Discourses of Knowledge

by Franklin Lewis

This paper fu-st suggests that ma11y statements in the Baha'i writings are couched i11 ti1e ter1ns ofa particular tli..vco111ás e, or i11tellect11a/ traditio11, oftl1e text S i111111eá diate audience. As such. these statements may assume some ofthe premises ofthe addressee, passing over them witlro11t 11ecessarlly seeld11g to challenge or affim1 those premises in an absolute sense, ill order to make a11 argument whic/1 the addressee can accept. Such premises may sometimes be factually tn1e, in an empirical sense, while sometimes they may 11ot be propositionally true, but may rather be true in a melaphoric and ~ymbolic sense. This being the case. recover- ing the nature of the disco11rse being employed, or the intellectual context of the statement, can help 011e evaluate whether a given statement is metmt to convey a propositiona/jact or a rhetorical 11uth. 'Abd11'/-Bahci ojie11 adopted the particu- lar parameters of H'estern modernist discourse about knowledge, specifically in terms of the debate of science versus religio11. His statements aro, therefore. ger- mane to contemporary questions aboui t1cademic. or materit1list, methodologies and the Bahiz 'I view toward these modes of knowledge. 'Abdu '1-Bahll often appears to give precedence to logical proofs and scientific method aver traditional religious modes or explant1tians of reality, particularly in questions offacJ and informatio11, though not nece.isarily where ethics and maraliJy are concen1ed. fie wauld 1herefore seem to assert the validity of TYester11 academic, or materialist, methodolagies. ' ABDU 'L-BAHA First we 1nus1 speak of logical proofs. - ' Abdu'l-Baha (c. 1905)

Modes of discourse By My spirit and by My favor! By My mercy and by My beauty! All that I have revealed unto thee with the tongue of power, and have writ- In this paper, "discourse" refers to a conversation which unfolds ten for thee with the pen of might, bath been in accordance with thy over time, one that is governed by a particular set of premises and capacity and understanding, not with My state and the melody of My concepts in the context of which given arguments and inquiries are voice.3 pursued. I A discourse often implies or delimits the type(s) of methodology that will be considered valid in investigating or "prov- Baha' u' llilh spoke to the capacity and understanding of various ing" questions or problems. ln its broadest senses, \Ve might think of correspondents, and thus addressed himself to more than one dis- the entire intellectual tradition of the Enlightewnent as scientific or course tradition, as defined above. For example in communicating academic discourse. to a scientific discourse community, when with Shiites or Babis, who expected an Eschaton in which the return questions are posed or particular data considered, most parties to the of the twelfth Imam figured prominently, Baha'u'llah frequently discussion will proceed with certain assumptions about the primacy mentions the Qa 'im (mahdr), Husayn and ' Ali, etc. He did not begin of empirical evidence, the positing of falsifiable hypotheses, and the from the same assumptions, however, in communicating with need to verify data by experimentation. This does not mean that all Zoroastrians, who did not by and large revere Islamic figures and participants in the discourse will come to the same conclusions indeed would more likely have been offended by references to them. about matters under discussion, or that they will necessarily inter- 'Abdu'l-Bahft makes this rhetorical principle explicit in a work writ- pret particular sets of data in the same way, or that these methods ten as a young man, in 1875: will be the only factors informing their decisions.2 Jt does meao that participants in the discussion will implicitly acknowledge certain lf for example a spirirually learned Muslim is conducting a debate with premises and certain rules of evidence and argument. a Christian and he knows nothing of the glorious melodies of the A discourse need not be of a purely scie ntific nature, hov;ever. Gospel, he will, no matter how much he imparts of the Qur'an and its We might conceive of the Abrahamic re ligious traditions as belong- truths, be unable to convince the Christian, and his word5 will fall on deaf ears. Shou.ld, however, the Christian observe that the Muslim is ing to a particular discourse. Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and the better versed in the fundamentals of Christianity than the Christian Baha'i Faith all agree on the divine missions of Abraham and priests themselves, and understands the purport of the Scriptures even Moses, and acknowledge the general principle of a personal God better than they, he v.<ill gladly accept the Muslim's argurn.ents, and he beyond history who intrudes into history to "reveal" itself to would indeed have no other recourse.4 humanldod through designated intermediaries. We might distinguish this discourse of the Abrabamic religious traditions from the Bud- Later in life, áAbdu'J-Baha is reported lo have said, in respond- dhist or Hindu traditions, which conceive of salvation history and of ing lo his retinue's admiration for the e ffectiveness of his talks in the numinous in s ubstantially different \vays frorn the Abrahamic America, that they were effective because he took the exigencies of traditions, and look to an entirely different line of e nlightened ones the time (eqtezti-ye vaqt) and the audience's perspective (mashrab- as guides to the ultimate nature of reality. e liozzar) into consideration. This report also suggests, however, that The manifestation (mazhar) of God, in Bab!\ 'i parlance, partici- ' Abdu ' l-Baha learned from Bahll'u'llllh that this meant not simply pates in a human discourse by communicating transcendent truth respecting the audience by repeating the terms and assumptions of into a human language bound by culture and history, which never- its cherished discourse, but including a quality of transcendental theless is able to transcend time and place. As Babaáu 'llab alludes, truth: in the Hidden Words: 50 51 * Bay611 bciyad be-mashrab-e hozzar va eq1eza-ye vaqt Ms/rad, va hosn-e experience of newspapers. Baha'u'llah described them as " the mir- 'ebcirat va e'teda/ dar adci'-e ma'tini va kalemal lazem, faqat harf ror of the world" (111er 'cit-e jahcin) and an "amazing and potent phe- zada11 nist. Hamishe dar 'Akka Mirza Mohammad-e 'Ali baya11ati ra nornenon" (zohur-ist 'ajib va a1nr-ist bozorg), while at the same time ke az man mi-shenid be- 'ayneha dar mavciqe '-e digar zekr migard lamenting that most things reported of himself in the newspapers [sic] va/i moltafet nabud ke hezaran heknm va masa/eh lazem ast, na were incorrect. He \varned journalists to be free of base or ulterior tanha goflan. Dar ayyam-e Baghdad va So/aymaniye, Shaykh 'Abd a/- Hosayn gofle bud ke Jamal-e Mobarak Kord-ha ra be-in vasile jam ' o motivations (az gharaz-e najs va havci) and, instead, aspire to justice jazb kardand, ke esrelahat-e 'oraja va sufiye ra bayan mi-11em11dand ('ad/ va ensaf). Jn this context, Baha'u'llah recommends the fol - Bichare Shaykh-e mazk11r raft va kciab-e Futuhat-i Makkiya ra payda lowing methodology or principle for journalists, which ought to va 'ebarat-e an ra heft nem11de, dar harja zekr knrd. Did hichkas gush apply equally to historians or those in any discipline seeking to write nemi-dahad. Khay/i ta 'ajjob knrd ke chera mardom gush nemidahandl about the historical truth: Jamal-e Mobarak farmuda11d: "Be-Shaykh beg11 'id ma F111uha1-i Makkiya ra 11emi-khva11im, balke tiyat-e mada11iye ra elteqa mi-konim. Dar om11r be-qadr-e maqdur tafahhos na111ayad ta haqiqat-e an agcih Fos11s-e Shaykh rci nemi-gu 'im, bal ciz nos11s-e eliihiye hmf mi- shavad va benegarad. zanim. "5 They shou ld enquire into situations as much as possible and ascertain Discourse (bayan, also exposition, explanation, argun1ent) must the facts, then set them down in writi.ng.9 accord with the taste of the audience (hozzar, literally, "those present") and the exigencies oftbe time. Elegance of expression and te1npcrance Baha'u'llah hi1nself also \vrote a letter to the 1lmes of London, is required in presenting (ada') meanings and ideas (kalemat, literally describing tlle persecution of the Baha'is in Iran, in which he asks "words"), [but] it is not merely speaking [with words]. Jn Akka, Miro\ the newspapers and cities of the world to heed the "groan of the Mohammad-e 'Ali always repeated verbatim on 0th.e r occasions what do\vntrodden."10 be heard from me, hut be was not aware that great wisdom (hezaran Likewise, many of Bah.a 'u'llah's moral exhortations could eas- hekam, literally thousands of counsels or max ims) and much consid- eration (masaleh, lirerally the plural of welfare, benefit) are needed, ily be extended to methodological premises, such as bis injunction not just talk. Sbaykh ' Abd al-Hosayn had said that in the days of to the true seeker (sltakhs-e mojcihed) to cleanse his bean from every Baghdad and Sulaymaniyyih the Blessed Beauty attracted the Kurds remnant of love and hatred so that blind love \Vill not lead hirn to err, by discoursing in the tenns of the gnostics and of Sufism. Tl1is poor nor will hatred prejudice him against the truth.11 Likewise, we must Shaykh went and found a copy of the Futuhat-i Makkiya,6 rnemorized not blindly imitate the \Vays of our forefathers, 12 but must see with its tenninology, and used it everywhere. He found that no one would our own eyes and hear \vith our own ears. To do this, and retain our [jsten and was greatly surprised why people did not listen. The Blessed hun1anity, we must be fair and equitable in our judgment.: Beauty said, "Tell the Shay kb that \Ve do not read Fu11ihat-i Makkiya, but recite the verses of civilization. We don't speak fro1n the text of the Qui an a11sifii ya uli a/-albab, man la instifa lahu la insaniya lahu Fusus oftbe Shaykb, rather we speak of the divine texts."7 Say; Observe equity in your judgment, ye men of understanding heart' Although obviously infom1ed of and able to participate in sev- He that is unjust in his judgment is destitute of the characteristics that eral different discourses, Baba' u'llah \Vas visited by few Europeans distinguish man's station.13 during his lifetime, and does not seem to have been greatly preoc- cupied with addressing religious and philosophical matters in terms of Western discourse.8 The Middle East did have, like the West,

