to reason, and science and religion16 In past dispensations the majority > must work together. As ‘Abdu’l-Bahá of humanity was illiterate, and science > underscores, “true science is reason as we know it today did not exist. It > and reality, and religion is essentially is no surprise that the Revelation of > reality and pure reason; therefore, the Bahá’u’lláh, originating in the nine- > two must correspond” (Promulgation teenth century, would emphasize uni- > 44:8). Although the divine is a high- versal education, the development of > er spiritual power than the human or critical thinking skills, and an orienta- > rational power, in this day when the tion towards science and reason. In one > sciences have become “bridges to of His talks given in America ‘Abdu’l- > Bahá emphasizes, > 16 Much could be written about > the relationship between spirituality and [W]e must arise to service in > religion, which today is understood from the world of morality, for human > many different perspectives, and in quite morals are in need of readjust- > contradictory ways. For the purposes of ment. We must also render service > this paper, I simply assert (without trying to to the world of intellectuality in > prove) the relationship implied by the state- > order that the minds of men may > ment written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi > increase in power and become > that “spiritual development . . . is the very > foundation and purpose of the Religion of > keener in perception, assisting > God” (in Prayer and Devotional Life 71). the intellect of man to attain its > 88 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > supremacy so that the ideal virtues “increasing attention needs to be given > may appear. (Promulgation 105:3) to . . . processes that seek to enhance the > life of a community”—the Universal > It is clear that the embrace of ratio- House of Justice emphasizes the im- > nality is not a characteristic of spiritual- portance of the community maintaining > ity today that is confined to the individ- a systematic and scientific approach to > ual. Bahá’í communities as a whole are its own development (Riḍván 2023). It > learning about emergent expressions of must specifically continue to develop > rationality that the isolated individual > cannot achieve. These communities the capacity to engage in system- > are currently applying a method to atic learning . . . a capacity that > their three areas of learning that in- draws on insights arising from the > volves “an ongoing process of action, Teachings and the accumulated > reflection, study, and consultation” store of human knowledge gen- > (Universal House of Justice, 24 July erated through scientific enquiry. > 2013). Consultation in particular is an As this capacity grows, much will > inherently collective means whereby be accomplished over the coming > the rational faculty can be employed to decades. (Riḍván 2023) > explore material and spiritual reality, > whether to make a decision or to sim- There is, of course, an individual > ply advance understanding.17 responsibility to embrace rationality > In laying before the worldwide as well; and even in community pro- > Bahá’í community the multiplicity cesses such as consultation, it is the > of the tasks before it—tasks in which individual’s contribution of reasoned > argument that contributes to a whole > 17 In companion papers in this col- greater than the sum of its parts. One > laborative exploration of the harmony of vital contributor to the individual’s ra- > science and religion other authors have tional inquiry is freedom of initiative. > expanded on the role of consultation. > The spiritual world, even more than > See, in this issue, Andres Elvira Espinosa > the physical world, is a vast world; a > “‘Justly and Without Bias’: Consultation > as a Technique for Mitigating Cognitive > world to be explored. And just as the > Biases,” and Roger Neyman and Charlotte scientist requires a large measure of > Wenninger, “Transformative Dialogue: freedom in exploring physical reali- > A Key to Elevating Discourse” and, in ty—freedom to identify lines of inqui- > vol. 33 no. 3 of The Journal of Bahá’í ry, to hypothesize, to experiment—so > Studies, Whitney White Kazemipour, a person on the spiritual path requires > “Even as the Waves of One Sea: Bahá’í freedom of initiative to explore that > Consultation’s Implicit Cultural Support world and garner its fruits. Similarly, > for the Clash of Differing Opinions” and communities require the freedom to > Todd Smith, Becoming Attuned to Reality: “read their own reality” (Universal > Presuppositions and the Power of Learning House of Justice, 28 December 2010 ¶ > in Action.” > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 89 > > 10), to explore that reality, and to ad-  They have the inherent one- > vance on their own level and at their ness of humanity uppermost in > own pace. This reading of reality flows mind; > from a broader conception of rational- >  They are committed to the > ity that draws on the powers of mind > prosperity of all, recognizing > and spirit, including reference to the > that the welfare of individuals > insights from both scientific and reli- > rests in the welfare of society at > gious understanding. > large; > One of the natural, inevitable and > constructive features of individu-  They are conscious of how > al initiative is that there will arise, the forces of materialism are > in consultation, what ‘Abdu’l-Bahá at work around them, and > identifies as “the clash of differing their eyes are wide open to the > opinions”—as opposed to the “clash many injustices that persist in > of egos,” which is almost always de- the world, yet they are equally > structive. It is through the “clash of clear sighted about the creative > differing opinions” that “the shin- power of unity and humanity’s > ing spark of truth cometh forth” capacity for altruism. (30 De- > in consultation (Selections 44).18 cember 2021 ¶ 4) > > D C V The faculty of vision, Bahá’u’lláh > writes, is derived from the rational > Spirituality requires clarity of vision. faculty (Gleanings 83:2), and is “the > Although practically one’s work may agent and guide for true knowledge.” > be on a local level—with family, fel- “Keenness of understanding,” He elu- > low-believers, colleagues, friends, cidates, “is due to keenness of vision” > neighbors, or a community—these (Tablets 4:7). Hence, clarity of vision > groups in themselves are limited; that is a crucial adjunct to embrace of the > is, they are parts of the whole. A clear rational. Historically, many enter- > vision is a world-embracing vision, and prises that had sound beginnings and > is expressed in selfless service aimed potentially promising outcomes lost > at the betterment of the entire human their way because, partly through nar- > race. Thus, the House of Justice says of row focus and partly through distrac- > the enkindled souls: tions arising from the “insistent self” > (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Selections 206:9)—the > animal side of human nature—a wid- > 18 The continual “clash of opinions” er perspective was lost. This can be > has been one of the vital features of the > avoided if the wider perspective of the > collective enterprise of science throughout > health of the entire human family— > history. For a deeper discussion and anal- > ysis of the operation of this dynamic in > and the long-range goal of achieving > Bahá’í consultation see White Kazemipour. the unity of the entire human race—is > 90 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > ever held in the consciousness of those obvious importance in an age in which > working at the grassroots level. our very ability to speak civilly across > lines of difference seems in many plac- > A P es to be eroding (see Wenninger and > S Q Neyman, this issue). As for trustworthi- > ness, it must characterize any religious > The demands of this period of time re- individual or community who seeks to > quire the cultivation of particular, crit- contribute to the social good. Indeed, > ical qualities. The Universal House of religion has acquired a bad name among > Justice emphasizes specific qualities of many people of thought in the world, in > the enkindled souls: no small part because of the gross and > obvious hypocrisy of many religious >  They emphasize qualities and leaders and religious organizations.19 > attitudes—such as trustworthi- Hypocrisy is so condemned that > ness, cooperation, and forbear- Bahá’u’lláh admonishes in one of His > ance—that are building blocks tablets, > of a stable social order; > Be thou of the people of hellfire, >  They share their beliefs lib- > but be not a hypocrite. > erally with others, remaining > (qtd. in Trustworthiness 38) > respectful of the freedom of > conscience of every soul, and > they never impose their own The spiritual qualities of generosity, > standards on anyone; respect and detachment, reflected in > the balance struck by liberally sharing >  While they would not pretend > one’s belief while never imposing one’s > to have discovered all the an- > standards on others, are equally critical > swers, they are clear about > today. The masses of humanity, the > what they have learned and > great majority of whom are religious, > what they still need to learn. > increasingly have nowhere to turn to > (30 December 2021) > find inspiration and positive models. > One is reminded of Bahá’u’lláh’s state- > Recalling our definition, building ment in the Book of Certitude: > on Hatcher, of spiritual growth as the > “full, adequate, proper, harmonious, > and self-reflective development of > one’s spiritual capacities,” we can nev- 19 The other major cause of this > ertheless recognize that at each partic- disrepute, namely the disunity of sectarian > attachments that plague so many religious > ular time in history certain qualities > communities and institutions today, further > rise to the fore as being most condu- > speaks to the need for cooperation and > cive to individual and social progress. forbearance (Universal House of Justice, > Cooperation and forbearance are of April 2002). > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 91 > > What “oppression” is more griev- destined to bring about? > ous than that a soul seeking the Like all similar questions, these can > truth, and wishing to attain unto most practically be addressed in terms > the knowledge of God, should of current needs and current directions > know not where to go for it and to be taken. In the paragraph under > from whom to seek it? (Kitáb-i- study, the Universal House of Justice > Íqán 31) makes a number of relevant observa- > tions about the “enkindled souls”: > On the one hand, the distrust among > people who have become cynical about  They are loyal citizens who > religion needs to be dispelled. On the eschew partisanship and the > other hand, those who are religious contest for worldly power; > need to be shown in action what true >  They promote the use of con- > religion is and what it can accomplish, > sultation for making decisions; > in a measure that will attract those who > have become disillusioned, and enable  They view everyone as a po- > them to work together for a common tential partner to collaborate > purpose. Intellectual humility is equal- with; > ly important in this regard: to know  They see the power that true > that one has not discovered all the an- religion possesses to transform > swers even as one is clear about what hearts; > has been learned so far changes the > nature of the invitation, from “join me”  They labour to cultivate the > to “let us learn together.” These quali- conditions in which progress > ties, nurtured in individuals and com- can occur. (30 December 2021 > munities, can foster the kind of fellow ¶ 4) > feeling that will enable diverse people > to work together. Science and religion are described > by the Universal House of Justice > E AN C as “two complementary systems of > P knowledge and practice by which hu- > man beings come to understand the > Bahá’u’lláh writes that the task of con- world around them and through which > verting “satanic strength” into “heav- civilization advances” (2 March 2013). > enly power” is one that “We have been Yet, throughout history, the knowledge > empowered to accomplish” (Gleanings generated by both science and religion > 99:1). What is heavenly power? What has also been coopted by those who > is the new concept of power that He wield temporal power. > has been empowered to establish, and Scientific discovery leads to new > what changes in power structures and technologies that can be used to im- > power relationships is His Revelation prove life but also to serve the ends > 92 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > of those who wish to exert power over wrested from others and used against > others. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá described the them in a zero-sum game. As the > “destructive and infernal machines. . . . Universal House of Justice has written > forces of demolition and the invention regarding the individual, institutions > of fiery implements” of His own time and community, > as evidence that the current “civili- > zation is conjoined with barbarism” Throughout human history, inter- > (Selections 225:6). In the twentieth actions among these three have > century, discoveries in physics enabled been fraught with difficulties at > the development of nuclear weapons, every turn, with the individual > while advances in psychology were clamouring for freedom, the in- > also weaponized into techniques of stitution demanding submission, > persuasion designed to channel human and the community claiming pre- > activity into patterns of commercial- cedence. . . . Today, in this age of > ization (Packard). transition, as humanity struggles > Religion, as the historical frame- to attain its collective maturity, > work for spirituality, has also gener- such relationships—nay, the very > ated what we might call “social tech- conception of the individual, of > nologies.” These technologies helped social institutions, and of the com- > create stable and happy families, sta- munity—continue to be assailed > ble and progressive communities, and by crises too numerous to count. > well-ordered societies. But through (28 December 2010) > excess of zeal, ulterior motives, and > thirst for power, other technologies A reconceptualization of power is > have been developed that may have central to reimagining the individual, > passed for spiritualization: forms of community, and institution in a way > social control, coercion, demands for that permits harmonious relationships > conformity, oppression of the spirit, between them. As the Universal House > and the tyranny of forced catechisms of Justice goes on to point out: “Every > and beliefs. follower of Bahá’u’lláh knows well > The positive contributions of both that the purpose of His Revelation is > science and religion show that each has to bring into being a new creation” (28 > the capacity to contribute to positive December 2010). > forms of power—to exert an influence We need, then, a new concept of > on the world that changes it for the bet- power. > ter. Yet this is not the sense in which The writings and guidance of the > power is often conceived. Animated by Bahá’í Faith help us understand the > an often-unconscious culture of conflict relationship between spirituality and > (Karlberg, “Constructive Resilience” power. On the one hand, there is an > and “Constructive Imaginary”), our unambiguous affirmation that spiritu- > societies view power as a thing to be al actions—from prayer to service to > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 93 > > study of the Revealed Word of God— promotion of consultation, and the > give us access to sources of power that willingness to view everyone as a po- > can effect real change in ourselves tential partner, are both expressions of > and the world. At the same time, it is the new conception of power. > made equally clear that spiritual power This focus on empowerment, and > of this kind is not a power to be used eschewing coercion, can be seen for > against others; coercion to advance example in Bahá’u’lláh’s explanation > spiritual ends is not countenanced. As of how to teach, a fundamental spiritu- > ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains, al activity for Bahá’ís: > > But in this wondrous Dispensation, Should anyone among you be in- > the Blessed Beauty hath . . . abro- capable of grasping a certain truth, > gated contention and conflict, and or be striving to comprehend it, > even rejected undue insistence. He show forth, when conversing > exhorted us instead to “consort with him, a spirit of extreme kind- > with the followers of all religions liness and