"Knowledge" in Baha'u' llah 's writings Knowledge ( 'elm) is as wings to man 's life, and a ladder for his ascent. Its acquisition is incumbent on everyone. The knowledge of such sci- In the \Vest, the post-Enlightenment discourse of knowledge had on ences, however, should be acquired as can profit the peoples of the several points contradicted religious dogma. traditiona I theology, or earth, and not those which begin with words and end with words. notions about the authorship of the Bible. Therefore, science was Grea1 indeed is lhe claim (haqq) of scientists and craftsmen (saheblin- e 'olum va sanaye) on the peoples of the world .. . In tn1tb, knowl- seemingly in combat with religious kno\vledgc, and Wes tern edge is a veritable treasure for man, and a source of glory, of bounry, thinkers tended to dichotomize the "vo domains of knowledge. ofjoy, of exaltation, of cheer and gladness unto bim. l 7 Since the clash between science and religion did not affect the Islamic world to the same extent it did the Western world, 14 Elsewhere, Baha'u'llab writes: Baha' u' llnh does not speak extensively of science in apposition or opposition to religion. He viewed the ulti1nate purpose of knowl- Strain every nerve to acquire both inner and outer perfections, for the fruit of the human tree hath ever been and will ever be perfections both edge to be the 1noral improvement of human ity and the physical within and without. It is not desirable that a man be left without advance of civilization. Baha' u' llab describes the powers of hun1an knowledge or skills, for he is then but a barren tree. Then, so much as knowledge as ultimately proceeding from divine revelation or grace. capaciry and capability allow, ye needs must deck the tree of being As such, the goal of acquiring knowledge s hould be to further its with fruits such as knowledge, wisdom. spiritual perception and elo- possessors' progress toward God, not to veil him from divine truth: quent speech.I 8

Ya q(Jwm in11a qadd(Jrn6 al- 'ull11n Ii- 'irfani al-ma 'ltim These and other writings ofBaha'u'llab will, no doubt, be mined for further implications about the importance and the limitations of We have decreed, 0 people, that the highest and last end of all learn- knowledge. Furthermore, reading Baha'u' llab's statements about ing be the recognition of Him Who is the Object of all knowledgc.15 the modes of knowing and the types of knowledge in the context of Islamic philosophical and religious discoursel9 might give us addi- In his later \vritings, Baha'u'llah frequently mentions the i1npor- tional insight into the bases of Baha' i epistemology. However, as tance of acquiring knowledge and stresses the utilitarian and also mentioned earlier, Baba 'u ' llab does not usually address the problem transcendental value of the arts and sciences. In the sixth Tariiz, for of knowledge in terms of Western discourse on the conflict of sci- example, Baha' u' llab declares: ence and religion or the contradictions of faith and reason,20 a dis- course which remains a crucial methodological issue in the Western Knowledge (d6na 'f) is one of the wondrous gifts of God (ne 'mat-ha- intellectual tradition. Rather, the notion of the harmony of science ye el6h1). It is incumbent upon everyone to acquire it. Such arts and and religion, which has come to be thought of as a central principle material means as are now manifest have been achieved by virtue of of the Baha'i Faith, seems lo have been expounded most explicitly His knowledge ('elm) and wisdom (heknwt) which have been revealed by 'Abdu 'I-Baba. During his travels in the West, ' Abdu ' l-BahA in Epistles and Tablets th.rough His Most Exalted Peo- a Pen out of came into contact with many Western intellectuals and religious whose treasury pearls of wisdom and utterance and the arts and crafts thinkers of various backgrounds. His statements on these occasions of the world are brought to light.16 extend and amplify his father's teachings by more directly engaging Western discourse and methodology on the question of epistemol- In the Third Tajalli, Baha' u' llab writes of arts, crafts and sciences ogy (or how we may know things). and the methodologies of inves- ( 'o/um va /0111111 va sanaye 1: tigation and inquiry.

lf 'Abdu'l-Baha did enter into discussions from the frame of ref- So, in the renurks of 'Abdu' 1-Baha that follow, be is arguing erence of his audience (whether Shiite, Babi, Sunni, Christian, or \vithin a particular discourse. Therefore, some of the points made secular Western), then it is necessary to avoid facile conclusions might variously be understood either as axiomatically true, rela- about the propositional truth of each and every premise that he tively true, or metaphorically true. His comn1ents on the types of states. When 'Abdu'l-Baha employs a particular discourse, he may knowledge and modes of acquiring them might intend a n1etaphori- not necessarily intend to validate it, as a "fact," or historical or phys- cal reality, rather than a factual, scientific, or propositi.onally exclu- ical reaUty, because the logical conclusions of a given discourse do sive mode of understanding ultimate reality. Indeed, even if some of not of necessity point to absolute truths. By analogy, a novel can these statements are tneant to contain postulates of physics, chem- reveal emotional, spiritual, and social truths though it is entirely fic- istry, biology, history, etc., they may be simultaneously true with tional: its truths are not therefore propositional, but metaphorical. their apparent logical contraries (much as light can be understood Zarqilni quotes 'Abdu'l-Baha as saying that the talks he gave in the both as a wave or as photon particles). In any case, according to the churches and gathe.rings of America were iu accordance \vith the principle of the bam1ony of science and religion \vhich these state- receptivity of souls and the requirements of the age, at which point ments themselves expound, theological statements must be under- a poem is cited: stood and construed in the light of scientific discoveries which n1ay have some bearing on the same questions. Therefore, though they The father sings la-la to lull his babe to sleep Although his mind encompasses a world ofknowledge.2 1 are certainly probative, I do not propose that we necessarily under- stand the following comments of 'Abdu'l-Baha as ex.elusive and So, when Baha' u' llab adopts a particular discourse- for exam- absolute ways, valid in every conceivable frame of reference, of ple the discourse of Islamic philosophy be employs in bis Tablet of understanding the problem of truth and bo\v human beings know Wisdom-we need not necessarily conclud.e that be is thereby vali- things. dating it as propositionally, factually or absolutely true.22 Rather Consequently, l do not read the passages that follow from than arguing that bis audience's basic premises are imprecise or 'Abdu' l-Baha's writings as the basis for a Baha' i methodology or even false (a rhetorical strategy that might well distract listeners and epistemology that should be advocated in a. doctrinaire or dogmatic engender resistance), Baha'u'llab \vould seem to let son1e of his fashion. Rather, 1 \vould incline to see them as parables and guides audience's postulates, asswnptions, and even prejudices, stand. to bow Baba'is ought to think through the modem discourse on the After all, these premises held by the audience are being used as conflict between science and religion, and more especially, the ques- analogs and metaphors to prove other points, and are, in themselves, tion of methodology in the study of the Baba 'i Faith (or any other of secondary importance. Similarly, tbe parables of Jesus are not object of investigation, for that n1aner). Since acadernic methodolo- meant to provide his audience with factual details of conversations gies stiU operate largely within the discourse of the Western empir- or situations that actually took place. Rather they are hypothetical or ical tradition and the eulighterunent confrontation between science allegorical situations that point to spiritual truth. Like\vise, when and tradition, 'Abdu'l-Baha's framing of comments in this context 'Abdu 'I-Baba speaks of "ether" or refers to the Native Americans as ensures that they remain directly relevant to contemporary dis- "the savages of America,"23 we might examine th.ese statements as course. prevailing rhetorical assumptions, incidental eletncnts of a particu- lar discourse, ratber than as absolute propositions about physical reality or historical truth.

A note on sources sian. Comparison with the Persian originals of the talks reveals the English interpretations to be generally accurate, though not ahvays As most of the passages in ' Abdu'l-Baha's writings relevant to the precise. question of epistemology considered in this paper come from &me The notes taken in English during some of ' Abdu'l-Babi's talks Ans1vered Questions or Promulgation of Universal Peace, some \vcrc first published in the journal Star of the West. These articles, remarks are in order about these sources. So1ne Ansáwered Questions along \vith the notes from otber talks, were later compiled by (Mofavaz/Jt), a record of the responses of'Abdu'l-Baha to a range of Howard MacNurt who sought 'Abdu'l-Baha's permission to publish questions put to him by Laura Clifford Barney (later Dreyfus-Bar- them in book form. Though 'Abdu'l-Baha was aware tbat there had ney) in Akka during the years 1904-1906, offers one of the most sys- been errors by the interpreters, he gave permission for the compila- tematic expositions of Baha'i beliefs about the human soul. It also tion to be completed, charging Mr. MacNutt with the responsibi lity addresses, both implicitly (by its insistent practice of logical philo- of taking care to ensure tbat the exact text of the talks be accurately sophical argumentation) and explicitly (in theory), how we may reproduced \vithout error and deviation.27 The resulting book, The know and discover the nature of reality, both physical and spiritual. Promulgation ofUniversal Peace, was first published in t\vo volumes, Some Answered Questions was first published in London in 1908, appearing in 1922 and 1925, respectively. It was subsequently reissued with •Abdu' l-Bahii listed as author and Barney as collector and in a one-volume edition in 1939, and again in 1943. A ne'v edition translator of the Persian text. The Persian text was recorded by indi- of this book appeared in 1982. It included a new translation by Amin viduals accustomed to \vorking as secretaries for 'Abdu'l-BahA, Banani, made directly from the Persian text of the talk delivered by s.ince Barney did not wish to trust her personal notes. Barney gives ' Abdu'l-Baha on 23 April 1912 at Howard University. the names of these secretaries as Myrza Hadi, Myrza Mohseinne, This particular talk at Howard University, because it is trans- Nourideen, and Moneer.24 Their transcription of these talks \Vas read lated fron1 the transcript of the original Persian, can be considered line-by-line by 'Abdu'l-Baha, \vho occasionally corrected a word or an accurate record of what' Abdu'l-Baha said. However, 1nost of the a line with his reed pen, and then signed each lesson and stampe-0 it talks in Pro11111/gation of Universal Peace consist of the English with his seal, as he did with the tablets \Vhicb be wrote or dictated notes recorded by various individuals, not of ' Abdu'l-Baha's \Vords, himself. There are reportedly at least three copies of manuscripts of course, but of the words of an interpreter. The English text, then, extant, all of,vhicb contain corrections by ' Abdu'l-Baha, himself.25 cannot be considered a verbatim record of ' Abdu'l-Bahii's words, The Persian text of the work was printed during •Abdu' l-Baha's life- and as such, it is not considered Bahii' i scripture. However, accord- time, \Vith the second edition published in Cairo by Faraj Allah Zaki ing to Zarqani,28 the Persian texts of ' Abdu'l-Baba's ralks, as al-Kordi as Al-1111r al-abha fl Mofavauit-e 'Abd al-Baha in 1920 recorded by the Persian n1c1nbers of 'Abdu'l-Baha's entourage, (1329 A.H.).26 &me AnSlvered Questions is therefore considered as were generally presented to ' Abdu'l-Baha for bis approval and cor- part of the authoritative scriptures of the Baha' i Faith. rection before publication. As such, "the verbatim record in Persian The talks that 'Abdu'l-Baha gave while in North America are of His talks \vould of course be more reliable than one in English, recorded i.n The Promulgation of Universal Peace, a compilation of because he was not always accurately interpreted," as indicated in a stenographic records of speeches which 'Abdu'l-Baha delivered in letter \vrirten on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, dated 24 October 1947. A the United States and Canada. These records reflect what the note- letter from the Universal House of Justice, dated 24 June 1980, indiá take.rs understood from sin1ultaneous English iotcrprelations made catcs that \vhcrc the "original authenticated text" of the Persian talk by various Persians in 'Abdu'l-Baha's entourage as he spoke in Per- has not been found, the existing En,glish texts in Pron1ulgatio11 of Universal Peace and Paris Talks would have to be "clearly distin- proofs (adalle-ye elahiye). and be bas therefore begun with logical guished from those which form a part of Baha'i Scripture." These argumentation (adalle-ye 'aqliye), which is a self-evident mode of English notes of talks are not, therefore, Baha' i scripture. They may discourse, one open to discussion on shared premises and capable of nevertheless be used by tbe Baha' i community as long as these dis- acceptance or rejection by people of various beliefs on the common tinctions are maintained and "the degree of authenticity of eve.r y ground of logic: document" is known and understood. The original authenticated This is a spiritual truth, but one which we cannot at tbe beginning put Persian transcription of the talks would, by contrast, seem to qualify forth for the benefit of the materialists. First we must speak of the log- as Baha'i scripture. The Persian text of 'Abdu 'l-Baha's talks in ical proofs, a.fterward the spiritual proofs.31 Europe, America and Egypt has fortunate ly been publ.isbed, and it contains most, though by no n1eans all, of the talks appearing in Pro- Indeed, there are passages in the talks and \Vritings of' Abdu'l-Baba 11111/gation of Universal Peace.29 For ihis reason, we \Vill consider where he appears to privi lege the logical mode of discourse as a the transliterated Persian text in conjunction \vith th.e English \vher- means of understanding apparent contradictions between science ever possible. and religion:

'Abdu'l-Ba b a's comments on epistemology That which science and reason cannot support must be rejected as imi- tation and not reality. Then differences of belief will disappe.ar.32 áAbdu'l-Baha draws a distinction in some passages of Sorne The authenticated Persian original of this is even more emphatic in Answered Questions between " logical" and "spiritual" proofs: the primacy it gives to science and reason . It might be rendered pro- Tue p.roofs which we have adduced relative to the origin of the bu1nan visonally as follows: species \Vere logical proofs. Now we will give the spiritual proofs, lf one of the religious questions is contrary to reason, contrary to sci- which are essential. for, as we have proved Divinity by logical argu- ence, it is pure fancy . . . that which science does not verify, reason ments, and have also proved logically that man exists from bis origin does not accept, is not the truth. and foundation as man, and that his species has existed from all eter- nity, now we ,yjJJ establish spiritual proofs that human existence-that The Persian text reads: is the species of man--is a necessary existence, and that without man the perfections of Divinity would not appear. But these are spiritual agar mas 'ale-i az masa "e/-e dini 111okha/ef-e 'aql bashad, mokluilef-e proofs, not logical proofs . . _30 'elm bashad, valmr-e mahz ast... anche 'elm tasdiq 11emi-ko11ad, 'aql qabul 11emi-konad. lraqiqat nisr33 The reader \ViU remark that neither the logical proofs (the word used in Persiao for " logical" being 'aqli, with a semantic range of Baha' is themselves probably do not think of the harmony of science rational, reasonable, logica l, n1ental), nor the spiritual proofs (the and religion in such stark terms of privileging science over scripture, word here translated as spiritual being elahi, meauiag divine, but let's consider another passage from a talk given by 'Abdu'l- Lordly, belonging to the rea!Jn of God), is considered superior. Both Baha to the Church of the Messiah in Montreal, which, according to are presented as valid ways of establishing truth, effective in certain the Persian text of the talk, was a Unitarian church (kelisa-ye mova- contexts. heddin):34 When we come to the end of this same section, however, Baha'u'llah has declared that religion must be in accord with science 'Abdu'l-Balla states that not everyone \viii accept the spiritual and reason. If it does not com:spond with scientific principles and the 60 * FRANKLCN LE\VIS DISCOURSES OF KNOWLEDGE 61