goodwill. Help him to > in a spirit of friendliness and fel- see and recognize the truth, with- > lowship”. He ordained that we be out esteeming yourself to be, in > loving friends and well-wishers the least, superior to him, or to be > of all peoples and religions, and possessed of greater endowments. > enjoined upon us to demonstrate (Gleanings 5:3) > the highest virtues in our dealings > with the kindreds of the earth. If spirituality today looks like de- > (Light 32:2) veloping this new kind of power—em- > powering ourselves and others—then it > The Bahá’í concept of the exercise equally requires that we avoid becom- > of power involves empowerment—em- ing entangled in the pursuit of that oth- > powering individuals through empha- er kind of power. Thus, spirituality re- > sis on the “twofold moral purpose, to quires that the individual “eschew . . . the > develop their inherent potentialities contest for worldly power” (Universal > and to contribute to the transforma- House of Justice, 30 December 2021). > tion of society” (Universal House of I venture to suggest that we see here a > Justice, Riḍván 2010); empowering concrete example of the transformation > communities through practices such of “satanic strength”—which, given > as consultation to become unified the Bahá’í conception of Satan as “the > protagonists of their own progress; lower nature in man” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, > and empowering institutions through Promulgation 97:12), might be under- > development of a culture of service stood as an individual’s (community’s > and empathy, on the one hand, and of or institution’s) efforts to advance > equity, justice and trustworthiness, their own selfish interests, even at the > on the other hand. In this context, the expense of others—into “heavenly > 94 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > power,” a power that is deployed for planet” (Universal House of Justice 26 > the betterment of all, that refuses to November 1992). Well aware of the > overbear anyone’s freedom of con- pivotal importance of the principle of > science, and is thus truly spiritual. unity, the Bahá’í community has, over > the decades, worked to root out preju- > W R dice of all forms within its own ranks. > This important work is by no means > The cultivation of spirituality in this complete and must continue; it is, how- > period of time demands a more active ever, no longer sufficient. > attempt at religious reconciliation— Religion inherently has the power > both between religions and between to tame the passions of disunity, but > those who are religious and those who when religion itself is divided, it los- > have separated themselves from reli- es this power. Religiously motivated > gion. In describing the enkindled souls, animosity and violence, as well as the > the Universal House of Justice notes: entanglement of religion with divisive > partisan politics, feed polarizations that >  They see the power that true threaten to tear national communities > religion possesses to trans- apart, and thus contribute to a situa- > form hearts and overcome dis- tion in which “the world is becoming > trust, and so, with confidence increasingly ungovernable” (Universal > in what the future holds, they House of Justice, 28 December 2010). > labour to cultivate the condi- In its letter to religious leaders, the > tions in which progress can Universal House of Justice, after outlin- > occur; ing the salutary effect of the erosion of > prejudices that in the past have plagued >  They advocate tolerance and > the world, notes that, regrettably, > understanding, and they strive > to foster fellow feeling even > [i]n contrast to the processes of > among groups who may tra- > unification that are transforming > ditionally have been hostile to > the rest of humanity’s social re- > one another; > lationships, the suggestion that >  They are focused on tran- all of the world’s great religions > scending differences and are equally valid in nature and > harmonizing perspectives. (30 origin is stubbornly resisted by > December 2021) entrenched patterns of sectarian > Just as the principle of the one- thought. (April 2002) > ness of humanity is “the pivot round > which all the teachings of Bahá’u’lláh This is arguably the single greatest > revolve” (Shoghi Effendi, World Order obstacle to religion’s ability to contrib- > 42), “[d]isunity is the crux of the ute its vital role to the advancement of > problems which so severely afflict the civilization. > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 95 > > Spirituality, then, looks like This spirituality looks like the embrace > “striv[ing] to foster fellow feeling even of rationality and the infusion of the > among groups who may traditional- collective use of reason, through con- > ly have been hostile to one another.” sultation, into community life. It looks > Individuals, communities, and institu- like the adoption of a clear vision of > tions can do this work at the neighbor- the inherent oneness of humanity, and > hood level—the level at which people an understanding that the welfare of > interact on a daily basis and live their each depends on the welfare of all. It > daily lives—by being “focused on looks like the cultivation of the qual- > transcending differences, harmonizing ities of trustworthiness, cooperation, > perspectives,” and viewing “everyone forbearance, generosity and respect. > as a potential partner to collaborate It looks like the commitment to em- > with” (30 December 2021 ¶ 4). powering others rather than trying to > Today, it is not a sufficient expres- gain power over them. And it looks > sion of spirituality for the individual like the resolve to focus on transcend- > or community to transform only itself, ing differences and working towards > striving to hold itself up as a model to reconciliation. > be emulated. Spirituality means active- The harmony of science and reli- > ly working to bring about reconciliation gion has always been a core principle > and transformation of one’s neighbor- of the Bahá’í Faith. Spirituality can > hood, and wider society, through the demonstrably embrace science. Is the > daily activities in which one is engaged. converse true? Can science be similar- > —————— ly receptive to spirituality? > I have here looked at only one para- One challenge to such receptivity is > graph of one letter from the Universal that science, as discussed at the outset > House of Justice. Many other such of the paper, has largely not under- > passages could be similarly explored. stood spirituality as an object of study. > I believe that the foregoing clearly Religion and spirituality as social phe- > demonstrates that the ongoing guid- nomena have, of course, been studied > ance of this supreme institution of in the social sciences. But can these > the global Bahá’í community is a rich sciences go beyond treating spirituali- > source for understanding what spiritu- ty’s impact in the world as originating > ality looks like today, for individuals, in the subjective belief of individuals > communities, and institutions. We can and groups, and consider what it might > see in the single passage under study mean for spirituality to have a basis > elements of a lived spirituality that in “objective” ontological reality?20 > should be recognizable and laudable It is to this question that I now turn. > both to people from a religious back- > ground and to those with no religious 20 For an insightful article on this > background but who are committed to a see Craig, “A Lamp in the Darkness: How > moral vision for social transformation. Bahá’í Communities Can Uplift Individuals > Lost in the Darkness of Trauma.” > 96 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > S H It is not necessary for the prosecution > S N of physics, for example, to assume that > large collections of molecules are able > Where science has previously asked to reach a state of self-organization: > what effect humans’ spiritual beliefs that is the province of biology. As a > have—on their individual lives and the physicist, one can carry on quite well > wider world—could it turn to the more without bothering with that higher lev- > fundamental question of whether hu- el of emergence. Similarly, the natural > mans have a spiritual nature, an onto- sciences as a whole—physics, chem- > logical underpinning to their being that istry and biology—can