processes of reason, it is superstition. For God bas endowed us with cannot be canied out upon deno.minational lines. If the origins of the faculties by wh.ich we may comprehend the realities of things, con- world, for example, are to be detennined on the bas.is of scriptural template reality itself. If religion is opposed to reason and science, accounts and theological traditions, then evangelical Christians faith is impossible ... would have one reality, Native Americans another, liberal Christians yet another, Buddhists yet again another, and so forth. There is no ,Din bayad motabeq-e 'elm va 'aql bas/rad. Agar moiabeq-e 'elm va 'aql na-biislrad, owhlim ast, zira klroda áaql be ensan dade ta edrak-e way to adjudicate bet\ve.en competing faith claims, which rest on the lraqa 'eq-e ashy a ' ko11ad, lraqiqat be-parastad. Agar din moklralef-e authority of scriptures or traditions considered divinely inspired. 'elm va 'aql bas/rad, momken 11isr sabab-e etminim-e qalb slravad; Rational, scientific methodology, however, creates a common chwr sabab-e et111i11an nist, ow/ram ast ...lelrliza, bayad masa 'e/-e ground upon which the various faith communities can meet and dis- diniye ra ba 'aql va 'elm latbiq nemud, ta qalb etminan y tibad va cuss evidence according to experimentally or logically verifiable sabab-e son1r-e ensan slravad. standards, for all can participate in a shared discussion using these tools.36 ' Abdu ' l-Baha several times repeated in almost identical \vords Obviously, Baha'is, like other people of faith, must pursue such this idea that religion must conform to science, not the other way around. For example, the following passage:35 means of debate in the public sphere, following shared methodolo- gies, with people who do not accept many-or even any--of the The fourth teaching of Bal1a'u'lllih is tbe agreement of religion and same faith postulates. To do so, they must leave the comfortable science. God bas endowed man \vilh intelligence and reason, whereby topography of their faith-based mental landscape, and explore the he is required to detennine the verity of questions and propositions. If common boundaries of discourse both within and outside the acad- religious beliefs aad opinions are found contrary to the standards of emy, among people of a variety of creeds, with a wide spectrum of science, they are mere superstitions and imaginations; for the antitheá sis of knowledge is ignorance, and the child of ignorance is supersti- beliefs about the ultimate nature of life and whether God is still Lion. Unquestionably there must be agreement between true religion healthy, ailing or dead. Such "intellectual pioneering" on the part of and science. If a question be found contrary to reason, faitb and belief people of faith. is an opportunity for consultation and ecumenical in it are impossible, and there is no outco1ne but wavering and vaci l- association with people of different faiths and of no faith in the cru- lation. cial public sphere where civil and secular society is created, and which best fosters multiple approaches to the independent investi- Ta '/im.- e chaharom -e Hazra.1-e Baha áAllah tinke din bayad mouibeq-e gation of truth. This does not require any of the parties to jettison 'elm btishad zir/J kl1odli 'aql be-ensti11 d/Jde 1/J haqa 'eq-e as hyti' ra their faith or supra-rational beliefs; it merely means that they bracket tahqiq namtiyad. Agar masa 'el-e diniye mokhti/ef-e 'aql va 'elm these beliefs for the sake of discussion with people who do not begin btishad, vahm ast, zini moqtibel-e 'elm. jahl ast. la bodd din bayad motabeq-e 'aql btishad la az baniye e11sa11 elmina11 luisel sltavad. Agar from the same premises. As 'Abdu'l-Baba says, "first we must speak n1as'a/e 'i moklrtilef-e 'aql bashad, momke11 nis t az baraye e11Sa11 of logical proofs." etmintin /rose/ gardad. Ha111islre motazalzel ast. This rationalist mode of discourse is based on a cultu.re of respect for the human mind. It is not completely value-free, nor does Baha'is and the Western academy it require a purely materialist conception of the cosmos, though it does accomodate such premises. Committed Christians of a certain lf conflicts bct\vecn scienc,c and religion, reason and faith, are to be stripe in the United States sometimes disparagingly refer to this type adjudicated according to rational standards, such inquiries obviously of intellectual discourse as "secular humanism." Within the Baha'i comn1unity, there are also those who sometimes look upon intellec- among Sufis often has the meaning of esoteric knowledge or gnosis, tuals with scepticism or fear. People who rely overmuch on the intel- though it can also more n1undanely convey the sense of"cognjtion." lect, at the expense of the spirit, are perhaps thought to hold and Jt is actually this type of spiritual insigbt-knowledge-cognjtion (Ara- promote a distorted vie\V of truth, or to be blind to the true prompt- bic 'irfan, Persian 'e1fa11) of God, along \Vitb worship of the Deity, ings of the meta-rational or non-material world. There are state- that is the purpose of human life, as Baha'u 'Uah calls upon his fol- ments in the Baba 'i writings to the effect that worldly knowledge lowers to confess in their obligatory prayers: can act as a veil to blind its possessor to the truth- this not because 1 testify, 0 my God, that Thou hast created me to know ( 'irfan) Thee knowledge, or the pursuit of it, is corrosive, but because knowledge and to worship Thee can lead to pride and hubris in those who possess it. However, both Baha'u' llah (e.g., in Seven Valleys, p. 5; Kitab-i iqan, pp. I 92-93; ashhadu ya ilalrf bi-a1111aka kltalaq1a11i Ii- 'irfanika wa 'ibadatika and the Javaher a/-asrar), and 'Abdu'l-Baha (in Some Answered Questions), explain that the principle of independent investigation To achieve this k110\vledge of God or Truth (rna 'ref'atce Haqq), a of truth requires that we be fair in our judgment, and not aUO\V our person tnust rely upon his own efforts of insight, his heart and bis love for or prejudice against particular people, and one presumes innate character (be-basar va qa/b vafetrat-e khod). It is insufficient ideas, tum us away from the truth. to imitate \Vhat one has been told (che ke taqlid kefayat nanamilyad). 'Abdu 'l-Bahlt, birnself, visited universities and praised their sci- This kind of Ia10\vledge/recognition/insight of God ('irfan) is, entific methodologies. At Stanford University on 8 October 1912, Baha'u' Uah says in his Words of Wisdom, the root of the more expe- á Abdu' l-Baha told 1800 university students and 180 professors that riential or logical kno\vledges, or sciences ( 'u/u111).39 "knowledge" is tbe greatest of human ach.ievements. He used the The greatest attainment in the world of humanity has ever been scien- word 'e/111 (Arabic, 'i/m), meaning acquired knowledge, or sci- tific in nature. It is the discovery of the realities of things .. . The high- ence.37 This word 'ilm was traditionally used for the religious sci- est praise is due to men who devote their energies to science, and the ences, that is to say, the knowledge of hadith and their transmission, noblest centre is a centre wherein the sciences and arts are taught and of the Qur'an and the Sunna, among other things. Jts primary object studied. Science ever tends to the illuminatioo oftbe world of human- ity. It is the cause of eternal honor to man ...40 was kno\ving the laws of Islam, expounded through established principles of jurisprudence (fiqh) \vhich had been worked out and The Persian is actually much more forceful, and it uses the word agreed upon as canonical. 38 lo the nineteenth century, however, as "ulema" (Persian 'o/a1na, derived from Arabic), a word that is typi- scientific and tecb.nical knowledge began to permeate the Middle cally translated fro1n [slarnic texts into Western languages as East from Europe, the word 'ib11, especially in its plural ( 'u/i/111), was "clergy" or "learned divines," but which means "the learned," peo- often used to translate "science" or the physical "sciences." It has ple who have studied and n1astered the sciences, foremost among now come to mean academic methods of study in general (ravesh-e which was the science of badith, the knowledge of the Qur'an, of 'elmi=scientific n1etbod) or bodies of knowledge, as in the academic Islamic law, theology, (eventually also physics and philosophy, etc): discipline of political science ( 'olum-e sias1) or even more generally, A 'zam manqabat-e 'a/am-e e11sa11i 'elm a.91, zira kashf-e ltaqtiyeq-e the humanities ( 'olum-e e11sa11i) and the natural sciences ( 'o/urn-e ashya •a.vr... Ashrafjami 'ati ke dar 'alam tashkil mi-gardad jam 'iyat- tabi 'i). e 'olama ast va ashrafmarkaz dar 'alam-e ensani markaz-e "o/um va This acquired human knowledge ( 'ilm) is distinct from 'irfan, fa111111 ast, zira áetm sabab-e rowshami 'i-ye 'almn ast, sabab-e rahat the knowledge of spiritual recognition or insight, a word which va asayesh ast. 'elm sabab-e 'ezzat-e 'a/am-e e11sa11i ast.4 1 64 * f'RANKLIN lEWlS DISCOURSES OF KNOWLEDGE * 65 On May 23, 1912, at Clark University, in Worcester, Massachusetts, and upheld theories, such as evolution, that were opposed by reli- 'Abdu'l-Baba bad used almost identical \vords. This talk is not gious orthodoxy, ' Abdu 'l-Baha 's comments, in the context of those included in translation in Pro1nu/gation of Universal Peace; a pro- days, suggest support for such methodologies. visional rende.r ing therefore follows the transliterated Persian: At the Bethel Literary Society in Washington, D.C., ' Abdu'l- Baba specifically praised the technique of "inductive reasoning and Pas ma 'lum shod ke 'elm a ázam-e manaqeb-e 'cilam-e e11sani asr. 'Elm 'ezzat-e abadi asr, 'elm hayat-e sarmadi ast ... research," through the process of \Vhich man is "informed of all that appertains to humanity." A scientific man using these principles Zira 'elm a11var as l va shakhs-e 'a/em mesl-e qendi/-e derakhshande "studies the human body politic, understands social problems and va IOban, Jami '-e khalq mayyet-a11d va 'olama zende . .. \veaves the \veb and texture of civilization." Indeed, science is the "very foundation of all individual and national development. With- t'.{as hahir-e 'olama 'e salaf ra mo/aheze konid ke serare-ye áezzat- out the basis of investigation development is impossible." He even esha11 az ofoq-e abodi derakhshande ast va ta abad al-abad baqi va puts it this way: bar qa1áar. l eJ111za 11ehtiyat-e sorur ra daram ke dar in dt!rr al-/0111111 hazer-am. Omid-am cho11a11 ast ke i11 markaz 'azim shavad va be- All blessings are divine in origin, but none can be cornpared with this anvlir-e '0/11111 Jan1i á-e afaq ra rowsha11 ko11ad, kur ha rci bina konad . .. power of intellectual investigation and research ... All other blessings lira 'elm 1111r ast va jahl zolmar42 are temporary, this is an everlasting possession.45 So it is evident that knowledge is the greatest of the virtues of the Baha'u' llah confim1s the in1portance of this blessing, in the human world. Knowledge is eternal might, knowledge is everlasting Lawh-i Hikroat, where he enjoins upon us respect for the learned life . . . for knowledge is rays of light and the learned person is like a (the 'u/a111a ', the possessors of 'i/111, the same \vho are denounced in bright and shining lamp. All creatures are as dead, and the learned ( 'olamli) alive . .. Coo.sider the fam.ous learned ones of the past and tile Kitab-i fqan as "the learned divines"): bow the star of their might shines from the borizoo of eternity and will Beware 0 My loved ones, lest ye despise the merits of My learned ser- remain fixed and undying from the beginning to the end of eternity. vants \vllon1 God bath graciously chosen to be the exponents of His Therefore, I am extremely happy to be io this academy (dar a/- Name, "The Fashioner" aroidst mankind.46 /0111111) .43 My hope is that this ceotcr '>viii. become great and illumine all horizons with the lights of knowledge ("0/11111), give sight to the In a talk in Minneapolis not regarded as authenticated because blind ... for knowledge is Ught and ignorance is darkness ... the original Persian notes are not extant, •Abdu' l-Baba praised the During the course of !his same talk, 'Abdu'l-Baha praised the aca- philosophic methods practised by "the philosophers of Greece- such as Aristotle, Socrates, Plato and others," \vho were "devoted to demic institutions of the United States, colleges and technical uni- versities (madares-e dar al-fonun-ha). He expressed the hope that the investigation of both natural and spiritual phenomena." other countries would follow this example and establish schools for In divine questions we must noi depend entirely upon the heritage of the training of children, and raise the banner of knowledge so that tradition and fom1er hun1an experience; nay, rather we must exercise the world of humanity would be illuminated and the realities and reason, analyze aod logically examine tbe facts presented so that con- mysteries of all beings become apparent and prejudices be dis- fidence will be inspired and faith attained. Theo and then only the real- pelled.44 Since these same institutions \Vere champions of academic ity of things wiU be revealed to us. methodologies (sometimes considered materialist methodologies) Today the philosophy and logic of Aristotle are lcoO\Vll throughout the wo.rld. Because they were interested io both natural and divine phi- losophy. furthering the development of the physical world of mankind no outward fom1 and no place and is not perceptible to the senses. For as well as the intellecrual, they rendered praiseworthy service 10 ex.ample, the power of intellect ( 'aql) is 001sensible; none of the inner humanity. This was the reason of the triumph and survival of their qualities of man is a sensible thing; on !he contrary they are intellec- teachings and principles. Man should continue both these lines of tual realities (haqti 'eq-e ma 'qu/e). So love is a mental reality and not research and investigation so that all the human virtues, outer and sensible (va hamchonin hobb niz haqiqat-e ma 'qu/e ast, mal1SUse nist); inner, may become possible. The attainment of these virtues, both for this reality the ear does not hear, the eye does not see, the smell rnaterial and ideal, is conditioned upon intelligent investigation of does not perceive . . . ln the same way, nature, also, in its essence is an reality, by which investigation the sublimity of man aud bis inrellec- intellectual reality and is not sensible; the human spirit is an intellec- tual progress is accomplished. Fonns must be set aside and renounced; tual, not sensible reality ... reality must be sought. We must discover for ourselves where and what reality is. ln religious beliefs nations and peoples today are in1i- This passage is taken from ' Abdu ' l-Baba's discourse titled "Out- tators of ancestors and forefathers ... The requirement in this day is ward Forms and Symbols Must be Used to Convey Intellectual Con- that man must independently and inipartially inves1iga1e every fonn of ceptions,"50 which argues that scripture must be understood rcality.47 symbolically, as a metaphor for an intellectual reality that is not per- ceptible to the senses (haqa 'eq-e ma 'q11/e ast ke surat-e khtirejiye Faith itself, •Abdu' l-Baha is here quoted as saying, requires the 11adtirad va makii.11 nadtirad va ghayr n1ahsuse ast). exercise of reason and logic. ' Abdu'l-Baha returns to this theme in another chapter of Some Types of knowledge Answered Questions, "The Knowledge of the Divine Manifestations." Laura Clifford Barney asks if the knowledge of the divine manifes- In a talk to the Theosophists of Paris, •Abdu ' I-Baba spoke of knowl- tations is limited, and ' Abdu ' l-Baha 's reply should be noted here in edge ('elm) being of two kinds- abstract (tasavvori, conceptua l or full: suppositional) and e1npirical (talraqqoq1)-and he stressed the importance of the latter: "Complete knowledge is the experiential Knowledge is of two kinds. One is subjective ( 'e/m-e vojudi)5 I and the other is objective knowledge ( 'elm-e sovarilsuri)-that is to say, realization of a thing, not the imagination of a thing."48 !n his table an intuitive knowledge ( 'elm-e tahaqqoqi) and a knowledge derived talks with Laura Clifford Barney, •Abdu ' I-Baba also divides knowl- from perception ( 'e/m-e lasawori). edge into two types, though these categories differ somewhat from The knowledge of things which men universally have is gained by that above: reOection or by evidence-that is to say, either by the power of the mind the conception of an object is formed, or from beholding an A subject that is essentiaJ49 for the comprehension of the questions object the form is produced in the mirror of the hean. The circle of this that we have mentioned, and of others of which we arc about to speak, knowledge is very lirnit.ed because it depends upon effort and anain- so that the essence of the problems may be understood, is this: !hat ment. human knowledge is of two kinds. One is the knowledge of things per- But the second sort of knowledge, which is !he knowledge of ceptible to the senses (ma '/un1ti1-e ma'1s11se)-tha1 is to say, things being, is intuitive ( 'elm-e \IOj11di va tahaqqoqi asl); it is like the cog- which the eye, or ear, or smell, or taste, can pcrcci ve, which are called nizance and consciousness that man has of himself. objcc1ivc, or sensible. So the suo, because it can be seen is said to be For example, the mind ( áaql) and the spirit of man are cognizant of objective; and in the same way sounds are sensible because the car the conditions and states of the members and component parts of the hears them ... body, and are aware of all the physical sensations; in the same way, The other kind of human knowledge is intellectual (ma 'q11/tit)- they are aware of their power, of their feelings, and of their spiritual that is to say, it is a reality of the intellec1 (haqti 'eq-e ma 'qule); it has conditions. This is the knowledge of being which man realizes and 68 FRANKLJN LEWIS DISCOURSES OF KNOWLEDGE 69

perceives, for the spirit surrounds the body and is aware of its sensa- aU of them are faulty and unreliable. What then remains? How shall tions and powers. This knowledge is not the outcome of effort and we attain the reality of knowledge? By the breath and prompting of the study. ll is an existing thing; it is an absolute gift. 52 Holy Spirit, which is lighr and knowledge irself..56

Modes of knowing Evidently, then, though perception, logic, and tradition are all flawed modes of knowledge, it is necessary sometimes to use reason ' Abdu ' l-Baha outlines four methods of acqumng knowledge, or as the primary o r at least initial niode of discourse, because reason modes of perception (n1izan-e edrak) in Son1e Answered Questions: is a method that does not require equal stations of spiritua.1 insight the senses (n1izan-e hess); reason (111iza11-e 'aql); religious tradition between the interlocutors, but provides a common ground, like the (mizan-e naql; less specifically, whatever human knowledge is physical senses, on which most observers can agree. known through transmission, oral or written, and not through sense Here is the closest we ca.o come to certainty, by involving va.ri- perception or logic); and the comprehension which comes through ous modes of knowledge, as 'Abdu'I Baha, according to the notes the bounty oftbe Holy Spirit <Jayz-e Ruh al-qodos).53 The first three taken by Edna McKinney from a simultaneous translation given methods are fallible: the senses can be mistaken; logic and reason, while he spoke at Green Acre in Maine on 16 August 1912, explains: presumably because they can begin with faulty premises, can lead to But a statetnent presented to the mind accompanied by proofs which conflicting conclusions; religious tradition, because it involves the senses can perceive to be correct, which the faculty of reason can interpretation, which requires the use of reason, is also faulty. These accept, which is in accord with traditional authority and sanctioned by various methods may be used separately, or in conjunction \vitb one the promptings of the heart, can be adjudged aad relied upon as per- another; that is to say they are independent modes of investigation, fectly correct, for it has been proved and tested by all the standards of though they can, and should, be brought to bear simultaneously on judgment and found to be complete. When we apply but one test, there certain issues. Reason is the method ' Abdu' L-Baha associates with are possibi lities of m.istake. This is self-evident and manifest_S7 the philosophers, and religious tradition with the theologians and Perhaps the reason for this is that ' Abdu' l-Baha speaks of the clergy. Unfortunately, none of these methods are absolutely reliable. mind ( 'aql) and the spirit (ruh) as separate entities, which is, of The fourth method, the outpourings of the holy spirit, is the only one course, an established discourse of neo- Plaionic thought \Vithin the that is true and sound (sahih ), never subject to doubt (dar an abadan Islamic tradition. They are both present at birth, but in an imperfect shakk va shobheh 'i 11ist). However, it appa.rently comes to us only state, "only when 111an attains maturity do the mind and the spirit by divine grace <Jayz), and not by our own wi.11 and effort. 54 appear and become evident in utmost perfection. »58 At the Hotel Ansonia in New York on 17 April 1912, when Elsewhere, ' Abdu'l-Baha distinguishes between soul (nafs), spi- 'Abdu '1-.Baha spoke of thjs fourth mode of knowledge it was trans- rit (n1h) and mind ( 'aql). Spirit appears to be a quiddity, a kind of lated as "inspiration,"55 and it was described as an ''influx of the essence of an ontological state. There is a vegetable spirit (ruh-e human lieart." 'Abdu'l-Baha went on to say, however, the "satanic nabat1), an animal spirit (ruh-e hayvan1), a buma.o spirit (ruh-e promptings which afflict mankind" are also an "influx of the heart." ensanl), a spirit of faith (r11h-e imani) and the holy spirit (ruh a/- ' Abdu ' l-Baha then poses the question, ho\v do \Ve knov,1 when our qodos). The vegetable and the animal spirit are subject to composi- inspiration is divine and when it is "satanic"? tion and decomposition, a.od hence are not immortal; the hun1an Briefly, the point is that in the human material world of phenomena spirit, on the other band, is defined by the rational soul (11afs-e these four are the only ex.isling criteria or avenues of knowledge, and naceqe), which distinguishes it from the animal spirit. The human