pursue their > bears a truth relationship with (at least investigation of the world of nature > some of) their spiritual beliefs? without assuming the existence of real- > As a question for science this may ities beyond the level of the biological > seem unanswerable. Science is about animal. The human body, which shares > things that can be observed and mea- in this animal nature, can be investi- > sured because they have a physical gated through these sciences, but what > ontology, not about things like “spirit” we think of as “humanity”—the inner > that are supposed to have a (primarily) life and social reality of the human > non-physical, or supra-physical, ontol- being— requires different disciplinary > ogy that our powers of observation and approaches. The very existence of the > measurement cannot access. social sciences, as independent scien- > I argue here that spirituality can be tific disciplines, attests to the inadequa- > investigated by science. If we have a cy of biology to investigate this reality. > clear sense of what spirituality looks If humans do possess a transcendent > like, then we can construct different nature, then, study of this transcendent > theories—incorporating contrasting nature would become the province of > background assumptions about the on- the social sciences. Considering the > tological basis for this spiritual behav- materialist / reductionist paradigm that > ior—and generate falsifiable hypoth- at present exerts such a strong grip on > eses that can be evaluated in light of the evolution of the social sciences, > data. To support this claim, I first spec- this would initially require consider- > ify which of the sciences might be able ation that humans may have a higher > to do this, before turning to the way in nature. And this consideration, if taken > which this might be done in spite of the seriously, could find shape in the for- > non-physicality of spiritual reality. mulation of testable hypotheses. > > T S S P B > A S > Different scientific disciplines con- > fine themselves to the investigation Most of us, if asked to describe how > of specific categories of phenomena. science works, might say something > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 97 > > like this: in science we accumulate data, My argument, then, is that the exis- > which serves as evidence for or against tence of a transcendent spiritual nature > formulated hypotheses. in humans can be taken as a background > A key criterion for a scientific hy- assumption in the social sciences to > pothesis, familiar again to many, produce evidence from data, and that > is that, as proposed originally by this evidence can be used to support > the Muslim scholar Ḥasan Ibn Al- or falsify well-formulated hypotheses > Haytham and later the medieval scholar about human spiritual nature. Though > Robert Grosseteste, it must be falsi- this may at first glance appear to be a > fiable—that is, it must be formulated circular argument, it is not, for the rea- > in such a way that one can demon- son that hypotheses are always falsifi- > strate it to be wrong if, indeed, it is.21 able. If humans are, as the reductionist > As philosopher of science Helen paradigm holds, nothing but animals, > Longino points out, what is missing in background assumptions to that effect > this picture is the role of background will produce a better set of hypotheses. > beliefs or assumptions. Background Before providing examples to il- > assumptions invariably exist, in all the lustrate the argument, it would be > sciences, and form the link between raw useful to explore the respective roles > data and what is accepted as evidence. in the sciences of presuppositions > > 21 This has led some to claim that and background assumptions—two > science can never prove anything, but very different things, but both ines- > only show things to be false. This notion capable—from the perspective of the > calls into question the nature of inductive philosophy of science. Hugh Gauch > proof, which is beyond the scope of this presents a model of science as based on > paper. Suffice it to say that this feature of evidence, logic, and a small set of pre- > inductive proof gives to scientific truth that suppositions without which “evidence > curious property of being enduring, on the loses its evidential role” (Practice > one hand, and relative, on the other hand. 112). The role of these presuppositions > Some scientific theories are later shown to > is perhaps the aspect of science that is > be completely incorrect—as was the case > least understood and least appreciated > with the caloric theory of heat and the > (Practice ch. 4; Brief ch. 5). > phlogiston theory of combustion—while > others are shown to be approximations of > a more sophisticated and encompassing Essentially, a presupposition is a > theory—as is the case with Newtonian belief that is required to reach a > mechanics and gravitation, or with equilib- particular conclusion, and yet it > rium thermodynamics which, in the twen- cannot possibly be proved. A pre- > tieth century, gave way to a wider theory of supposition cannot be proved in > nonequilibrium thermodynamics. the ordinary sense of marshalling > 98 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > definitive evidence because pre- Whereas this small set of presupposi- > suppositions precede and empower tions is necessarily shared by all sci- > evidence. But that does not neces- entists as the basis for scientific activ- > sarily mean that presuppositions ity to have any meaning, background > are arbitrary and shaky. Rather, assumptions, in contrast, are not > presuppositions should be chosen universal and to some extent are cul- > carefully, disclosed, and then legit- ture-dependent. Background assump- > imated. Because presuppositions tions, as stated above, are inescapable > are just as necessary as evidence in science, linking data to evidence > for science to reach any conclu- as they do. Crucially, the same set of > sions, a reflective account of sci- data interpreted on the basis of differ- > ence must discuss them. (Brief 73) ent background assumptions can lead > to different evidentiary conclusions.23 > Gauch cites Caldin’s useful sum- > mation of the role of presuppositions: > hand, fully support the validity of these > “Most scientists take for granted their > presuppositions. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá affirms the > metaphysical assumptions, but they are > reality of the world we experience: “The > nonetheless necessary logically to the sophists hold that all existence is illusory. > conclusions of science” (Brief 73). . . . This notion is false, for although the > So what are these presuppositions existence of things is an illusion compared > of science? As put forward by Thomas to the existence of God, yet in the contin- > Reid and the Scottish School of gent world it is established, proven, and > Common Sense, they are the same as undeniable” (Some Answered Questions > the presuppositions behind “common 79:1). Bahá’u’lláh further confirms that > sense,” which hinge on the idea that our this world can be meaningfully apprehend- > senses (and the instruments that extend ed by human senses and understood by > them), in aggregate, reveal to us true in- the human mind: “Look at the world and > formation about the real world (Gauch, ponder a while upon it. It unveileth the > book of its own self before thine eyes and > Practice 64-65, 120–23). Furthermore, > revealeth that which the Pen of thy Lord, > the truths and secrets of nature are sus- > the Fashioner, the All-Informed, hath in- > ceptible to being understood through scribed therein. It will acquaint thee with > rational enquiry and the exercise of the that which is within it and upon it and will > human intellect. While these presuppo- give thee such clear explanations as to > sitions may seem obvious, in the history make thee independent of every eloquent > of philosophy they have been denied by expounder” (Tablets 9:13). > skeptics, most notably Pyrrho of Elis, 23 Data is the raw material out of > Sextus Empiricus, David Hume, and which evidence is constructed. Evidence, > some of the postmodernists (Practice in turn, is used to support or refute mental > chs. 2, 4; Brief chs. 3, 5).22 constructs, conjectures, hypotheses, and > ultimately laws or theories: in short, to cre- > ate scientific truth. It is in the process of > 22 The Bahá’í writings, on the other interpreting data—of using it to generate > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 99 > > In Science As Social Knowledge Helen support of Longino, notes that the ob- > Longino gives a number of examples jectivity of science rests on the ability > of this.24 Longino argues, however, of the scientific community of experts > that background assumptions do not to identify the operating background as- > undermine objectivity in science; it is sumptions and to evaluate them, as well > preserved, through a process of trans- as on its ability to assess the links be- > formative criticism or transformative tween evidence and theory (25–143).25 > interrogation, within a scientific com- > munity (63–82). In transformative in- I R S > terrogation, background assumptions > are aired and examined, alternative One more feature of science needs to > ways of looking at the data (i.e. through be mentioned: the accumulation of > different background assumptions) are data (things measurable) and the study > explored and, ultimately, consensus of patterns and consistencies in that > may be obtained. Naomi Oreskes, in data lead science to usefully hypoth- > esize the existence of what ‘Abdu’l- > Bahá calls “intelligible” or intellectual > evidence—that background assumptions > play a role. > realities (Some Answered Questions > 24 One example she gives is an ex- 16), or what a physicist might call > periment performed by Priestey and re- mathematical realities: ontologically > peated by Lavoisier. Both performed the real phenomena that cannot be directly > same experiment and obtained the same observed (they are not “sensible,” as > data, but each had a different background ‘Abdu’l-Bahá puts it). > assumption. Priestley believed in the phlo- For example, because a vast range > giston theory which held that combustion of phenomena can be understood if we > resulted from the release of a combustible hypothesize that fields exist—such as > substance (phlogiston) from the burning the Higgs field referred to above, or > matter into the air. Lavoisier believed that the electron field—we infer that fields > combustion was due to combination of the > exist. Yet the field cannot be directly > combusting substance with a substance in > observed; only the particle that instan- > the air (what is now known as the Oxygen > theory). Each scientist saw the data as ev- > tiates it can be. These entities, which > idence for his own hypothesis about com- have a precise mathematical formu- > bustion. Longino writes, lation, are considered in the physical > > The two thus had the same experi- 25 For a deeper analysis of trans- > mental information but approached formative interrogation and a proposed > it with different background beliefs. extension to transformative dialogue, see > . . . In the context of their differing Neyman and Wenninger. For further dis- > background beliefs and assumptions cussion of the role of diversity in science, > different aspects of the same state of and truth-seeking more generally, from a > affairs became evidentially signifi- Bahá’í perspective, see Friberg, Smith, and > cant. (47–48) Espinosa. > 100 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > sciences to be real, and are physical. If spirituality were adopted as a > Although “non-sensible” they are, nev- background assumption in the social > ertheless, entities that inhabit the phys- sciences, the evidence that would then > ical universe in which we live. emerge out of the data could be eval- > In the sense that the Bahá’í writings uated according to these two features, > conceive it—as a transcendent intellec- to see if the assumption has traction.26 > tual power and, beyond that, as a tran- Does a theory, incorporating the back- > scendent divine power, both of which ground assumption of the reality of spir- > the human possesses but the animal ituality, not only explain the evidence, > lacks—spirituality is an intelligible, but also have the power of prediction? > and not a sensible, reality. Moreover, And just as importantly, can such a > as mentioned earlier, while ‘Abdu’l- theory be used to develop technolo- > Bahá affirms that intelligible realities gies—social technologies, such as ped- > include some physical realities (Some agogies, or therapeutic technologies27 > Answered Questions 48), we can pre- —that, when applied, help to propel > sume that the human (and higher) spir- society forward? > its are not physical. To see how this might work, we can > consider two rival theories, one that > S takes spirituality as a background as- > B A sumption, and the other that assumes > S S (in line with the prevailing, if often > implicit, scientific paradigm) that the > So far, then, we have seen that scien- human is simply an animal, with no > tists interpret data through background spiritual nature. > assumptions, and that science can Turning first to explanatory pow- > hypothesize the existence of intelli- er, we must acknowledge that certain > gible realities that cannot be directly kinds of data that we might initially > observed or measured. What would it think support the former theory are > then look like for the social sciences potentially equally well explained by > to treat spirituality as a background > assumption? 26 As noted above, data can be an- > Successful scientific theories— alyzed through several lenses, each rep- > those that, amongst other things, incor- resenting a different set of background > porate effective background assump- assumptions. Undoubtedly, over time, a > tions—have two features: single, perhaps broad, set of background > 1. Explanatory power (and dra- assumptions—even a worldview—will > matically, sometimes, the ability emerge with the potential to become a new > to explain bodies of data that in paradigm. > the absence of the theory would 27 For example, forms of psycho- > appear to be disconnected); analysis that account for the existence of > 2. Predictive power. the human being’s spiritual reality. See > John S. Hatcher. > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 101 > > the latter. Animal emotion and be- after meaning, which transcends pure > havior, the current paradigm runs, survival, assumes central importance. > are emergent properties arising from One would not say this about animal > the physical world and are intimately groups, except to the extent that the > tied with self-interest, whether that human observer might ascribe “mean- > interest be of the organism itself or ing” to them. The question then be- > of its genetic line. Animals can sacri- comes which theory—the one that > fice themselves in order to reproduce; incorporates a background assumption > they can sacrifice themselves for their of spiritual reality, or its lack—better > young; they can sacrifice for the hive, explains this data. Are these unique > the family, the herd, the pride. In some human traits truly transcendent, or are > circles the case has been made that they merely extensions of animal emo- > they sacrifice themselves so that their tion and behavior? > genes survive—what George Wald has Here it may seem that the spirituality > called “vicarious selection” (61). Thus, theory is better supported: the human > the fact that a human parent sacrific- is exhibiting intellectual and emotional > es her life for her child, for example, capacities that categorically transcend > does not necessarily support the “spir- the animal.28 That is certainly the inter- > ituality” theory more strongly than its pretation confirmed in the Bahá’í writ- > alternative. ings, as when ‘Abdu’l-Bahá notes that > Data could, however, be generated “the animal perceives sensible things > showing that humans have the ability but cannot perceive conceptual reali- > to acquire loyalty to abstract entities ties” (Some Answered Questions 48:6), > far above any level of self-interest or giving as an example the ability of the > “gene-interest” and to sacrifice for earth-bound human to extrapolate from > such abstract concepts as truth, love, observation the non-observable fact > justice, humanity, and the sacred. that the earth is spherical (48:6–7). > Humans have the capacity to treat all However, even a scientist who > fellow humans with kindness and love, agrees that this is a difference in kind, > no matter how they are treated in re- > turn; to consider all life itself as some- 28 Note that, given