spirit and the rational soul are two names for one reality, the comprehension (qovve-ye modreke) which comprehends realities; "rational soul" being a term used by the philosophers. It is this that and memory (qovve-ye hafeze),61 which retains that which an indi- allows us to discover the realities of things, but unless assisted by vidual imagines, thinks, or comprehends. There is a further sense, the spirit of faith, our rational soul cannot bee-0me apprised of "the \vhich mediates between the five outward or physical senses and divine secrets and heavenly realities" (mottale ábe asrar-e elahiye va these inward powers of the mind. This facu.lty 'Abdu '1-.Baha calls haqa'eq-e /ahutiye). 'Abdu'l-Baha compares this rational soul to a "the common faculty" (hess-e moshtarak).68 Of these five inward mirror, which no matter how polished, cannot reflect light until the powers, which operate hierarchica lly, the common faculty is the light of faith shines upon it. 59 first, transferring an impression of the physical senses to the imagi- Yet, the power within the human spirit is the mind or intellect nation, which transfers ro thought, which is transformed into con1- ( 'aql). This intellect is like the light shining within the lan1p of the prehension, and is preserved in the me111ory. 69 rational soul/human spirit, or like the rays of the sun, with the These powers are not possessed in equal capacity by all. soul/spirit being the sun.60 The rational sou.I, \vhich all humans pos- 'Abdu' l-Baba tells us that each person bas intelligence and capac- sess alike, \Vhether they are believers or deniers, faithful or way- ity, but in differing degrees. Furthermore, the degree of education ward, is responsible for the dise-0very of a.II the sciences, arts, affects the intell igence.70 But, as we have seen above, this power is knowledge, institutions, and discoveries. True, this power of knowl- not dependent on spiritual attainment, belief in God, creed, or any edge is limited and makes its discoveries only through the toil of other qualificatioD-Qther than the innate mental capacity and the investigation, and it is subject to error. ln contrast, the universal degree of education. Of course, \Ve do not gain knowledge of the divine intellect ( 'aql-e kolli-ye elahl) is a supernatural power (ma essence of things, but only of their qualities (chu11 n1a 'nifiyat-e vara 'e tabi 'at), \vhicb, however, only the holy manifestations and ashya, va htil anke khalq-and va 111ahdud-and, be sefat-ast, 11ah be the dawning places of prophecy possess. Human beings are illu- ztit).11 However, the English notes of the words spoken by 'Abdu'l- mined by it only in small measure, as it is reflected by God's inter- Baha on 20 September, 1912, at the home of Albert Ha.II in Min- mediaries,61 and we cannot attain to it through effort; this power to neapolis do equate the acquisition of knowledge and the perceive spiritual realities is bestowed by the bounty of God. On the development of the intellect with the capacity to attain virtue: otber hand, the power to make earthly discoveries is not bestowed As human creatures fitted and qualified with this dual cndow1ncnt, \VC on the basis of faithfulness or belief or any other spiritual quality, 1nust endeavor through the assistance and grace of God and by the but on the basis of the effort of mental investigation.62 And it is the exercise of our ideal power of intellect to attain all lofty virtues, tbat .rational sou.I/human spirit (nafs-e 11ateqeln1h.-e ensa11i) which is the we may witness tbe effulgences of the Sun of R.eality.72 immortal part of the human being, which wilJ live on after our deatb.63 Implications for Baha'i methodology 'Abdu'l-Baha enumerates in Some Answered Questions the fol- lowing "spiritual powers" (qova-ye 1na '11aviye),64 or faculties of the Baha'u'llah, in presenting his message to Zoroastrians like Ustad intellect and rational soul, which are over and above the five senses Javan Mard or Manikji Sahibji, did not emphasize the Shiite teach- (sight, bearing, taste, touch, smell), which we have in common with ings or the Islamic tradition \vith \vhich the Babis were engaged, for the anima.I spirit.65 They are the power of the imagination (qovve-ye it \Vas in fact anathema to the Zoroastrians. In so doing, Baha'u' Uah n1otakhayyele) which conceives things; the po\ver of thought did not abandon his beHef in the truth of Muhammad or Shiism, he (qovve-ye n1otafakkere),66 which reflects on realities; the power of just bracketed those beliefs to participate in a discourse that a * f'RANXLIN LEWIS DISCOURSES OF KNOWLEDGE * 73 Zoroastrian could "hear" and respect. In similar fashion, the acl of Notes bracketing one's spiritual or suprarational beliefs to participate in academic discourse that is believable, that can be heard, by people Frnnklin Lewis is Associate Professor of Persian Ulnguagc and Litcrnrure at who do not share the same premises is not an inherently materialist Emory University in Atlanta. exercise, nor does it presuppose abandoning one's faith convictions. I . I have in mind nol lhe linguistic lenn (discoum:, discouise analysis), but rather Baha'is in academia should, of course, adopt the assumptions of lhe sense of"discourseáá as ii appears in lhcoretical discussions oflhe sociology intellectual discourse, not only because this is the only way to of knowledge or the construction of the episteme, especially !hose infonned by lhc arguments of Foucault. Wingcnslcin 's "language game," suggesting that a engage in a constructive dialogue with non-Baha' i intellectuals and discussion can be true within a certain frnmework without necessarily pointing academics, but because it preserves, employs, and hones sophisti- to external trt1ths, reOecls essentially the snme notion, as do various other con- cated techniques which help us to better understand, not only the cepts such as Kuhn's "paradigm," etc. Not surprisingly, "discourse" has now entered academic Persian tenninology (where it is variously rendered as guye.rh, physical world, but the mental universe of the present and past gojitl11). While I suggest below that 'Abdu'láBab!I discusses ideas lhat are simá If there is such a thing as a distinctively Baha'i methodology, it ilar to lhe concept of discourse as '"school of 1hought"' (i.e., Sufi discourse), nev. cannot be based on essential differences in the modes of perception erthcless, 'Abdu'l-Baha does nor usc lhe concept or tenn "discouise"' in lhe technical sense that ii is of\en used today. and evaluation of infonnation. That is to say, sornewhat obviously, 2. Different fonns of discouise perfonn better or worse at answering cer1ain kinds there is no inherently Baha'i mode of seeing, hearing, touching, of questions. Scientific method, for example, does 001 do a panicularly good job smelling, etc. There is likewise no inherent difference among people of addressing questions such as the existence or narure of divinity, lhe meaning of life. or bow scientific knowledge should be morally appl.ied. of different creeds in their ability for logic or rational evaluation. 3. The Hidden fYonfs, trans. Shoghi Effendi, "wilh the assistance of some English Socrates must be mortal if Ile is a man, and Baha'is are bound by this friends" (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, reprint 1975) pp. 19-20, Arnbic logic as much as anyone else. Baba'is are committed to consultation #67. 4. ' Abdu 'lá Baha, The Secret of Divine Civilirn1io11, trans. Marzieh Gail wilh Ali as a means of arriving at the truth. This consultation should include Kuli Khan (\Vilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trus1, 1957; [3rd ed., 1975]) p. 36. My the clash of differing opinions, including rationalist or even n1ateri- !hanks to Wi ll McCams, who read a draft of 1his paper and pointed out the relá alist opinions, if the spark of truth is to be produced. cvance of this passage here. 5. Mirza Mahmud-e Zarq:lni, Badayc' al-astlr (Bombay, 1914; [facsimile reprinl, Where a distinctively Baha'i methodology might emerge, it Hotheim-Langenhain: Bah:l 'l-Vcrlag, 1982]) Vol 1, pp. 175-6. Nore that Ibis is seems to me, is in the ethical application of knowledge and the cre- Zarqani's recollection of what 'Abdu'láBaha remembered Baha'u'lhl.b 10 have ation of equitable access to knowledge and the benefits which ensue said decades earlier, and as such is nor aulhoritative. For specula1ion on Ba.Máu 'llah ás use of Sufi discourse as a bridge or transition between the panicá from it. This is properly a moral question about the means and ends ularisl Shiite discourse ofBabism and wider Sunni-based pan-Islamic concerns, of acquiring knowledge, and the values \vhich drive a society's sec Frnnklin Lewis, "i\fo1hnavi-yi Mub<irak: introduction and provisional verse acquisition of knowledge, rather than a question about the modes or ttnnslation- (cntilled ááPoetry iu Revelation.. in the table of contentSI. Bairoá; S1udies Review, Vol. 9 ( 199912000) pp. I06-16. kinds of knowing. It is here, perhaps, \"\•here Baba'is have the most 6. Futtih6t-i Mak/Oya (Meccan Rcvclnrions) is lhe magnum opus of the "Grenr orig.inal contribution to make to the discourse of academic knowl- Shaykh"" of lheoretical Sufism, Muhyl al-Din fbn áArabi (d. 1240). Another of edge-in the ethics of\vhat \Ve do with what \Ve can know, and bow his works, Fusus al-fliknm (Bezels of \Visdom), is also alluded to a few lines funher down. we adjudicate conflicting truth claims in consultation. 7. Trnnslation by the present writer. TI1is reported speech, whicb may or may nol have been correctly remembered by Zarq6ni, would have stal\ls in the Buh6 'i community as '"pilgrim's notes,'" noJ scripture. 8. The point has, however, been made, 1ha1 in Istanbul and olher places in the Midá die Eas1, political discouisc had been grcully influenced in lhe latter half of the nineteenth century by European political theory. Juan Ricardo Cole in !.1oderá 74 75

nity and the Mi/lenium: The Genesis of the Baha'i Faith in the Nineteenthá exclusive reference to the masculine gender. To avoid misapprehension, one century Middle East (New York: Colwnbia University Press, 1998) argues tbat might now render the passage- 'elm be-matizele-ye jenah ast az baraye Baha' u' llab sometimes uses political tenninology in a modern way that reOectS vojud- altematively and more in tune witb the exigencies of the current time as awareness of European political theory. No general consensus has as yet "knowledge is as wings for creation." Likewise, in the final sentence, " knowlá emerged on the extent to which this may be the case. edge is as a veritable treasure for man," the English predicate might also be pre- 9. All the preceding statements on journalism come from Baba' u'lluh's tablet, positioned, as it is in the Persian (kanz-e haqiqi az baraye erosan 'e/m-e uást), tO "Tarazilt," in Majmu 'e 'i oz alvah-e Jamal-e Aqdas-e Abha ke ba 'd az Ketab-e render something like "The true treasure fo r human beings is their knowledge." Aqdas 111izel shode (Langenhain: Lajne-ye Nashr-e asar-e Amri be-leslln-e Farsi 18. Baha'i Education: a compilation ofextracts from the Bahti 'i Writings (London: va 'Arabi, 137 B.E.11980) p. 21. The official English translation appears in The Baba' i Publishing Trust, 1976, [revised 1987]) p. 3. Tablets of Baha'u '/ltlh revealed ajler the Kita/J.i Aqdas (Haifa: Baha'i World 19. There are, of course, fundamental differences between the traditional religious Centre, 1978) pp. 39-40. scholars ( 'ulama), the gnostics ('urafa) or Sufis, and the philosophers 10. See Abid Taherzadeh, Revelation of Baha'u'/lah, Vol. 4 (Oxford: George (nrntaka/limun, hukama) in their respective pursuit of the path of law (shari'a), Ronald, 1987) p. 350. the path of interior spirituality (tariqa) , aodfalsafa. These various approaches 11. Baha ' u'llah, Kitab-i iqtm, trans . Shoghi Effendi (Wilmette: Baha ' i Publishing diverge in their valorization of 'ilm (knowledge) and ma 'rife (guosis), hikma Trust, 1931; [2nd ed. 1950]) p. 192. (wisdom), etc. Above and beyond this, however, different categories of knowl- 12. Baha'u' llab, The Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys , trans. Marzieh Gail in edge have been adumbrated by medieval Mus.Jim thinkers, such as al-Farabi and consultation with Ali Kuli Khan (\Vilmcttc: Baha ' i Publishing Trust, 1945, al-GhazzAli, and the tenns they have used might very well contribute to a more [revised ed., 1975]) p. 5. precise understanding of the terminology and concepts which 'Abdu'l -Baba 13. Baba 'u' llah. Gleanings from the fJ'ritings ofBaha '11 'lltlh. trans. Shogbi Effendi employs. One recent work of the many in English that treats this subject is (Wilmette: Baha' i Publishing Trust, 1939; (2nd revised edition, l976]) p. 204; Osman Bakar, Classifica1ion of Knowledge i11 Islam: A S111dy i11 the Islamic Persian/Arabic text in Mo111akhabdti az astlr-e Hazrat-e Baird AllaJ1 (Langen- Philosoplries ofScience (Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1998). hain: Baha' i-Verlag, 1984) p. 133. 20. lt is always dangerous to make statements such as this, since 1 have read only 14. While reason ( 'aql) is celebrated by most lslamic thinkers, its limitations in a small fraction of Baba ' u 'llah ' s voluminous writings, a great pan of which apprehending th.e ultimate reality and attaining certitude (yaqi11) are often dis- remains as yet unpublished in the original languages. Obviously, our under- cussed among Sufis in particular. Titis theme is repeatedly engaged, for exam- standing of the teachings of Baba ' u 'llah will become fuller as the entire corpus ple, by Rumi in his A1asnavi (see Franklin Lewis, R11111i: Past and Prese111, East of his correspondence, tablets, and books becomes available. and West (Oxford: Oneworld, 2000) p. 400ff. •Abdu'l-Baha suggests in his 1875 21. Zarqani, Badaye ', Vol I, p. 124. Zarqani seems to imply that the phrase "were Secrets of Divine Civilization (Wilmette: Baha' i Publishing Trust, 1975) p. 12, in accordance with the receptivity of souls and the requirements of the age" is that the Iranian c lergy cynically tried to convince the uneducated that modem a direct quote from 'Abdu' l-Baha. I a.lso infer that it was 'Abdu' l-Baha who Western metbods were contrary to religion. However, this was because they cited this proverbial verse on the occasion mentioned, though it may also be that came from heathen Europeans. not because science and technology were inher- Zarqani adduced the verse to strengthen the poinL fo any case. the theme seems ently irreligious. to echo the Hidden Word we saw above, that God reveals truth according to 15. Bahil'u' llah, Ki1tlb-i Aqdt«: The i\lost Holy Book (Haifo: Baha'i \Vorld Centre, human capacity to understand, not according to divine omniscience. 1992; Arabie edition, same place and publisher. l 995) Verse I02. This passage 22. See Juan Ricardo Cole, "Problems of Chronology in Baha'u'lhih's Tablet of was translated by Shoghi Effendi in Gleanings from tire Writing~á of Baha ' 11 ' - Wisdom," JVorld On/er, Vol. 13, p. 3 (1979), pp. 24-39, which suggests that the lltlh. p. 199 (XCVlll). discourse of Islamic philosophy that Baha'u 'llab adopts in this tablet closely I 6. "Tar.iz&t," in Baba ' u' llilh, Majmu 'e 'i az alvah, p. 2 1 and in Tablets ofBaird ' 11 '- follows \Yhnt medieval Islamic historians presented as historical fact~ Ho..vever. 116/J, p. 39. tbe medieval lslamic historians were mistaken on some points of chronology I 7. "Tajalliyat," in Bahn 'u 'llah, lvfajnw áe 'i oz alwih, p. 28 and in Tablets of and fact, at least insofar as we are able tO establish with current research. That Baha á,, 'lldl1, pp. 51-52. Bah.a ' u' llah also quotes the passage in Epistle ta the Son Baba' u' llah repeats these postulates ("facts" or "factoids'') is due to his desire of the fVolf. trans. Shogbi Effendi (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1941 ; to explain things within the frame of reference of Islamic philosophy for the [revised s ixth printing, l 979]) pp. 26-27. The Persian text of the latter can be benefit of the addressee, and does not necessarily imply an absolute proposi- found in Baha'u'llah, lowlr-e mobarak khauib be Shayk/1 Mohammad Taqi Mo}á tional assenion about the chronological facts of history. tahed-e Esfehiml, ma 'ntf be Najafi (Langenhain: Lajne-ye Nashr-e asar-e Amri 23. 'Abdu' l-Baha, Some Answered Questions, collected and trans., Laura Clifford bc-Lesan-e Farsi vu 'Arabi, 138 B .E.11982) p. 20. In view of recent concerns in Barney, revised edition (Wilmette: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1981), p. 190, p. 19. various religious communities about inclusive language in scriptural texts, one The Persian text is in Moftlvazlit, (Cairo, 1920 (facsimile reprint in New Delhi: might comment that the word "man" in the phrase "man's life" in the first sen- Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1983]) pp. 135 and p. 14 ("ether" renders mtldde-ye tence is not literally necessary and might unfortunately be read these days as an asiriye, and "savages of America" is for barabare va motaviJhheshi11-e Amrika). • f'RANl<LIN LEWIS DISCOURSES OF KNOWLEDGE! * 77