the current re- > thing sacred. They have the power to ductionist / materialist paradigm that rules > conceptualize a world far above the both the physical and the social sciences, > world of the senses and to gain deep we can expect even this statement to be > reverence for that world. One of the controversial. There would thus be great > distinguishing characteristics of human value in research aimed at openly consider- > societies, according to the anthropolo- ing this question—asking whether human > gist, is not so much that they are great intellect, capacities, societies, and civiliza- > at surviving (which they are, of course), tion differ from their animal counterparts > but that being to a great extent masters in degree or in kind. For a recent survey > of their environment, their seeking of this question from a Bahá’í perspective, > see Filson. > 102 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > and not in degree, between the hu- sliding into metaphysics? To answer > man and the animal might challenge this, we can turn to the second feature > ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s conclusion that “man of successful scientific theories—their > is endowed with a power of discovery predictive power, including the power > that distinguishes him from the animal, to generate new technologies. > and this power is none but the human As an example of such a hypotheti- > spirit” (Some Answered Questions cal technology, consider this statement > 48:7, emphasis added). In terms of the of Bahá’u’lláh: > inherent and the emergent, the scien- > tist could argue that animal intellect In the treasuries of the knowledge > and emotion are emergent phenomena of God there lieth concealed a > arising out of collections of extremely knowledge which, when applied, > large numbers of elements that inter- will largely, though not whol- > act in very complex ways. When the ly, eliminate fear. This knowledge, > elements decompose, the animal, and however, should be taught from > the qualities it manifests, disappears. childhood, as it will greatly aid > He might say that the same is true with in its elimination. Whatever de- > regard to the human, regarding the hu- creaseth fear increaseth courage. > man mind as simply a higher order of (Epistle 32) > emergent phenomenon transcending > animal intelligence.29 This would, on its face, appear to be > It might seem that we are at an a knowledge that could be discovered > impasse between the view of unique by science and applied as a technology > human attributes as emergent phys- of that science. Baha’u’llah’s prediction > ical phenomena and, say, the Bahá’í regarding this knowledge and its future > view that the human soul is a single, discovery would contribute towards > non-physical entity, and that the powers proof—scientific proof—of the truth of > of the intellect and of the divine in the the background assumption that man is > individual are, therefore, inherent rath- a spiritual being. With the development > er than emergent. How could the social of more technologies, based on the pre- > sciences decide between these para- dictive power of the theory that human > digms while remaining sciences, that is, beings have a transcendent spiritual > employing methods that put them firm- nature, the background assumption that > ly in the camp of science rather than man has such a spiritual nature would > evolve into a new paradigm. > 29 Terrence Deacon takes this > stance. “Biologically we are just another T > ape; mentally we are a whole new phylum B A > of organism” (Goodenough and Deacon > 862). Deacon, who calls himself “a reli- While it would take time, and the accu- > gious non-theist” (865), takes a strict emer- mulation of a robust body of research, > gentist view of this phenomenon. > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 103 > > to effect this paradigm shift, we can church, and only then began working > look to a couple of available examples together to rebuild their houses. > of the kind of scientific investigations A number of factors were iden- > that could contribute to this. tified as having a negative effect on > In 2018, Science published a lengthy recovery, among them the amount > article on resilience. One of its sections of time spent in shelters. Being older > presents a trio of studies that merged than fifty or disabled were also strong > in Katrina@10, a long-term study negative indicators. But in the case of > looking at resilience in people who lost the Vietnamese community, internal > their homes in New Orleans because cohesion coupled with their religiosity > of Hurricane Katrina. The goal of the helped motivate them to return to their > study is ambitious: “to build a crystal old homes quickly, reducing the nega- > ball that uses a few characteristics to tive effect of spending a long period of > predict disaster recovery in the long time in shelters. Presumably, this same > term,” with one possible result being to internal cohesion—which one might > “help policymakers and disaster recov- say was closely tied to the communi- > ery programs pick out especially vul- ty’s religiosity—also mitigated against > nerable groups” and “even steer them the negative factors of age and disabil- > toward interventions that do the most ity. In general, as one might expect, it > good”—i.e. to develop a technology to was a combination of inner and outer > increase resilience (Servick). factors that contributed to, or detracted > The study found that among the pre- from, the ability to recover. > storm predictors of resilience, “psy- Given this kind of data, showing > chological strength”—which included that religious affiliation was a cause > religiosity and perceived ability to of greater resilience,30 it would be pos- > respond to stressors—was the prima- sible for social science researchers to > ry factor, with household income over formulate theories, and hypotheses, > $20,000 a close second. In general re- that take spiritual reality as a back- > ligiosity was a factor in recovery, both ground assumption, and then to evalu- > among communities who returned to ate their predictive power. > their old homes and rebuilt, and among > those who rebuilt their lives elsewhere. 30 Note that within a materialistic > One survivor in particular, who seemed paradigm one could argue that religious > to have built a better life than the one belief or affiliation may be correlated with > she had before the hurricane, report- resilience but is not its cause; that some > ed that she had “developed a deeper other factor drives both religiosity and > relationship with God.” One group, resilience for instance. A good research > an immigrant Vietnamese community design would be able to evaluate this possi- > that showed great resilience, returned bility; I assume for the purposes of this dis- > almost immediately and began to re- cussion a data set that shows that religious > build. They started by rebuilding their affiliation was in fact causally connected to > resilience. > 104 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > One could, for example, adopt as a is, religion itself has evolved > background assumption that humans as a beneficial adaptation in hu- > are spiritual beings, in the sense that mans, and > (a) we have a transcendent intellect, 2. Human beings have been made > and (b) we can acquire divine attri- to benefit from religion purely > butes. This could be accompanied by through the operation of natural > the background assumptions that reli- selection, not through the action > gion, to the degree that it has remained of a Creator or through interac- > faithful to the unifying principles of its tion with an underlying spiritual > foundational scriptures, meaningfully reality. > reflects and nurtures the divine attri- > butes humans possess, and in so doing This is a stance often taken within > contributes to resilience.31 evolutionary psychology, “a theory > One could simultaneously generate about the origins of the human mind. > theories and hypotheses consistent It assumes that all human behavior, > with a materialist set of background like that of animals, is directed towards > assumptions. These theories could ac- competitive advantage in the evolu- > knowledge that religion is a cause of tionary struggle of life.” Within this > resilience, but not conclude that reli- paradigm, religion can be evolutionari- > gion’s beliefs are true. Here the back- ly adaptive without being accurate in > ground assumptions could include the its description of reality: > following: > 1. Human beings have evolved in Sociobiologist E.O. Wilson sees > certain ways due to the beliefs religious belief in particular as > and practices of religion—that providing a sense of ‘sacredness’ > on which principles of social > co-operation can be firmly con- > 31 These background assumptions structed. . . . Yet Wilson is not > are made explicit in the Bahá’í writings > arguing for the reality of religious > and guidance. For instance, the Universal > belief as some kind of transcendent > House of Justice writes that > truth, only the utility of the belief > [r]eligion, as we are all aware, reaches in benefiting the individual and > to the roots of motivation. When it has sustaining social unity. Indeed, > been faithful to the spirit and example Wilson claims that morality has no > of the transcendent Figures who gave other demonstrable function than > the world its great belief systems, it to keep human genetic material > has awakened in whole populations intact. (Hurlbut 874) > capacities to love, to forgive, to cre- > ate, to dare greatly, to overcome prej- Here we see the operation of > udice, to sacrifice for the common Longino’s model. The data is fil- > good and to discipline the impulses of tered through a particular background > animal instinct. (April 2002) > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 105 > > assumption to create evidence—in and that man has a transcendent reality > this case, evidence for the validity of should be superfluous to our survival. > the idea that man is an animal, and all Evolution occurs in response to im- > human behavior is rooted in the evolu- mediate conditions; it has no ability to > tionary struggle for survival. The hy- see into, or to prepare for, the future. It > potheses formulated from the evidence would be an extraordinary coincidence > arising from data as filtered through if something necessary for our past > this particular background assumption evolution were to prove to be a signif- > have some degree of explanatory pow- icant factor in helping us advance into > er, just as hypotheses formulated based a new state, or society, totally different > on a background assumption of spiritu- from the one we came out of. If this did > al reality have explanatory power. But in fact prove to be the case, it would > do they have predictive power? support the non-materialist paradigm, > One of the “overriding principles of in which the existence of spiritual re- > nature” governing “all population be- ality, and religion’s capacity to mean- > havior,” as noted by physicist Marvin ingfully generate knowledge about that > Chester, is that “the effect on the en- reality, are background assumptions. > vironment of a population’s success is Indeed, such an outcome would > to alter that environment in a way that seem to validate the vision for human- > opposes the success” (Populations 1). ity’s future contained in the Bahá’í > The developing climate crisis, which writings. Bahá’u’lláh predicts emphat- > threatens human civilization, can be ically: “These fruitless strifes, these > seen as a dramatic illustration of this ruinous wars shall pass away, and the > “overriding principle.” The hypotheses ‘Most Great Peace’ shall come” (qtd. > of evolutionary psychology would pre- in God Passes By 194)—a Peace es- > dict, if anything, that our civilization, tablished “by the direct operation of > which has carried our (animal) species the laws and principles revealed by > to an unprecedented and “unnatural” Bahá’u’lláh” (from a letter written on > state of success, will suffer collapse. behalf of Shoghi Effendi qtd. in Peace > The human race, greatly reduced in 64). Further, the arrival of this “Great > numbers, may revert to a tribal stage, Peace . . . for which from age to age > with religion (which helped bring the sacred scriptures of mankind have > about this crisis) most likely returning constantly held the promise” would > to those forms that served the interests validate the predictive power of reli- > of tribal society so well in the past. gion itself (Promise of World Peace 1). > Conversely, if our civilization survives, So here we have two clearly dif- > it will be through the (unpredictable) ferent sets of predictions, stemming > emergence of new capabilities that are from theories incorporating different > not connected to the religious beliefs background assumptions. On the one > that helped us in our evolutionary past. hand, the prediction that if humanity > Specifically, beliefs that there is a God is to resolve the crises currently facing > 106 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > it, then religion—having arisen as an development of the Bahá’í community > evolutionarily selected response to con- in Iran, both materially and spiritually, > ditions in our distant past—will have despite severe clerical and governmen- > little role to play. On the other hand, tal opposition since the birth of the > the prediction that only with religion— Bahá’í Faith in the mid-nineteenth cen- > specifically the eternal principles of tury. The document Century of Light > religion, and full embrace of the reality notes that the immediate agent of this > of the divine—can humanity bring civ- transformation in the early twentieth > ilization back into moderation. To say century was none other than ‘Abdu’l- > that only with religion can we do this Bahá. Though confined to ‘Akka and > is not to say that religion alone can do physically distant from the Persian > it—it must be religion in harmony with Bahá’í community, He sent “a flood of > science. The fruit of this happy union Tablets” (letters) through which “the > will be an ever-advancing civilization Persian believers were revived and > characterized by both material and heartened.” These communications > spiritual prosperity. This, then, is the “provided not only the spiritual suste- > prediction we can make from hypoth- nance they needed, but leadership in > eses derived from evidence arrived at finding their way through the turmoil > by filtering the data through the back- that was undermining the established > ground assumption that God, and hence order of things in their land.” These > spirituality, is real and that the essential letters, “reaching even the smallest vil- > purpose of life is not to propagate one’s lages across the country, responded to > genes, but to develop one’s spiritual ca- the appeals and questions of countless > pacities, and, in so doing, contribute to individual believers, bringing guid- > an “ever-advancing civilization.” ance, encouragement and assurance” > While it would be foolhardy for pro- (8). Century of Light concludes this > ponents of either theory to claim, at this section with this observation: > early stage and with humanity’s future > path seemingly still in question, that Social historians of the future, with > the evidence conclusively proves them a perspective far more dispassion- > right, there are emerging examples we ate and universal than is presently > can look at as support for the prediction possible, and benefiting from un- > that religion can act as a remedy for the impeded access to all of the prima- > crises facing our societies—that it can, ry documentation, will study mi- > for instance, contribute to a communi- nutely the transformation that the > ty’s resilience in the face of these cri- Master [‘Abdu’l-Bahá] achieved > ses, and empower it to contribute to the in these early years. Day after day, > advancement of civilization at the local month after month, from a dis- > or national level. tant exile where He was endless- > One of the most remarkable stories ly harried by the host of enemies > of resilience in the modern period is the surrounding Him, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 107 > > was able not only to stimulate the to social change under conditions > expansion of the Persian Bahá’í of violent oppression. (Karlberg, > community, but to shape its con- “Constructive Resilience” 1) > sciousness and collective life. > The result was the emergence of In the face of the fiercest opposi- > a culture, however localized, that tion they have steadfastly kept to their > was unlike anything humanity had fundamental principles by maintaining > ever known. Our century, with all