24. Leiter dated 31 M.arcb 1958 from Laura Dreyfus Barney to Horace Holley, tics, liberalize and ncuttalizc their prejudices, and make the general religion a cited among the Linard papers. accessed 11/30/00 at: religion of peace, reason and morality" (Thomas Jefferson. lf'rilings [Library of http://v.ww.geocities.comlthlinardlpublicai/saq.btm. America, 1994] p. 1465). 25. According to a letter from the An:hives Office at the Bllha'( \Vorld Centre dated 37. In the English translation of the talk, as transcribed by Bijou Sttaun, this reads 9 Deccm~ 1987, a copy of which was sent to the Nacional Assembly of "The greatest attainment in the world of humanity bas ever been scientific in France, there were two copies of the Persian text in the BaM'I Archives in Paris, nature" (Promulgalion of Universal Pe;,ce, p. 348). The Persian reads "a 'zam one a copy of the secrecary's ootes of these talks IAlcen at table, with corrections manqabat-e 'alam-e enstlni 'e/,,. asf' (from Majmu'e-ye Khetabtll, p. 570). a added by 'Abdu '1-Ba.lu\, and the other a neac copy with •Abdu '1-BahA 's further phrase which 'Abdu' 1-Baha is rcponed co have used verbatim elsewhere in bis corrections. A third and later copy with still further amendments by 'Abdu'l- talks, as well. See, for example, Pay6m-c J.falalait, ed. A.H. lshnlq-Khavari Bah~ was in the Baha' i World Centre Archives in Haifa. The tcxc of this leucr (New Delhi: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1986) p. 82, p. 86, and the many exam- was accessed al w1vw.geocities.com/thlinarW:publicat.soq.htm on 11/30/00; a ples from Majmu 'e-ye KJret6b6t quoted above. printout is in my possession. 38. Evi.-ntually four schools (madhhab) were accepted as canonically valid points 26. I am working from a facsimile offprint published by the Notional Spiritual of view among the Sunnis. Shiites had their own schools, which have been Assembly of the Bnba'is of India in 1983. reduced in modem times to one (Ja'fari) and recognized as canonical among 27. Sec the translation of •Abdu '1-Baha 's letic111 provided in the introduction to most Sunnis. 'Abdu'l-BahA, Promulgation of Universal Peace, compiled by Howard Mac- 39. Asl-1 lad/ a/_.ulrim huwa 'iifan Allah. Jolla jalti/ahu. Cited in Faze!-<: Mllzan- Nun, revised edition (Wilmette: Baba'i Publishing Trust, 1982). darini, ed., Amr va Khalq (Tehran, 111 e.B./1954-5; reprint Langenhain: Lajne- 28. ZarqAni. Bad6ye '. Vol. I p. 54, also p. 58. ye Nashr-c isar-c Amri bc-Lesin-<: Farsi va 'Arabi, 141 o.E.11985) Vol. I. pp. 29. 'Abd al-Bahll., Majmu 'e-ye Khetab<ir-e Ha:rar-e 'A/xi a/-Baha (Langenbain: 14-15. The original sow-ce is not funhcr specified. Lajnc-ye Melli-ye Nashr-<: asar-e Amri be zabanáha-ye Flitsi va 'Arabi, 1984). 40. 'Abdu' l-Bahi, Promulgation ofUniversal Peace, p. 348. This is a one volume reprint of separate volumes previously published in Egypt 41 . •Abdu'l-BahA, }.fajmu 'e-ye Klret6b0t, p. S70. ( 1340 A.1111921, 3Dd 99 e.£11942-1943) and in Tehran ( 127 B.E./1970-197l). 42. Ibid., p. 382. 30. 'Abdu '1-Bah6, Some A11swered Questions, rev. ed.. p. 195. This is from Chap- 43. Literally, Academy of Artsffccbnical Academy. This was the name of the first ter 50. "Spiritual Proofs of the Origin of Man.~ For cl1e original Persian, see college established in Tehran nlong European models in I 851. A1ofavaza1. p. 138. 44. Al-hamda le 'lltih dar In eq/im 'elm ruz be ruz be taraqql ast va madares-e dar 31. á Abdu'l-Boh6, Some Answered Questions, p. 197, Mofavazat, p. 140. al-fomm-ha besyar ta 'sis .thode a.it va dar in madilres taltimeze be nelt6yar-e 32. á Abdu' l-Bahi1, Pro11111/gatio11 ofUniversal Peace, pp. 175-6. }a/rd mi-kt1.1ha11d va ka.ilif-e haqayeq-e '6/am-e ens6ni mi-konand. Omid-11111 33. 'Abdu'l-BnhA, Majmu 'e-ye khettibat, pp. 439-40 (English pagination at the chor1611 a.st ke mamalek-e sayere eqtedn be in mamlekat namtiyand vo madares- foot of page). The provisional English cranslation preceding the transliterated e 'adide baraye tarbiyat-e ow/6dáh6-ye kit()(} bar pa darand vu 'a/am-e 'elm rti Persian text is my own. boland hJnand la áalam-e enstlni mwshan garrlad va haqtl 'eq vo asrtir-e 34. 'Abdu'l-Baha. Prom11/gatlon of Universal Peace, pp. 298-9 and Majmu áe-ye kti 'enar ztiher shO\•ad. In ra 'assol>6r-e j6/reliye namanad ... ('Abdu'l-Baha, Kherab01, p. 530. Presumably, the denomination of the church can be checked Afajmu 'e-ye Klreulbi11, p. 383). against historical records. 4S. 'Abdu'l-Bahi, Promulgarion of Universal Peace, p. SO. 35. 'Abdu'l-Baba, Promulgation of Universal Peace, p. 181 and t.fajmu'e-ye 46. Baba'u'llllb, Tablets of8alttl'11 '//tlh, p. 150; Majmu'e-ye alwih, pp. 51-52. KJreraoor, p. 450. Note that the Persian repeats almost verbatim in some pans 47. 'Abdu'l-Bah3, Promulgation ofUniversal Pe;,ce, p. 327. what we saw in the previous quotation, although the English versions reflect 48. Cited in Mizandanini, ed. Amr"'' khalq, Vol I. p. 67. Provisional translation slightly greater variations. by the present writer. 36. As the University of Vu-ginia was about to open, objections were raised over 49. A footnote appears here in the English text of Some Answered Questions indi- che fact that ic had no professorship of divinity. Critics said this was not merely cating, "Lit, lhe pivoL" The Persian reads ~yek mas 'ale ke khay/i madtir a.rt,- because lhe university was prohibited by the Constitution from upholding a par- which oouJd also be ttanslated as "One matter which is pivotal ..." ticular kind of religion, but felt lhat the university was in face against all reliá SO. Dar bayan-e tlnke ma 'qula1faqa1 bevdsele-ye tthtlr dar qamis-e maltsus b6yad gion. In respon.~c, the u11ive111ity crustees offered each religious sect to establish bayan shavad. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Some AitTWered Questions, p. 83, Moftlvaz6t, pp. a professorship of its own, each according to its own pnnicular tenets, on the 61-62. grounds of chc campus, so Uiat students could use the library of the University SI. One is tempted to translate in more tochn.ical terms, but perhaps somewhnl (i.e., the public space of discourse) while scill pursuing denominational. anachro11istically, as "ontological." parochial studies. Thomas Jeffe1110n explained, "By bringing the sects together, 52. 'Abdu'l-Babi. Some Answered Questions, p. 157, Afofavaz/u, p. 111 -12. and mixing them with the mass of other srudenis, we shall soften their aspcri- 53. 'Abdu'l-Bahi, Some Answered Questions, pp. 297-99, Mofavazilt, p. 207-208.

54 •Abdu' l-Bahli, Some Answered Q11estio1u, p. 299. Mofltvazat, p. 208. SS. The original Persian of this talk is not in<:luded in Majmu 'eáye Kheuibtit, and it crumo11bercforc be considered as official scripture of the Baha'i Faith. 56. á Abdu 'I-Baba, Prom11/gallon ofUniversal Peace, pp. 21-22, no1es by Howard MacNull. The Persian original of th.is talk is apparently not given in Majmu 'e- ye Khetabtit. 57. Recorded in •Abdu '1-BahA, Promulgation ofUnfrersal Peace, p. 2SS. The Per- sian origil\31 of this talk is not given in Majmu 'e-ye KheJalxit. 58 •Abdu '1-Baha, Some Answered Questions, p. 198, Mofirwwit, p. 14 1. 59 •Abdu'l-BahA, Some Answered Questions, pp. 208-209. J\1ofawizat, p. 148. (i() 'Abdu'láBahl Some Answered Questions, p. 209, Mofovaz/Jt, p. 148. 61 'Abdu'l-BahA, Some Answered Questions, cited in Fazel-e M3zandanini, ed. Amr •'O lthalq. Vol. I. p. 222. 62. 'Abdu'l-Bah:\, Some Answered Questions, pp. 217-19. 63. •Abdu'l-Bahi. Some Answen:d Questions. p. 239. Mofo..azin, p. 168. 64. •Abdu'láBaha, Some AllSlw!red Questions, p. 210, MoFuvozirt, p. 149. 65. 'Abdu'l-Baha. Some AllSlw!red Questions. p. 217, Moftivozitt, p. IS3. 66. These two tcnns were used a thousand yean earlier by al-Far3bi and Avicenna (fbn Si11ti) and bavc been rendered in English as the faculty of "compositivc irnaginntion.. or the ..sensitive imagination" (mutakhayyala), and the "cogitative faculty'' or "rational imagination" (m11ta(akkira), where they apply respectively to animals (muwkhayy<1la) and hwnans (mutafakkira). See Peter Healh, Aile• gory a11d Pltllosophy ;,, Avicenna (lbn Simi) (Philadelphia: University of Penn- sylvunia Press. 1992) pp. 62-63 a.n d p. 82 and Bak.ar, Classification of K11ow/cdge, pp. S1-53. 67. 'lllis term is also used by Avicenna and ol-Fambi; see Hea.th, Allegory and Plriá losopliy, p. 63 and Baknr, Classification of Knowledge, p. SI . 68. Avicenna uses this tem1, too (al-hiss al-musliwrak), which be sometimes seems to equate with "fantall)'" (bamitlsiya), and locates in the front ventricle of the bmin. lo Avicenna's view, this faculty organizes the percept.ions of lbe Cive senses in lhc bmin and mukes them relational and intelligible. Heath, Allegory and Plrllosopliy, p. 62, translates the phrase as "common sense." 69. 'Abdu' l-BabA, Some Answered Q11estions, pp. 210- 11, 1\ifofavaza1, p. 149. 70. 'Abdu' láBahn. Some Answered Questions, pp. 212ff, Mofawrzat, p. ISOff. 7 l. •Abdu ' I-Bah&. Some Answered Questions, pp. 220, Mofovozirt, p. I SS. 72. 'Abdu '1-BahA, Promulgation ofUniversal Peace, from the notes taken by Ellen T. Pursell. p. 328. Mahrnud-e Zarqani in Badaye' al-ilsar indicates that Ibis talk took place in the evening of 19 September, after a return by motorcar from the talk delivered in St. Paul. Such discrepancies in the dates given in the Persian and English sources arc quite common, and no cause for great con<:em. How- ever. no PersiOJl original for this talk appears in Majmu áe-ye Khetilbat, so the English notes of this talk are not verified by any transcription of the original Persian words.