the integrity of their faith and beliefs, > its upheavals and its grandiloquent on the one hand, and continuing to > claims to create a new order, has strive, as much as was in their power, > no comparable example of the sys- to work for the welfare of their nation > tematic application of the powers and their fellow-citizens, on the other > of a single Mind to the building of hand. The community’s capacity to > a distinctive and successful com- achieve these things in the face of such > munity that saw its ultimate sphere circumstances supports the argument > of work as the globe itself. (10) that their religious faith and teachings, > far from merely providing some gen- > There are similarly a number of re- eral sense of social cohesion within > markable instances of resilience within the community, allow them to work in > the global Bahá’í community in the ways that reflect real spiritual dynam- > postwar period that have yet to be fully ics, and to access real spiritual power. > studied. The Bahá’í community of Iran Recent scholarship using the lens of > after the Islamic Revolution provides “constructive resilience” to study the > one outstanding example. A steady response of the Iranian Bahá’í com- > stream of letters from the Universal munity to oppression points the way to > House of Justice has helped sustain that productive future research.32 > beleaguered community against the What about Bahá’í communities > onslaught of a vicious foe determined elsewhere? One story that remains to be > to exterminate it. Century of Light told in detail is that of the Bahá’í com- > notes that early on, after the Islamic munity of the Democratic Republic of > Revolution, it was the Bahá’ís, rather the Congo (DRC), a country that has > than their oppressors, who “quickly set seen abusive totalitarian government, > the terms of the encounter” (119). civil war, corruption, serious human > rights violations, and deep divisions > Against the backdrop of dramatic due to ethnic hostilities, for virtual- > struggles for social change in the ly its entire existence since obtaining > twentieth century, characterized > by non-violent opposition and civil 32 See, for example, Michael > disobedience, the Bahá’í commu- Karlberg’s articles “Constructive > nity of Iran has pursued a distinc- Resilience: The Bahá’í Response to > tively non-adversarial approach Oppression” and “The Constructive > Imaginary.” > 108 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 33.4 2023 > > independence in 1965. Against this dedicated to bettering the world, > backdrop, the Bahá’í community in Bahá’ís bring the principles suit- > the DRC has emerged, grown, and ed to humanity’s age of maturity > flourished, showing not only remark- to bear on the conditions of the > able resilience but also a remarkable world’s peoples. They strive for > internal cohesion and outwardly-fo- the transformation of the inner and > cused spirit of tolerance and inclusive- outer realities of human life, and > ness that stand in stark contrast to the for the cultivation of spiritual and > problems facing the nation to which it social conditions that will give rise > belongs. The Bahá’í community of the to a new kind of people and a new > DRC has, in fact, risen to become one society founded on unity. . . . (1 > of the foremost Bahá’í communities in November 2022) > the world. Critical to its success has > been the continual guidance Bahá’ís It is a testament to the Congolese > in general, and the Congolese Bahá’í Bahá’í community’s success in living > community in particular, has received up to this mandate—to demonstrating > from the Universal House of Justice, in practice “what spirituality looks > directing them always to be cognizant like”—that their country was chosen > of their spiritual capacities and diligent as the site of the first national House of > in their continued cultivation of those Worship in the Bahá’í world, complet- > qualities. ed in 2023 (Bahá’í News). > A recent letter from the Universal > House of Justice to the Bahá’ís of the In these two brief examples—that > DRC acknowledges that “alas, your of Iran and of the DRC—we see both > nation has time and again suffered from ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and the Universal House > conflict among some of its peoples… of Justice basing their appeals to the > [Y]ou are, of course, not immune to the community on an unshakeable belief > forces that generate and drive conflict,” that humans are spiritual beings and > a state of affairs that demands “vigi- have the capacity, no matter what their > lance by all the believers in ensuring external circumstances, to develop their > that divisions, especially those related spiritual qualities. If humanity did not > to ethnicity, do not take root in your have this capacity, then messages such > community.” The letter goes on to say, as those above could have only a very > limited effect, at best. Clearly these are > The mission of the Bahá’ís is capacities that, if they do indeed exist > to learn to apply the Revelation in humanity, can be discovered and > of Bahá’u’lláh in their individ- studied by the sciences, and systemat- > ual and collective lives and in ically developed through technologies > the life of their society. Through arising from those discoveries. > well-ordered efforts and in collab- In summary, scientific truth is both > oration with many others who are explanatory and predictive. Let us, > What Does Spirituality Look Like? 109 > > for the moment, adopt a background human history. In the evolution of its > assumption that man has a spiritual conceptual understanding and of its > nature. Filtering the data concerning expression of spirituality at the lev- > the rise and resilience of the Bahá’í els of the individual, the community > communities of Iran and the Congo and the institutions, the worldwide > through that background assumption, Bahá’í community is blessed by the > one obtains explanatory evidence ongoing program of learning of the > supporting a hypothesis that humans International Teaching Centre and the > have a spiritual nature as outlined in constant stream of guidance coming > the Bahá’í writings. That hypothe- from its supreme governing institution, > sis also allows us to predict that once the Universal House of Justice. Indeed, > the Bahá’í community of Iran is freed the Guardian of the Bahá’í Faith wrote > from the egregious restrictions placed in the 1930s that > on it by Iran’s current government, the > Bahá’í community will, in the words the machinery of the Cause has > of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, “contribute in mak- been so fashioned, that whatever > ing of the land of Iran the envy and is deemed necessary to incorpo- > admiration of the peoples and nations rate into it in order to keep it in the > of the world” (qtd. in Shoghi Effendi, forefront of all progressive move- > Bahá’í Administration 173). Similarly, ments, can, according to the pro- > we can predict that the people of the visions made by Bahá’u’lláh, be > Democratic Republic of the Congo safely embodied therein. (World > will be able to overcome the “divisions Order 22–23) > related to ethnicity” that so severely > afflict their country, with the Bahá’í Finally, I have presented an argu- > community becoming a model and ment that human spirituality can be in- > playing a significant role in helping its vestigated by science—specifically the > nation overcome these divisions. Here, social sciences—by examining data > then, we have both explanation and in light of the background assumption > prediction that, in concert, can provide that man is a spiritual being, and from > proof of the hypothesis. the evidence derived from filtering data > through that background assumption, > C forming testable hypotheses. > Over the next twenty-five years the > In this paper I have examined some Bahá’í worldwide community will be > of the features and characteristics of focusing on “the release of the soci- > spirituality, and have presented, by ety-building powers of the Faith in ev- > examining a particular passage from er-greater measures” (Universal House > a recent letter of the Universal House of Justice, 30 December 2021 ¶ 3). As > of Justice, an overview of what spiri- Bahá’u’lláh declared to British orien- > tuality would look like at this point in talist E.G. 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